Pre Writing

1. Considering: the assignment

Check whether it’s a broad topic of narrow.

Subject vs Topic

Butterflies – Subject

Types of Butterflies – Topic.

2. Thinking: about your audience

Primary: main readers. (age, why they reading, already know, how they feel)

Secondary: others

 audience determines everything about your writing task.

 your topic
 the level of interest
 the level of knowledge
 the words, jargon, or specialized language you use
 the length and types of sentences you write error
 the length of your document
 your style-. Your speech –
 the tone...your attitude toward your material
3. Identifying: your purpose
 To describe; show and talk about a topic; expository writing. Sensory detail.
 To persuade; convince people that your idea deserves serious consideration.
Through argument.
 To explain; use 5 senses to help your readers visualise
o Facts
o Details
o information
 To narrate; tell a story (entertain)
o Tells a story
o Has characters
o Has a plot
o Setting
o Conflict and suspense
4. Gathering: your ideas (brainstorming)
1. Listing ideas
2. Webbing; mapping or mind mapping
3. Charting; compare and contrast
4. Freestyle
5. Asking questions: who? What? When? Where? Why? And how?

When you start writing a assignment, consider your; purpose, audience and topic.
Organising your thoughts
Methods of organising:

Outline helps you

o Organise your ideas

o Present your material in a very logical fashion
o Show the relationship among the different ideas in your writing
o Construct an ordered overview if your ideas
o Define boundaries and groups

Determine your purpose: Are you explaining? Are you persuading? Telling a story? Describing?

Determine your audience: who will read your paper….your teachers, an admissions committee?

Develop your thesis? Main idea?

BASIC OUTLINE FORM

I. MAIN IDEA
A. Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I
B. Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I
1. Subsidiary idea to B
2. Subsidiary idea to B
a. Subsidiary idea to 2
b. Subsidiary idea to 2
II. MAIN IDEA
A. Subsidiary or supporting idea to II
B. Subsidiary idea to II
C. Subsidiary idea to II
III. MAIN IDEA
Outline principles

The basics of parallelism:

 Words
 Phrases
 Sentences

The basics of coordination: terms of equal significance have comparable number or letter heads

 Main ideas
 Subheads

The basics of subordination

The basics of division

Outlines: Cause and effect

Cause (reasons)  effects (result)

Listen in classes good grades

Good notes ready for the test

Read textbook learn a lot

Study hard achieves your goals

Use cause and effect: with expository and persuasive essays. When you have a clear cause and effect
relation.

Cause and effect structures.

Link your ideas with special transitions.

as a result because
consequently due to
if...then for
since so
so that therefore
thus this is how

Divide and classify

Divide: separate items from one another

Classify: group items into related categories

Compare and contrast

When you compare, you show how two people, places things, or ideas are the same.

When you contrast, you show hot two people, place things, or ideas are different.

The key is two! It doesn’t work as well when you have 3,4 etc.. things

To compare: like, likewise, similarly, in the same way, also, just as, both

To contrast: instead, rather than, unlike , on the other hand, in contrast, in contrast with, however,
but

 Definition
 Process analysis
 Chronological order

DEFINITION ESSAY STRUCTURE: Use your basic three paragraph structure: Introduction —> Body —>
Conclusion

Introduction: Begin with the dictionary definition or an "attention-getter." The dictionary definition
of a word is called its denotation. • The understood overtone that a word has is called its
connotation.

Body: Define the term using the method(s) you've selected. Provide a lot of examples.
Conclusion: Sum up your main points.

PROCESS ANALYSIS STRUCTURE

A difficult term that means: how to.

In these essays, you give directions: How to do something, How something works

with expository essays — when you want to explain how to do something — when you're giving
directions

Use time-order transitions: first, second, third, fourth... first, last, next, then... after, before, during,
finally... earlier, meanwhile, now, immediately... while, now, in the morning.

While writing ‘How to’ essays, it may be necessary to warn your audience about hazards.

Overcoming writer’s block

WHAT IS WRITER'S LOCK? It usually occurs between Inning and drafting, but it can occur at any time
in the writing process. It’s the inability to get your words down on paper. Even professionals suffer it.

Main Reasons:

lack of subject knowledge;

fear of failure;
afraid of being rejected.
Afraid that you have nothing to say
afraid of becoming a success
afraid of offending your audience

LACK OF SUBJECT KNOWLEDGE:

Problem: You don't have any ideas, or you don't know enough about the subject that you've been
assigned. To overcome it; become an active learner (ask questions, seek out knowledge). Become a
reader (newspaper, magazines, novels, nonfiction). Read every single day, at least for half an hour.

FEAR OF FAILURE:
Problem: you’re afraid that you’re going to get a poor grade or that you’ll look foolish in front of
other people. you’re afraid your essay won’t be any good. Don’t concentrate on what you’re doing
wrong; instead concentrate on what you’re doing great. Consider your paper as a draft not as a final
copy. Write it quickly and then go back and revise it. Remember everybody has the same FEARS

AFRAID OF BEING REJECTED:

Problem: writing, by its very nature is an act of self revelation.

AFRAID THAT YOU HAVE NOTHING TO SAY: you think your writing is boring, wont be original.
Instead prepare thoroughly. Know your stuff. Choose an unusual topic.

AFRAID OF BECOMING A SUCCESS:

AFRAID OF OFFENDING YOUR AUDIENCE
 Breaking through writer’s block
TECHNIQUE #1: USE PREWRITING TECHNIQUES

Use those prewriting techniques that you learned in the first program:

• Listing • Webbing • Charting • Freewriting • Asking Questions

LISTING

Topic: Atoms

1. about 100 different kinds

2. word comes from the Greek atomos (= indivisible)

3. electrons

4. neutrons word origin

5. protons

6. nucleus

BRAINSTORMING

Periodic table

Each element has a symbol

E = mc2 (mass and energy are variations of each other)

Fission

Laser light—the result of the atom's electrons giving off light energy as they

jump back toward the nucleus

Laser light can be brighter than the sun

Prewriting technique: 5W’s and H

Technique 3: change genre

Technique 4: change your point of view

First person
Third person omniscient
Third person limited
Technique 5: set aside the word count
Technique 6: start with the easiest part
If you cant start writing the first para, start at the end, or the middle, or anywhere else in the essay.
Choose the part that’s easiest to write in your given writing situation. You can usually go back and
write the rest of the essay. If you start with what you do know, you’ll be able to get something down
on paper.
Technique 7: try a different method of transcription

Technique 8: set aside a specific amount of time to write. Actually, use a timer. Start with small
amount of time, say 15 to 20 min. don’t get until done.

Technique 9: visualise yourself writing. When you visualise, you get a mental picture, a picture in
your brain, of something. Sit at a desk and get ready to write, close tour eyes.

Technique 10: eliminate distractions.

Technique 11: develop rituals. Make writing a regular habit like exercise. Buy new pen and pad.

Technique 12: shake up an existing ritual. Leave your place and try something different.

Technique 13: take human bites. Huge writing task into smaller chunks.

Be realistic. Make an outline. Make a schedule and stick with it.

Technique 14: get help. Ask the teacher for clarification.

Technique 15: use relaxation techniques.

Start by breathing deeply. Close your eyes. Take 4 0r 5short deep breaths.

Stretch! Can’t stand up because you’re taking a test, just tense your muscle and then relax it for a
second. You are telling your body to calm down.

Visualise a very soothing scene

Use a calming word. Relax. Snap out of it.

And don’t forget; sometime you can leave the assignment for a while.

Technique 16: reward yourself.

Writing is not a burden or a punishment.

Writing should be a pleasure.

Make it fun for yourself.

Be nice to yourself

Reward yourself for finishing a certain amount of an essay.

Chat for a moment

Play a video game

Listen to music

Crafting sentences
What is a sentence?

A sentence is a group of words that: has a subject has predicate expresses a complete thought.

Subject will be a noun or a pronoun

Predicate is the verb or the verb phrase (anything not part of the noun or the pronoun)
Subject, predicate, complete thought?

Lacking the subject:

Was the oldest person elected president at age 69. Wrong

Ronald Reagan Was the oldest person elected president at age 69. Write

Lacking the predicate.

John f Kennedy being the youngest person elected president at age 43.

John f Kennedy was the youngest person elected president at age 43.

Because Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest person to became president — he was 42 when he
succeeded McKinley, who had been assassinated.

Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest person to became president — he was 42 when he succeeded
McKinley, who had been assassinated

3 part test:

Does it have a: subject, predicate and expresses a complete thought?

SENTENCE FUNCTION AND FORM

• The function of a sentence is the purpose that it fulfils.

• The form of a sentence is the number and the type of clauses that it has.

There are 4 functions of sentence • Declarative • Imperative, • Interrogative • Exclamatory.

form function example sentence (clause) punc

1 declarative statement: It tells us something John likes Mary. .
2 interrogative question: It asks us something Does Mary like John? ?
3 imperative command: It tells us to do Stop! Close the door. ! or .
something
4 exclamative exclamation: It expresses What a funny story he told !
surprise us!

(form = structure / function = job)

1. Declarative Sentence (statement)

Declarative sentences make a statement. They tell us something. They give us

information, and they normally end with a full-stop/period.

The usual word order for the declarative sentence is:

 subject + verb...

Declarative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

positive negative

I like coffee. I do not like coffee.

We watched TV last night. We did not watch TV last night.

Declarative sentences are the most common type of sentence.

2. Interrogative Sentence (question)

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They ask us something. They want

information, and they always end with a question mark.

The usual word order for the interrogative sentence is:

 (wh-word +) auxiliary + subject + verb...

Interrogative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

positive negative

Do you like coffee? Don't you like coffee?

Why did you go? Why didn't you go?

3. Imperative Sentence (command)

Imperative sentences give a command. They tell us to do something, and they end
with a full-stop/period (.) or exclamation mark/point (!).

The usual word order for the imperative sentence is:

 base verb...

Note that there is usually no subject—because the subject is understood, it is YOU.

Imperative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

positive negative

Stop! Do not stop!

Give her coffee. Don't give her coffee.

4. Exclamative Sentence (exclamation)

Exclamative sentences express strong emotion/surprise—an exclamation—and

they always end with an exclamation mark/point (!).

The usual word order for the exclamative sentence is:

 What (+ adjective) + noun + subject + verb

 How (+ adjective/adverb) + subject + verb

Look at these examples:

 What a liar he is!

 What an exciting movie it was!

 How he lied!

 How exciting the movie was!

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb that have a relationship. This
relationship is crucial; a clause conveys information about what that subject is or is doing, rather
than simply being a random grouping of words. Because a clause expresses an action or a state of
being, a clause can often—but not always—function as an independent sentence.

A sentence can have just one clause or it can have multiple clauses. The only defining characteristic
of a clause is that it must contain a related subject and verb. Clauses play a variety of roles in English
and because of this, there are numerous ways to structure and combine them.

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Although you use clauses in your speech and writing every day, it can be easy to overlook the
intricacies of clauses in English. Read on to learn how clauses are classified, the roles clauses play in
sentences, how to combine clauses to express your thoughts, and the difference between
independent and dependent clauses.

Classifying clauses in English

When it comes to expressing a complete thought, a clause falls between a phrase and a sentence. In
many cases, a clause can function as its own sentence. A phrase, in contrast, can’t. Here’s a quick
look at the difference between a phrase and a clause:

Phrase: Meows so loudly

Clause: That cat meows so loudly

In this example, the clause can be an independent sentence. It can also be part of a complex
sentence. For example:

That cat meows so loudly when she wants to eat.

How do clauses in English work?

Clauses can perform three distinct functions: They can operate as adverbs, adjectives, or nouns.

Here’s an example of a noun clause:

She completely understood everything he said.

In this example, everything he said is a dependent clause that acts as a noun because it
communicates the specific “thing” that she, the subject of the sentence, understands. Everything he
said can be replaced with his explanation and the sentence still makes perfect sense:

She completely understood his explanation.

To test whether a clause is a noun clause, try swapping it out for a noun. If your sentence still makes
sense, you’ve got a noun clause. Here are two more examples of noun clauses illustrated through
swapped-in nouns:

They remembered what the keynote speaker covered.

They remembered the keynote speaker’s presentation.

I don’t know how the company handles onboarding.

I don’t know their onboarding process.

Just like a noun clause is a clause taking on a noun’s role, an adverbial clause is a clause acting as an
adverb. For example:

She fixed the sink without facing difficulty.

She fixed the sink easily.

They spent four years living outside the United States.

They spent four years living abroad.

The pool was installed after they built the deck.

The pool was installed later.

Based on the other two categories, we bet you can guess how an adjective clause works. In case you
can’t, here it is: An adjective clause acts as an adjective in its sentence. Here are a few examples with
adjectives swapped in to illustrate them:

My friend who rides a motorcycle said it’s a great weekend to ride.

My motorcyclist friend said it’s a great weekend to ride.

No matter what time of day we visit, we always run into the dog that barks.

No matter what time of day we visit, we always run into the loud dog.

Types of clauses

Independent clauses

An independent clause is a clause that can stand on its own as a distinct sentence. Take a look at
these examples:

I love eating cookies.

My dog barks a lot.

The kids ate lunch.

His truck is green.

As you can see, independent clauses aren’t long or complex sentences. They can certainly be part of
complex sentences, but by definition, they are known as simple sentences. Other types of sentences
include complex sentences, compound sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Each type of
sentence is created by a unique combination of independent and dependent clauses. We’ll get into
the ways to combine clauses to create different kinds of sentences shortly.

Dependent clauses
In contrast, a dependent clause is not a complete sentence. Dependent clauses are sometimes
known as subordinate clauses. As their name implies, these clauses depend on independent clauses
to clearly express ideas. Here are a few examples of dependent clauses:

When I grow up

Although he sings well

The mouse that was hiding

To turn these dependent clauses into full sentences, you need to combine them with independent
clauses:

When I grow up, I want to be a doctor.

Although he sings well, he hates karaoke.

I searched through the basement and found the mouse that was hiding.

Take a look at these three sentences and see if you can pick out the differences between the first
two and the last one.

In the first two examples, the dependent clause comes before the independent clause and the two
clauses are separated by commas. Keep this in mind when you’re writing: Whenever the dependent
clause comes first in a complex sentence, it’s followed by a comma.

How to combine clauses

When you want to write a sentence that’s more than one independent clause, you need to combine
clauses. Every sentence you write includes at least one independent clause. The other clauses in
your sentence determine how you can combine them with your independent clause.

A sentence that includes two or more independent clauses is known as a compound sentence. In a
compound sentence, the clauses are joined by a comma paired with a coordinating conjunction, a
semicolon, or a colon. This kind of combination is known as coordination. Take a look at these
examples of compound sentences:

I love drinking soda, but I know it’s bad for my teeth.

Maria loved hosting dinner parties; her friends enjoyed her cooking.

We danced until the band finished playing: they played until midnight.

When all of your clauses are independent clauses, you can combine them using a coordinating
conjunction. In English, the coordinating conjunctions are:
for

and

nor

but

or

yet

so

If you need to combine a dependent clause with an independent clause, you need a subordinating
conjunction. There are a lot more subordinating conjunctions than there are coordinating
conjunctions, and they can be divided into categories according to their function.

A sentence that includes an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is known as a
complex sentence, and a sentence that includes two or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause is known as a compound-complex sentence. In either of these kinds of sentences,
the subordinating conjunction signifies the beginning of the dependent clause. Here are a few
examples:

The fun can begin now that the clown is here.

While we slept, the plane reached its destination.

Before you leave, remember to take a goodie bag!

The pool is open daily until the temperature drops.

As you can see in these examples, when the dependent clause comes first, it needs to be followed by
a comma.

Subordinating conjunctions aren’t the only way to add a dependent clause to a sentence. Dependent
clauses can also start with relative pronouns or relative adverbs.

Relative pronouns include that, whose, whom, who, and which. Take a look at how these dependent
clauses that begin with relative pronouns work in sentences:

The guy who shouted all night made it impossible to fall asleep.

Pac’s, that restaurant with the arcade, is the best restaurant in town.
Relative adverbs include where, when, how, and why. Here are a few relative adverb-led dependent
clauses at work:

The traffic jam is the reason why we were late.

I have no idea when my hose stopped working.

Simple Sentence Structure

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause

contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)

 I like coffee.
 Mary likes tea.
 The earth goes round the sun.
Mary did not go to the party.
Compound Sentence Structure

A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a

conjunction or semicolon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone. You
can join it with a semicolon;

FANBOYS: For and nor but or yet so

 I like coffee and Mary likes tea.

 Mary went to work but John went to the party.
 Our car broke down; we came last.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions:

 and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

Complex Sentence Structure

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause. (A

dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and
contains a subject and verb, but does not express a complete thought.)

 We missed our plane because we were late.

 Our dog barks when she hears a noise.
 He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
 Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?

Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:

 after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though,
till, until, when, where, whether, while

Here are the five basic relative pronouns:

 that, which, who, whom, whose

Compound-Complex Sentence Structure

A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and

one or more dependent clauses.

 John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.
 He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes
later.

What is an effective sentence?

4 main qualities:

Concise: to the point

Varied: simple and compound, complex and comp -complex

Sentences have to be correct to communicate your meaning clearly.

Correct sentences don’t have any mistakes in: form, punctuation, modifier placement

Form: correct sentences are complete. They do not have any parts missing. Missing a part creates a
fragment. Fragment may be missing a subject or a verb or it may not express a complete thought.

A run-on is when you take two independent clauses (two complete sentences) and you run them
together without adding one of the coordinating conjunctions or without a semicolon.

Use active voice not passive voice.

Parallel Structure
Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more
ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or
clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of
coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."
WORDS AND PHRASES
With the -ing form (gerund) of words:
Parallel:
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

With infinitive phrases:

Parallel:
Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
OR
Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first
one.)
DO NOT MIX FORMS.
Example 1
Not Parallel:
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
Parallel:
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.
Example 2
Not Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a
detailed manner.
Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
thoroughly.
Example 3
Not Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute
to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his
motivation was low.
Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute
to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and
lacked motivation.
CLAUSES
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to
another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice
versa) will break the parallelism.
Example 1
Not Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the
game.
— or —

Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much,
and do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Example 2
Not Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that he
would have time to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be
asked by prospective buyers. (passive)
Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that he
would have time to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers
would ask him questions.

Building paragraphs
What is paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of sentences that all relate to a single main idea or a central point.

A paragraph has 3 main parts. It has a topic sentence, a supporting sentence and a concluding
sentence.

TOPIC, SUPPORTING, OR CONCLUDING SENTENCE?

Topic Sentence: • Water is essential for life on Earth.

Supporting Sentences:

First, water is required for photosynthesis and respiration.

Second, water is crucial for human metabolism, allowing organic compounds to carry out replication.
Third, water is necessary for enzyme function, especially in human digestion.

Concluding Sentence: • Wheat may be the "staff of life," but water is truly the "stuff of life!"
This Topic Sentence usually appears at the beginning of a paragraph. But can appear anywhere in
your paragraph – the beginning, the middle, or the end.

Try to place an equal number oo sentences or examples abov and below the topic sentence.

Expository writing sets forth facts. You can find it in textbooks, journalism (except opinion or
editorial articles), business writing, technical writing, essays, and instructions.
Descriptive writing evokes images through rich description. You can find it in fiction, poetry, journal
writing, and advertising.
Persuasive writing aims to sway the reader toward the author’s point of view. It is used heavily in
advertising, and can also be found in opinion and editorial pieces, reviews, and job applications.
Narrative writing tells a story. It can be found in fiction, poetry, biographies, human interest stories,
and anecdotes.
Two purposes of a topic sentence: to state the topic, to give the main idea. To grab the readers
attention so the reader wants to go on.

The topic sentence is the most imp sentence in your entire para because it shapes the entire para by
defining its contents. It establishes the paragraphs org.
Topic sentences can take many different forms. You’re going to choose the form that suits your
purpose and audience.
Common forms:
A restatement of the equation.
A statement of the main idea.
An anecdote
Humorous
A quotation
Ask a question.
Give facts, such as statistics

Topic sentence: a para covers a single aspect of a larger topic. Don’t want it be too big or too small.
Want it just right!

Too broad: narrow it down and choose only one small aspect.

THE BASICS OF SUPPORTING SENTENCES,

Supporting sentence contain examples, opinions, quotations from reliable sources, statistics, or
anecdotes.
Supporting sentence, provide any proof you can give that will make your point vivid, clear, and
persuasive.
Without sufficient support, your paragraph is empty: it says NOTHING!
*Very often, the difference between an "A" (outstanding) paragraph and a "C" (average) paragraph
is the quality of the detail that you use.

Conclusions draw together the main ideas. They leave the reader with a sense of completion,
because they are logical, and they tie up all the loose ends.

Conclusions are not: announcements of what you have accomplished.

"In this essay, I have proven that fungi are beneficial."

Conclusions are not: sweeping generalizations.

"All forms of alternative medicine should be avoided."
Conclusions are not: an absolute claim.
Never believe what you hear in the media.

Conclusions are not: an apology.

Effective concluding sentences do not introduce any new info.

CONCLUDING SENTENCE FORMS

Good concluding sentences can take different forms. You can:
• restate the main idea — in expository essays
• give your opinion • make a call for action – persuasive essays.
THE 4 QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS
GOOD paragraphs are: logical, coherent, unified and fully developed
Avoid logical fallacies or error in logic.
Use valid evidence to back up your assertions.
Distinguish between facts and opinions.
Analyse cause and effect correctly
Makes sense!

Remember:

• logic also includes using valid evidence to back up your assertions • when you use facts or statistics
and other examples, be sure to check them in AT LEAST TWO RELIABLE SOKRC••S, so you know that
they're true — this is especially important when you use Internet sources.

Very careful to distinguish between facts (statements can be proven) and opinions (things people
believe).

Be sure to analyse cause and effect correctly.

Make sure that you make sense!

Create unity by having every single sentence directly support the topic sentence.

COHERENT PARAGRAPHS: have their sentences in a logical order.

chronological
cause and effect
definition
example
comparison and contrast

Whatever method of organization you choose, every single sentence must follow
that pattern for your paragraph to be coherent. –

You can also create coherence by using transitional words and phrases by using parallelism and by
repeating key words.

Your paras have to be well developed. Each sentence should explain or describe the ideas fully.
 well-developed sentences

every single sentence has to have enough information. So that your reader understand your main
idea, especially if you’re doing a persuasive essay.

Connections and transitions

Connections and transitions are linking devices. Guide your reader through your writing. Prepare
your reader for the ideas to come. Show the events happen in a specific order.

Point out key ideas and link related ideas.

Commonly used linking devices

Transitions: each transition shows a very specific relationship, so choose carefully! Time
relationships; others contrast; that example will follow.

Repetition

Parallelism

Referrals

Repetition and Parallelism tend to go hand in hand.

Try to create an interesting and varied style by mixing short, medium and long sentences.

The more complex the idea, the simpler the sentence. The simpler the idea, the more complex the
sentence.

REPETITION, REPETITION, REPETITION!

0 REPEAT KEY WORDS • For unity, logic, and emphasis

0 REPEAT PHRASES • Word groups that do NOT have a subject or a verb

0 REPEAT CLAUSES • word groups that do have a subject and a verb

0 REPEAT SOUNDS • Alliteration, for instance

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness,
it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of
darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.”

Connections & Transitions SUMMARY

+ Connect related ideas with transitions, repetition, parallelism, and referrals.

+ Choose the method that best suits your ideas, audience, and purpose. –

+ Always strive to make your writing logical, concise, graceful, and rhythmic.

+ avoid using too many linking devices.

Introductions and conclusions

Why Are Introductions and Conclusions Important?
• First impressions matter! Open your writing in a way that establishes your credibility and wins your
reader's trust

• You also want to... + catch your reader's attention + suggest the main idea of your writing

Like a good appetizer, a good introduction prepares your reader for what comes next and builds
anticipation.

Like a good dessert, a good conclusion puts that finishing touch on your meal and makes the perfect
ending.

Writing great Are Introductions and Conclusions

How to write a great INTRODUCTION?

You can organize introductions in several different ways, depending on your topic, your purpose,
and your method of organization.

Introductions to the classic five para essay usually contain 3 parts

 One sentence about each main idea

 A lead in to the main idea
 A topic sentences.

Deductive Organization: Mainly used in expository and persuasive essays

DEDUCTIVE REASONING is when you present a general statement first and then defend it with
specific evidence that proves it to be true.

TOPIC SENTENCE • Sentence about your first main idea • Sentence about your second main idea ♦
Sentence about your third main idea, etc. • Lead-in….

Advantages to... PLACING THE TOPIC SENTENCE FIRST IN YOUR INTRODUCTIONS

*Straightforward *Logical * Easier to write * Helps you stay on track USE THIS METHOD... On tests
*With difficult subjects

How to write effective CONCLUSIONS

Effective conclusions pull together your main ideas and leave your reader feeling satisfied.

They prompt your readers to think about your ideas after they finish reading. Suit your conclusions
to your purpose and your audience.

four forms Of CONCLUSIONS

 Restate your main

 Give your opinion
 call for action
 Reflect on the broader implication
Effective CONCLUSIONS:

1 Main Idea: Used the most for essays and business letters because it is the most direct

Sentence #1: Restate the thesis

Sentence #2: Restate your 1st main point

Sentence #3: Restate your 2nd main point, etc.

Last sentence: add an overall conclusion

2 Give Your Opinion

Works very well in letters, critical reviews, and persuasive essays where your opinion helps persuade
readers and provides logical conclusion. First, briefly summarize your main points. The last sentence
gives your opinion of the topic.

3 Call for action! Used for speeches, letter persuasive essays

Summarize your Main ideas:

 Give a suggestion
 Make a demand
 Offer a plea

4 Broader Implications

Use this for letters, expository essays, if and persuasive essays

Summarize your main points. Explore how your main ideas affect bigger issues, what they imply,
whom they affect, etc. If your main idea was "negative, might reflect on the "positive" implications,
and vice versa.

INTRODUCTIONS---should catch your readers' attention and suggest the main idea of your writing.
Suit the form to your purpose and audience!

 Restate the question

 State the main idea
 Use an anecdote
 Use humor
 Use a quotation
 Use a question
 Use facts, such as statistics

CONCLUSIONS-should pull together your main ideas and leave your readers feeling satisfied. They
also prompt your readers to think about your ideas after they finish reading! Suit your purpose and
audience!

 Restate the main idea

 Give your opinion
 Call for action
Expressing yourself creatively
How to be creative
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (figures of speech): words and expressions not to be taken literally; gives
your writing fresh, new ways to appeal to the imagination

Types: images, similes, metaphors, by personification, and onomatopoeia

TYPES OF FFGURATFVE LANGUAGE

IMAGE: a word or phrase that appeals to one or more of our senses. Imagery can be found in any
writing, but it's most common in poetry.

METAPHOR: a figure of speech that compares two unlike things. The more familiar thing helps
describe the less familiar one.

SIMILE: a figure of speech that compares two unlike things, using the words "like," "as," or "seems"
to make the comparison.

"My heart is like a singing bird." — C. Rossetti

PERSONIFICATION: giving human traits to nonhuman things.

The book begged to be read.

HYPERBOLE: exaggeration for literary effect.

I must have eaten a thousand cookies. Gosh, I probably walked a million miles.

ONOMATOPOEIA: occurs when the word's sound suggests meaning

"The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees." — Tennyson

What is Figurative Language?

Figurative language refers to the use of words in a way that deviates from the conventional order
and meaning in order to convey a complicated meaning, colorful writing, clarity, or evocative
comparison. It uses an ordinary sentence to refer to something without directly stating it.
Understanding figurative language is an important part of reading the Management Discussion and
Analysis (MD&A), where management may use a metaphor to help explain complicated concepts or
directions that the company is taking.

Figurative Language

Fiction writers use figurative language to engage their audience using a more creative tone that
provokes thinking and sometimes humor. It makes fiction writing more interesting and dramatic
than the literal language that uses words to refer to statements of fact.

Types of Figurative Language

There are several types of figurative languages that are used in modern writing. They include:

1. Simile

A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things and uses the words “like” or “as” and
they are commonly used in everyday communication. A simile is used with the aim of sparking an
interesting connection in the reader’s mind.

An example of a simile is, “The cat sat in the chair like a king overlooking his kingdom.” The cat’s
sitting posture is compared to that of a king who relaxes in a special chair that is reserved for him
and not any other person in the kingdom.

Other examples of similes include:

The boy was as brave as a lion in the jungle.

The assistant was as busy as a bee when she was preparing the podium for the presidential address.

The new teacher is as tall as a giraffe.

The new neighbor is as curious as a cat; nothing escapes her attention.

2. Metaphor

A metaphor is a statement that compares two things that are not alike. Unlike similes, metaphors do
not use the words “like” or “as.” Such statements only make sense when the reader understands the
connection between the two things being compared.

An example of a popular metaphor is “Time is money.” The statement compares time and money,
and it does not literally mean that the amount of time you have equals the money that you have.
Instead, it means that time is a valuable resource, and it should be used effectively to earn money.
Any time wasted means that a person loses the chance to make more money.

Other examples of metaphors include:

The warrior has a heart of stone.

Love is a battlefield.

Baby, you are my sunshine.

Chaos is a friend of the legislator.

I am drowning in a sea of grief.

My roommate is going through a rollercoaster of emotions.

3. Hyperbole

Hyperbole is an exaggeration that is created to emphasize a point or bring out a sense of humor. It is
often used in everyday conversations without the speaker noticing it. The exaggeration is so
outrageous that no one would believe that it is true. It is used to add depth and color to a statement.

An example of hyperbole is, “I would die for you.” The sentence does not necessarily mean that one
person is literally willing to die for the other, but it used to exaggerate the amount of love that one
person has for another person. Death is only used to show the extent of affection.

Other examples of hyperbole:

I have told you a million times to wash the dishes.

You are so slender that the wind can carry you away.

The afternoon is so bright that the sun would have to wear sunglasses.

You snore like a freight train.

4. Personification

Personification is the attribution of human characteristics to non-living objects. Using personification

affects the way readers imagine things, and it sparks an interest in the subject.

An example of personification is, “The sun greeted me when I woke up in the morning.” The sun is a
non-human object but has been given human characteristics since greetings can only be performed
by living creatures.

Other examples of personification include:

April is the cruelest month of the year.

The radio stared at me.

The car brakes screamed all through the journey.

The car stopped with a groaning complaint.

5. Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a type of figurative language that uses one part to refer to the whole, or the whole to
refer to the part. For example, a set of wheels can be used to refer to a vehicle and a suit to refer to
a businessman. When referring to a car as a set of wheels, the wheels are only a part of the car and
not the whole thing. Similarly, a typical businessman wears a suit alongside other accessories such as
a watch and a briefcase.

Other examples of synecdoche include:

Bread can be used to refer to food in general or money.

Head can refer to counting cattle or people.

Hired hands can be used to refer to workers.

6. Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a language that names something or an action by imitating the sound associated
with it. They add some reality to the writing. Examples of onomatopoeia include:

The fireplace heater hissed and cracked.

The truck engine roared as it climbed the hill.

The alarm clock buzzed at the time I was going to the bathroom.