ignou

THE PEOPLE’S
BPSC-112
UNIVERSITY
Indira Gandhi National Open University INDIAN POLITICAL
School of Social Sciences
THOUGHT – I
 BPSC-112

INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT –I

CBCS CORE COURSE (B.A. HONOURS)

V SEMESTER

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. D. Gopal (Chairman) Prof. (Rtd.) Valarian Roudrigues Prof. Anurag Joshi,
Faculty of Political Science School of International Studies Faculty of Political Science
School of Social Sciences, IGNOU Jawaharlal Nehru University School of Social Sciences,
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068 New Delhi-110067 IGNOU
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068

Prof. Gurpreet Mahajan Prof. Meena Deshpande Prof. Krishna Menon

Centre for Policy Studies Dept. of Political Science Centre for Gender Studies
Jawaharlal Nehru University University of Bangalore, Bengaluru Ambedkar University, Delhi
New Delhi – 110067

Prof. Shefali Jha Prof. S. V. Reddy Prof. Jagpal Singh

Centre for Policy Studies Faculty of Political Science Faculty of Political Science
Jawaharlal Nehru University School of Social Sciences, IGNOU School of Social Sciences,
New Delhi – 110067 Maidan Garhi, New Delhi -110068 IGNOU
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068
COURSE COORDINATOR & EDITOR
Prof. Anurag Joshi
Faculty of Political Science
School of Social Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
COURSE PREPARATION TEAM
BLOCKS AND UNITS UNIT WRITER
BLOCK I TRADITIONS OF THE PRE-COLONIAL INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT
Unit 1 Brahmanic Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Associate Professor, Kalindi College,
University of Delhi
Unit 2 Sramanic Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Kalindi College, University of Delhi
Unit 3 Islamic Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Kalindi College, University of Delhi
Unit 4 Bhakti Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Kalindi College, University of Delhi
BLOCK II POLITICAL CONCERNS AND KEY IDEAS
Unit 5 Ved Vyasa: Rajdharma (Shantiparva) Dr Pramod Kumar, Assistant Professor, Dept of Politics and
International Studies, Pondicherry University
Unit 6 Manu: Social Order and Laws Dr Amitanshu Verma, Senior Researcher, Centre for Equity
Studies, New Delhi
Unit 7 Kautilya: State and Duties of Kingship Dr Raj Kumar Sharma, Maharishi Kanad Post Doc Fellow,
Delhi School of Transnational Affairs, DU
Unit 8 Kautilya: Mandala Theory Dr Raj Kumar Sharma, Post Doc Fellow, University of Delhi
Unit 9 Digha Nikaya: The Idea of Chakravartin Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Kalindi College, University of Delhi
Unit 10 Zia –Ul –Barani: Royal Authority and Dr Swasti Rao, Associate Fellow, Europe and Eurasia Center,
Just Rule Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses
Unit 11 Abul Fazal: Monarchical Authority and Dr Swasti Rao, Associate Fellow, Europe and Eurasia Center,
Popular Well being
Unit 12 Akka Mahadevi: Critique of Social Dr Swasti Rao, Associate Fellow, Europe and Eurasia Center,
Order
Unit 13 Kabir: Religious Boundaries and the Dr. Abhiruchi Ojha, Assistant Professor, Department of
Quest for Social Harmony Politics & Governance, Central University of Kashmir
 UNIT FORMATTING, VETTING & CONTENT UPDATING
Dr. Raj Kumar Sharma
Consultant, Faculty of Political Science
IGNOU, New Delhi

SECRETARIAL ASSISTANCE
Mr. Rakesh Chandra Joshi
AE (DP), SOSS
IGNOU, New Delhi

PRINT PRODUCTION
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Maidan Garhi, New Delhi Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
January, 2022
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2022
ISBN:
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 Course Contents

Block I Traditions of the Pre-Colonial Indian Political Thought 7

Unit 1 Brahmanic 9
Unit 2 Sramanic 26
Unit 3 Islamic 48
Unit 4 Bhakti 72
Block II Political Concerns and Key Ideas 93

Unit 5 Ved Vyasa: Rajdharma (Shantiparva) 97

Unit 6 Manu: Social Order and Laws 107
Unit 7 Kautilya: State and Duties of Kingship 120
Unit 8 Kautilya: Mandala Theory 133
Unit 9 Digha Nikaya: The Idea of Chakravartin 146
Unit 10 Zia –Ul –Barani: Royal Authority and Just Rule 167
Unit 11 Abul Fazal: Monarchical Authority and Popular Well being 184
Unit 12 Akka Mahadevi: Critique of Social Order 202
Unit 13 Kabir: Religious Boundaries and the Quest for Social Harmony 218
Suggested Readings 230
 COURSE INTRODUCTION
This course introduces classical elements of Indian Political Thought that spans
over two millennia. A number of Indian thinkers have articulated their views on
politics and political institutions. The first section covers traditions of the pre-
Colonial Indian political thought, Brahmanic, Sramanic, Islamic and Bhakti. The
second section deals with individual thinkers whose ideas are however, framed
by specific themes. The course provides a sense of the broad streams of Indian
thought while encouraging a specific knowledge of individual thinkers and texts.
The systematic study of ancient Indian Political thought began during India’s
national independence movement. It was argued by some sections that ancient
India did not contribute anything substantial to political thought and Political
Science. However, such criticism mainly reflects a Eurocentric understanding of
Political Science which neglects contributions from non-Western societies and
thinkers. This is evident from the fact that Kautilya is often called ‘Indian
Machiavelli’ despite the fact that his book, Arthashastra was written some 1800
years prior to Machiavelli’s works and remains much broader in scope.
Compared to Machiavelli, Kautilya’s conceptualisation of state power is
systematic and comprehensive. Some of the sources of ancient Indian political
thought include Vedic literature, Puranas, Epics, Dharmasutras, Smritis,
Arthasastras, Jain and Buddhist literature and archaeological sources among
others. One of the important characteristics of ancient Indian political thought
was that the politics was influenced by ethics and caste based social structure.
There was no clear distinction between society and state while Monarchy was the
normal form of government. At the same time, the political life was conceived
within the framework of Dharma and it became an important constituent of
statecraft. The concept of duties was given precedence over rights during this
period. Urmila Sharma and S K Sharma have argued that ancient Indian political
thought represents the East and China, Iran and Southeast Asian countries had
rudimentary political thought while India, much like ancient Greece, had a very
developed political thought. While this fact is not widely recognised, there is
need to better codify the ancient Indian political thought. This course covers
some of the important traditions, themes and thinkers from ancient Indian
political thought. It is divided in two blocks.
Block 1 has four units which covers traditions of the pre-colonial Indian Political
Thought, namely, Brahmanic, Sramanic, Islamic and Bhakti.
Block 2 has nine units covering thinkers like Ved Vyasa, Manu, Kautilya, Zia–
Ul–Barani, Abul Fazal, Akka Mahadevi and Kabir. Every unit has exercises to
assess progress and the answers are given at the end of each unit. There is a list
of readings in the end of the course that would help to broaden perspective and
go deep into the study of ancient Indian Political Thought.

6
 BLOCK I
Traditions of the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political Thought

7
 BLOCK I INTRODUCTION
This block covers traditions of the pre-colonial Indian Political Thought, namely,
Brahmanic, Sramanic, Islamic and Bhakti. Brahmanic tradition is the central
theme and belief of Vedic followers. Its thoughts and philosophical concepts
were central to the rise of socio-religious beliefs, political conduct and polity in
Indian political thought. Since most of the inference and perception were put
forward by the Rishis/Brahmans, hence, it was named as Brahmanic tradition.
The Jains and the Buddhists led two vigorous protestant movements against
Brahmanic tradition from the fifth century B.C. onwards. The origin of Sramanic
tradition is mainly associated with Kosala and Magadha, the main areas of
Buddha and Mahavira. This tradition emerged as a reaction against and reform of
the prevailing Brahmanic tradition, but could not escape the influence thereof.
The political contact of India with Islam began sometimes in the 8th century
A.D., when the Arabs established their control over the province of Sindh. Major
trends of Indo-Islamic political thought displayed a rupture with and continuity of
ancient Indian traditions. Muslim conquests brought alien tradition of political
ideas and institutions developed in West Asia. With a noted absence of social and
cultural hegemony, indigenous traditions reflected a tendency of adaptation of
alien ideas & institutions to the Indian conditions. Bhakti is an age-old concept
which prescribes Gyana (knowledge), Karma (action) and Bhakti (devotion) as
the three essential features to shatter the bondage of material world and to serve
the Almighty God. Thus, Bhakti is one of the three recognized means of
achieving salvation. The Bhakti movement aimed at the purification of Hindu
religion and liberation of the people from the monopoly and injustices of the
priestly classes. The Bhakti saints came from different streams of society,
particularly lower castes. Bhakti opposed the institutionalisation of religion, tried
to decentralise it, and considered religion as a private matter. The Bhakti
traditions gave respectability to the marginalised castes, posing a challenge to the
upper caste hegemony. This tradition had an inclusive approach towards Muslims
as well. The proponents of Bhakti tradition introduced syncretic tradition in India
and sought to promote eclectic faiths and defuse religious orthodoxy among the
followers of Hinduism and Islam.

8
 ⁎ Brāhmanic
UNIT 1 BRĀHMANIC
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Methodological Problems
1.3 Basic Concepts
1.3.1 Vedas as Source of Knowledge
1.3.2 Brahma
1.3.3 Kshatra
1.3.4 Man (Vyakti)
1.3.5 Four Pursuits of Life
1.3.5.1 Dharma
1.3.5.2 Artha
1.3.5.3 Kāma
1.3.5.4 Moksha
1.3.6 Varna
1.3.7 Āshrama
1.3.8 Duties & Rights
1.3.9 Vārtā
1.3.10 Danda
1.4 Evolution of Political Ideas and Polity
1.4.1 Political Ideas
1.4.2 Origin of Kingship
1.4.3 Evolution of State & Government
1.4.4 Elements of State
1.4.5 Objectives of State
1.4.6 Law and Jurisprudence
1.4.7 Administration
1.4.8 Principles of Taxation

⁎
Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Associate Professor, Kalindi College, University of Delhi

9
 1.4.9 Inter-state Relations
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial 1.5 Limitations of Brāhmanic
Indian Political
1.6 Reactions Towards Brāhmanic
Thought
1.7 Let us Sum Up
1.8 Some Useful References
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the ideas of Brāhmanic tradition.
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:
 Scope of Brāhmanic Tradition
 Basic Concepts of Brāhmanic
 Evolution of Political Ideas and Polity
 Limitations of Brāhmanic
 Reactions against Brāhmanic

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Brāhmanic tradition represents an ideology and a way of life, originating
from the Vedas (Ṛigveda, Yajurveda, Sāmveda and Atharvaveda) and the whole
range of Vedic literature, which includes numerous Brahmanic Scriptures
appended to all the four Vedas, Āranyak scriptures, Śad-darshana, Purānas,
Upanishads. In addition, Brahmanic tradition also includes post-Vaidik diverse
schools of thought such as Dharmasutras, Epics, Vedanga and Up-vedas,
Dharmashastras, Smriti Scriptures (including Manusmriti and
Yājnavalkyasmriti), Arthaśastras (including Kautilya’s), Nitiśastras (including
Śukraniti and Kāmandakīya Nitisāra) etc. These scriptures provide details
concerning virtues, truth, rights, freedom, political life, etc.
Brāhmanic tradition is the central theme and belief of Vedic followers. Its
thoughts and philosophical concepts were central to the rise to socio-religious
beliefs, political conduct and polity in Indian political thought. Most of the
inference and perception were put forward by the Rishis / Brahmans, hence was
named as ‘Brāhmanic’.

1.2 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

During the long evolution of Brāhmanic tradition, it is difficult to reach a
consensus for periodization and historicity of texts. Vedas, also known as Shruti,
were not available as text for a very long period. Similarly, as per one belief,
Mahābhārata was originally written as Bharat, then as Jaibharata and lastly, as
Mahābhārata. There are many projections of Ramayana followed in various
parts of the sub-continent, making it difficult for identification and reading of
primary texts and classical secondary commentaries of political purport and
10
relevance.
Issue of reading the texts in their appropriate historical and cultural contexts is Brāhmanic
another problem. As Indologists focus on internal reading of the texts, while
historians examine the political, social and economic contexts; in the process, at
times texts are devalued and denied autonomy from their contexts. Whereas
students of political thought, grant autonomy to the texts and their authors by
lending them a universal appeal and abiding relevance.
Issue of non-English vocabulary for political terms also has made indigenous
Brāhmanic texts as non-inviting for researchers of political science. For example,
Sanskrit terms like Rājadharma, Rājyaśāsan, Dandaniti, Nitiśāstra, Arthaśāstra,
have been used for issues concerning political science; Loksanshraya /
Yogakshema / Sarvodaya include indigenous terms denoting welfare of all; Vārtā
is reflective of means of livelihood and political economy.
Hence, dealing with various disciplines of knowledge as branches of same roots
and an absence of specified single text dealing with polity and political science in
a holistic manner (like Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Locke etc.), the tradition
invariably was treated as a school of metaphysics and failed to invite attention of
western and oriental scholars of political science, in spite of relevant content and
milieu.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Explain the major methodological problems in the study of the
Brāhmanic tradition.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……

1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS

In the field of political philosophy, Indian thinkers, especially the Brāhmanic
thinkers, did formulate and develop a number of significant political concepts.
Here, it is interesting to note that some of the fundamental concepts and ideas in
the realm of political thought were formulated not by political thinkers, but by
metaphysicians and philosophers. Once the latter had given these concepts a
broad and rich content, the former incorporated them in their own works. Such a
process can also be detected in the history of Western political thought,
especially with reference to the concepts like virtue, truth, justice, ideal life, 11
rights and liberties.
Traditions of
1.3.1 Vedas as a Source of Knowledge
the Pre-Colonial The Brāhmanic tradition has portrayed Vedas as the ultimate source of
Indian Political
knowledge. Manu considered the codes of the Vedas as one of the four
Thought
characteristics of Dharma, along with the Smriti scriptures, the Sadāchār
(behavioural ethics) and the Ātman (the inner soul). Kautilya referred to the four
foundations of a polity as Trayee (the three vedas); Anvikshaki (knowledge of
Sānkhya Yoga and Lokāyata), Vārtā (the economy) and the Dandaniti.
Considering as authoritative texts on Dharma, Vedas were treated as one of the
four sources for setting a legal controversies. Other sources included Vyavhār or
evidence, Charit/Samsthā or history and conduct of reputed persons, and
rājshāśana or the royal edicts.

1.3.2 Brahma
The Vedic political philosophy provided us with the notions of Brahma and
Kshatra, which were gradually debated as the problem of the relative superiority
of spiritual and physical (regal) powers. According to Martin Haug, Brahma
signifies prayer. Rudolph Ruth holds that originally Brahma meant the volitional
energy directed towards the Gods and, later on, it acquired a religious meaning.
Brahma, which is different from Brāhman, refers to what grows. This term
originated from the Sanskrit word ‘Brih’ which means to grow. To Deussen, the
term Brahma denotes human will striving to attain the Absolute. Since the Vedic
times, the Brāhamaic tradition regarded human nature as a remarkable
combination of the body and the soul, where man’s body signifies his physical
powers, while the spirit or soul stands for his spiritual powers. Here, the
preference has been given not to the materialistic and physical aspects of life, but
to the meditative, absorptive and spiritual aspects. Accordingly, it was
emphasized that man, being essentially divine, has the spark or ray of divinity
which is shrouded by the blinding power of ignorance. Once this mask or veil of
ignorance is lifted, the spirit in man shines in all its resplendence.

1.3.3 Kshatra
Kshatra, translated by Keith as sovereignty, has also been identified with
absolute ruling power. In the general sense of dominion rule or power as
exercised by gods and men; and also in the sense of ‘rulers’, occurs frequently in
the Ṛgveda and later literature. In later Samhitās, it denotes the ruling class, as
opposed to the priests, the subject people and the servile class. A kshatrapati is
frequently mentioned as an equivalent of King. In some passages, Kshatra
corresponds to Rājanya or the Khatriya caste. In the Brāhmanas, the Brahmins
were identified with the Brahma power and the Kshatriya with Kshtra power.
While the former could develop Kshatra power and the latter could attain
spiritual worth. As Rāma and Krishna are credited with both the powers in the
Epics. Kautilya conceived the acceleration of the Kshatra power by the Brāhmin
group as leading to the conquest of the unconquerable.

12
 Brāhmanic

1.3.4 Man (Vyakti)

Brāhmanic tradition highlights the sacred character of the individual human
personality. The fundamental theme of Indian philosophical speculation is the
spiritual nature of man. Man is regarded not only a social and political being, but,
above all, essentially divine, the living being who has the spark of God. Almighty
(Parmātma) in the form of his soul (Ātmā), who is also conscious of this sacred
faculty and is, therefore, able to act accordingly to improve the quality not only
of his own life, but also of those who come into contact with him. And, since
man is essentially divine (partaking of the characteristics and qualities of God
Himself), he is also basically good and benevolent. The underlying idea is that
the human spirit is fundamental and for its realisation all social and political
allurements and fears are to be transcended. Atmarthe Prithvim Tyajet is a basic
ingredient of this tradition.

1.3.5 Four Pursuits of Life included Dharma (righteous performance of

one’s duties), Artha (economic activities in pursuance of wealth and power),
Kāma (worldly pleasures and sexual desires) and Moksha (final liberation). In
Katha Upanishad, Dharma and Moksha are termed as Śreya (good), while Artha
and Kāma are named as Preya (pleasant).
1.3.5.1 Dharma: Dharma is also one of the most comprehensive
concepts in Brāhmanic Philosophy. Its English synonym ‘religion’ is
derived from the Latin term ‘religare’, which means “to bind”. The
inference is that religion is the bond, which unites not only man with God,
but also man with man. Whereas Dharma stands for ‘a way of life’,
derived from the root ‘Dhri’, which means “to sustain” or “to uphold”.
Hence, it refers to the principle or the substance which can sustain an
object. The Mahābhārata, accordingly, describes it as the principle which
bears or maintains society by establishing a moral or spiritual order.
Dharma included, in its compass, morality and virtue. In fact, Niti, Āchār,
Sadāchaar (code of noble conduct), along with Dharma were deemed to
be mutually complimentary and interdependent. Manu had, accordingly,
proclaimed, in unambiguous terms, that ethics is the real dharma,
(Āchārah Parmo Dharmah). To him, the codes of the Vedas, the Smritis,
the Sadāchār and the Ātman are the four characteristics of Dharma. In the
Mahābhārta, Dharma indicated a network of duties, like the Rājadharma
(duties of the ruler), the Prajādharma (duties of the subjects) and the
Mitradharma (duties of the friend). It involved virtue and righteousness
and was, thus, an admixture of socio-ethico-religious ideas.
In the Arthaśāstra of Kautilya, the term dharma has been described
variously at various places. Therein, it signifies the sense of social duty
towards oneself (swadharmas) and one’s society (varnadharma and
Āshramadharma). As the civil law and the moral law based on Truth, it
was elevated to the status of the supreme principle of human life. 13
 In the customary aspect of Dharma, the performance of rituals, appeasement of
Traditions of
numerous gods and goddesses, offering of deities altogether find detailed
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political illustrations in Vedic and post-Vedic literature. The term Dharma, according to
Thought B.A. Salitore, thus, covered the wide range of subjects, stretching from law to
piety, practically all matters of public behaviour.
1.3.5.2 Artha: Preaching a philosophy of balance and harmonious integration,
Kautilya has argued that the king may enjoy in an equal degree the three pursuits
of life – charity, wealth and aesthetic desire, which are independent upon each
other and indulgence in either of these three in extreme degree would be
injurious.
In the context of all-Indian monarchical power, Kautilya accepted the notion of
maximization of wealth and territory. Artha has also been defined as Vritti or
means of livelihood of mankind. Kautilyan economic determinism advocates the
casual role of the economic factor both in human motivation and in social and
historical eventuation. The concept of artha, however, distinguishes between its
two meanings. In the narrower sense, it is the equivalent of wealth and in its
broader sense, it is the equivalent of all the means necessary for the acquisition
and preservation of an all-India imperial system, and emphasizes harmony of the
four purushārthas. Thus, reaching a level of a systematic, comprehensive and
rational-analytical branch of knowledge, owing to his intensive treatment of all
the related and kindred topics of kingship, economics, social relations, law and
diplomacy.
1.3.5.3 Kāma: Realizing the necessity of worldly pleasures and aesthetic or
sexual desires, considered as third aspirations of an individual, Kautilya offered
the first systematic and balanced attempt to construct philosophy exalting Artha
and territory. In Upanishads, the desire for wealth, progeny and fame have to be
shunned by an aspirant after realization of ultimate truth. But Kautilya preached a
philosophy of balance and harmonious integration. Not violating righteousness
and economy, Kautilya expected the king to enjoy his desires, appreciate in an
equal degree, the three pursuits of life, charity, wealth and desire, which are
interdependent upon each other.
1.3.5.4 Moksha: Indian tradition looks at the individual as a living being who is
an intrinsic part of the society and who, as such, is constantly striving to attain
‘Moksha’, salvation or liberation from the cycle of rebirth by following the path
of ‘Dharma', ‘Artha’ and ‘Kāma’, i.e. by involving himself in the day-to-day
social and economic activities. He is striving to attain perfection for himself, to
the extent it is attainable, in common with others. And, in this respect, he is
looked upon as a person who is more conscious of his duties than the one who is
simply clamouring for his rights. Behind this conception was the conviction that
man is the maker of his ‘destiny’ and that, therefore, it is natural for him to
dedicate himself wholly to the attainment of this objective.
The individual, thus, becomes a part and parcel of such a social fabric. And, it
14 was in this overall context that the State was conceived as an agency based on
force in order to provide protection to all living beings and the functions of the
State were confined to strike a synthesis among four purushārthas. The Brāhmanic
relationship between the king and his subjects was based, by and large, on the
assumed reciprocity of duties.

1.3.6 Varna
The term 'Varna’ indicates the division of society into four major functional
classes. It originated from the Sanskrit root ‘Vri’ which means selection/adoption
of activities/duties and their performance in accordance with one’s virtues and
capabilities. According to G.H. Mees, social, cultural, professional or
occupational symbolic and occult, these five conceptions have been the basis of
Varna system. One finds various references to the origin of this social system.
The varna system was supposed to represent the principle of one in many. The
Brāhmans were concerned with knowledge; the Kshtriyas with courage and
valour to provide protection to the weak; the Vaishyas with the satisfaction of
necessities of life, viz. agriculture, crafts and trade; and the Shudras with service
to the other classes. All the four varnas were compared in Ṛgveda to different
parts of the Purusha. Indian thinkers, however, failed to devise a mechanism
whereby they could identify people in terms of their potential and arrange for
their transmigration from one class to another.
The Brāhmanic scriptures proclaimed the supremacy of the Brahmans, while
giving importance to the performance of rituals and indicated the declining status
of vaishyas and the inferior status of the Shudras, which resulted in the
predominance of Brāhmans and decline of Ṛgveda‘s popular institutions of
Sabhā, Samiti and Vidath. A struggle for the supremacy between two varnas, the
Brāhmans and the Kshatriyas was reflected in the Upanishads. Both Rāmāyana
and Mahābhārta also accorded the same order of priority. While Rāmāyana
acknowledged a cordial relationship amongst all the Varnas, the Mahābhārata,
under āpaddharma, acknowledged the adoption of professions of others than
one’s own. Dharma Sutras indicated a clear, more or less rigid, division of
society with predominance of the Brāhmans, and inferior position of the Shudras,
suspicion for Varna Sankara and punishments in accordance with the varna.
Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra, expected the king to protect, preserve and conserve this
societal varna system and provided for a system of law, danda and bala (armed
forces) on the basis of Varna. The Manusmriti voiced the predominance of the
Brāhmanas and issued strictures against the Shudras.

1.3.7 Āshrama
The word ‘Āshrama’ is derived from the root ‘Shrama’, which means to exert. It,
therefore, implies: (a) a place where one may perform exertions and also (b) the
action of performing such exertions. The Āshramas are four in number: (i) the
Brahmacharya (of a student), (ii) the Grihastha (of a householder or married
man), (iii) the Vānaprastha (of retired life after abandoning the household
responsibilities and attachments) and (iv) Sanyāsa (complete renunciation). In the
last two stages, man enlarges his area of action from the small family to the
larger community and humanity. 15
Traditions of
1.3.8 Duties & Rights
the Pre-Colonial The Indian concepts of duties and rights is different from its counterpart in the
Indian Political
liberal tradition of the West. In the Western tradition, the classic case was started
Thought
by John Locke, who thought that there are certain natural rights which are innate
and therefore, no one can deprive us of those rights. Duties flow from the
principle of mutuality. Brāhamanic tradition, too, recognized the tension between
the claims of the individual and the society, as a whole. Firstly, connecting the
individual to the concrete functions he performs in society, and secondly, by
relating him to the cosmic process of which he is an integral part. Brāhamanic
thought accords the place of primacy; to duties vis-a-vis the rights. As an
individual is not only a member of the society and the State, but also of a number
of voluntary associations. He has, therefore, to perform a variety of functions in
relation to these associations of which he has chosen to be a member, expected to
fulfil a confluence of duties, described as Swadharma, Varnadharma,
Āshramadharma, Jātidharma, Kuladharma, Deshadharma, Rājadharma,
Prajādharma, mitradharma.

1.3.9 Vārtā
According to Kautilya, Trayeee (the structure and knowledge constituted by the
three Vedas: (Rig, Yajur and Sāma); Anvikshiki (the philosophical systems of
dualistic Samkhya and Yoga and the materialistic philosophy of Lokāyata);
Vārtā (with origins in root ‘vritti’, meaning livelihood or profession and
comprehending agriculture, cattle-breeding and trade) and Danda (which is the
mean to achieve Yogakshema, the welfare of all) are the four considered branches
of knowledge. Dandaniti deals with the means of acquiring (Alabdha
Labhartha), preservaton (Labhda Parirakshim), accentuation (Rakshit
Vivardhani) and righteous and due apportionment (Vriddhasya Tirtheshu
Pratipadini) of Anvikshiki, Trayee and Vārtā. Rājadharma, thus, expected
the dandadhara to ensure the acquisition and preservation of dialectics; to aid
the Vedas in so far as it prescribes ways and means as an integral part of the
Vedic view of life and culture.
And, making a case for political economy, Kautilya’s dandadhara aids Vārtā
because both treasury (related to Vārtā) and punishment (Danda) are necessary
for the control of one's own kingdom and those of the enemies.

1.3.10 Danda
Danda of the king symbolizes the authority. In the Śatapatha Brāhmana, the king
is called Adandya, symbolizing that he was beyond the reach of a staff (Danda).
In Manusmriti, danda signifies the kingly power, implying penal sanctions as a
guarantee of the maintenance of peace and order. In a broader sense, Kautilya
used danda with the totality of means for the acquisition, preservation, growth
and distribution of resources, reflecting the totality of social and political
interactions and relationships. Thus, danda or force is not the essence of politics
16 and is never to be intended for the support of interests of the stronger, but is a
necessary adjunct in the realization of co-operative and organic social existence Brāhmanic
guided by the monarch.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. What are the significant basic concepts of Brāhmanic tradition?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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1.4 EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL IDEAS AND

POLITY
1.4.1 Political Ideas
 Vedic Literature is to be explored for early beginning of political ideas.
Political Institutions in Ṛigveda included Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha.
Examples of kingship are found in the Vedic literature. Origin of four-
fold social order is referred to in Purushsukta of Ṛigveda.
 Details of Rājadharma, kingship, administration, taxation have been
elaborated in Śāntiparva of Mahābhārata.
 Upanishads/Vedāntic Literature reflects multiplicity reduced to the
duality of Brahma (Pure idea or God) & Ātman (The self or Soul) and
emphasized spiritual equality of all projecting human beings as children
of immortality (Viśve Amritasya Putrah) Brahminical monarchical rites,
such as Ashvamedha (Horse sacrifice) performed by king, symbolizing
political conquest and hegemony, have been referred to in
Brihadāranyaka Upanishad.
 Full-fledged Theory of State in Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra can be
systematized in three broad topics: (1) the theory of kingship or the
activities and functions of the sage king (Rājarshivṛittam) in first, sixth
and eight book; (2) theories of administration and law in second to fifth
books; and (3) problems of war and diplomacy in the seventh, and ninth
to fourteenth books.
 Details of kingship, legislation, Dharma, Dandaniti, are illustrated in
Manusmriti.
17
Traditions of
1.4.2 Origin of Kingship
the Pre-Colonial The entire ancient Indian Brāhmanic literature testifies to the quasi-divine and
Indian Political
quasi-contractual origin of both the society and the state.
Thought
 The Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata, under ‘Manu tradition’ illustrates a
kind of social contract, where on peoples’ request to save them from
Mātsyanyāya, Brahma himself sent Manu to govern the State; under the
‘Prithu tradition’, Prithu, a lineage of Virājas, took over the lordship after
making a commitment to protect the people.
 In Arthaśāstra, people have been shown requesting Manu, the Vaivasvat
to be their king to rule out Mātsyanyāya and committed to spare a share
as royal dues.

1.4.3 Evolution of State & Government

 Lineage or tribe based social & political formations were found in early
and later Vedic periods
 Post-Vedic period denoted establishment of Mahājanapadas (territorial
states)
 Licchhavian Republic was a replica of Ganasangha (Oligarchic
Republics)
 Monarchical-Bureaucratic State was exemplified by Mauryas & Guptas in
Magadha and Harsha in Thanesar
 Early & Medieval periods recorded feudal monarchies

1.4.4 Elements of State

The essential elements of the State were explained as Saptānga (seven prakritis)
of the State including Swāmi (the sovereign king), Amātya (the Ministers),
Janapad (people & territory), Durga (Forts), Kosha (the treasury), Bala (the
armed forces), and Mitra (the ally).

1.4.5 Objectives of State

The king was supposed to act as the trustee and the servant of his people. If the
basic concept of objectives of the state was the realization of Purushārthas in all
walks of life, then Yogakshema denoted Yoga (addition to or furtherance of, and
not the depletion of, all resources) and Kshema (well utilization of resources) in
all human pursuits. Kautilya’s concept of welfare treated family as a basic unit
and enjoined upon the family to look after its members in times of difficulty and
crisis and also in accordance with one‘s Varnāshrama. Kautilya envisaged a
policy of limited-state-welfare, while leaving the individual to maximum of self-
help.

1.4.6 Law and Jurisprudence

 Manusmriti or The Law Book of Manu refers to a Legal Expert as a
judicial advisor to the king; layered judicial structure; instead of leaving
18 judicial administration to rationale of the king, defined the System of
 Jury, Oath, evidence, punishment etc. Brāhmanic
 Kautilya believed in four sources for setting a legal controversy: (1)
Dharma (cannon law), (2) Vyavahāra (customary law), (3) Samsthā
(usages) and (4) Rājaśāsana (logical principles). In case of disagreement
between institutional law and practice and authoritative texts on Dharma,
then the matter to be settled in accordance with Dharma or truth. Kautilya
was of the considered view that in case of conflict of interpretation, the
king should himself decide the dispute and his interpretation is to be
upheld as final.
 Like the Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras and the Smritis, Arthaśāstra
elaborated civil laws dealing with agreements, legal disputes, marriage,
inheritance, debts, rules concerning slaves and labourers, cooperatives,
purchase and sale, gifts, ownership, robbery, defamation, assault,
gambling, betting, and other miscellaneous topics.

1.4.7 Administration
Brāhmanic political thinkers tried to protect the interests of the people by
recommending and bringing about decentralized administrative machinery.
Several types of states like republics, oligarchies, diarchies and monarchies were
prevailing in India in ancient times, but eventually monarchy became the order of
the day owing to various factors and causes. The classical theory of Indian
kingship, however, illustrated the role of the king as an administrator and the
promulgator of law. Since the king was not able to discharge the functions of the
state single headedly, for the development and welfare of the state, he had to
depend and rely on his competent ministers, the departmental heads, and also on
decentralized machinery of the administration including the provincial, divisional
and district administration along with town and village administration.

1.4.8 Principles of Taxation

Indian thinkers evolved excellent principles for taxation. The taxation was
usually determined by the local customs and traditions. In the later times,
however, when the Samiti disappeared from the scene, governments would often
impose high and arbitrary taxes. The state was to gather the taxes like the bee,
which sucks the honey without damaging the flower. The trade and industry were
to be taxed not on gross earnings, but on net profits. An article was not to be
taxed twice and the rise in taxation, when inevitable was to be gradual. The
grounds on which remissions were sanctioned and exemptions granted were also,
as a rule, sound.
The ancient Indian state was not merely a tax-gathering corporation, interested
only in preserving law and order. It is surprising to find that the state in ancient
India should have interested itself in a number of ministrant activities of the
nation-building type, which are being undertaken by the modern governments
only in relatively recent times. Private agencies, trade guilds and state
departments worked side by side to promote national welfare without mutual
jealousies. 19
 The ideals of the ancient Indian state, thus, were all comprehensive. It sought to
Traditions of
promote the moral, material, aesthetic and spiritual progress of the whole
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political community. Human ideas about the progress in these different spheres go on
Thought changing from age to age and it is no wonder that we may not be able to agree
with all that the state in ancient India did or countenanced in order to achieve
progress in this fourfold field. Nevertheless, in their description of finance,
financial administration, town planning and the organization of a vast
bureaucracy to control the entire social, economic, educational and religious
activities of the people, Brāhmanic scholars were in advance of their Greek and
Roman contemporaries to a great extent.

1.4.9 Inter-state Relations

The foreign affairs or the system of developing and preserving contacts between
states - was fairly advanced in Brāhmanic literature. The textual evidences
provide very deep insight into foreign policy and diplomacy. Their views on the
issues of war and peace, relevance of diplomacy, qualifications, duties, types and
immunities of diplomats reflect a sound principle of realism. Besides
qualifications of the envoys, Indian scholars gave a serious thought on decay,
stabilization and progress of state, essence of collaboration, nature of
coordination between major powers and minor powers, pacts made by minor
powers, diplomatic maneuvring, rule of war, strategy of peace, strategy of
vulnerable states, acquisition of allies or resources’ pact for colonization, pacts
for construction and development, strategy for a rear enemy, restoration of lost
balance of power, pacts with powerful enemies, pacts and breaches of pacts,
buffer states, neutral states and confederation of states. Their realism had a great
bearing on domestic policy, which formed a significant part in their scheme of
statecraft. Some of the principles of inter-state relations, as then practiced, were
excellent even by modern standards. Though we do not have much information
about inter-state relations during the Vedic period, the later development in this
sphere (in the sense of the management of inter-state relations by negotiations)
was remarkable and evolved theories and principles that hold the field even
today.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Analyse the evolution of political ideas and political system in the
Brāhmanic tradition.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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20 …………………………………………………………………………...……
1.5 LIMITATIONS OF BRĀHMANIC Brāhmanic

Metaphysics being the central concept of the Brāhmanic tradition, identification

and acknowledgment of political thought pose some serious weaknesses.
 Periodization and historicity of texts during long evolution of Brāhmanic
tradition
 Identification of primary texts and classical secondary commentaries of
political purport and relevance
 Issue of reading the texts in their appropriate historical and cultural
contexts
 Issue of non-English vocabulary for political terms pose yet another
limitation
 Belief in the validity of Vedas as original and ancient most source of
knowledge,
 Belief in a creator or God and their incarnation,
 Expecting ethical merit from ablutions,
 Pride of birth oriented caste, stratification of society,
 Engaging in violence to be rid of sin (rituals concerning sacrificial
violence)

1.6 REACTIONS TOWARDS BRĀHMANIC

TRADITION
 Upanishads: Gradually, Brahmanism gave priority to the observance of a
series of religious rites and performances. The complexities of religious
observances made the priestly class or Brahmins the sole trustee of
common man’s religion. As a result, sages in later-Vedic period roused to
protest against the prevalent Brāhmanic ‘religion’. Hence, Upanishads
emerged as a renaissance against Brāhmanic superiority and dominance.
 Jainism and Buddhism: Against the traditionalism and dogmatic
ritualism of the Brāhmanic tradition, authority of Vedas, belief in Gods
and their incarnation, superiority of the Brāhmanas and to elevate the
relative position of the Kshatriyas, a spirit protest and criticism emerged
in the form of Śramana tradition, which includes Jainism and Buddhism.
 Islamic scholars as well as invaders reacted against stratified caste
system; said to have incited lowest strata of indigenous society to convert
to Islamic fold. Taking advantage of administrative decline in feudal
setups, established Islamic feudatories in some parts of the Subcontinent.
 During medieval period, birth oriented casteism and
compartmentalization of society was countered by Sufis and Saints on
one hand and Sikhism on the other.
 Brāhmanic chauvinism was countered by reformers like Rammohun
Roy, Vivekananda, Dayananda Saraswati etc. in the nineteenth century 21
 and also in twentieth century by leaders of depressed classes namely
Traditions of
Jotirao Phule, Dr. Bhim Rao Amdebkar, etc.
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Thought
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Highlight the major limitation of the Brāhmanic tradition.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2. Point out various reactions to the Brāhmanic tradition.
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1.7 LET US SUM UP

The Brāhmanic tradition covers variety of schools of thought. During long
evolution, periodization and historicity of texts; identification and reading of
primary texts and secondary commentaries; non-English vocabulary for political
terms are some of the methodological concerns this tradition encounters. Its
fundamental concepts and ideas, articulated by Brāhmanic ‘Rishis’ and
philosophers, included acknowledgment of Vedas as the primary source of
knowledge, Brahma; Kshatra; nature of man; Four Purushārthas (Pursuits) of
Life comprising Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Moksha; Varna; Āshrama; Duties &
Rights; and Danda. If Purushārthas governed individuals’ personal life;
Varnashrama administered social and inter-personal relationships; Vārtā defined
political economy; and Danda managed the whole gamut of polity.
Enriched political philosophy of Brāhmanic tradition encompassed the theories
of kingship/ Rājadharma and the activities and functions of the king; illustration
of origin, objectives, elements of state; variety of governing principles (including
22 tribal based political formations, territorial states, oligarchic republics,
monarchical-bureaucratic state, feudal monarchies); theories of administration, Brāhmanic
law, taxation; problems of inter-state relations, war and diplomacy; etc.
In general, metaphysics is believed to be a central concept to the Brāhmanic
belief system, but insight into scriptures illustrate totality of social and political
interactions and relationships, involving inter alia, the king, his ministers, the
army, penal sanctions, acquisition, maintenance and conservation of resources.
Quasi-divine and quasi-contractual theories of origin of kingship were
subscribed. The Brāhmanic social legislation was another consequence of this
system, which further provided for predominance of spiritual and regal authority
and also for State interference in individual’s personal and social life.
Denominational-ecclesiastical aspect of Dharma remained under Brāhmanic
control and supremacy of royal authority resulted in the separation of
denominational religion from politics. The tug-of-war between the Brāhmans and
the Kshatriyas for the order of supremacy can be noticed.
The tradition imbibed various inherent weaknesses resulting in
compartmentalized stratification of society, ritualism and authoritarian
monarchical dispensations, Brāhmanic superiority, dominance and dogmatism
was responded upon by Upanishads during later Vedic period; by Jainism and
Buddhism during post-Vedic period; Sufis, Saints and Sikhism during medieval
period and reformers and leaders of depressed classes during 19th and 20th
century. However, Brahmanism (as a tradition, not as a caste) continued with its
command, confining other traditions to the margin of society.

1.8 REFERENCES
 Aiyangar, K.V., Rangaswami (1932) Some Aspects of Ancient Indian
Polity, Madrass.
 Altekar, A.S., (1958), State and Government in Ancient India, Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidas.
 Jayaswal, K.P., (1967), Hindu Polity, Bangalore: The Bangalore Printing
and Publishing Co.Ltd..
 Kangle, R. (1997) Arthaśāstra of Kautilya-Part-III: A Study, Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass.
 Parekh, B., (1986) ‘Some Reflections on the Hindu Tradition of Political
Thought’, in T. Pantham, and K. Deutsch (eds.), Political Thought in
Modern India, New Delhi: Sage Publications, pp. 17- 31.
 Mehta, V.R., (1992) ‘The Pragmatic Vision: Kautilya and His Successor’,
in Foundations of Indian Political Thought, Delhi: Manohar, pp. 88- 109.
 Sharma, R.S., ( 1991) ‘Varna in Relation to Law and Politics (c 600 BC-
AD 500)’, in Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India,
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 233- 251.
 Spellman, John W., (1964), Political Theory in Ancient India, Oxford: 23
Clarendon Press,
  Varma, V.P., Studies in Hindu Political Thought and its Metaphysical
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
Foundations, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1959
Indian Political
Thought 1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Periodization and historicity of texts
 Identification and reading of primary texts
 Issue of reading the texts in their appropriate historical and cultural
contexts
 Issue of non-English vocabulary for political terms
 Absence of complete text on political science

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Vedas as Source of Knowledge; Brahma; Kshatra, Man, Four Pursuits of
Life (Dharma, Artha, Kāma, Moksha); Varna, Āshrama, Duties & Rights,
Danda
 Understanding of all the above should reflect political; instead of
sociological, religious, metaphysical or philosophical interpretation.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Major Political Ideas
 Interpretations concerning origin of Kingship
 Evolution of state and government
 Elements of state
 Objectives of state
 Law and Jurisprudence
 Administration
 Principles of Taxation
 Issues concerning inter-state relations

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Methodological problems
 Validity of Vedas
 Belief in God and incarnation
 Pride of birth oriented caste, stratification of society
 Dogmatic ritualism

24
2. Your answer should highlight reactions from the following Brāhmanic
 Upanishads
 Shramanic Tradition
 Islam
 Sufi and Bhakti tradition

25
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
UNIT 2 ŚRAMANIC ⁎
Indian Political
Thought
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Methodological Problems
2.3 Reactions against Brāhmanic Tradition
2.4 Basic Concepts
2.4.1 Principles of Existence
2.4.2 Theory of Karma
2.4.3 Refuge in Three Jewels
2.4.4 Madhyam Mārg (Middle Path)
2.4.5 Ashtānga Mārg (Eight fold path)
2.4.6 Vinaya / Śīla (Ethics)
2.4.7 Creation of the Social Order
2.4.8 Nirvāna (Enlightenment)

2.5 Political Thought in Śramanic Scriptures

2.5.1 Political Ideas
2.5.2 Monastic Governance as a ‘Deliberative Democracy’
2.5.3 Republics in Buddhist Literature
2.5.4 Confederation of Republics
2.5.5 Legislative Administration
2.5.6 Legislative Procedure
2.5.7 Judicial Administration
2.5.8 Ethics as the Basis of Politics
2.6 Limitations of Śramanic
2.7 Reactions towards Śramanic Tradition
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 References
2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

⁎
Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Associate Professor, Kalindi College, University of Delhi

26
2.0 OBJECTIVES Śramanic

The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the ideas of Śramanic tradition.
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:

 Scope of Śramanic Tradition

 Śramanic reactions against Brāhmanic tradition
 Basic Concepts of Śramanic
 Evolution of Political Ideas and Polity
 Limitations of Śramanic
 Reactions towards Śramanic tradition

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The Jains and the Buddhist led two vigorous protestant movements against
Brāhmanic tradition from the fifth century B.C. onwards. If the centre of earlier
Vedic or Brāhmanic tradition was the eastern Afghanistan to Sapta-Sindhu to the
upper valley of the Ganga, the origin of Śramanic tradition is mainly associated
with Kośala and Magadha, the main areas of Buddha and Mahāvira. Steven
Collins has stated that the most likely time for the Buddha and early Buddhism
was 5th – 4th centuries B.C. There are three notable features of this period: first,
during this period, Brahmanism was more strongly established in the countryside
than in rising urban centres, where competing plurality of ideologies were
emerging; second, these urban centres, which arose from and encouraged a food
surplus, were market, military and administrative centres of small-scale polities,
not metropolitan capitals of large empires; third, these polities were ruled, in the
earlier part of period, by oligarchies, and gradually turned to monarchy. The
political discourse of Diggha Nikāya, according to Collins, apparently
presupposed this picture.

Mahāvira, the acknowledged founder of Jainism, was the twenty-fourth

Tirthankar, first being Rishabha and last, before Mahāvira was Pārsvanāth. A
senior contemporary of Buddha, Mahāvira formed his own monastic community,
subsequently divided into two major schools of Śvetāmbaras and Digambaras.
The Jain political philosophy was later explained by Jinasena (Ādipurāna),
Hemachandra (Yogasāstra & Trishastiśalakā-purushacharita), Somadeva
(Nitivākyāmrita) and Merutunga (Prabandha Chintāmani) etc.

In the Buddhist tradition, there are three great traditions, Therāvada, Mahāyāna
and Vajrayāna. Thervada or the school of the elder monks, includes ‘Tripitaka’
(Three Baskets) and Jātaka tales. It is mainly found in Burma, Cambodia, Sri
Lanka, Laos, Thailand and Chittagong in Bangladesh. ‘Tripitaka’ comprises
Sutta Pitak, Vinaya Pitak and Abhidhamma Pitak. Sutta Pitak, is a compilation of
Buddha’s sermons, delivered in Pāli language. The dialogues of Buddha were
collected during the first assembly just after his death; arranged according to
their length; and translated into Sanskrit. There are five Nikāyas or collections of 27
 Suttas, namely, (i) Digha Nikāya (There are 34 long Suttas), It is most important
Traditions of
for political theory purposes. (ii) Majjhim Nikāya, (iii) Samyutta Nikāya, (iv)
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political Anguttara Nikāya and (v) Khuddaka Nikāya. The Vinaya Pitak contains rules
Thought and regulations of monastic life that range from dress code and dietary rules to
prohibitions of certain personal conducts; whereas the Abhidhamma Pitak mainly
provides philosophical and psychological discourse and interpretation of
Buddhist doctrine.

Second, Mahāyāna or the Great Vehicle tradition originated in India and later
spread to China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam etc. It coexisted with Confucianism
and Taoism. The third, closer to Mahāyāna, also known as the Tibetan tradition,
was called Vajrayāna or Tantric Buddhism and believes in esoteric healing;
deals with social activism and social transformation and is prevalent in Bhutan,
Mongolia, Nepal and Tibet.

In addition to these works written in Pāli and in mixed Sanskrit, there are some
Sanskrit works like Ārya Śūra’s Jātakmālā, Aśvaghoṣa’s Saundarananda
Kāvyam and Buddhacharita and other later works. Finally, there is a Tibetan
work on the Life of Buddha, which is a Vinaya compilation.

2.2 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

During the long evolution of Śramanic tradition, it is difficult to reach a
consensus for periodization and historicity of texts. There is no agreement among
the Buddhist scholars regarding the exact date of the Tripitaka work. A period
ranging from fourth century B.C. to fourth century A.D. has been assigned to
these works.

The Jātaka Stories have been related to the royal missionary Mahinda’s
(Mahendra) journey to Ceylon during Asoka’s reign in the middle of the third
century B.C. These Jātaka Stories were known to the world through the
translation from Pāli into Singhalese in the fifth century A.D. making it difficult
for identification and reading of primary texts and classical secondary
commentaries of political purport and relevance.

Issue of non-English vocabulary for political terms also has made indigenous
Śramanic texts as non-inviting for researchers of Political Science. For example,
Pali terms like ānā (Command), Khattiya (Lord of Fields), Adhipacca (lordship);
Issariya (imposing sovereignty), exercised through Sattharatna (seven elements)
and ‘two wheels’ of Dhammacakka (wheel of law/ Vinaya) and ānācakka (wheel
of command) require basic understanding of Pāli and Sanskrit term to appreciate
their political connotations.

Hence, dealing with the various disciplines of knowledge as branches of same

roots and an absence of specified single text dealing with polity and Political
Science in a holistic manner (like Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Locke etc.), the
28 tradition invariably was treated as a school of metaphysics and failed to invite
attention of western and oriental scholars of Political Science, in spite of relevant Śramanic
content and milieu.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Explain major methodological problems in the study of Śramanic
tradition.
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2.3 REACTIONS AGAINST BRĀHMANIC

TRADITION
Both Jainism and Buddhism were critical of the Brāhmanic tradition:

 The Buddha countered the popular belief in the validity of Vedas as original
and ancient most source of knowledge. Confronted with the religious
pluralism of the times, he acknowledged every form of rival religious beliefs
as a possessor of some degree of truth.
 Both countered the belief in intra-cosmic Gods, the cycle of rebirth, idolatry
and resulting superstitions. Jainism insisted for the potential of human soul
for perfection. Individual souls were regarded as essentially separated and
unconnected. It was argued that they get related only due to past actions.
Buddhism denied the existence of a soul passing from life to life in
fulfillment of its past actions. Personal identity was merely a result of the
process of psychic life, which continued from birth to birth binding actions in
terms of their moral consequences. Expecting ethical merit from ablutions,
Śramanic texts argued that man’s passions, consciousness, intellect,
perception and impressions belong exclusively to the individual.
 Śramanic tradition challenged the hereditary basis of caste resulting in
stratification of society. Jayasurya (p. 47) opines that the emergent social
order reacted strongly against the rigidity and dominance, which denied
individual autonomy, human freedoms and legitimated inequalities. The new
urban mercantilism rejected this hierarchical ordering of society in terms of a
divinely destined, sacrosanct social structure made up of four social classes – 29
Kshatriya, Brāhmins, Vaishya and Śudras (including the outcastes).
  Their reaction against Brāhmanic dominance was so strong that the Jains
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
declared that Tirthankars would never be born in a Brāhman family.
Indian Political V.R.Mehta (p.111) narrates a story that the foetus of Lord Mahavira had to be
Thought transferred from the womb of a Brahman lady. Buddha assigned the first
place to Kshatriyas in the state.
 They exposed the practices of animal and human sacrifices and associated
rituals concerning sacrificial violence. Both Jainism and Buddhism were like
a revolt against the system of animal sacrifice. Jainism developed an
epistemological theory of Anekāntvāda and explained it through the doctrine
of non-violence. Following the story of the elephant and the six blind men, it
was argued that in a dispute, it is very rarely that one side is completely right,
while the other being completely wrong. Therefore, truth should be
considered in totality, after understanding different viewpoints. While
advocating for complete non-violence, Jainism denied even the unconscious
killing of germs while walking or speaking.
Considering the Roman Catholic Church and Brāhmanic tradition as
‘sacrificial systems’ placing the essence of religion in sacrifices, Buddhism
offered a process of self-cleansing. This led many researchers of early
Buddhism to consider it as the ‘Protestantism of the East’ and a critic and
complement to the reigning orthodox of Brāhminism.

2.4 BASIC CONCEPTS

Buddha declared metaphysical questions being irrelevant and emphasized the
significance of simple moral life in accordance with the four noble truths:

i. The world is full of suffering,

ii. Suffering is caused by human desires,
iii. The renunciation of desires is the path to salvation (Nirvān), and
iv. Salvation is possible through eight principles.

Buddhism adopted a rational position by stating that human life is governed by

causal principles, leaving no scope for divine intervention.

2.4.1 Principles of Existence

Buddhism is based on - Anicca, Anatta and Dukkha - three fundamental
principles of all existence and the phenomenal world. Anicca (anitya) denoted
that all things, including self, are impermanent, inconstant, unsteady and
changing. Anatta (anātma) explains the concept of non-self, denying the
immortality of soul, and unchanging/permanent nature of self. Dukkha (Duhkha)
describes the pain, suffering, dissatisfaction, anguish, stress, anxiety or
frustration emerging from physical/material thing, unpleasant experience or
inadequate identity. All kinds of suffering in life, like, birth, old age, sickness,
death, association with unpleasant persons or conditions, separation from beloved
ones or pleasant situations, disappointment, grief are common sufferings,
30
reflecting impermanence of happiness. Recognition of these three basic
characteristics of existence constitute the right knowledge or the four noble Śramanic
Truths, including

(i) Dukkha (the existential fact/reality of suffering),

(ii) Samudāya (it’s cause, arising or origin),
(iii) Nirodha (it’s cessation) and
(iv) Magga or Mārga (ultimately the path leading to its
cessation/suppression).

2.4.2 Theory of Karma

Both Jainism and Buddhism believed that man could transcend Karma by his
own efforts. Though they recognized functional Gods, yet emphasized that the
universal process (Samsār) was a result of certain immutable laws of action
(Karma), resulting in progress and decline. Jainism maintained that the world
was composed of infinite souls, which were trying to purify themselves of action
particles (Karma). These Karma bind the soul and accordingly embody it in
different incarnations in a cycle of birth and rebirth. The present life is
determined by our past karma. Accordingly, the ideal of liberation by one’s own
individual efforts is realized in the form of birth, death and rebirth. The Śramanic
tradition preached the value of a moral life in terms of the theory of Karma. Both
Jainism and Buddhism rejected the Lokāyata view of pleasure. Buddhists
believed that the causal chain of body and soul could achieve right knowledge,
which was kaivalya jnāna in Jainsim and Nirvāna in Buddhism. materialistic
doctrine.

2.4.3 Refuge in Three Jewels

Jainism recommends the path of three jewels (Triratna): (i) right
reverence (Shraddhā); (ii) right knowledge (Jnān); and (iii) right
conduct (Sadāchār), in order to enable the individual to
attain Nirvāna (deliverance). It also underlines the virtues of Ahimsā (non-
violence), Aparigraha (non-possession), understanding, equality, service,
Sanyam (self-restraint), Tapa (penance) and oneness in all living things. It
comprises a powerful force for co-existential outlook and reflects an attitude
of universal love for all living beings, sympathy and compassion towards those
in distress and tolerance towards those in opposition. Thus, the Jain prayer
enjoins: "Lord, I commit myself to communion with the Ātman, abjuring the
mental outlook, speech or deed that interferes with the oneness of all living
beings."

Buddhism exhilarates the three-fold submission or seeking refuges to Buddham

('Buddha'), Dhammam (the 'doctrine') and Samgham (the 'Buddhist ecclesiastical
fraternity'). In its moral aspect, it stood for Śīla (Modesty),
Samādhi (concentration or meditation) and Pragyā (wisdom), the pursuit of
which could ultimately lead one to Nirvāna (salvation). 31
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political 2.4.4 Madhyam Marg (Middle Path)
Thought
If Jainism subscribed to the extreme path of self-denunciation, sacrifice and
asceticism, Buddhism advocated for non-extremism or a path of moderation,
avoiding the extremes of self-indulgence on one hand, and self-mortification on
the other.

2.4.5 Ashtānga Marg (Eight fold path)

The three basic categories of human action encouraged ‘eight-fold middle path’;
where (i) Pragyā (wisdom) includes ‘right view’(Sammā ditthi/Drishti) and
‘right intention’ (Sammā Sankappa/Sankalpa); (ii) Śīla (ethical conduct/modesty)
comprises ‘right speech’ (Sammā Vācā/Vācha), ‘right action’ (Sammā
Kammanta) and ‘right livelihood’(Sammā Ājīva); and (iii) Samādhi
(concentration/meditation) comprehends ‘right effort’(Sammā Vyāmma), ‘right
mindfulness’(Sammā Sati), and ‘right concentration’(Sammā Samādhi).

2.4.6 Vinaya / Śīla (Ethics)

Jainism emerged initially as a system of religious thought with a distinct
philosophy of its own. In the process of its evolution, it was deeply influenced by
the Hindu philosophical tradition. Jainism suggests five vows for the realization
of absolute happiness or Sukha:

(i) Ahimsā: non-violence in thought, word and deed;

(ii) Satya: pursuit of truth and avoidance of falsehood;
(iii) Asteya: satisfaction with whatever one possesses and avoidance of
stealing;
(iv) Brahmacharya: Celibacy and to be content with one's own
wife; and
(v) Aparigraha: to limit one's possessions.

These vows are prescribed not only for the ascetic, but also for the discipline
of Anuvrata.

The five Precepts, mandatory for all Buddhists, defining the Vinaya code or the
monastic code include (Collins, p.25-26):

a. ‘He cannot intentionally deprive a living thing of life’ (Ahimsā)

b. ‘He cannot take what is not given, intending to steal’ (Asteya)
c. ‘He cannot have sex’ (Brahmcharya)
d. ‘He cannot tell a conscious lie’ (Satya)
e. ‘He cannot enjoy (objects of) desire, making a store (Aparigraha)

32 Buddhist tradition stood for Śīla (modesty), Samadhi (meditation)

and Pragyā (wisdom), the pursuit of which could ultimately lead one
to Nirvāna (salvation). It denoted moral purity of thought, word and action; Śramanic
including Satya (truthfulness), Ahimsa (non-violence), Asteya (non-stealing),
Brahmcharya (refrain from sensual misconduct), and Madyavimukta (refrain
from intoxicants)

2.4.7 Creation of the Social Order

U.N. Ghoshal argues that Aggana Sutta challenges the Vedic ideas on divine
creation of the social order, while suggesting that the division of people in
society is based upon need and convenience rather than any hierarchical division.
In other words, the division in the social order, with precedence to Kshatriya over
Brāhman, is based upon functional performance of activities by the groups and
not determined by varna model.

If Brāhmanical king ideally maintained the varna division in the social order; the
Buddhist king’s primary task was to maintain a social order in which the property
and family of individuals are protected in accordance with Dhamma.

2.4.8 Nirvāna (Enlightenment)

Jainism believes that man is a slave to pleasure of senses, with no end to its
accumulation. This leads to attachment of Karmic particles, which, in turn, lead
to infinite cycles of life and death. The search for self-knowledge and self-
realization is the only way to transcend this world and attain liberation.

For Buddha, Nirvāna or Nibbāna is Magga (the path) to the cessation of Dukkha.
Buddha calls it Majjhima Patipadā (the middle path), as it seeks to avoid
extremes of pleasure of senses and self-mortification, and leads to enlightenment
or Nirvāna.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Explain the Śramanic reactions against the Brāhmanic tradition.
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33
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Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial 2. What are the significant basic concepts of the Śramanic tradition?
Indian Political
Thought
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2.5 POLITICAL THOUGHT IN ŚRAMANIC

SCRIPTURES
2.5.1 Political Ideas
Jain Idealism primarily implied plurality of souls; emphasized experience in
material universe; Portrayed ideal king as puritanical character, reformist
legislation, aiming at charity and welfare of people. V.R.Mehta is of the view that
in the beginning, Jainism was a non-political, but not anti-political doctrine. It
did not contain any political statement of individualism or human equality. Even
democratic ideology was wholly absent from it. Since it regarded the world as a
bondage, the whole emphasis was on man’s efforts to gain salvation by practicing
sacrifice and penance. Jain canonist like Jinsena supported the patriarchal origin
of the state and asserted that the state is a cause of grief, a harmful drug, which
has to be taken as a necessity. Mehta (p. 117) quoting Jinsena says that even the
king should try to get rid of it as soon as possible. Politics may provide happiness
in this world, but cannot assure happiness thereafter. But Jainism reconciled itself
to the necessity of politics, resulting in two finest pieces on statecraft,
Hemchandra’s Yogasastra and Somdeva’s Nitivākyāmrita.

Buddhist Vision imbibed reformist stance towards ritualistic and aristocratic

features of early Vedic period; the origin & evolutionary nature of state in Digha
Nikāya; projection of king as Mahāsammat, Khattiya, Rājan; Asoka’s Dhamma
depicted the earliest all-inclusive ideology of state and civil society; references of
ānā, Gaṅa, and republics in Buddhist literature denoted the republican trends.

Buddhism is primarily understood as a religious and philosophical concept, while

it is equally concerned with the mundane and transcendental world. Scholars like
S.J. Tambiah were convinced that king enjoyed significant status in Buddhist
philosophy, whereas others like Max Weber considered it apolitical. There are
scattered references to power and kingship in Pāli scriptures, but there is no
direct theory supporting these references. B.K. Gokhale has outlined the
evolution of Buddhist thinking on the origin and development of the state as
outlined in Aggana Sutta (Details given in Unit-9).
34
2.5.2 Monastic Governance as a ‘Deliberative Democracy’ Śramanic

The monastic community or Samgha was governed and regulated by a well

formulated code of conduct, called the Vinaya. It was an integral part of the
Buddhist Compilation, enlisting rules and procedures governing the structure and
functioning of the monastic community. Accordingly, the brotherhood of monks
relied on the democratic foundations, where a code of law used to govern their
conduct. The social status or the seniority of monks was decided on the basis of
date of ordination. Their inter-personal relations were based on an equalitarian
liberal culture, having no formal hierarchy or dynastic favouritism. In individual
life, monk were expected to shed greed, hatred, delusion, folly, conceit, and
ignorance. They were to live with communal property and bare minimum private
possessions and in communal harmony. They were to be careful, compassionate
and responsible towards the wider society of lay persons, who cater to
community in meeting their daily chores. This monastic governance had many
similarities with the features of statecraft existing in the self-governing
confederacies and republics rather than the large monarchical kingdoms like
Kośala and Magadh.

If the monarchical kingdoms were led by Brāhmanic notions of a divinely

sanctioned superior class of rulers, the self-governing confederacies were guided
by the humanistic Buddhist ethics and skilful democratic form of conflict
resolution.

2.5.3 Republics in Buddhist Literature

In Buddha’s times, two forms of government existed in the Gangetic plains in
Northern India, Republican and monarchical in competition with each other.
The trend was to increase the size and power of monarchy at the cost of
republics. Government by discussion was the keystone of a republican form of
government.

According to Mahabharata, five republican people – the Andhakas, the Vrishnis,

the Yādavas, the Kukuras and the Bhojas – formed themselves into a
confederation and Krishna was made the confederate president. Each of the
constituent states of the confederation appeared as an autonomous unit under its
own chief called Ishvara, master or lord. Panini has referred to Ayudhajivi –
living by arms – republics. Bhandārkar has placed Panini before Buddha. It
seems that these republican states specialized in the military arts, they, according
to V.P. Varma, were like the Spartas of ancient India.

The list of Republics recorded in Buddhist literature, according to K.P.Jayaswal

(p. 42-3) includes:

a. the Śākyas (capital Kapilvastu, todays districts of Gorakhpur);

b. the Koliyas of Rāmagrāma;
35
 c. the Lichchhavis (capital Vaishali, parts of today’s districts of
Traditions of
Muzaffarpur);
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political d. the Videhas (capital Mithila, today’s districts of Darbhanga);
Thought (last two were jointly called the Vṛijis or Vajjis);
e. the Mallas, from the districts of Gorakhpur to that of Champaran, divided
into two units, with their capitals at Kusinārā and Pāvā;
f. the Moriyas of Pippalīvana;
g. the Bulis of Allakappa, neighbours of the Mallas of Kuśnagara; and
h. the Bhaggas (Bhargas), the neighbours of the kingdom of the Vatsas of
Kauśāmbī.

Politically, the most important republics of this group were the Vṛijis and the
Mallas. The former were mentioned both by Pānini and Kautilya. The Bhargas
find reference in Mahābhārata and the Pali records. Pānini mentions them as an
independent Janapada or a political nation. Jayaswal has interpreted a Sutra of
Panini reflecting the existence of the bicameral system in some of the republics.

M.P. Singh has stated that Samghas were an intermediate stage between the
collectivism of popular tribal assemblies and fully developed monarchical
state. Aṅguttara Nikāya mentions 16 Mahājanapadas (greater territorial
communities) i.e. Kāśi, Kośala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji or Vṛji, Malla, Chedi,
Vatsa, Kuru, Pañcāla, Matsya, Sūrasena, Aṣmaka, Avanti, Gāndhāra, and
Kambōja. Dīgha Nikāya mentions first 12 Mahājanapadas and omits last four.
(Singh p. 2) Later, four kingdoms of Kośala, Magadha, Vatsa, and Avanti
emerged, out of which Kośala (incorporated the territory of the Śakya clan, to
which Buddha belonged) and Magadha became the main areas of Buddha and
Mahavira. Both were contemporaries of Bimbasāra (of Haryanka dynasty), the
king of Magadha, assassinated by his son Ajātaśatru around 494 BCE, about
seven years before the death of Buddha. Monarchy flourished in three contexts of
Individualism, urbanisation & density of population. From these early state
formations, the first state with growing ideology of Varna and class inequalities
emerged in Magadha under Mahāpadma Nanda. (R.S.Sharma)

Buddha’s ‘Bhikkhu Samgha’ or the ‘Republic of Bhikshus’ adopted the name and
constitution of the political Samghas. To maintain their independence, strengthen
their democratic form of governance and to ensure welfare of a community,
‘seven conditions’ were enlisted, which reflected notable commonality between
the self-governing republics of the Vajjians and the governance of the monastic
community or the ‘Bhikkhu Samghas’ (Jayaswal p. 40-42 & Jayasuriya p.53 ):

(i) Holding regular and frequent meeting of assemblies;

(ii) Meeting together to carry out regular tasks of governance or business
in harmony;
(iii) Enacting or establishing nothing that has not already been prescribed,
abrogate nothing that has already been enacted or established and act
36 in accordance with the existing institutions of Vajjians or rules of
Samgha;
 (iv) Honouring, listening and revering the Elders, the Fathers and the Śramanic
Leaders of Vajjis or the Samgha;
(v) Women and girls not being abducted or brethren not falling under
influence;
(vi) Honouring, revering and supporting Vajjian monuments or delight in
a life of solitude; and
(vii) Following the established practice and systems or train their minds to
prosper.

Jayasuriya has asserted that the self-governing confederacies primarily followed

the normative code of conduct based on human freedom and equality of the ruler
and the ruled. However, the issue of gender equality was raised at the ordination
of women as nuns, where Ananda, the Buddha’s trusted disciple, had to persuade
him and the nuns had to agree to abide by certain additional rules, and finally the
Buddha accepted women as ‘spiritual equals’.

The history of the birth of Buddhist Samghas is a history of the birth of the
Monastic Order in the world. The Buddha preferred a more open society
prevailing in smaller tribal oligarchies (Gana Samgha or clan republics) than the
larger monarchical kingdoms like Kośala and Magadha. The smaller tribal
oligarchies or confederacies, particularly the Vajjian confederacy proved to be a
fertile catchment for the Buddha. According to Ghoshal, the functional and
utilitarian social practice of the Vajjian clan republics, in promoting happiness
and prosperity, were filled with sense of public spirit; pragmatic form of
governance; moral righteousness; respect for elders, women and holy persons;
and receptive to the teachings of the Buddha.

Jayasuria finds similarities between Asoka’s model of governance on the one

hand and the Vajjian constitution, its legislative governance and judicial system
of self-governing confederacies on the other.

2.5.4 Confederation of Republics

The Videhas and the Lichchhavis were united in a league called the Samvajji (or
the Vajjians together). The two Vajji republics were not confined to their own
federation. It is noted that the Lichchhavis formed a federation with their
neighbours, the Mallas. This confederacy existed during the year Mahāvira died.
The Federal Council was composed of eighteen members, including nine
Lechchhakis and nine Mallakis. The members of the Federal Council were called
Gaṅa-Rājās. These eighteen ‘confederate kings’ were placed in the Kāshi-Koshal
area. The federal states had equal members, equal voice and equal votes
reflecting equality in the federation. Even though the Mallas were not as
powerful as Lichchhavis, yet both had equal number of members and equal voice
in the Federal Council.

Supporting Dr. Jacobi’s opinion, Jayaswal has stated that these ‘eighteen
37
confederate kings’ were placed by the Jain Sutra in the Kaśi-Kośala area. At the
 time of death of the Mahāvira, the empire of Kośala was called the Kāśi-Kośala.
Traditions of
It seems that the Federal Council had some political alliance with the Kośala
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political monarchy. The Kośala republics were certainly on bad terms with Magadha. The
Thought Vaiśalians lost battle with Ajātśatru, the Magadha Emperor. It seems that the
leagues were naturally formed to oppose the great powers between whom they
were situated.

2.5.5 Legislative Administration

K.P. Jayaswal is of the view that republics of seventh and sixth centuries B.C.
had long passed the tribal stage of society and could be called “states, Gaṇas and
Saṃghas”. Their administration and judicial business was managed in public
assembly of both, young and old. Their house was called Santhāgāra (Mote
Hall). They were under the suzerainty of the king of Kośala. Their council,
according to Jayaswal, seemed to have 500 members. Even the death of Buddha
was announced by Ānanda in the Santhāgāra of the Mallas. The senior most
member used to be elected as the presiding officer and was given the title of
Rājā, and has been compared by Jayaswal with the Roman Consul or the Greek
Archon, yet, was not associated with kingly sovereignty.

The Jātaka has named the Lichchhavi rulers as Gaṇa-rulers or republican rulers.
Rhys Davids, as quoted by Jayaswal, refers to the Lichchhavi constitution. He has
mentioned three highest officers:

(i) The President (Rājā),

(ii) The Vice-Predsident (Upa- Rājā)
(iii) The Generalissimo (Senāpati).
(iv) The fourth officer mentioned in Jātaka was the Chancellor of the
Exchequer (Bhandāgārika).

These four highest officers composed the executive authority located in the city
of Vaishali, with a system of ‘triple fortification’ for security purposes. The rule
(rajjam) vested in the inhabitants (Vasantānam), who were 7707 in number, all
of them were entitled to rule (rājunam, kings). From among them, the President
(Rājāno), the Vice-Predsident (Upa- Rājāno), Commander-in-Chief (Senāpatino)
and the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Bhandāgārika) were to be selected. It
seems that with formal approval from the assembly, the members of foundation
families or the ruling class used to become the executive office holders. The total
population was around 1,68,000 divided in outer and inner citizens (Vaiśalians).
The consecration (Abhisheka) ceremony of rulers (Gana-rājās) was done in the
presence of assembly members.

2.5.6 Legislative Procedure

There were similarities in the procedure of deliberation in political Samghas and
the Buddhist Samghas. When the Vaiśalians entered their House of Law, the
38
signal (tocsin) used to be sounded. In the House, they discussed not only political Śramanic
and military, but agricultural and commercial issues as well.

Lichchhavi Gaṅa used to appoint a Mahattaka (a distinguished member) as their

envoy (leader), who could deliver a message on behalf of the Lichchhavis of
Vaishali. The Gaṅa, under the leadership of Mahattaka, used to transact business
on behalf of the whole people. The rule of having respect for the high, the middle
ones, the oldest or the elder was not observed. Every member was accorded equal
right of speech and voting; and everyone could aspire to be the next president.

All the members used to be present in the assembly on assigned seats. For the
purpose, a special officer named as Āsana-paññāpaka or Āsana-Prjnāpaka (Seat-
regulator) to designate seats for all members.

The rule of quorum was usually observed. In smaller local societies, it could be
twenty. If any business was transacted without the required number of members
being present, the act was considered as invalid and inoperative. The duty of
gathering the minimum number of members was done by one of the members
named Gaṇa-pūraka or Whip.

Deliberations were initiated with a motion called ñatti or Jñapti (notice). It was
followed by a resolution (Prtijñā) to be adopted by the Samgha. The procedure of
moving the ñatti (Jñapti) once and the Prtijñā once was called ñatti-dutīya or the
“Two- ñatti procedure”. In some cases the resolution was repeated thrice, then it
was called ñatti-chatuttha (the four- ñatti-procedure). Putting the resolution or
Prtijñā to the assembly was called Kammavāchā (Karmavāch). But, if the ñatti
was moved and no Prtijñā was formally put or if the resolution was proclaimed
and no ñatti had been moved, the act was to be treated as invalid. Similarly, as
act requiring a ñatti-chatuttha could not be lawful, if the motion was not moved
for the prescribed number of times. The order of the motion and resolution could
not be altered.

All those who approved of the resolution were expected to remain silent, but
those who opposed were required to speak. If a member did not control in
discussion and showed contradiction and misbehaviour, the ‘Procedure of
Censure’ could be applied. Lawful presence in discussion was further decided
according to the principle of representation, where the members were expected to
represent Dhamma and Vinaya.

To avoid ‘pointless speeches’, the right of deliberation was delegated to a

specifically appointed committee of the House, which can partly be compared
with today’s committee system of the legislative procedure. In the absence of
decision by such a committee, the matter was to be decided as per the Procedure-
of-Majority.

Chhanda (Vote) was an expression of free will and choice used by member.
Voting was not required for unanimous resolutions, but if division of opinion was 39
 required, then Procedure-of-Majority (Bahutara) was observed. The voting was
Traditions of
carried on with the help of coloured voting tickets (Śalākās) or pins (wood) and
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political the voting was called the pin-taking (Śalākāgrahan). A duly appointed impartial
Thought ‘teller’ (Śalākāgrāhaka) was to explain the significance of colours and take the
votes either secretly and openly. Votes of absentees, who owing to some illness
or disability could not attend, were meticulously collected. Its omission was
treated as breach of proceedings. However, such votes were rejected if objected
to by the members.

Clerks or Recorder of the House, from among the members, were appointed to
record minutes of the deliberations and resolutions.

Finally, if the assembly remained silent, it was declared as approved and the
affected party was formally informed about the resolution. Once the matter was
settled, it could not be re-opened.

2.5.7 Judicial Administration

The President was also the highest judicial authority. There could be a Judicial
Minister, who could be an outsider or a paid officer. To ensure liberty of the
citizens, case was to be considered by Senāpati, the Upa-Rājā and the Rājā
separately and without dissent. The decisions of the President, along with the
particulars of crime and punishment, were recorded. The judicial administration
included various layers, for example,

(1) The President was also the highest judicial authority along with the Rājā,
the Upa-Rājā, Senāpati and the judicial minister.

(2) The Court of Final Appeal was called the Ashta-Kulaka (Court of the
Eight).

(3) The judges of the high Court were called Sūtra-dharas or Doctors of Law.

(4) The Court of Appeal was presided over by Vohātrikas (Lawyer Judges).

(5) Preliminary enquiry into the case was held in the court of justices
(Vinichchaya Mahāmāttas). Evidently, these were the regular court for
civil causes and ordinary offences.

This narrative of criminal procedure of Attha-kathā has reflection of the general

procedure of republican system of justice found in Sanskrit literature. For
example, in Mahābhārata, it is suggested that criminal justice in a republic
should be administered by experts. Bhrigusmriti has mentioned Kulika and Kula
as the deciding body. Kātyāyana has used Kula in the sense of jury. Similarly, the
Ashta-Kulaka (Court of the Eight) of Buddhist literature, according to Jayaswal,
may be considered as a judicial council of eight members, instead of
‘representatives of eight clans’, as has been suggested by Rhys Davids.
40
It seems that Buddha himself was well familiar with the working system of Śramanic
republics and adopted the same for the benefit of his own order, the Dhamma-
Samgha, while adopting the republican constitution. The liberal culture of the
Gana Samghas or tribal republics had notable parallel in the monastic community
or the social organization. Jayasuriya opines that this ‘deliberative democratic’
form of governance was supportive to maintain plurality of discourse, and was
similar to the Socratic method of dialogue than the prescriptive dialogue
approach of the Brāhmanic code. Irreconcilable dissent recorded in some of the
Councils of monastic fraternity (e.g. the Third Council during the reign of Asoka)
led to cordial agreement to differ and formation of different sects.

2.5.8 Ethics as the Basis of Politics

As the state grew in size and structural and functional complexities with the rise
of Nandas and Mauryas after Buddha, the concept of the Reason of the State was
gradually theorised. The morality of state was differentiated from the morality of
individual. Chandragupta, the founder of Maurya Dynasty is said to have
embraced Jainism, and Asoka, his grandson, espoused Buddhism and adopted
Dhamma as an instrument of state policy.

Referring to the relationship between moral and political values, V.P. Varma has
mentioned four important Indian schools of thought during the ancient period.
First, in Rāmāyana of Valmiki, the school of Rama advocated a synthesis of
political and ethical values. Secondly, the school of Buddhism attributed
supremacy to moral values. Thirdly, the school of the Bhagvadgītā inculcates the
legitimacy of violence. Fourthly, the Arthaśātra of Kautilya advocated the
subordination of means to ends. V.R. Mehta is of the view that while
Mahābhārata assigned importance to connecting morals with experience in the
establishment of order in the state; Buddhist texts emphasized the absolute value
of non-violence and other moral principles in the governance of society. It did
not recognise the autonomy of public or political morality. Accordingly, a king
not following Dhamma, was declared unrighteous and its impact on nature was
also to be followed in the forms of no rains or no crops etc. Game of deceit and
treachery was treated as a contempt of politics. M.P. Singh has opined that
Asoka’s transformation and emphasis on Dharmavijaya introduced a new feature
in Indian political tradition, where the unity of India came to inhere in culture
rather than direct political domination. Even though Asoka’s Dhamma was
inspired by Buddha’s Dhamma, but it was not exactly a mirror image of the
former. Yet, Romila Thapar underlines the political implications of Asoka’s
policy with the Buddhist ideal of the Cakkavatty (Chakravarty) kingship, a just
and virtuous universal emperor, whose dominions covered the whole of
Jambudvīpa. The ideal kingship was familiar to the Jainas and had antecedents in
epic heroes like Rama and Yudhishthira, who were referred to as Digvijayi and
Dharmarājā. Asoka’s centralized, bureaucratic and monarchical state went
beyond the Ṛgvedic Sabha and Samiti; Janapadas of Mauryan state; and also the
41
 Mahāsammata (the Great Elect) and Mahājanapadas of the Early Buddhist
Traditions of
theory.
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Thought
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Analyze the evolution of political ideas and political system in the
Śramanic tradition.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2.6 LIMITATIONS OF ŚRAMANIC

 Metaphysics and ethics being the central concept of the Śramanic tradition,
identification and acknowledgment of political thought pose some serious
weaknesses.
 Both Jainism and Buddhism could not completely disassociate themselves
from Brāhmanic tradition. While the Brāhmanic tradition accepted the value
of divine grace, it did not disregard the force of Karma, whose consequences
one had to face by one’s own efforts. The Jain principle of many-sided
knowledge was similar to the Vedic principle of ‘Neti’ (this is not) or the
Upanishadic principles of relativity. With the result, Jainism could not
distinguish itself from other practices. Gradually, forms of worship, mantra
and tantra found their way in Jainism. While Jainism appreciated individual
effort, yet it did not completely disregard the intra-cosmic Gods. During the
eighth to twelfth centuries, it developed mantra, tantra and cosmological
views almost similar to the Brahmanic tradition. They laid the foundation for
the vision of conflict between the life of a householder and that of a king and
one consecrated to liberation.
 Some aspects of these doctrine were harsh and one sided, inviting critical
assaults from Shankaracharya. Jainism revised its view, but Buddhism did
not, with the result, it disappeared from the land of its birth.
 Buddhist tradition relied on Dhamma based Vinaya for establishment of
order in society, but in the absence of constitutional checks and safeguards
against the arbitrary exercise of power, Dhamma alone was insufficient
safeguard against a wicked ruler.
 By mid-fifth century, after Buddha’s death, republics collapsed partly
42
due to aggression of the monarchies, and largely due to internal
 disagreements amongst republican nobles and elders. Undisciplined Śramanic
individualism, moral indolence, individual pride and lack of discipline were
the defining features of changing times.

2.7 REACTIONS TOWARDS ŚRAMANIC

TRADITION
 Rejection of hereditary caste system by Śramanic tradition appealed to people
across civilizational boundaries beyond subcontinent, making Buddhism a
universal religion.
 It’s assertion for equality appealed to large section of society and changed
social equations. With Buddhism countering the caste system, Brāhmanism
entered into a new phase by broadening cultic practices, devising public
ceremonies and rituals. With initial spread of Buddhism, Brahmin hold over
low castes got weakened and gradually, Hinduism began to be formulated as
it is practiced today.
 Opposing Buddhism, Shankaracharya led the movement for revival, reform
and unification. With various religious movements, from Jainism and
animism to atheism, coming under the umbrella of Hinduism, Buddhism was
wiped out from the land of its birth.
 The subsequent decline of the Mauryan state finally paved the way for
beginning of the feudal state and Islamic state in the historiography of state in
India.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Highlight major limitations of the Śramanic tradition.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2. Point out various reactions towards the Śramanic tradition.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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43
Traditions of 2.8 LET US SUM UP
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political The origin of Śramanic tradition is mainly associated with Kośala and Magadha,
Thought the main areas of Mahāvira and Buddha. During long evolution, periodization
and historicity of texts; identification and reading of primary texts and secondary
commentaries; non-English vocabulary for political terms are some of the
methodological concerns this tradition encounters. This tradition emerged as a
reaction against and reform of the prevailing Brāhmanic tradition, but could not
escape the influence thereof.

Its fundamental concepts and ideas, articulated by Mahāvira and Buddha and
compiled by their disciples believed in Anicca, Anatta and Dukkha as three
fundamental principles of all existence and the theory of Karma. If Jainism
believed in Triratna of Shraddhā, Jnān; and Sadāchār; Buddhism subscribed to
submission to Buddham, Dhammam and Samgham. While preaching for ‘eight-
fold middle path’, it encouraged Vinaya / Śīla (Ethics) for attainment of Nirvāna
or Enlightenment.

In Buddha’s contemporary times two forms of government existed in the

Gangetic plains in Northern India, Republican and monarchical in competition
with each other. The adopted constitutional procedures were based on
‘democratic’ non-authoritarian style of governance, communal deliberation,
honouring fraternity, cooperation and equality, face to face negotiation, regular
meetings, participatory and accommodating free and frank debate and discussion
among equals, rational enquiry, encouragement to a dispassionate and critical
attitude, majority opinions in decision making, accommodating differences of
opinion and dissent without imposing majoritarian decisions. There reflected a
consensus in collective decision-making arrived at in accord with Constitution of
the Community, code of conduct rules, conventions and form of practice.

Buddhist texts emphasized the absolute value of non-violence and other moral
principles in the governance of society. It did not recognise the autonomy of
public or political morality.

2.9 REFERENCES
 Banyopadhyaya, Narayan Chandra, (1927) Development of Hindu Polity
and Political Theories, Part I, Calcutta, R. Bombay & Co.

 Chakravarti, Uma, 1996, The Social Dimension of Early Buddhism, New

Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.

 Collins, Steven (ed), (2001) Agganna Sutta: An Annotated Translation,

New Delhi: Sahitya Academy, pp. 44-49. S. Collins, (2001) ‘General
Introduction’, in Agganna Sutta: The Discussion on What is Primary (An
Annotated Translation from Pali), Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, pp. 1- 26.
44
 Dialogues of Buddha (Dīgha Nikāya), (1899-1921) Translated by T.W. Śramanic
Rhys Davids, 3 Parts, London, Oxford University Press.

 Ghoshal, Upendra Nath, 1966, A History of Indian Political Ideas, New

York: Oxford University Press.

 Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind, 1994, New Light on Early Buddhism, New

Delhi: Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd.

 ………………………., “The Early Buddhist View of the State”, Journal

of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 89, No.4 (Oct-Dec 1969), pp. 731-
738. Available at <http://www.jstor.org/stable/596944>

 ………………………., (1966) ‘The Early Buddhist View of the State’,

The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. XXVI, (1), pp. 15- 22.

 Jayasurya, L. ‘Budhism, Politics and Statecraft’, International Journal of

Buddhist Thought & Culture, Sep. 2008, Vol. 11, pp.41-74 Available at
ftp.buddhism.org/Publications/.../Voll1_03_Laksiri%20Jayasuriya.pdf,
Accessed: 19.04.2013.

 Jayaswal, K.P., (1967), Hindu Polity, Bangalore: Bangalore Printing &

Publishing Co. Ltd.

 Keith, A.B., (2007), Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and

Upanishads, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

 Law, Narendra Nath, (1921), Aspects of Ancient Indian Polity, Oxford,

Clarendon Press.

 Mehta, V.R., (1996), Foundations of Indian Political Thought, New

Delhi, Manohar.

 Omvedt, Gail, (2001) “The Buddha as a Political Philosopher”, Economic

and Political Weekly, May 26.

 Paul, James, (2003), Development in Early Buddhist concept of

Kamma/Karma, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers

 Sharma, R.S., (1989), Origin of the State in India, D.D. Kosambi

Memorial Lecture, 1987, Bombay, University of Bombay Publication,

 Singh, Mahendra Prasad, (2017), “Dhamma: Buddha’s and Aśoka’s”, in

Himanshu Roy and Mahendra Prasad Singh (eds.) Indian Political
Thought: Themes and Thinkers, Noida, Pearson.

45
  Thapar, Romila, (1997), Aśoka and the Decline of Mauryas, Delhi,
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
Oxford University Press, Revised Edition with New Foreword, pp.144-
Indian Political 50.
Thought
 Varma, V.P., (1974), Studies in Hindu Political Thought and its
Metaphysical Foundations, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Periodization and historicity of texts
 Identification and reading of primary texts
 Issue of non-English vocabulary for political terms
 Absence of complete text on political science

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Belief in the validity of Vedas
 belief in intra-cosmic Gods
 hereditary basis of caste system
 supremacy of Brahmins
 practices of animal and human sacrifices and associated rituals

2. Your answer should highlight following points

 Principles of Existence
 Theory of Karma
 Refuge in Three Jewels
 Madhyam Mārg (Middle Path)
 Ashtānga Mārg (Eight fold path)
 Vinaya / Śīla (Ethics)
 Creation of the Social Order
 Nirvāna (Enlightenment)

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Monastic Governance as a ‘Deliberative Democracy’
 Republics in Buddhist Literature
 Confederation of Republics
46  Legislative Administration
 Legislative Procedure
  Judicial Administration Śramanic
 Ethics as the Basis of Politics

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Identification and acknowledgment of political thought
 Could not completely disassociate themselves from Brāhmanical tradition
 Disappearance of Buddhism from the land of its birth
 Vinaya not an alternative for constitutional checks and safeguards
 Weakness of republics
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Spread of Buddhism beyond Indian subcontinent
 Efforts for modification and reform of Hinduism
 Shankaracharya’s efforts for revival and unification
 Decline of the Mauryan state and beginning of the feudal state and
Islamic state

47
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
UNIT 3 ISLAMIC⁎
Indian Political
Thought
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Methodological Issues
3.3 Comparison with Brahmanic Tradition
3.4 Basic Concepts
3.5 Initial Period of Delhi Sultanate: Ziauddin Barani
Major Characteristics
3.5.1 The Nature of Kingship
3.5.2 Concept of Sovereignty
3.5.3 Concerning Law
3.5.4 Submission to Hierarchical Order
3.5.5 Objective of Sultan to establish Islamic Rule among Non-Islamic
Subjects
3.5.6 Concern for Efficient Administration
3.5.7 Recognition of Individual Rights
3.5.8 Judicial Administration
3.5.9 Commitment to Islam
3.6 The Mughal Period and Abul Fazal
Major Characteristics
3.6.1 Divine Nature of Royal Power
3.6.2 Well-Being of Subjects as the Objective of the State
3.6.3 Religious Harmony
3.6.4 Centralized Monarchical Government
3.6.5 Theory of Kingship
3.6.6 Administrative Reforms
3.6.7 Fourfold Social Classification
3.7 The Colonial Period and Pan-Islamism of Mohammad Iqbal

⁎
Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Associate Professor, Kalindi College, University of Delhi

48
 Major Characteristics Islamic
3.7.1 Khuda, Insan-E-Kamil and Khudi
3.7.2 Objective of Islam
3.7.3 Crystallization of Muslim fraternity
3.7.4 Concept of Nation
3.7.5 Concept of nationalism and Hindu-Muslim unity
3.7.6 Pan-Islamism or Islamic Universalism
3.7.7 Opposition to political ascendancy of the Hindus
3.7.8 Ideological Support to the Idea of Pakistan
3.8 Limitations of Islamic Tradition
3.8.1 During the Initial Period of Delhi Sultanate
3.8.2 During the Mughal Period
3.8.3 During the Colonial Period and Pan-Islamism
3.9 Reactions towards Islamic Tradition
3.10 Let Us Sum Up
3.11 References
3.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarize you with the ideas of Islamic tradition. After
studying this unit, you should be able to understand:

 Scope of Islamic Tradition

 Basic Concepts of Islamic Tradition
 Evolution of Political Ideas and Polity during the initial period of the
Delhi Sultanate, Mughal and colonial periods.
 Limitations of Islamic Tradition
 Reactions against Islamic Tradition

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The political contact of India with Islam began sometimes in the 8th century
A.D., when the Arabs established their control over the province of Sindh.
Thereafter, for a few centuries, this contact remained by and large, dormant and
had no significant expansion. In the 11th century, the Sultan of Ghazni committed
a number of aggressions in the North-Western Frontier area. It was in the 12th
century that the king of Gauri committed two aggressions and laid the
foundations of Muslim rule in India. Thereafter, in 1206 an independent
Sultanate was established in Delhi. The Islamic State continued to flourish from
the 18th century until the advent of the British in India. 49
 The Islamic tradition in India has primarily been the journey of political-Arabic
Traditions of
Islam in India that had three main features: (a) In India, though Muslim monarchs
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political were politically and religiously sovereign, yet were not dictated by the Arabic-
Thought Persian monarchs or the mullahs. Along with the local nobility, the Muslim elite
of the foreign origin (Turks, Persians, Arabs, Uzbeks) constituted only 2-3
percent of the Muslim population; (b) they were contemptuous, but restrained in
their attitude towards the local residents due to the fear of possible local revolts,
who had enjoyed large degree of freedom in their time and space; and (c) the
Indian dalits and the Other Backward Castes (the Arjal and the Ajlaf), who had
converted to Islam, constituted the majority of the Muslim population (95%
approx) and continued with their hereditary castes' role of performing
professional social services in the villages and towns. (Roy)

Political ideas in Islam came partly from the Hebrew Prophets and partly from
the teachings of Prophet Muhammad. The former inspired the concept of one
God as ruler and law giver of the world. The Muslims realized their direct
relationship with this one God through Muhammad. Repeated references to
Aristotle by Barani reflects the influence of Greek philosophers. Muhammad’s
divine mission was fundamentally related to state building that, in turn, inspired
Muslims with the notion of communal solidarity and political legitimacy.
Consequently, the subsequent Islamic political thinking was governed by three
basic principles: (i) the divine law, the Shariat based on Koran, (ii) the historical
traditions of initial years, and (iii) the consensus and solidarity of the Islamic
community. (V.R. Mehta)

The nature of the state and the form of government during the reign of the
Muslims found eminently reflected in the writings of philosophers and historians
like Ziauddin Barani and Abul Fazal. For instance, in the Tarikh-i-Ferozeshahi
and the Fatawa-e-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barani is reflected not only the nature
of the State during the reigns of Alauddin Khilzi and Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq,
but also the traditions of the Islamic State. These works also indicated the
Muslim ruler’s practical policy of carrying together the non-Muslim and the non-
sunni sections of society with an intent for establishment and consolidation of the
Islamic state in India.

The contemporary of Akbar, Abul Fazal depicted the rudiments of new liberal
and humane approach in Ain-I-Akbari, while emphasizing the equality of all men
in their brotherhood; a basic cultural unity in all religions; and not to allow
religious difference to destroy the harmony of society.

A striking diverse prominence of Islamic fraternity was noticed during the

colonial period, e.g. Iqbal, when followers were expected to consider themselves
as a part of one Islamic community irrespective of their territorial abode in any
state, thereby following the concept of Pan-Islamism.

50
3.2 METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES Islamic

Diverse methodologies may be applied to understand and interpret Indo-Islamic

political tradition.

 The Contextual Approach: It is incumbent to understand the context of

ideas and issues: accordingly, it is necessary to realize the initial
establishment of Islamic polity among non-Islamic subjects in Barani;
consolidation of Mughal Empire, political pluralism, religious toleration in
Fazal and amalgamation of Pan-Islamic community in Iqbal.
 The Historical Approach: the historical context of Barani’s or Fazal’s
works can better be understood with reference to their own interactions with
the Sultanate or the Empire and the contacts of their own family members,
specially their father and grandfathers. Evaluation of their ideas in the
present-day context, without being first familiar with their respective
historical contexts, would simply be unfair to them.
 The Philosophical or Normative Approach may be applied to understand
the Koranic philosophic leanings of Indo-Islamic scholars.
 The Analytical and Comparative Approach: This approach offers yet
another option to study Indo-Islamic tradition. To analyse, compare and
contrast ancient, medieval and modern manifestations of Indian political
thought and their compatibility with the Western counterparts presupposes an
analytical and comparative penetration.
 The Conceptual Approach: To analyze the concepts and ideas contained in
the works of Barani, Fazal or Iqbal, one should be fairly conversant with their
respective philosophical, moral, political and social commitments,
assumptions and perceptions.{tc "THE CONCEPTUAL APPROACH \: "}

In short, reliance on any one approach is to be avoided considering the

complementarity of all approaches.

3.3 COMPARISON WITH BRAHMANIC

TRADITION
 In contrast to the Vedantic philosophy, the Muslims consider Koran as the
only and final authority. Before the coming of Islam, the political structure in
India was not based on the philosophy and belief of a single text.
 Instead of one particular scripture, the Brahmanic tradition accepted the
authority of multiple scriptures, which led to wider respect for diversity of
political opinion and institution building in society. Whereas the Islamic
thought believed in the finality of the Shariat, restricting the role of reason
only to the interpretation of one book.
 Both the traditions believed in the necessity of an authority to control the evil
propensities in man. But while the Brahmanic thought separated the political
and cultural realms, the Muslim tradition could not develop any independent
51
organization to promote divine objectives. Whereas the former assigned this
 role to Brahmans, accepting them as an alternative center of power parallel to
Traditions of
the state, in Islamic tradition, the state was considered not only a necessary
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political organ to control man’s aggressive nature, but also a supreme organization to
Thought regulate life.
 Islamic thought emphasized the obligation to and qualities of the just ruler
resulting in the legitimization of the authority of the ruler; whereas the earlier
thought realized the idea of contrast and the existence of critical factor.
However, Barani took the position in common with Kautilya “a good king is
better than a bad king, but a bad king is better than anarchy.” (V.R. Mehta)
 Though the advent of Islam and Christianity led to diversities and
antagonisms, efforts continued to be made to synthesize them with the
original view and to strike a judicious balance between the two. From the
point of view of the State and the principles on which it is based, the
establishment of Islamic, especially the Sultanate and the Mughal systems of
governance provided a new format to the system of governance. For instance,
in the times of Ziauddin Barani, though there was a great divide between the
Muslims and the non-Muslims, internally even between the Sunnis and the
non-Sunni Muslims, it did not materially affect the basic commitment to hold
and carry together the followers of various religions and sects.
 The fundamental conception of a well-governed State, the distinction-
between virtue and vice, just and unjust, right and wrong and the
administration of justice remained, by and large, in accordance with the
ancient Indian traditions. Indo-Islamic political thought, thus, depicted
adaptability to Indian conditions
 Due to the varnashrama system, Brahmanic tradition was deeply concerned
with intra-community relations; whereas the Indo-Islamic texts were more
focused on inter-community relations between the Muslims and Hindus.
 Both the traditions concentrated on the nature of authority and boundaries in
which it was legitimized.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Explain major methodologies to be used to study the Islamic tradition.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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52 …………………………………………………………………………...……
 2. Highlight the major points of comparison with the Brahmanic tradition. Islamic

…………………………………………………………………………...……
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…………………………………………………………………………...……

3.4 BASIC CONCEPTS

In matters of governance, the Muslim elite were influenced by the political ideas
of Islam. Based on two authoritative texts, written during the Muslim rule in
India - Fatwa-i-Jahandari and Ain-i-Akbari - dealing with the nuances of
governance - we can formulate our ideas about the dominant trend of the political
thought of medieval India.

 The most remarkable feature of Indo-Islamic political thought is its

adaptability to the Indian conditions. Muslim rulers in India, in both the
Sultanates and Mughal periods did not pay even a formal obeisance to the
Caliphs in Baghdad. (M.P.Singh, xx) The rulers of six dynasties of the Delhi
Sultanate and the Mughal dynasty adopted a generous approach, with a few
exceptions of the eccentric Muhammad bin Tughluq and Aurangzeb.
 Whereas Fakhe-i-Mudir, the author of Shajara postulated the ‘God-Prophet-
Sultan’ triad, Abul Fazal, the author of Ain-i-Akbari at the court of Akbar was
of the view that there is a direct communication by God to Kings without the
intermediate assistance of any one inspiring loyalty and submission by
people.
 Islamic political thought, during the medieval period, was based on the
premise that sovereignty belongs to God, and the Islamic State was in fact a
vicegerency, with no right to exercise authority except in subordination to
God. Further, that the Shariat (i.e. the law of God enunciated in the Quran
and the Sunnah, the authentic practice of the Prophet), was the supreme law
and everyone from the lowest person to the head of state was governed by it.
 Religious and political powers in Islamic political thought centered on
Prophet Muhammad. After his death, the succession issue resulted in tussle
between Ali, (the son-in-law of the Prophet) and Abu Bakr, Umar and
Uthman, who were accepted by the community. The successful Sunni faction
followed the theory of elected Caliphate rather than chief of the Ulama, the
interpreter of Islamic revelation. Gradually, Umayyad (AD 661-750) and
Abbasid Caliphs (AD 750-1258) turned to be hereditary and created the basis
of authority that partly diverged from the Shariat. (Singh xx)
 The necessary harmony between religion and state, i.e., the close co-
operation of the ruler (sultān) and the Islamic scholars (‘ulamā’), was its 53
 major concern during the early decades of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526). A
Traditions of
visible divide was reflected between Ziauddin Barani on one hand and Seikh
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political Hamadani and Zakhirat ul-Muluk on the other. While the former believed
Thought that the Sultan had a duty to convert Hindus to Islam, the latter advocated that
Hindus were Zimmis or people to be protected if they perform certain duties
such as non-construction of temples, non-rebellion, respect and hospitality to
Muslims, observance of dress and name codes etc. (M.P.Singh xxi) This
approach was later extended as Sulah-i-kul and Abul Fazal’s advocacy of
liberal toleration and political pluralism.
 The emphasis on the establishment and consolidation of the Sultanate got
changed into deeper roots, established linkages, alliances, patronage with
Hindu rulers and subjects during the Mughal Empire. The Mughals retained
their tribal and princely cultural baggage. The failure to conquer the whole
subcontinent, particularly the south and the northeast and the fear of adverse
effect of forced conversions also compelled them to be more compromising
in India. 20th century Indo-Islamic thought inculcated belief in ultimate union
of all Islamic followers, while accepting the racial divergences for purposes
of political reference.
 As Muslim rule continued for a long period, Islamic political thinkers
naturally pondered over topics like the ruler’s share in the spoils of war, the
nature of punishment for corrupt and dishonest officers and the legality of
mutual relations with non-Muslims etc.

3.5 INITIAL PERIOD OF THE DELHI SULTANATE:

ZIAUDDIN BARANI
Major characteristics
 During this period, Islam was finding its roots in India. It was the religion of
the new rulers, while the population was hostile to it. The period also
coincided with ongoing struggle for domination and reaction against various
forms of local religions, especially Brahmanism. Barani was found deeply
involved in these debates.
 There was a marked antipathy in Islam towards local religions. To sustain and
counteract, philosophical support was necessitated. Providing a rational basis
for a just government, Barani provided that support. In addition to Aristotle,
references to various Arabic and Persian writers and statesmen substantiated
his support.
 Islamic writers, particularly Barani, witnessed the founding of so many
sultanates in which religious enthusiasm was combined with messianic zeal.
(V.R. Mehta, 138)
 Exposer to three dynasties’ rule (the Balbans, 1266-90; Khaljis, 1290 – 1320;
and Tughlaqs, 1320-1416) entailed anxiety as each of these changes at Delhi
led to the wholesale overthrow of older elements in the nobility. (Habib 22)
54  Position of monarchy was associated with display of pomp and splendour,
construction of high palaces, holding grand courts, making people offer
 prostration, accumulating treasures, seizing properties and grants of previous Islamic
kings, wearing jewels and silk, imposing punishments and gathering large
harems. (Habib 22)
 Where endeavouring for establishment of an Islamic state in India, Islamic
political thought sanctioned the pre-existing and increasingly un-Islamic
political systems and fundamental moral structures of political life.
 During the initial phase, Islamic rule utilized the existing institutions of
government in its foundation and lower structure, since they had nothing to
substitute it. Association of the Hindus in civil and military departments of
the state made the Muslim rulers realize the new technique of government
that polity and government are one thing and the rules and decrees of cannon
law another, which laid the foundation of the Indo-Islamic state.

3.5.1 The Nature of Kingship

At the head of state was the king, bearing the title of Sultan, indicating the
highest civil and military powers combined in the person, receiving this title.
Traditions of elective kingship since the earliest Khalifas now gave place to
nomination by the dying king or by the nobles and generals. (H.N.Sinha, 313-4)

The king as the representative of God on earth was considered as the source of all
powers and functions of the state. Barani was of the opinion that whatever means
the king adopts to discharge his duties was justified so long as his aim was the
service of religion.

As per the prevailing tradition, the real ruler of the Delhi Sultanate was the
Sultan who was duly elected by the Sunnis and the Millat, and could nominate his
successor before his death. Though, in principle, any Sunni Muslim could contest
for and hold the office of the king, in practice it remained confined to the royal
family.

The Muslim monarchs enjoyed absolute, secular, sovereign political power; it

was indivisible, un-encroached. The mullahs had their own autonomous domain.
The Shariat was applicable only on the Muslims who had accepted it. The fear of
Hindu revolts and the absence of Muslim support haunted the Muslim monarchs.
The absence of a homogenized Muslim block and the sectarian conflicts among
the Muslims affected their situation.

In so far as the political system of the Sultanate was concerned, it was the unitary
form of State in which the Sultan was regarded the real sovereign ruler, the head
of the executive, the interpreter of laws, the supreme judge and the supreme
commander of the armed forces of the State. In this way, the entire executive,
legislative, judicial and military powers were concentrated in him and were
exercised by him. There was, however, an advisory council to advise the king in
day-to- day matters.
55
Traditions of
3.5.2 Concept of Sovereignty
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political Barani’s notion of sovereignty was based on dual principles of (i) combination of
Thought Islamic idea of religion (while considering king as a representation of Khuda; and
(ii) Iranian idea of kingship based on control over territory by power and force
and legitimation of centralization. The secular (a-religious) concept of
sovereignty developed in Kautilya was now replaced with theocratic concept of
sovereignty identified solely with the king and his power. With no trace of
contract or relationship of mutual obligation between ruler and subjects, force
alone was the source of royalty and ruler’s self-interest, custom and religion were
accepted as constraints upon or guides to his action.

The functions of sovereign were primarily associated with (i) enforcement of the
Shariat, (ii) check on immoral and sinful acts and (iii) dispensing of justice
including appointments to various offices. While considering God as the creator
of both good and bad things, the king (Pādshah) was also projected as one of the
wonderful creations of God. Barani believed in royalty representing the
vicegerency of God. (Irfan Habib, 21)

To address unending cycle of change and replacement of ruling groups by new

lower class entrants, Barani proposed a strong dynastic principle, maintenance of
monarchical splendour and religious pretensions. (Habib 29) Instead of command
and obedience, Barani preferred affection and favours as principal instrument of
control. (Alam, 55)

3.5.3 Concerning Law

Implementation of law and obedience to law being the primary concern of a king,
Barani referred to four sources of law: a) the Koran, b) the Hadish (traditions of
prophet), c) the Ijma (opinions and rulings of the majority of Muslim theologians,
and d) Qiyas (speculative method of deduction). To this, he added Zawabit or
state law as an important source of law in administering the state. With the
changing complexion of society and the growing complexities of administration
in addition to the accepted principles of traditional Islamic law, Barani advocated
for Zawabit or the state laws whose foundation was non-religious. State laws
could not be contradictory to the orders of the Shariat and its primary objective
was to regulate the works of various governmental departments and to foster
loyalty.

3.5.4 Submission to Hierarchical Order

Keeping the hierarchical order in place, Islamic kings were to ensure that power
was to be confined to the men of high birth and not the lowly and the ignoble
(Habib, 24-25). Objective was the suppression of the enemies of Islam, including
Hindus and philosophers or rationalists (Habib 26-27). Alam (41) is of the view
56 that Barani’s emphasis on high birth, heredity and class reflects the secular and
non-religious features of his political theory. Political acumen, administrative Islamic
skill and statesmanship are projected as genetic traits.

3.5.5 Objective of Sultan to establish Islamic Rule among

Non-Islamic Subjects
While ensuring coordination and balance of conflicting claims of diverse interest
groups, the ruler was cautioned against faulty and perfunctory politics that leads
to ruination of the country and its people. In Barani's opinion, the king should
devote himself to governance of his state in such a way that helps him in reaching
nearer to God. Welfare of the religion and the state should be the ideal of a good
state. A king should be guided by wise men. According to Barani, a good ruler
cannot be content with levying poll-tax (jizya) and land revenue (kharaj) on non-
Muslims, rather he has to work hard for the supremacy of Islam. Barani permited
the appointment of non-Muslims in state service on grounds of necessity. In the
case of non-Muslim subjects, his idea of justice changed into mercy and
clemency, such as the suggestion to avoid collection of jizya when the crop failed
and to distribute state funds to the non-Muslim needy. He also warned rulers of
shedding blood of innocent Muslims and confiscating their property.

3.5.6 Concern for Efficient Administration

Bureaucracy was required to run the administration. There existed three classes
of nobles including Amirs, Maliks, and Khans in the ascending order. Barani
being an advocate of blue blood aristocracy, talked about the necessity of
hierarchy in administration and pointed out the composition, classification, nature
and relation of bureaucracy with the Sultan and the people of the state. He was
emphatically against the promotion of low-born men. He wrote that the noble
born men in the king's court would bring him honour, but if he would favour low
born men, they would disgrace him in both the worlds. To him, kingship was
based on two pillars of administration and conquest and it was on the army that
both the pillars depend. He also emphasized the king's concern regarding internal
security and foreign relations.

3.5.7 Recognition of Individual Rights

Barani also talked about the recognition of individual rights, i.e. the rights of
wife, children, old servants, slaves, etc. and he considered the recognition of
people's rights as the basis of the state.

3.5.8 Judicial Administration

Barani developed a theory of government for Muslims, while justice and
moderation being his prime concern. To him, without justice, the Koranic laws
were arbitrary decrees and anything against Koran was tyranny. It was a definite
57
 departure from the general tendency in medieval Islamic thought of accepting
Traditions of
autocracy.
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political
Thought
Punishment was considered an essential means to maintain discipline in the state.
Barani refered to various circumstances of the punishments, particularly the death
punishment to be awarded by the king.

Considering that attainment of absolute justice was impossible, Barani followed

Aristotle and suggested the policy of moderation, and allowed king to surpass
Shariat (i) to enforce Islam on infidels, (ii) for protection of his state, and (iii) in
order to give reward to his loyal supporters.

It shows in what ways the original Islamic theory of kingship went through
changes over the years in the Indian context. Barani's vast experience in the
working of the Delhi Sultanate and the prevailing social order got reflected in his
political ideas.

3.5.9 Commitment to Islam

According to the Quranic laws, the foremost duty of the Muslim king was to ban
idol-worship, engage in religious wars and to change the Darul Herb into the
Darul Islam. It was also his duty to seek conversion of Hindus into Muslims and
for this purpose he could use the machinery and money of the State as well.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. What are the significant basic concepts of Islamic tradition?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2. Analyze the major characteristics of initial period of Delhi Sultanate.
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58
3.6 THE MUGHAL PERIOD AND ABUL FAZAL Islamic

Major characteristics
 Mughals, the descendants of Timur, the central Asian ruler, were influenced
by the Persian and the Mongol rulers. By this time, kings were established in
their office, kingship was held sacred and the concept of royalty became a
matter of hereditary succession.
 One of the most valuable text on statecraft explaining the dominant trend of
political ideas during the Mughal rule in India is Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari.
Abul Fazl was one of the most important thinkers of the sixteenth century
India. Being a great scholar having sound knowledge of different fields of
learning in the Muslim and the Hindu traditions, he had contributed in
formulating many of Akbar's political ideas.
 Akbar, as Empire, was not contented with merely the power to implement a
royal version of the Shariat. Hence, Abul Fazl intended to locate the basis of
the State in a species of social contract and the divine-illuminated wisdom of
the mystic tradition. Religious fanaticism was given up. The process of
assimilation gathered momentum. The Hindus accepted some of the elements
of the new faith. The first response was to incorporate some of the elements
of Islam to enable Hinduism to withstand the pressure of Islam. The second
response was in the form of an attempt to create a synthesis.
 Under the Mughals, there was no institution like the council of Minister or
advisors and therefore, the King could not have the benefit of their collective
advice. The king could appoint and remove ministers at will. They could give
him advice but the king was not bound to accept or even consider it. He used
to rely more on the advice of his personal friends, trust-worthy officials and
the prominent Ulemas. All the trusted advisors of the king constituted an
informal group which was called Mazlis-e-Khalwat.
 The king was considered the fountain of Justice and, as such, his obligation
was to have the rules of the Holy Quran faithfully implemented. He was, as
such, the de facto head of this Department while under him the nominal head
was called the Chief Kazi. In the absence of the king, the kazi used to act as
the Chief Justice.

3.6.1 Divine Nature of Royal Power

Though Abul Fazl believed in 'the divine light of royalty', he did not envisage
any role for the intermediaries to communicate the divine order. Royalty was
considered as farr-i-izidi (the divine light) or a light emanating from God and a
ray from the sun. The Ulemas and the Mujtahids, like the Brahmins in Hinduism,
acted as authority and interpreter of customary laws to king. But in Abul Fazl's
formulation, the intermediaries were not required to interpret religious and holy
law and the king himself was expected to judge and interpret holy law.
59
Traditions of
3.6.2 Well-Being of Subjects as the Objective of State
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political The governing principle of the state was the well-being of its people. A true king
Thought was not concerned much about himself and power, rather people's well-being was
his prime concern. To him, an ideal sovereign was like a father, who rules for the
common welfare and was guided by the law of God.

3.6.3 Religious Harmony

Fazal believed that quarrels between Hindus and Muslims were due to (i) their
different interests and perceptions; (ii) diversity of language; (iii)
misapprehension of each other’s motives; (iv) distance between respective
religious leaders and common man; (v) inflexible customs; (vi) lower trace of
wisdom; (vii) arrogance and self-interest resulting in self-righteousness
(V.R.Mehta 147)

The philosophy of co-existence was preferred to the notion of synthesis. While

advocating for ‘absolute peace’ (Sulh-i-kul) and absolute love (Muhabbat-i-kul),
acceptance was for the policy of religious tolerance by promoting religion of God
(Din-i-Ilahi). In the process, the king was to be guided by the principles of
universal good and to fulfill his royal duty, he could go beyond the holy law. This
was a significant shift in matters of governance compared to earlier political
thinking.

3.6.4 Centralized Monarchical Government

Along with strong centralized monarchical government, distribution of works
among various departments was preferred for better governance. It was with the
help of a highly centralized bureaucracy that the Mughal sovereign ruled over the
empire.

3.6.5 Theory of Kingship

Habib also found an appeal to a theory of social contract to justify the necessity
of political authority. As the worldly beings find distinct leader in the king, one
finds duality of religious and secular spheres, which liberates sovereignty from
any dictates of theological doctrine.

Considering royalty as the recipient of the spiritual divine light, the king
(Pādshāh) was presented as ‘perfect man’, the possessor of illumined wisdom
and reflector of the light received. He was expected to acquire his qualities to rule
by prayer and devotion (Mehta); bound by the law of God, regarded as a spiritual
guide to the people; and expected to protect property, life, honour and religion of
world’s people. The wages of protection was to be paid as taxes. (Mehta)

The principles of justice were based on indigenous customary law, while final
60 interpretation being left to the emperor. The pattern of administration was of
division into many levels, each manned by officers of various kinds, including Islamic
mansabdars, nazims, subedars, parganas, sub-divisional officers, jagirdars,
quazis etc., while each of them permitted to approach the ruler directly.

3.6.6 Administrative Reforms

The reforms introduced by Akbar through the abolition of jizya collected from
the non-Muslims or a ban on cow slaughter reflected the spirit of new political
theory articulated in Ain-i-Akbari.

3.6.7 Fourfold Social Classification

Following Hindu thought on one hand and Plato’s ideal state on the other,
fourfold division of society, though with a change in serial order, was found in
Fazal’s writings. First place was assigned to warriors and rulers; second place
was given to learned, scholars, astronomers and philosophers; third place was
accorded to the artisan and merchants; and the last fourth place was allotted to
husbandman and labourers.

3.7 THE COLONIAL PERIOD AND PAN-ISLAMISM

OF MOHAMMAD IQBAL
The colonial period during the 20th century witnessed new upsurge in Indo-
Islamic political thought.

Major characteristics
 Colonial India allowed an unrestricted and consistently legitimate space
to the Muslims and non-Muslims to project their faith and culture.
 The cultural memory of Mughal rule was still fresh and a lot of Indian
Muslims imagined themselves to be descended from a superior ‘ruling
race’.
 The colonial policy of ‘divide and rule’, communal electorate and
communal weightage aroused aspirations among Indian Muslims.
 Section of Muslim scholars was not ready to continue under Hindu
ascendency in Hindu dominated society and polity.
 In search of a separate and greater Muslim identity amongst Indians,
Indian Muslims intellectuals in general, and Iqbal in particular, supported
the idea of Pan-Islamism. Rejecting the territorial concept of nationhood,
they turned to the Muslim world in order to add weight to their demands.
 During pre-independent colonial period, they reinforced the
consciousness of a distinct Muslim identity and also provided the
theoretical basis of the two-nation theory on the basis of religion.

61
Traditions of
3.7.1 Khuda, Insan-E-Kamil and Khudi
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political Believing in an ultimate spiritual reality, God (Khuda) was regarded as the
Thought Supreme Ego, which is a creative infinite spirit and spontaneous intensive energy
that denotes that the element of life is the “organizing principle of unity”, a
synthesis which holds together and focalizes the dispensing dispositions of His
living organism for a constructive purpose. It is omniscient, omnipotent,
everlasting and is consistently manifesting its creative possibilities.

Muhammad was acknowledged as “Insan-E-Kamil” (Super Man), Vicegerent of

God (Niyabat-i-Illahi), “the soul of universe”, “shadow of the greatest name” and
an effective instrument for the execution of the will of God.

Human Ego or Aham was presented as “Khudi”, to be cultivated as Marde-

Momin (Complete Man). Realizing the creative possibilities, the Khudi was
expected to offer a bold fight instead of surrendering in front of divine forces.

3.7.2 Objective of Islam

Advocating for rational interpretation of texts, Iqbal stood for spiritual
emancipation of man and the social evolution of humanity on spiritual lines. He
asserted that the most important objective of Islam is to demolish all the artificial
distinctions of caste, creed, colour and economic status. It implies equality,
freedom and fraternity.

3.7.3 Crystallization of Muslim fraternity

Iqbal projected Millat as the crystallization of Muslim fraternity and said that the
loyalty to the prophet unifies the Millat, which is to operate on the acceptance of
the binding character of laws or the Shariat-e-Islamia.

3.7.4 Concept of Nation

To Iqbal, nation or Kaum was a community of people who have common
language, region, industry and fraternity. He considered Kaum and Kaumiat in
context of Muslim religion, yet, admitted the possibility of Muslims and Non-
Muslims joining one nation. Realizing difference between Kaum and Millat, he
insisted that Kaum is inclusive of groups of such men, women, believers, non-
believers, who have common interests and common inheritance; while Millat
includes religion (Mazhab) and way of life (Shariyat).

3.7.5 Concept of Nationalism and Hindu-Muslim unity

In 1904, Iqbal supported nationalism and Hindu-Muslim unity, through his
widely acclaimed ‘Tarana-e-Hind’, pleaded for genuine heart-unity among the
inhabitants, He wrote: Sare jahan se achha Hindustan hamara….. Maẕhab nahīṉ
62 sikhātā āpas meṉ bair rakhnā, Hindī haiṉ ham, wat̤ an hai Hindositāṉ hamārā.
(Better than the entire world, is our Hind,…Religion does not teach us to bear Islamic
animosity among ourselves, We are of Hind, our homeland is Hindustan)

3.7.6 Pan-Islamism or Islamic Universalism

Iqbal’s philosophy soon transformed from a secular, Hindustan-first to a religion-
first philosophy. In 1910, he wrote the ‘Tarana-e-Milli’ (Song of the
community). The poem, written in the same metric and rhyme scheme as
‘Tarana-e-Hind’, opened with the lines: “Cheen (Cīn)-o-Arab humara,
Hindostan humara; Muslim hain hum, watan hai saara jahaan humara.”
(Central Asia and Arabia are ours, Hindustan is ours. We are Muslims, the whole
world is our homeland). From the principle of Tauhid or unity of Godhead, he
drew implication of a world-unity. This world-unity could be founded not on
tribal loyalties, but on the recognition of the ultimate spiritual basis of all life. To
him, Islam is neither nationalism nor imperialism, but a ‘league of nations’,
which believes in ultimate union, while accepting the racial divergences for
purposes of political reference. Here, instead of nationalism of Indians or Indian
Muslims, Iqbal aspired for nationalism of all the Muslims of whole world.

On 19th September 1933, Iqbal categorically stated that pan-Islamism never

dreamed of a unification of all Moslems into one political culture. He accepted it
as a humanitarian ideal recognizing no racial and nationalistic barriers or
geographical frontiers. A deep acceptance of love for God and loyalty to
Mohammad as the last prophet of God were to provide the bonds of this pan-
Islamic union.

3.7.7 Opposition to Political Ascendancy of the Hindus

Iqbal felt that the slogan of all-India nationalism would, if realized, mean the
political ascendancy of the Hindus. As a staunch Moslem, he would never calmly
accept the domination of the Moslems. Iqbal felt that the concept of nationalism
would introduce separate patriotic feelings in different Moslem countries. It
would loosen the bonds of Islamic fraternity.

3.7.8 Ideological Support to the Idea of Pakistan

V.P. Varma has observed that Iqbal felt that the destiny of the Moslems in India
lay in the formation of a state for themselves. He regarded the Moslems as an
‘All-India minority’ and even called them a nation. He was opposed to a unitary
Indian nation as the plan for domination by the majority.

In the early thirties, Iqbal became an advocate of the ‘consolidated North-West

Indian Moslem State’. This proposal had been put forward before the Nehru
Committee in 1928, but was rejected on the grounds of the unwieldiness of the
new state. Iqbal felt that in a United India there was no future for the Moslems.
Thus, he became one of the most pronounced spokesmen of the civilization of the
63
 Moslems of the North –West India in a specified territory. Thus, Iqbal became a
Traditions of
spiritual and ideological protagonist of Pakistanist separatism.
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Thought
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Analyze the major features of Indo-Islamic traditions during the Mughal period.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2. Analyze the major features of Indo-Islamic traditions during the colonial period.
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3.8 LIMITATIONS OF ISLAMIC TRADITION

Indo-Islamic political tradition, in fact, was a product of the prevailing
circumstances and political compulsions.

3.8.1 During the Initial Period of Delhi Sultanate

 Barani’s assertion for the appointment of persons of noble birth puts
‘governing class theory’ of indigenous Hindu caste system into the Muslim
mould.
 Barani interpreted both religion and politics in terms of aristocratic privileges.
He readily accepted the political reality of the Sultanate period in which
Muslim Upper classes had a predominant influence over the administrative
machine, despite the fact that Muslims as such were in a minority in India.
 Barani’s objective was the establishment and strengthening of the Islamic
State by whatever means necessary and to lay down the ideal code of conduct
for the Sultans.
64
In the conditions prevailing in his times, commitment to the Islamic State and the Islamic
rules of Shariat was his compulsion. In other words, Barani seems to be clearly
committed to traditions of Islam. At the same time, he was also deeply committed
to the notions of State’s creation, stability, security, development and expansion.
Like Kautilya, Barani too has highlighted the personal qualities of the king and
the code of conduct based on such qualities is reflected as a ‘model’ in the entire
Indian Political Tradition.

In conclusion, it may be observed that two things singularly go to the credit of

Barani. First, he was singularly humane, as he “protested vehemently against
torture”. And, second, he was one of the very few Muslim thinkers, writers and
historians, the principal objective of whose political thinking was the Sultan and
not Islam.

3.8.2 During the Mughal Period

 Projection of king as not merely God’s shadow (Zill-i-Ilahi), but as the
possessor of divine-illuminated (Farr-i-izidi) and a ‘perfect man’ makes him
infallible, beyond doubt and dispute, expecting loyalty from one and all.
 In spite of insistence for ‘absolute peace’ (Sulh-i-kul) and absolute love
(Muhabbat-i-kul) and religion of God (Din-i-Ilahi) among diverse religious
communities on one hand and Zawabit or the state laws on the other; support
for Islam and commitment to Shariat remained the very basis of this Indo-
Islamic state.
 In a limited constitutional monarchy like Britain, the seat is considered as the
center of power, with ultimate control vested with democratic rule; whereas
in Fazl’s Akbarnama, the absolute monarch emerges as the power center with
ultimate control over all political, administrative, social, economic and
religious spheres.
 Despite submission to religious freedom and diversity of opinion, nature of
Fazal’s state can still be stated to be as a limited religious autocratic rule; as
there was a complete absence of any means or institutions to delimit the ruler
under checks and control.

3.8.3 During the Colonial Period and Pan-Islamism

 Advocacy for spiritual or divine democracy and support for Islamic
theocracy, 20th century Indo-Islamic tradition, led by Iqbal, did not sanction
political democracy and sovereignty of the people. Western democracies
were condemned as imperialistic.
 The emphasis on Koran as the final authority and Shariat as the ultimate law
introduced exaggerated degree of theological revivalism in Iqbal’s thought. In
the garb of the sanctity of Shariat, a call was made for ‘Run away from
democracy and be the slave of the Perfect Man’ (V.P.Varma, 452).
 Realizing the necessity of the liberal interpretation and reconstruction of old
thought, Iqbal failed to realize the enormous significance of the sovereignty 65
 of the people and its ideal possibilities for shaping the political destiny of
Traditions of
man.
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political  Iqbal was trying to ride two horses. As a Moslem, he wanted to accept the
Thought basic theological tenets of the Koran; and as philosopher, he submitted to an
absolute organic idealism. The concept of individuality could not be clearly
defined. As a Muslem theologian, supremacy of the Millat and the Shariat
was accepted; and as a philosopher individuality of Khudi was acclaimed. As
a result, neither the claims, rights and potentialities of the ‘ego’ the
individual-self could be asserted; nor clear ontological status of the finite ego
could be provided. This philosophical confusion entailed political confusion.
 However, in the speech at the Lahore session of the Muslim League in 1930,
Iqbal emerged as the spiritual father of the Pakistan ideology.

3.9 REACTIONS TOWARDS ISLAMIC TRADITION

There were reactions from the people like Kabir, Tukaram, Narsi Mehta, Shankar
Dev, Lal Dedh, from the Hindu tradition; while Nizamuddin Auliya, Moinuddin
Chishti, Tajuddin Baba Auliya Ajan Pir, Nooruddin Noorani (also known as
Nund Rishi) representing Sufi tradition and Satya Pir, Ramdev Baba Pir,
reflecting a mixed lineage, where Bhakti and Sufi themselves are deeply
intertwined.

Bhakti tradition: Saints of Bhakti tradition proved to be most formidable

bridge between Hinduism and Islam by harmonizing the orthogenetic and
heterogenetic elements of the distinct faith systems of the two religions. The
saints like Kabir tried to ridicule the orthodoxies of both religions.

The Bhakti saints came from different streams of society, particularly low caste.
Bhakti opposed the institutionalisation of religion, tried to decentralize it, and
declared that religion is a private matter. The Bhakti traditions gave respectability
to many low castes, posing a challenge to the upper caste hegemony; this
tradition had an inclusive approach towards Muslims as well. Also, they talked of
one God. In India, in particular, Hindu-Muslim unity has been a principal
concern expressed by many of the saints from this tradition.

The Syncretic Tradition: The real syncretic tradition was introduced by the
proponents of the Bhakti tradition, who sought to promote eclectic faiths and
defuse religious orthodoxy among the followers of Hinduism and Islam. In the
long run, the coming together of people of heterogeneous religious background to
the fold of the Saints created a syncretic space where the exclusivity of a
particular religion got immensely reduced.

Sikhism: Sant Guru Nanak did try a conscious mixing of the two major religions
of India. He traveled up to Makkah to learn the wisdom of Islam and went to
Kashi to unravel the spiritual moral aspects of Hinduism.
66
Check Your Progress Exercise 4 Islamic

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.

ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Highlight the major limitations of Islamic tradition.
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2. Highlights major reactions towards Islamic tradition.
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3.10 LET US SUM UP

The nature of State and the form of government during the reign of the Muslims
found eminently reflected in the writings of philosophers and historians like
Ziauddin Barani (during the initial period of establishment of Delhi Sultanate),
Abul Fazal (Mughal Period) and Muhammad Iqbal (colonial period).

Diverse methodologies may be applied to understand and interpret Indo-Islamic

political tradition. Reliance on any one approach is to be avoided considering the
complementarity of all approaches.

Major trends of Indo-Islamic political thought displayed a rupture with and

continuity of ancient Indian traditions. Muslim conquests brought alien tradition
of political ideas and institutions developed in West Asia. With a noted absence
of social and cultural hegemony, indigenous traditions reflected a tendency of
adaptation of alien ideas & institutions to the Indian conditions.

There is general consensus in Islamic tradition concerning sovereignty belonging

to God, concurrence for the head of state, harmony between religion and state,
issues concerning spoils of war, the nature of punishment and relations with non-
Muslims and co-operation between the ruler and Islamic scholars. 67
 Initial period of Delhi sultanate reflected Islam as the religion of the new rulers,
Traditions of
while the population was hostile to it. While endeavouring for establishment of
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political an Islamic state in India, Islamic political thought sanctioned the pre-existing and
Thought increasingly un-Islamic political systems and fundamental moral structures of
political life. The king as the representative of God on earth was considered as
the source of all powers and functions of the state. Notion of sovereignty was
based on dual principles of (i) combination of Islamic idea of religion (while
considering king as a representation of Khuda); and (ii) Iranian idea of kingship
based on control over territory by power and force and legitimation of
centralization. Keeping the hierarchical order in place, Islamic kings were to
ensure that power was to be confined to the men of high birth.

During the Mughal period, royalty was considered as the divine light. There was
clear preference for centralized monarchical form of government. The principles
of justice were based on indigenous customary law, while final interpretation
being left to the emperor. The pattern of administration was of division into
many levels. The governing principle of the state was the well-being of its
people. Fourfold division of society, though with a change in serial order was
admitted. Instead of synthesis, the preference was for the philosophy of co-
existence of diverse communities.

Colonial India allowed an unrestricted and consistently legitimate space to the

Muslims and non-Muslims to project their faith and culture. Section of Muslim
scholars were nor ready to continue under Hindu ascendency in a Hindu
dominated society and polity. In search of a separate and greater Muslim identity
amongst Indians, Indian Muslim intellectuals in general, and Iqbal in particular,
supported the idea of Pan-Islamism. Rejecting the territorial concept
of nationhood, they turned to the Muslim world in order to add weight to their
demands. During the pre-independent colonial period, they reinforced the
consciousness of a distinct Muslim identity and also provided the theoretical
basis of the two-nation theory on the basis of religion.

Each phase of Indo-Islamic thought had its own peculiar characteristics and
limitations and was encountered with reactions from non-Islamic indigenous
communities, at time subtle and otherwise blatant. Efforts were also made to
defuse religious orthodoxy and create a syncretic space.

3.11 REFERENCES
 Aziz, Ahmad, (1962) “Trends in the Political Thought of Medieval
Muslim India”, Studia Islamica, No.17, Larose, Maisonneue & Amp. pp.
127-30.

 B. R. Nanda, (1989) Gandhi, Pan-Islamism, Imperialism and

Nationalism, Oxford, OUP.

68
 Engineer, Ashgar Ali, (1980) “Iqbal’z Reconstruction of Religious Islamic
Thought in Islam”, Social Scientist, Volume 8, No.8, pp52-63.

 Gordon-Polonsakaya, L.R., (1971) “Ideology of Muslim Nationalism”,

Hafiz Malik (ed.), Iqbal: Poet Philosopher of Pakistan, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.

 Habib, Mohammad and Salim Khan, A.U., The Political Theory of Delhi
Sultanate (including Fatawa-i-Jahandari) trans. by Afsar Begum,
Allahabad, Kitab Mahal, n.d.

 Habibullah, A.B.M., (1976) The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India,

Allahabad, Central Book Depot.

 H.N.Sinha, (1962) “The Development of Indian Polity”, Bombay, Asia

Publishing House.

 Ikram, S.M., Muslim Civilisation in India, New York, Columbia, 1964.

 Irfan Habib, (1998) “Two Indian Theorists of the State: Barani and Abul
Fazl”, Indian History Congress, Patiala.

 --------------, (1995) Essays in Indian History, New Delhi, Tulika

Publications.

 --------------, (1980) “Barani’s Theory of the History of the Delhi

Sultanate”, Indian Historical Review, Vol. VII, No.1-2, July 1980 – Jan
1981.

 Madni, Maulana Husain Ahmed, (2005) Composite Nationalism and

Islam, Delhi, Manohar.

 Muzaffar Alam, (2004), “Shari’a, Akhlaq and Governance”, The Political

Languages of Islam in India c 1200-1800, Delhi, Permanent Black.

 Rizvi, A.A.A., (1975) Religion and Intellectual History of the Muslim in

Akbar’s Reign, New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal.

 Rushbrook, Willium, (1918) An Empire Building of the Sixteen Century,

London.

 Sarka, J.N., (1984) Mughal Polity, Delhi, Aidara-e-Adbiat-e-Delhi.

 Singh, M.P. (2017) “Introduction”, Himanshu Roy and Mahendra Pratap

Singh (eds.) Indian Political Thought: Themes and Thinkers, Noida,
Pearson, pp. xi-xxix.

69
  V.P.Varma, (1996) Modern Indian Political Thought, Agra, Lakshmi
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
Narain Agarwal.
Indian Political
Thought  V.R.Mehta, (1992) Foundations of Indian Political Thought, Delhi,
Manohar

3.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 The Contextual Approach
 The Historical Approach
 The Philosophical or Normative Approach
 The Analytical and Comparative Approach
 The Conceptual Approach

2. Your answer should highlight following points

 Final authority of single text & authority of multiple scriptures
 Restricted the role of reason & diversity of opinion
 State as only regulator & separate the political and cultural realms
 Loyalty towards just ruler & existence of critical factor
 Islam provided a new format to the system of governance
 Indo-Islamic political thought depicted adaptability to Indian conditions
 Inter-community relations & intra-community relations
 Concentrated on the nature of authority and boundaries

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Adaptability to Indian conditions
 Relationship between God and King
 Sovereignty of God and Shariat
 From elected Caliphate to hereditary authority
 Relationship between religion and state
 Issues concerning war, punishment and the legality of mutual relations

2. Your answer should highlight following points

General characteristics

 The Nature of Kingship

 Concept of Sovereignty
70
 Submission to Hierarchical Order
  Objective of Sultan to establish Islamic Rule among Non-Islamic Subjects Islamic
 Concern for Efficient Administration
 Recognition of Individual Rights
 Judicial Administration
 Commitment to Islam

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Divine Nature of Royal Power
 Well-Being of Subjects as the Objective of State
 Religious Harmony
 Centralized Monarchical Government
 Theory of Kingship
 Administrative Reforms
 Fourfold Social Classification

2. Your answer should highlight following points

 Khuda, Insan-E-Kamil and Khudi
 Objective of Islam
 Crystallization of Muslim fraternity
 Concept of Nation
 Concept of nationalism and Hindu-Muslim unity
 Pan-Islamism or Islamic Universalism
 Opposition to political ascendancy of the Hindus
 Ideological Support to the Idea of Pakistan

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 During Initial Period of Delhi Sultanate
 During Mughal Period
 During Colonial Period and Pan-Islamism
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Bhakti tradition
 The Syncretic Tradition
 Sikhism

71
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial UNIT 4 BHAKTI⁎
Indian Political
Thought
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Reaction towards Evils in the Hindu Society
4.1.2 Challenge from Other Religions
4.1.3 Influence of Sufism
4.2 Enriched Diversity of Bhakti Tradition
4.2.1 Bhakti Tradition in South
4.2.1.1 Earliest Advaita (Monotheistic) Reformer Saint - Adi
Shankaracharya
4.2.1.2 Alwars – The Vaishnavite Saints
4.2.1.3 Nayanars – The Saivite Saints
4.2.2 Bhakti Movement in the North
4.2.2.1 Nirgun Tradition
4.2.2.2 Sagun Bhakti
4.2.2.3 In Bengal
4.2.2.4 In Maharashtra
4.2.2.5 Dvaita (Dualist) Tradition
4.2.2.6 Sikhism and Guru Nanak
4.3 Evolution of Socio- Political Ideas and Polity
4.3.1 Reflection of Individualism
4.3.2 Religious Reforms and Rejection of Rituals
4.3.3 Reaction against Caste Structure
4.3.4 Focus on Classes
4.3.5 Critical of the Zamindari System
4.3.6 Universal Humanism
4.3.7 Absence of Critique of Patriarchy
4.3.8 Liberal Religious Policies adopted

⁎
Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Associate Professor, Kalindi College, University of Delhi

72
 4.3.9 Promotion of Regional Languages Bhakti
4.4 Means of Reforms: Bhakti, Service, Critique and Resistance
4.4.1 Bhakti as a Means of Reformation
4.4.2 Mutual Social Service
4.4.3 Resistance against Revenue Administration and Surplus
Extraction
4.4.4 Critique of Polity and Reflection of Civil Society
4.4.5 Passive Resistance as Means of Socio-Religious Reforms
4.5 Limitations of Bhakti Tradition
4.6 Impact of Bhakti Tradition
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 References
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the ideas of Bhakti tradition. After
studying this unit, you should be able to understand:
 Scope of Bhakti Tradition
 Enriched Diversity of Bhakti Tradition
 Evolution of Socio- Political Ideas and Polity
 Means of Reforms
 Limitations of Bhakti Tradition
 Impact of Bhakti Tradition

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Bhakti is an age-old concept. Right from the time of the compilation of the
Vedas, the word Bhakti has come into vogue. In Rig Veda Samhita,
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chhandyoga Upanishad, Katha and Kausitaki
Upanishad, the word Bhakti has been referred to several times. The Bhakti Yoga
of Shrimad Bhagavad Gita is more descriptive on this point. It prescribes Gnana
(knowledge), Karma (action) and Bhakti (devotion) as the three essential features
to shatter the bondage of material world and to serve the Almighty God. Thus,
Bhakti is one of the three recognized means of achieving salvation
The movement started in the 9th century A.D. by Shankaracharya which
continued up to 16th century A.D. by a number of Hindu devotees, preachers and
religious reformers.

4.1.1 Reaction towards Evils in the Hindu Society

The genesis of the Bhakti movement lies in the social evils prevalent in the then
Hindu society. During the time of Muslim rule in India, the Hindu society was 73
Traditions of full of many social anomalies like rigidity of caste system, irrelevant rituals and
the Pre-Colonial
religious practices, blind faiths and social dogmas. The society also suffered from
Indian Political
Thought polytheism, segregation, severe economic disparity due to casteism,
untouchability etc.
The religion itself was monopolized by the Brahmans who at times led a
degenerated and corrupt moral life. Common men in general had developed an
averse attitude towards these social evils and were in need of a liberal form of
religion where they could identify themselves with simple religious practices.
Therefore, popular dissatisfaction against the existing social religious evils was a
major catalyst behind the spread of Bhakti movement all over India for a long
period of time.

4.1.2 Challenge from Other Religions

The Muslims first arrived in India in the 8th century AD. Subsequently, by the
beginning of the 13th century AD, they began to rule, Islam became the religion
of the ruling community. This religion had its own individual characteristics like
universal brotherhood, equality of all in the society, absence of any caste system
or untouchability, opposition to idol worship and above all, practice of
monotheism or oneness of God.
Among all these, absolute monotheism or equality of all men greatly appealed to
the Hindus, especially the Shudras who were the worst sufferers and had no
religious freedom. These Islamic ideas threw a powerful challenge to the existing
corrupt aspects of Hinduism and the accompanying social evils.
After living together for generations and continuous interaction between the
people of two communities, there grew a feeling of magnanimity and generosity
among the Hindus and Muslims. Both consciously and unconsciously, the ideals
of Islam produced a benevolent effect upon the minds of a section of Hindus and
fostered the growth of a liberal attitude. There was an absolute need to change the
existing system as well as bring radical changes in the fabric of Hindu beliefs.
Bhakti Tradition tried purging off some of its evil practices, particularly, those
related to caste and idol worship.

4.1.3 Influence of Sufism

The influence of Sufism cannot be set aside from the origin of Bhakti movement
in India. Sufism is an old religious sect of Islam. It is a reform movement within
the Islamic religion, which started in Persia. It came to India towards the
beginning of the 13th century A.D. and with the rise of Muslim power, Sufism
became more popular.
Prominent Sufists like Hazrat Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, Hazrat Khwaja
Nizamuddin Auliya and Naseeruddin Chirag fostered a spirit of reconciliation
among the Hindus and Muslims in medieval society. The Hindu saints of India
were influenced by the liberal approach of Sufism.
The high philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads were very complicated for the
74
common people. They wanted a simple way of worship, simple religious
practices and simple social customs. The paths of Gnana and Karma were Bhakti
difficult for them to practise in day to day life. So the next alternative was Bhakti
marga—a simple way of devotion to get salvation from worldly life.
The Bhakti movement received its impetus from the presence of iconoclastic
Muslim preachers, who emphasized the unity of God, vehemently criticized the
Hindu religion and thought and attempted to convert Hindus to their religion. As
a consequence Bhakti movement presented a Hindu response to the egalitarian
message of Islam and its spread among the lower classes of Hindu society.
Also, they talked of one God. In India, in particular, Hindu-Muslim unity has
been a principal concern expressed by many of the saints from this tradition. In
fact, the bhakti movement gave to the people a simple religion, without
complicated rituals.

4.2 ENRICHED DIVERSITY OF BHAKTI

TRADITION
The Bhakti movement started in the South in response to the conquest of northern
India by Muslim rulers. The earliest reformer-saint in South was Adi
Shankaracharya. The movement was carried forward by twelve Southern
Vaishnavite Alwar (Azhwars) saints and sixty three Saivite Nayanar saints of the
South. In course of time the saints of Northern India got themselves involved in
this Bhakti movement. The chief exponents of the movement were Shankara,
Ramanuja, Kabir, Nanak, Shri Chaitanya, Mirabai, Ramananda, Namdev,
Nimbarka, Madhava, Eknath, Surdas, Tulsidas, Tukaram, Vallabhacharya and
Chandidas.

4.2.1 Bhakti Tradition in South

From 8th century A.D. to 15th century A.D. this movement gathered its
momentum in the south. Both Vaishnavite and Saivite saints included
‘untouchables’ like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They were sharply critical of the
Buddhists and Jains and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to
salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam
literature (the earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during the early
centuries of the Common Era) and blended them with the values of bhakti.
4.2.1.1 Earliest Advaita (Monotheistic) Reformer Saint – Adi
Shankaracharya
In the 9th century, on the solid foundation of Vedantic (Upanishadic) philosophy;
ancient Indian cultural tradition; to check the growth of Buddhism and Jainism;
and with the doctrine of Advaita (Monism) and Nirgunabrahma (God without
attributes); Shankaracharya started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new
orientation to Hinduism.
Shankarcharya believed that ultimately the only reality was the Sachidanand
Brahman, the impersonal world, soul of the Upanishads with which the
75
Traditions of individual soul was identical. He was convinced that god and the created world
the Pre-Colonial
was one and the evident difference is due to ignorance.
Indian Political
Thought He recognised the ascetic order of sanyasis on the pattern of Buddhist sangha and
launched a campaign for the popularisation of Hinduism. Highlighting the
cultural unity of India, Shankaracharya founded the mathas, at four corners of the
subcontinent, Jaganathpuri in the east, Sringeri in the South, Dwarka in the west
and Badrinath in the north.
4.2.1.2 Alwars – The Vaishnavite Saints
The Bhakti tradition was carried forward by twelve Alwar (Azhwars) vaishnavite
saints, cutting across all barriers of caste and class, represented all walks of life
and all strata of society and included one woman in their ranks. The best known
being Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar.
The Alvars composed approximately 4000 Tamil verses. Between the fifth and
ninth century, in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, these saints
revitalized the Indian religious milieu, sparking a renewal of devotional worship
throughout the subcontinent.
In the 9th-10th centuries, the philosopher-saint Nathamuni recovered these verses
from near oblivion, arranged them as the Divya Prabandham (Divine Collection),
and set many of them to music, and rejuvenated the tradition of formally reciting
them in temples.
4.2.1.3 Nayanars – The Saivite Saints
From seventh to ninth centuries, sixty three Saivite Nayanar saints made further
advances in the Bhakti tradition in south India. It is important to note that these
devotees came from very different background (caste, economic background,
such as potters, “untouchable” workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas
and chiefs), stages of life (single, married or sanyasi) and included both male and
female ones. Some were learned scholars, while others did not have any formal
schooling. The unifying factor was their extreme devotion to Lord Shiva, through
which the bliss of His grace. The best known among them were Appar,
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar.

4.2.2 Bhakti Movement in the North

During the Sultanate period (13th- 15th century), there arose many popular socio-
religious movements in North and East India, and Maharashtra. Emphasis on
bhakti and religious equality were two common features of these movements.
The bhakti movements of medieval India differed in many significant respects
not only from the older South Indian bhakti tradition, but also among themselves.
The Turkish conquest paved the way for the growth of nonconformist
movements, with anti-caste and anti- Brahmanical ideology. The non-conformist
sect of the Nathpanthis was perhaps the first to gain from the declining power of
the Rajput-Brahman alliance. Elements of revolutionary opposition to feudalism,
without any advocacy for the overthrow of the ruling class, can be found in the
76
poetry of the bhakti saints like Kabir, Nanak, Raidas etc. They used images of
daily life and always tried to identify themselves in one way or another with the Bhakti
sufferings of the common people.
4.2.2.1 Nirgun Tradition
Most of the monotheists belonged to the low castes and were aware that there
existed a unity in their ideas. They were also aware of each other’s teachings and
influence and in their verses they mention each other and their predecessors in a
manner suggesting ideological affinity among them. All of them were influenced
by the Vaishnava concept of Bhakti, the Nathpanthi movement and Sufism,
reflecting a synthesis of these three traditions and projecting a nirguna
orientation. They refused any formal association with the organized dominant
religions of the time (Hinduism and Islam) and criticized what they regarded to
be the negative aspects of these religions.
Kabir was the earliest and undoubtedly the most powerful fibre of the Nirguna
tradition or the monotheistic movements. He belonged to a family of weavers
(Julaha who were indigenous converts to Islam, spent greater part of his life in
Banaras (Kashi). He rejected the varnashrama and all conventions based on caste
distinction and championed new values, helping the emergence of new groups
and new unorthodox/protestant sects. His poems were included in the Sikh
scripture, the Adi Granth. Among those who were influenced by Kabir were
Raidas, who was a tanner by caste from Banaras, Guru Nanak who was a Khatri
from Punjab and Dhanna who was a Jat peasant from Rajasthan.
4.2.2.2 Sagun Bhakti
In 12th century, Ramanuja coined Vishishtadvaita combining Sankara’s
Advaitavada with the Vaishnava Pancharatna theology, which claimed that
Vishnu is the very foundation of the universe. The impact of Ramanuja’s writings
and his long service as priest of the famous Vishnu temple at Srinangam made
his ideas widely known among the Vaishnavites and made him regarded as the
founder of Srivaishnavism.
In the 14th and early 15th centuries Ramananda emerged as a link between the
South Indian bhakti and North Indian Vaishnava bhakti traditions and considered
Ram, not Vishnu, as the object of bhakti. Like the monotheist bhakti saints, he
also rejected caste hierarchies and preached in the local languages in his attempt
to popularize the cult.
In the early 16 century Vallabacharya, a popular bhakti saint popularized the
Krishna bhakti. Among those who followed Vallabacharya’s footsteps were
Surdas and Mira Bai. Surdas popularized Krishna cult in north India. Mirabai
was a great devotee of Krishna and she became popular in Rajasthan for her
bhajans.
Tulsidas, a worshipper of Rama and composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the
Hindi version of Ramayana, upheld the caste system and the supremacy of the
Brahmins. He preached religion of surrender and simple faith in a personal god
and had a strong commitment to idol worship. 77
Traditions of 4.2.2.3 In Bengal
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political The Vaishnava bhakti movement in Bengal was very different from its
Thought counterparts in north India and the south and was influenced by the Vaishnava
bhakti tradition of the Bhagavatapurana and the Sahajiya Buddhist and
Nathpanthi traditions. These traditions focused on esoteric and emotional aspects
of devotion.
In the 12th century, Jayadeva was an important bhakti saint in this tradition. He
highlighted the mystical dimension of love with reference to Krishna and Radha.
Chaitanya was another popular bhakti saint from the region; he was looked upon
as an Avatara (incarnation) of Krishna. Though, he did not question the authority
of the Brahmans and the scriptures. He also popularized the Sankirtan (group
devotional songs accompanied with ecstatic dancing). With him the bhakti
movement in Bengal began to develop into a reform movement with the notions
of caste divisions that came to be questioned.
4.2.2.4 In Maharashtra
the bhakti movement drew its inspiration from the Bhagavatapurana and the Siva
Nathpanthis. Jnaneswar was a pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra. His
commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called Jnanesvari served as a foundation of
the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. Arguing against caste distinctions, he
believed that the only way to attain God was through Bhakti. Vithoba was the
God of this sect and its followers performed a pilgrimage to the temple twice a
year. The Vithoba of Pandarpur became the mainstay of the movement in
Maharashtra.
Namdev (1270–1350) was another important bhakti saint from Maharashtra.
While he is remembered in the north Indian monotheistic tradition as a nirguna
saint, in Maharashtra he is considered to be part of the Varkari tradition (the
Vaishnava devotional tradition). Some of the other important bhakti saints of
Maharashtra included Choka, Sonara, Tukaram and Eknath. Tukaram’s teachings
are in the form of the Avangas (dohas), which constitute the Gatha, while
Eknath’s teachings that were in Marathi attempted to shift the emphasis of
Marathi literature from spiritual to narrative compositions.
4.2.2.5 Dvaita (Dualist) Tradition
The 13th century recorded the school of Dvaita (Dualism of Jivatma and
Parmatma) led by Madhava (c. 1199–1278), who maintained that Vishnu is the
supreme God, thus identifying the Brahman, or absolute reality, of the
Upanishads with a personal god, as Ramanuja (c. 1050–1137) had done before
him. In Madhva’s system, there are three eternal, ontological orders of God, soul,
and inanimate nature. God is the epitome of all perfections and possesses a non-
material body; which consists of saccidananda (being, spirit, and bliss); who
would not have created the world by splitting himself nor would have changed
himself into an imperfect world. The countless dependent individual souls exist
completely by the grace of God; in their actions they are totally subject to God.
78
The individual souls are depicted as reflections, images or shadows of the divine,
but are never in any way identical with the divine. Moksha (liberation), therefore, Bhakti
is described as the realization that all finite reality is essentially dependent on the
Supreme. Just as souls, the innumerable inanimate substances too go into the
creative apparatus of the universe.
Thus, the soul (Jiva), who is at the centre in the triple categories of God-soul-
inanimate world, becomes involved in the meshes of Samsara or bondage, if he
leans towards one side; and if he leans towards another side, he becomes
liberated. Mukti or liberation, instead of any cessation of the world itself, means
release from the bondage of the world, with continuous existence of the world.
4.2.2.6 Sikhism and Guru Nanak
Founded in 15th century, Sikhism presented an outstanding example of religious
synthesis. Their text Sri Guru Granth Sahib includes the names of a host of
celebrities from various religions and incorporates the sayings of Hari, Ram,
Govind, Gopal, Prabhu, Parabrahrna, Murari, Narayan, Damodar, Vithal,
Madhusudan, Narasingh, Mohan, Goverdhandhari and Allah, in addition to the
devotional hymns from Kabir, Namdev, Sheikh Farid, Jaydev, Surdas and other
saintly persons belonging to different religions and religious sects. As an
upholder of secular philosophy, Guru Nanak is usually revered and
acknowledged "by the Hindus as the teacher and by the Muslims as the saint". To
him, Mandir or Mosque, Puja or Namaz, Puran or Quran had no difference.
Subscribing to monotheism, he believed in an all-pervading spirit as Fearless,
Timeless and Formless one God. He underlined the notions of God as
Sat (Reality), Chit (knowledge) and Anand (Bliss), divine unity of God and
man, and the divine equality of man and man.
His philosophy consists of three basic elements: a leading charismatic personality
(the Guru), ideology (Shabad) and Organization (Sangat). He preached the
importance of congregation called Saad Sangat (communion of good people) and
advocated the virtue of love, devotion and humility. In place of the closed and
restrictive system of Varnas and Ashramas, he subscribed the universal code of
life and conduct as (i) Kirt karo (work), (ii) Nam Japo (worship), and (iii) Vand
Chako (charity). He, thus, underlined the gospel of Kar Seva, i.e., the selfless
voluntary service of the community and the world at large.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Illustrate the scope of Bhakti Tradition.
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Traditions of …………………………………………………………………………...……
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political …………………………………………………………………………...……
Thought
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2. Explain the enriched diversity of Bhakti tradition.
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4.3 EVOLUTION OF SOCIO-POLITICAL IDEAS

AND POLITY
The political ideas of saints needs to be placed in the hegemonic culture and
ideology of elite, of its state structure, taxation, technology, caste, class religion,
gender dominance and protest movements of the subaltern in different forms. It
also coincided with rising trade that facilitated with opportunities for vertical-
horizontal mobility of social groups and individuals. The elite, in general, reacted
against this upward mobility of subaltern, who, infact, was critical of this feudal
reaction and day-to-day discrimination.

4.3.1 Reflection of Individualism

The striking individualism in Bhakti tradition can be seen in the refusal of the
collective authority of both the major traditions of the day, Brahmanic Hinduism
and Islam. Linda Hess has appreciated these saints for their assertions in
solitariness, vigour, fearlessness and iconoclasm. They challenged the elitist
authorities and inspired common man to be self-reliant, strong, fearless and
reactive against all varieties of exploitation, humiliation, differentiation and
touch-me-notism.

4.3.2 Religious Reforms and Rejection of Rituals

The entire Bhakti tradition rejected rituals vociferously, harshly questioning and
condemning the practices of both ‘Turks’ and ‘Hindus’. Pilgrimage, worshipping,
chanting, fasting, holy dips – all were rejected while emphasising the vision of a
full life within the world.
The Nirgun followers believed that the divine is found within the individual and
not in any place. However, there are various versions of the internalized divine.
With traditional Brahmanism, which favoured an advaitic philosophy, this meant
80 an identification of the internal Atman with the universal Brahman; self and
universe are ultimately the same. With Yogic tradition, this meant the Bhakti
identification of the self with Siva in a way that sought Jivan-Mukti, immortality
of body and magic powers. Saints like Kabir rejected Advaitic identification,
insisting “if you can’t see what’s before your eyes, you’re as good as blind.”
(Omvedt, 101)

4.3.3 Reaction against Caste Structure

Bhakti tradition meant rejection of social hierarchy. It was subversion against
structural dominance, in cultural form, by an ordinary subject. Most of bhakti
saints surpassed the caste system and focused on the classes. A critique of past
cultural, religious and ritualistic legacies were fostered as ‘god created’ by the
elite for dominance. Here, Bhakti was an alternative and a method of protest and
escape against the existing social order. The consciousness and other worldliness
were infact fused with each other. Anti-caste attitude came from being a
subaltern, a man of people. The most vigorous denunciation was of hierarchy of
caste and the pride of Brahmans.

4.3.4 Focus on Classes

The upcoming traders, shopkeepers and the mercantile classes were breaking the
old cultural moorings and structure through their trade by linking towns and
villages to each other, providing opportunities of social mobility and bringing
new ideas and technology. The trade had the tendency to create a monetized
economy and the potential to react against old caste based hierarchical order. It
altogether acknowledged the alteration in the feudal/pre-capitalist order, enabling
the emerging new social forces to create a new bourgeois social order. The
monetized economy was initiated due to the collection of revenue in cash or due
to production for market effecting society in different forms.

4.3.5 Critical of the Zamindari System

Most of Bhakti saints were critical of the Zamindari system, which upheld the
traditional structure of pre-capitalist social formation. Both, Hindus and Muslims
were part of the elite structure and nurtured this system. At the same time, both
Hindus and Muslims were poor and comprised subalterneity despite their
religious differences. Religious victimization by the elite did happen, but the
economic position of the victims pulled them back to their class. Since majority
of the population was rural and involved with agriculture and were the subject of
surplus extraction. Hence, the subaltern voice, like Kabir, reflected on their social
and political condition.

4.3.6 Universal Humanism

Bhakti movement promoted development of language and generated a new
cultural movement reflecting universal humanism. The dominant class composed
of big traders, shopkeepers, financers, administrative personnel, priestly section
etc. were mobile and created limited civil society with individual freedom. The
imprint of the trade was visible in individual freedom within the framework of 81
pre-capitalist social formation. It was reflective through refutation of economic
Traditions of and cultural exploitation in the verses of saints like Kabir. Their reflection of
the Pre-Colonial
consciousness and rebellious ideas were based on a universal society without any
Indian Political
Thought economic and primordial differentiation. Aiming at the betterment of the poor
and discriminated, these bhakts represented these subaltern. It was a rationale and
humane society, reflecting sovereignty of citizens and equality among them,
which would translate into freedom of all.
The utopia was to be erected through bhakti, i.e. through collective participation
of people in decision making and social construction, which necessitated a break
off from the prevalent socio-economic divisions. It reflected the freedom of
religious expression on equality without any religious divide and internal
hierarchical order. It manifested into syncretism of ideas and secularisation of
Bhakt personified by most of saints.

4.3.7 Absence of Critique of Patriarchy

In general, this tradition was uncritical of patriarchy, and there was a complete
absence of gender equality. At best, there was a glorification of ideal wife within
patriarchal values, while recognising the woman’s labour within the households.
It is noteworthy that Basava of 12th Century Karnataka, preached gender equality
by arguing that since Atman is one in both man and woman, they are equal.
The 15th Century feudal-patriarchal society treated women’s labour within
private/public domain as inconsequential, least important and with no premium.
However, the recognition of work of wife in the private domain was an anti-dote
to the feudal-patriarchal values and by itself, revolutionary for the said period.

4.3.8 Liberal Religious Policies adopted

Bhakti Movement gave birth to different cultures, practices, philosophical and
religious traditions and ideas; resulting in religious tolerance along with
appreciation of the difference between thought and practices. Some of the rulers
adopted liberal religious policies under the impact of the Bhakti movement.

4.3.9 Promotion of Regional Languages

In place of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian, the Bhakti saints preached through the
medium of local languages which could be understood very easily. For instance,
the language of Kabir was a mixture of several languages of everyday use.
Surdas used ‘Brij’ dialect. Goswami Tulsi Das composed his works in ‘Awadhi’.
Literary organizations, literary expressions and folk tales were part of public
discourse. In general, these were not regulated by the state or elite. Their social
composition was inclusive of persons from different religions and castes.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
82
 1. Write a critical appraisal of evolution of socio-political ideas in Bhakti Bhakti
tradition.
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4.4 MEANS OF REFORMS: BHAKTI, SERVICE,

CRITIQUE AND RESISTANCE
Bhakti saints emphasized surrender to god. As rebels, many of them chose to
defy the currents of their time through their writings. Hailing from both the high
and low castes, they created a formidable body of literature that firmly
established itself in the popular canon. Tukaram, a Shudra by caste, defying the
injunctions of the Brahmins, chose to write on religious matters, and that too in
Marathi, the language of the people.

4.4.1 Bhakti as a Means of Reformation

The impact of the Bhakti movement in India was similar to that of the Protestant
Reformation of Christianity in Europe. It evoked shared religiosity, direct
emotional and intellection of the divine, and the pursuit of spiritual ideas without
the overhead of institutional superstructures. It initiated a movement of protest
against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to
reform the system.

4.4.2 Mutual Social Service

While asserting for Ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living beings, social
equality, harmony and social assimilation, Bhakti saints introduced new forms of
voluntary social giving such as seva (service, for example, to a temple
or gurukul or community construction), daana (charity), and community kitchens
with free shared food. The vegetarian ‘Guru ka langar’ introduced by Guru
Nanak became a well-established institution of community kitchen. Bhakti
temples and Matha (Hindu monasteries) of India adopted social functions such as
relief to victims after natural disaster, helping the poor and marginal farmers,
providing community labour, feeding houses for the poor, free hostels for poor
children and promoting folk culture.

83
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
4.4.3 Resistance against Revenue Administration and
Indian Political Surplus Extraction
Thought
Cultural hegemony and dominance by coercive state apparatus were two major
methods of extraction. Both were countered in different forms with different
intensity. While the first method was acceptable with minimum resistance, the
second method was resisted subtly. The latter, the resistance against taxation/rent
collection was starkly visible in everyday existence in diverse ingenious forms
devised by subjects. (Himanshu, 97)
The writers of this period were increasingly raising issues of efficient
administration and better governance, criticizing rulers, nobility and officials for
lacking imagination, initiative and willingness to improve the affairs of the state.
It was a pluralistic cultural space where multiple and contrastive public
intersected, emerged and collapsed on a regular basis. The subaltern gained in the
long run, but it was not always homogenous and uniform. Many times, it was
rapid, at times it was piecemeal. Yet, it always found methods of protest against
the state and elite. Despite many attempts by the elite to regulate and influence
their ideas, the subaltern maintained substantive degree of ideological autonomy.
This primary contradiction of classes is notably expressed by Kabir. His critical
observation of society, functioning of state and its clergy, and its linkages with
the elite, property relations and social divisions denote his critique of the revenue
administration, cited as under:
गाऊँ कु ठाकुर खेत कुनापे , काइथ खरच न पोर ।
जोरर जेवरर खेतत पसारे , सब तिति िोकोों िारे हो राि ।
खोटोों िहतो तवकट बिातह, तसरकस दि का पारे ।
बुरो तदवान दादी नतहों िागे , इतक बाों धौ इक िारे हो राि ।

4.4.4 Critique of Polity and Reflection of Civil Society

Bhakti tradition offered a critique of the existing polity and reflected the
existence of substantive degree of civil society in pre-capitalist India. Here, civil
society may be considered as a sphere of social relations between the individual
and the state, whose autonomy is guaranteed by law and the presence of
corporate institutions. In medieval India, the common people did participate in
political opinion. Festivals and prayers were public spheres, accessible to all,
used by subaltern to resist the elite. It was also a space of individual freedom
guaranteed within social relations. In many towns and cities, there were
recognized places meant for public speeches. For example, Holi satires and the
Friday prayers were used to propagate their views on specific issues to mobilize
people against the elite. Three elements of ‘normative discourse’ – law
(authority), rationality (common sense wisdom) and tradition (sanctity) – were
used in support of their arguments. (Himanshu, 98)

84
The critique of revenue and judicial administration reflect the oppression of the Bhakti
poor by the state and its linkages with the elite. Invocation of God for protection
reflects the situation of helplessness for them.

4.4.5 Passive Resistance as Means of Socio-Religious

Reforms
The confidence of these saints freed them from the subjugation, in terms of ideas,
and transcended them from religious caste identity. It was a transformation to be
a rebel, to be a vanguard in different forms for the service of society.
It was a paradigmatic shift in social, ideological, constructive and reformative
positioning; interrogating social hierarchy and hegemonic order in every form.
Critical of the state, elite, and clergy; effort was made to suggest political
alternatives by way of an ideal village society without any sorrow, private
property, taxes, monarchy, or social hierarchy. In the pre-capital social formation,
these saints posed a radical challenge to the social and political order during their
time and in the centuries that followed them.
Unlike open rebellion, it was a protest in usual form of everyday life. Though,
non-institutional and unorganised, it managed to transcend regional, linguistic
and caste boundaries through unscrupulous community like singers, musicians,
listeners, vairagis, sadhus and householders, and underwent many changes in
regional dialects.
During the national movement, Gandhi while supporting the path of self-
sufferings, inspired his Satyagrahis to avoid violence and counter attack. Similar
was the assertion of the saints of Bhakti tradition by inspiring self-sacrifice. In
the words of Kabir:
कबीर खडा बाजार िें, तिये िुकाठी हाथ,
जो घर फों के आपना, चिे हिारे साथ ।

Those prepared for self-suffering were invited to follow the path, considering his
path being appropriate only for courageous and not for cowards. He said:
प्रेि ना खेती नतपजे , प्रेि न हाट तबकाय,
राजा परजा तजस रुचें , तसर दे , सो िे जाए। ……
भगती दु हेिी राि की, नतहों कायर का काि,
सीस उतारे हाथी करर, सो िेसी हरर नाि।

It was a critique of an order of overlapping or fused religious, political and

personal spheres. The assertion for freedom to be heretics; criticism of existing
order; and search for social alternatives was frowned upon by the elite. If
persisted, it was dealt with coercively. Denouncing dishonesty, delusion,
surrender, or escapism; the message was for ultimatum, struggle, fearlessness and
self-sacrifice, projecting these saints as precursor of means of “passive 85
Traditions of resistance” followed during initial phase of the national movement, a few
the Pre-Colonial
centuries later. As is exemplified from Kabir’s sayings, such as:
Indian Political
Thought कबीर िरर िैदान िें, करी इों तियाों सों झझ;
or
सरा झझे तगदद सों , इस तदतस सर न होई,

कबीर योों तबन सररिाों , भिा न कतहतस कोई।

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Discuss various means of reformation adopted by the Bhakti Tradition.
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4.5 LIMITATIONS OF BHAKTI TRADITION

 Metaphysics being the central concept of the Bhakti tradition,
identification and acknowledgment of political thought pose some
serious weaknesses.
 Absence of any systematic methodology poses challenges for readers and
researchers.
 Identification of primary texts and classical secondary commentaries of
political purport and relevance
 Issue of reading the texts in their appropriate historical and cultural
contexts
 Issue of non-English vocabulary for political terms pose yet another
limitation
 Expecting ethical merit from verbal ablutions had its own limitations.

4.6 IMPACT OF BHAKTI TRADITION

M.G. Ranade, in his book, The Rise of Maratha Power, sums up the deep impact
86
of this spiritual awakening.
 “The main results of Bhakti movement were the development of Bhakti
vernacular literature, modification of caste exclusiveness, sanctification of
family life, elevation of status of women, preaching of humaneness and
tolerance, partial reconciliation with Islam, subordination of rites and
ceremonies, pilgrimages, fasts etc., learning and contemplation to worship
God with love and faith, the limitation of excess of polytheism and the
uplift of the nation to a higher level of capacity, both of thought and
action.”
 The Bhakti exponents raised their powerful voice against different types
of immoral acts like infanticide and sati and encouraged prohibition of
wine, tobacco and toddy. Adultery and sodomy were also discouraged.
They aimed to set up a good social order upholding high moral values.
 Another remarkable impact was bringing about a unity among the Hindu
and Muslim communities. The movement tried to reduce the growing
bitterness between the two and bridge the gap. The saints of Bhakti
movement and the Sufi saints spread message of friendship, amity,
tolerance, peace and equality among all.
 The method of worship and belief in God took a new turn during the
movement. Henceforth, importance was given to devotion and love for
God who is the God of all-God of both Hindus as well as Muslims. Bhakti
or devotion for the Almighty was the central theme of this movement.
 The spirit of tolerance, harmony and mutual respect which was
inaugurated by the Bhakti saints had another everlasting impact – the
emergence of a new cult of worship by both Hindus and Muslims. It is
known as the cult of Satyapir. It started under the initiative of King
Husain Shah of Jaunpur which later paved the way for the spirit of
liberalism adopted by Akbar.
 The Bhakti movement promoted the growth of vernacular language and
literature in different parts of the country. Kabir, Nanak and Chaitanya
preached in their respective vernacular tongues – Kabir in Hindi, Nanak
in Gurmukhi and Chaitanya in Bengali. So subsequent Bhakti literatures
were compiled in these languages and many Muslim writers also
translated Sanskrit works into regional languages.
 In Orissa, a new trend was started in Oriya literature due to the Bhakti
movement and medieval Vaishnavism of Shri Chaitanya. Five writers of
repute – Achyuta, Balaram, Jagannath, Yasobanta and Ananta – heralded
the age of Panchasakha literature, known for its socio-religious
exposition of Bhakti.
 During medieval period, birth oriented casteism and
compartmentalization of society was countered by Sufis and Saints on
one hand and Sikhism, on the other.
 The reformative and modification based assertions of Bhakti tradition
were carried forward by reformers like Rammohun Roy, Vivekananda, 87
Traditions of Dayananda Saraswati etc. in the nineteenth century and also in twentieth
the Pre-Colonial
century by leaders of depressed classes namely Jotirao Phule, Dr. Bhim
Indian Political
Thought Rao Amdebkar, etc.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Highlights the major limitations of the Bhakti Tradition.
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2. Point out the impact of the Bhakti tradition.
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4.7 LET US SUM UP

The Bhakti movement aimed at the purification of Hindu religion and liberation
of the people from the monopoly and injustices of the priestly classes. The Bhakti
saints came from different streams of society, particularly low caste. Bhakti
opposed the institutionalisation of religion, tried to decentralise it, and considered
religion as a private matter. The Bhakti traditions gave respectability to low
castes, posing a challenge to the upper caste hegemony. This tradition had an
inclusive approach towards Muslims as well.
The Bhakti tradition opposed the rituals, hegemony of the elite of society. They
adopted the languages more popular with the masses. Preaching in regional
languages, the saints provided impetus for the development of regional languages
such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
The proponents of Bhakti tradition introduced syncretic tradition in India and
sought to promote eclectic faiths and defuse religious orthodoxy among the
followers of Hinduism and Islam. They proved to be a most formidable bridge
88 between Hinduism and Islam by harmonizing the orthogenetic and heterogenetic
elements of the distinct faith systems of the two religions. The saints like Kabir Bhakti
tried to ridicule the orthodoxies of both religions.
Bhakti tradition represented the organic, subaltern intellect of radial intent.
Sovereignty of monarch was rejected. There was noteworthy refusal to accept the
king as an incarnation of god. A constant endeavour was visible to subvert the
authority of the elite and of his culture that prompted dominance. On their part,
saints proclaimed universal categories and monotheistic praxis. They were
assertive against exploitation, injustice, and hierarchy, challenging the
ideological dominance of the elite. They exposed the property relations and its
dominance.
For the oppressed, this tradition was inclusive in spirit representing the
alternative political ideas of their age. They demonstrated indigenous modernity
of their age that was rooted in subalternity. While breaking away from the
traditions, defiance was witnessed. It challenged the established social political
order and was anti-authority and subversive. It offered an alternative politics
through the composite narratives that laid the ideological base for the future acts
of resistance against dominance.

4.8 REFERENCES
 Bahuguna, R.P., (2003), “Symbols of Resistance”, in Bismoy Pati, (eds.),
negotiating India’s Past, Tulika Books.
 Himanshu Roy, (2017), “Political Ideas of Kabir”, in Himanshu Rou &
Mahendra Pratap Singh (eds.), Indian Political Thought: Themes and
Thinkers, Noida, Pearson.
 Omvedt, Gail, (2008), Seeking Begumpura: The Social Vision of Anti-
caste Intellectual, Delhi: Navayana.
 Singh, Sukhdev & Hess, Linda, (2002), “Introduction”, in The Bijak of
Kabir, Oxford University Press, pp 03-35.
 Lorenzen, David, (ed.), (2004), Religious Movements in South Asia: 600 -
1800, Oxford University Press.
 Rajkishore (ed.), (2001), Kabir ki Khoj, New Delhi, Vaani Prakashan.
 Mehta, V.R., (1992), in Foundations of Indian Political Thought, Delhi:
Manohar, pp. 88- 109.

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Reaction towards Evils in the Hindu Society
 Challenge from Other Religions 89
 Influence of Sufism
Traditions of 2. Your answer should highlight following points
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political  Bhakti Tradition in South
Thought  Earliest Advaita (Monotheistic) Reformer Saint - Adi
Shankaracharya
 Alwars – The Vaishnavite Saints
 Nayanars – The Saivite Saints
 Bhakti Movement in the North
 Nirgun Tradition
 Sagun Bhakti
 In Bengal
 In Maharashtra
 Dvaita (Dualist) Tradition
 Sikhism and Guru Nanak

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Reflection of Individualism
 Religious Reforms and Rejection of Rituals
 Reaction against Caste Structure
 Focus on Classes
 Critical of the Zamindari System
 Universal Humanism
 Absence of Critique of Patriarchy
 Liberal Religious Policies adopted
 Promotion of Regional Languages

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Bhakti as a Means of Reformation
 Mutual Social Service
 Resistance against Revenue Administration and Surplus Extraction
 Critique of Polity and Reflection of Civil Society
 Passive Resistance as Means of Socio-Religious Reforms

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight reactions from the following
 Metaphysics as central concept
 Methodological challenges
 Identification of primary texts
 appropriate historical and cultural contexts
 non-English vocabulary
90  verbal ablutions
2. Your answer should highlight reactions from the following Bhakti

 Development of vernacular literature,

 Modification of caste exclusiveness,
 Sanctification of family life,
 Preaching of humaneness and tolerance,
 Partial reconciliation with Islam,
 Subordination of rites and ceremonies, pilgrimages, fasts etc.,
 Learning and contemplation to worship god with love and faith,
 The limitation of excess of polytheism

91
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political
Thought

92
 Bhakti

BLOCK II

Political Concerns and Key

Ideas

93
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial BLOCK II INTRODUCTION
Indian Political
Thought
This block deals with political concerns and key ideas through focusing on
individual thinkers. Unit 5 is titled Ved Vyasa: Rajdharma (Shantiparva). The
Shantiparva of Mahabharata is a discourse on statecraft conveyed by Bhisma to
Yudhishthira and largely describes the functions, duties of a good king, both
during normal times and during period of emergency, finally signifying the
importance of welfare state. Manu’s views on Social Order and Laws are covered
in Unit 6. Manusmriti, or ‘The Laws of Manu’, is considered to be one of the
most authoritative texts in the Brahmanic tradition which lays out social and civil
laws and codes of conduct which are necessary for the maintenance of dharma.
Unit 7 is titled Kautilya - State and Duties of Kingship while Unit 8 deals with
Kautilya’s Mandala theory. Kautilya is father of Indian political science;
however, his works have not been given due importance and analysis not only in
India but outside India as well. Long before the West witnessed separation of
state and church under modernity in 16th century, Kautilya had already advocated
independent status of polity away from religion. His saptanga theory is a
systematic and coherent theory of state power which was unmatched even by
Machiavelli. He may not have advocated democracy but Kautilya said that
welfare of the people was central to stability and security of a kingdom. Interstate
relations and foreign policy find a prominent place in Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
He has tried to explain the dynamics of interstate relations through his Mandala
theory. Kautilya can be easily considered as the pre-modern founding father of
theory of Political Realism later expressed by Machiavelli and Morgenthau. Unit
9 is titled Digha Nikaya - The Idea of Chakravartin. Digha Nikaya is collection of
the dialogues, mostly of Buddha himself, as they appear to his earliest disciples
in a series of one hundred and eighty six discourses which, according to Rhys
Davids, will occupy a place in the history of human thought similar to the
Dialogues of Plato. Buddhist theory of kingship implied that state power would
not only be used for punishing, taming or controlling society, but also more
positively to create a new just moral social order. Zia–Ul–Barani’s views on
Royal Authority and Just Rule have been highlighted in Unit 10. His ideas have
been considered significant in understanding medieval polity and other strands of
thinking that existed in that period of history. Barani represented and championed
the idea of political expediency in Islamic history which he has conveyed to the
ruler by way of his nasihats (advices). Unit 11 deals with Abul Fazal’s
Monarchical Authority and Popular Well-being. There was predominance of
intellectual elements in his writings and an unfailing appeal to reason against
religious and cultural traditions. His interpretation of history was integrally
linked to the political, social, economic and religious realities of that period and
strove to address the plurality and diversity of Indian society at large that Akbar
wished to rule in the best possible manner. Unit 12 is titled Akka Mahadevi:
Critique of Social Order. She was a woman saint from Medieval India who
claimed like many other ‘enlightened’ people of her time and age (in India) that
differences like those of sex/gender, good fortune, wealth or caste (jaati) didn’t
94
matter in the quest for the ‘Knowledge of ultimate reality’. The last unit 13
discusses Kabir’s ideas on Religious Boundaries and the Quest for Social Bhakti
Harmony. The universal and transcendental nature of Kabir’s influence is
highlighted by the fact that his legacy is equally claimed by people of different
faiths. He advocated a direct relationship with God through love and devotion
and his ideas cannot be bracketed that easily within one religion or sect.

95
Traditions of
the Pre-Colonial
Indian Political
Thought

96
 Ved Vyasa
UNIT 5 VEDA VYASA RAJDHARAMA Rajdharma
(Shantiparva)
(SHANTIPARVA)*
Structure
5.0 Objective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Vyas and Mahabharata
5.3 Origin of State
5.4 Kinship
5.5 Government
5.6 Justice and Dandaneeti
5.7 Inter –State Relations
5.8 Let Us Sum Up
5.9 References
5.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

5.0 OBJECTIVES
The epic Mahabharata is full of political advice that a person requires in his life.
It supports real-world approach. People commonly figure out this epic to say that
pure idealism does not work in real life. Even if somebody look at real political
advice, The Mahabharata is not very far from realist thinkers like Sun Tzu and
Machiavelli. It has real-world strategies. It emphases on political power and
military conquest. Lord Krishna essentially justifies use of plans in national
interest and inevitability of war in times of crises. A number of political
strategies, policies and approaches emerge from The Mahabharata. Our
politicians, leaders, ministers, officers, policy makers and Indians at large can
remain Indian in spirit and succeed at diplomacy and other fronts of authority.
The question is from where we draw our inspiration. A simple reference makes
us at comfort and confident.
 To understand the relevance of Mahabharata in Historical, Political
and Cultural Aspect.
 To identify the political thought in Mahabharata and comparison with
the modern political theories.

*
Dr Pramod Kumar, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Politics and International Studies,
Pondicherry University

97
Political Concerns  Mahabharata represented as cultural education transmitting
and Key Ideas
knowledge from one generation to other generation.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
There is always a question comes to our mind that our great epics are having any
relevance in political thought? The answer is certainly yes. Mahabharata is a
great epic, which is not only a historical text but also it, is a text for educators.
Researchers have an opinion that Mahabharata has been used to educate by one
generation to other generation as a knowledge system. It is a philosophical text,
which shows the multiple viewpoints about the society, human relations, and
politics. It treats human beings as a multilayered being.
The Shantiparva of Mahabharata, a discourse on statecraft conveyed by Bhisma
to Yudhishthira, largely describes the functions, duties of a good king, both
during normal times and a during period of emergency, finally signifying the
importance of a welfare state. In the ancient time when "law was the command
of the sovereign" and citizens had to obey the orders of the king. Does the
Shantiparva contain principles on the lines of sarvajana sukhino bhavantu?
Kingship in ancient India characterized as 'benevolent, patriarchal autocracy
bound down by many instructions of service to the people. The duties of King
considered a servant of the people. It expected that the king devote his life to the
service and welfare of the people of his state. He was expected to assume
different roles in accordance with the situations, such as abolishing the enemies,
imposing punishments upon the wicked, giving rewards upon the good, sacking
offenders etc. All duties of the king should be performed according to the
provisions of dharma, which are to be respected in every possibility, not by the
king but also by his public. The Shantiparva definitely maintains, "The king
should involve all the public in their respective duties and instruct them to
perform their allocated functions according to dharma". The Mahabharata, like
Kautilya's Saptanga theory believes in the seven elements of the state-Raja,
Mantri, Kosa(Treasury), Danda(Militory), Mitra(Friend), Rashtra and Nagar. The
head of the state, council of ministers, treasury, punishment, allies etc were as
important in ancient times as today.

5.2 VYAS AND MAHABHARATA

The Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Smirities represent ancient Indian Political
Thought. The political ideas found in the great epics Mahabharata is very
complex and comprehensive. Vyasa, the author is a mythical figure of uncertain
identity. Vyasa means arranger or compiler. Though various authors of ancient
time are so designated, the term is used especially as a title of the compiler of
Vedas, who has also been the author of Mahabharata. Just as we find the series
of fourteen different Manus, so the Puranas tell of twenty-eight Vyasas who
compiled wisdom in different periods. The arranger of Mahabharata is Krishna
Dwapayan Vyasa and it is between the decedents of his two sons Dhritrastra and
98 Pandu, that the Mahabharata was contested.
Mahabharata is a historical Text, some of the noted historians as DD Koshambi Ved Vyasa
consider Mahabharata to be a historical text. It is a longest epic that has also Rajdharma
(Shantiparva)
been used for educating the general public for their day to day life. It is a
compilation of existing knowledge that was available at that period of time.
Mahabharata is important in the point of view of politics, because it discuss
broadly in ancient Indian Political thought. The Shantiparva and the
Rajdharmanusasana chapters which present a man-made and systematic view of
the political thought of ancient India. In the Shantiparva of Mahabharta
Dandniti, Rajdharma, Shasanpadhiti, Mantri Parishada and Kar-Vyavstha is
discussing more about Duties of king and government system, different organs of
the government and so on. Shantiparva establishes the principles of origin of
monarchy-Rajtantra, and it is in the Shantiparva of Mahabharata that we come
across the political thought of Bhishma, which forms the subject-matter of this
chapter. Bhishma's discourses in the Shantiparva as his most convincing
description of Rajadharma. Yudhishthira at the end of the Great War asked Vyasa
about the duties of kings as well as those of the four varna’s. The sage referred
him to the well-informed and great intellectual Bhismhma, who was well versed
in all the duties. Rajdharma, as given by Yudhishthira interpreting the basic ideas
of Bhishma. Just as the rising sun scatters unholy darkness, so does the
Rajdharma destroy all evil significances in this world. Shantiparva consists of
365 chapters and 13,716 numbers of Verses, and it further divided into three sub-
parvas:
(i) Rajadharmanushasana Parva: This part describes the duties of the king and
his governance.
(ii) Apaddharmaanushasana Parva: This part describes the rules of conduct
when one faces emergency.
(iii) Mokshadharma Parva: This Parva describes the behavior and rules to
achieve moksha or salvation.

5.3 THE ORIGIN OF STATE

The origin of state, which is a major aspect of politics, has been defined in the
Vana parva in Mahabharata. The Shantiparva clarifies that in the state of nature,
the institution of state did not exist. There was no kingly office and the people
there had sense of thine and mine. The point towards the fact that the absence of
the ruler coincided with the absence of private property. Nearly all classical
works and anthropological evidence make us determine that there was a golden
age of harmony and happiness when people led happy and peaceful lives. This
harmonious and happy life was destroyed by the discovery of the art of
agriculture, which empowered people to produce more than they could consume.
For the first time, they established houses, stored rice, and divided the fields with
boundaries naming them as individual properties, but people began to snatch
away the rice of others without their consent. This led to a search for some
authority to protect their fields and properties.
99
Political Concerns Shantiparva speculates at one place that people went in search of a king in order
and Key Ideas
to protect their property, family and Varna’s. They were also prepared to give
him a certain share of their own property. Under such circumstances, Manu,
finally accepted kinship to protect property, family and Varnas. From the 67th
chapter of Shantiparva, we come to know that there was a contract of people to
get rid of sinfulness. Shantiparva also explores the origin of the state on the
grounds that when sinfulness prevails in the world, men cannot own and enjoy
their own wives, animals, fields and houses. Shantiparva states that in the
absence of the king, inter-mixture of castes would take place. Further,
Shantiparva also stated that Dharma is meant to aid the acquisition and
preservation of wealth - if Adharma increases, it causes confusion among the
varnas. Therefore, it is believed that the king's preservation of Dharma signified
nothing but the defense of the social order based on family, property and the
caste system. We can see the conditions existing in the state of nature, the
necessity to uphold Dharma, protection of property, family and Varna system by
the King.
This might have resulted in the creation of the state. From the above there are
two points that come out clearly – (i) First, in the Shantiparva, we find the origin
of the state or kinship, (ii) second, two theories of origin of state have been given
- (i) the divine origin theory and (ii) the social contract theory. When Manu
became the king with a large army, he set out to make conquest. People began to
fear King and observe Dharma. This theory contains three elements - (1) the
people lived under the law of jungle. (2) with the object of improving the
situation, Brahma created the King, who was chosen by the people, (3) a contract
was made between the King and the people.
Society and state are institutions which are very closely inter related. Ancient
Indian political thinkers while dealing with the subject took recourse to legends
and mythology and regarded the state as a divine institution which was created by
god to ensure security and justice for mankind against the law of the jungle,
which had somehow set in among them at the end of the golden age. The theory
of divine origin speculates that the state is the creation of God, and the king rules
in his name. The origins of this theory found in the Rigveda, which mentions that
Brahma created the Kshatriyas or protectors. The Mahabharata also refers to it
many times. The divine origin of state is further elaborated though the story of
Prthu Vainya. His supernatural appearance, coronation by the Gods, and the
entrance of Vishnu into his body, clearly indicate the divine origin of Kingship.
Matsyanyaya is known as the theory of force, and it pre-supposes an inherent
propensity of man to encroach upon his weaker neighbor, and to be prone to
commit acts of disorder and aggression. The Shantiparva refers to the seven
elements of state, but it does not enumerate them in the same order as mentioned
in other works like those of the Kautilya’s Arthasastra and the Manusmrti.
All the experts admit that the Atman (king) is an important element of the state.
The king is the head of the state; He is the fountain of justice. He has to deal with
100
judicial, taxation, religious and cultural problems. He has to protect and regulate Ved Vyasa
the Varna organization and Ashram system. Rajdharma
(Shantiparva)
Amatya (minister and officials) is the second constituent of the state. In the
Shantiparva, a sachiva is king's helper and Amatya is regarded as his private
secretary. The Amatya is an important element of formation of state in ancient
India.
Treasury (Kosa) is another constituent of the state. The co-relation of king and
his treasury is emphasized. The king should take care of seven limbs and Kosa is
one of them. The rich treasury depends up on the righteous king.
Durg was considered the strength of the sovereign. It was believed that with a
well-equipped fort, a king could defend his country against stronger enemy.
The next element Mitra (ally, Friend) is an important principal of state. Ally
refers to different kinds of friends. Bhishma in the 80th chapter of the Santiparva
says that there are four kinds of friends or allies-(l) Sahartha are those who are
hereditary friends (2) Bhajamana (3) Sahaja are the kin-related ones and (4)
Kritrima are the ones who had been turned into friends by gifts etc. In the 69th
chapter of Shantiparva, it is said that when a king is attacked, then for his
defence against the aggressors, he should see that the bridges over rivers are
destroyed and water from ponds is not taken out.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Discuss the three sub-parvas in Shantiparva.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……

5.4 KINSHIP
As R.S. Sharma says that "the cardinal supposition of Shantiparva in Chapter 67
is the appropriate theory of the origin of state. It is scientific because it involves
the King and people. The people's obligation to pay taxes and render military
services to the King clearly implies the presence of the elements of Kosha and
Danda. Thus, four important elements of the state out of seven can be clearly
distinguished in the statement of the contract theory of the origin of the state."
Altekar observes that "the state was regarded as a divine institution; the King's
101
right to govern was partly due to his divine creation and partly due to the
Political Concerns agreement of the subjects to be governed by him, in order to eliminate anarchy. "
and Key Ideas
The aims of the state in Mahabharata was to safeguard property, to maintain law
and order in society. The main aim of man's life was fourfold as Dharma, Artha,
Kama & Moksha. Therefore, state's main aim is to give help to people to attain
all these aims. The 59th chapter of Shantiparva deals with danda and dandniti. It
states that God helped humanity to escape from the law of the jungle by giving it
a King. The King became a tyrant and the enraged sages destroyed him with their
supernatural powers and asked Prathu (after him the whole world was named
Prithvi) and swear to rule according to the principles of Dandniti. The sages
asked Prathu, particularly, to consider the Brahmins above punishment and save
the world from inter-mixture of castes. The duty of the King was to uphold
Dharma and Varna Vyavastha.
According to Mahabharata the creation of the word, 'Raja' refers to the origin of
'Rajya'. To begin with, Bhishma bases the Kings authority in the first chapter of
Shantiparva upon a rigid understanding of the King's origin. The Shantiparva
contains a list of five spheres of activity - orientations for a very good King - (1)
defense (2) War (3) administration according to the Dharma (4) formulation of
policies (5) the promotion of the happiness of the people. A King should be
generous, modest and pure and should never refuse the performance of his duties
towards his subjects. The protection of the people from outside ecological threats
and internal enemies is the pre-eminent duty of the power in the political system.

5.5 GOVERNMENT
The king was the real executive. He has to perform the executive functions
as established by dharma. The king was both an appointing and a removal
authority. The Shantiparva suggests to the appointment of the ministers by the
king. He has to keep in view one's long administrative experiences and code of
conduct. In inter-state relations, it was the duty of the king to appoint the spies
and ambassadors. It was his duty to get information about the defense of state.
The king had to perform some financial duties. He must realize one-sixth tax
from the subjects in lieu of giving protection. On this ground, king has been
treated as the servant of the people. Personal safety is an important duty of the
king. He must be safe from external threats. The protection of all the Varna’s was
one of the important duties of the king. There are some welfare duties of the king.
The occupation of Trade and commerce also contribute to the economic
prosperity of state, so the king have to treat the merchants harmoniously. For the
defense of country and promotion of trade and commerce, the easy means of
communications are essential, so the king has to build roads throughout his
empire. It is the king's duty to help the subjects with financial assistance during
draught, flood and famine, as during such periods, they suffer more. The Vedas
are the supreme source of dharma, so, their preservation is essential. Preservation
of Vedas may be done by punishing those who create difficulties in the way of
Vedic studies.

102 In Shantiparva, Rajdharma is understood as the duties and obligations relevant to

political and administrative activities. Through government, peace, law and order
essential to maintain in the state. The main work of government is the happiness Ved Vyasa
of the people, ensuring to provide justice is the other aim of the government. In Rajdharma
(Shantiparva)
the state, the King is the head of the government. In good governments,
administration people sleep carefully, fearlessly. Executive was made of the
combination of King, ministers and other officials. Besides executive, legislature
and judiciary were two other organs of government. However, importance given
to the executive mainly. In Shantiparva, there was a great emphasis on the above
ministers. In the absence of the dutyful and able ministers, King cannot run
government properly.
In Shantiparva, King advised to keep the intelligent, dutiful ministers. Bhishma's
general attitude towards the standard of the King government. In Sabha Parva,
there is description about purohits. The duty of these Purohits was to bring King
on 'Sanmarg' by these good sentences and speeches. These Purohits were
intelligent, polite and belonged to high families. The Rajpurohits were fearless,
Dharma followers and guided the King on various occasions. Therefore,
protection of the people, in a wide sense, material and moral alike, was the chief
function of the government.

5.6 JUSTICE AND DANDNITI

Dandniti, the term used in Mahabharata means the science of coercion. Viewed
in the context as a whole, it is best rendered as the science of governance. As the
reins check the steed or as an iron hook controls an elephant, so dandniti keeps
the world under restraints. It destroys every evil as the sun destroys the darkness.
About the importance of dandniti, Bhishma says, that if dandniti is destroyed, the
three Vedas will disappear and the duties of the four varnas well mix up. On the
destruction of dandniti and instability of Rajadharma, all people suffer from
many evils. It is the prime duty of the king to be fully versed in dandniti. Danda
protects the people and it awakes those who sleep; hence, Dand is called as
Dharma. Because of the fear of danda (punishment), the sinners do not indulge in
sin, people do not kill others. If danda is not observed, everything will be
enveloped by darkness. There are four ends of life-Dharma, Artha, Kama,
Moksha. Dharma is regarded as human justice and the set of duties. The concept
of Dharma is the truth; it is the morality in true sense. All religious exercise is
Dharma and it is the law. Artha includes all the means necessary for acquiring
worldly prosperity. Artha refers to one of the ends of life on one hand, and on the
other to one of the purusharthas that satisfies human desires. Kama refers to the
desires in man including the sexual urge. Moksha in the fourth and the highest
end of life. It paves the path for the progress of soul. Bhishma explains the
fundamental importance of the king’s office for justice and dandaniti. According
to Bhisma, people can live happily only if they live under the law. He also
describes the four sources of law- Devasammat, Arsha Srota, Lok Sammat and
Sanstha-Sammat. In the time of emergency, the ordinary rules must be
suspended. If the people are in distress, the king must come to their aid with his
treasure. If government face a crisis, as on the outbreak of war, it is justified
adopting financial measures. In emergency, king should take his subjects into 103
Political Concerns confidence. He should explain the whole situation to them and then impose extra
and Key Ideas
tax. For the sake of saving life, it is right to make a treaty with an enemy. The
treasure and the army are the sole root of the government. Shantiparva is one
extended argument for the assigned interest of the community in the welfare of
the king and government.

5.7 INTER-STATE RELATIONS

It is an important division of the polity of inter-state relations that discussed by
Bhishma. The king should breakup the enemy's ranks by straightforward as well
as cunning and diplomatic means. The powerful king must not neglect even his
weak enemy, for even a small spark causes a flame and even a slight poison
causes death, while the enemy taking refuge in a fort even if he is equipped with
a single horse troubles the kingdom even of a prosperous king. Even after making
a treaty with the enemy, he should not trust him. In the 95th chapter of Shanti
Parva, it is said that Svayambhu Manu has included the practice of Dharma
Vijaya. If a king obtains victory through recourse to Adharma, then only he
prepares the ground for his own eventual destruction. Virtuous people, by taking
choice to Dharma, can certainly defeat the evil-doers.
In Inter-State relations, spy system and ambassadors are a must. In the Santi
Parva of Mahabharata, we see the Indian soul and culture. Various political ideas
discussed very well through the epic. Duties of kings, citizens, ministers and
rights of them discussed equally in Santi Parva. Origin of state, foreign policy,
inter-state relations discussed well in Shanti Parva. To conclude, we say that
Shanti Parva in Mahabharata is considered an unperishable treasury of history,
religion, diplomacy, polity, philosophy & thought not only for us, but for the
whole humanity.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. What do you understand by Dandniti?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……

104
5.8 LET US SUM UP Ved Vyasa
Rajdharma
(Shantiparva)
Bhishma's theories of Rajdharma and Dandniti in the context of his remarkable
development of the old Smriti concept of the whole duty of the King are notable.
Rajdharma is used in Mahabharata in two meanings, the royal duties and the
political (dandniti). Its later sense is confirmed by the fact that one whole section
of the Shantiparva, dealing with the rules, relating specifically to the art of
government, is known as the Rajdharmanushasana Parva. Therein, it has been
regarded as the most important science and as the refuge of all other branches of
knowledge. Dandniti's full knowledge is indispensable for a ruler. If strictly
followed by the rulers, it leads to prosperity and wellbeing of the rules. So
Rajadharma is not only related to dandniti, but the performance of the former is
wholly dependant upon the latter. Among his most notable and original
contributions are his theories of Rajadharma and Dandniti, his theory of the
king's authority, his theory of public rights of the social clases and the
community, his view of the principles of government, his discussion of the moral
standards of the king's policy in exceptional circumstances. The functional
importance of Rajdharma is supported by its ethical significance. Rajdharma that
is the Kshatriya's dharma is the foremost of all dharmas and that without it,
people would be ruined.
Indian political thought is recognizing the Shantiparva, which dealt with every
aspect of human life. It deals with political institutions and entire panorama of
human life it deals with the concept of state and the concept of Dharma. Both
these terms are the backbone of Indian political thought and these concepts was
supported by Indian philosophy. Therefore, contemporary Indian political
thinkers have unanimously accepted raj dharma as the basis of Indian polity. It
provides multiple viewpoints about governance. It leaves the conclusions to the
reader to accept any of the viewpoint. It is a dialogical text. Shantiparva is
capable of addressing the issues of governance even today.

5.9 REFERENCES
 Altekar, A. S. (1949). State and Government in Ancient India: From
earliest times to C. 1200 AD. Motilal Banarsidass.
 Bhagdikar, P. S. (2019). Relevance of Ancient Indian Political Thought
with Special Reference to Mahabharata. Sanshodhan, 8, 141–146.
 Bhattacharya, S. C., Dalmiya, V., & Mukherji, G. (2018). Exploring
Agency in the Mahabharata: Ethical and Political Dimensions of
Dharma. Taylor & Francis.
 Budkuley, K. (2010). Mahabharata myths in contemporary writing:
Challenging ideology. Sahitya Academy, Delhi.
 Chakrabarty, Bidyut. 1994. “Foundations of Indian Political Thought: An
Interpretation (from Manu to the Present Day). By VR Mehta. Manohar:
New Delhi, 1992. Pp. 303.” Modern Asian Studies 28(2):431–38.
 Goldie, M. (2019). The ancient constitution and the languages of political 105
thought. The Historical Journal, 62(1), 3–34.
Political Concerns  Mukherjee, J. (2010). Revisiting Good Governance in Ancient Indian
and Key Ideas
Political Thought. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 53–58.
 Nehru, Jawaharlal. 2008. Discovery of India. Penguin UK.
 Pandey, P. (2019a). Rajadharma in Mahabharata: With Special
Reference to Shanti-Parva. DK Printworld (P) Ltd.
 Parekh, B. (1992). The poverty of Indian political theory. History of
Political Thought, 13(3), 535–560.
 Rajagopalan, S. (2014). ‘Grand Strategic Thought’in the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. In India’s Grand Strategy (pp. 45–76). Routledge India.
 Sharan, P. (1983). Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions.
Meenakshi Prakashan.
 Singh, S. P. (2015). Concept of Rajdharma in Adi-Kavya: Ramayana and
Mahabharata. Indian Journal of Public Administration, 61(1), 132–138.
 Singh, Mahendra Prasad, and Himanshu Roy. 2011. Indian Political
Thought: Themes and Thinkers. Pearson Education India.
 Varma, V. P. (1986). Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought.
Agra: Lakshmi Narain Agarwal Publishers.
 Pandey, P. (2019b). Rajadharma in Mahabharata: With Special
Reference to Shanti-Parva. DK Printworld (P) Ltd.
 Thapar, Romila. 2015. The Penguin History of Early India: From the
Origins to AD 1300. Penguin UK.

5.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
Rajadharmanushasana Parva: describes the duties of king and governance
Apaddharmaanushasana Parva: describes the rules of conduct in an
emergency
Mokshadharma Parva: describes the behaviour and rules to achieve moksha
or salvation

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Dandniti, is the term used in Mahabharata means the science of coercion
 It is the best rendered as the science of governance
 As the reins check the steed or as an iron hook controls an elephant,
similarly dandniti keeps the world under restraints
 It destroys every evil as the sun destroys the darkness
 Danda protects the people and it awakes those who sleep
106
 Manu Social
*
UNIT 6 MANU SOCIAL ORDER AND LAWS Order and Laws

Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sources of Law
6.3 Rajdharma: The Duties of the King
6.4 Social Laws
6.4.1 Marriage
6.4.2 Women
6.4.3 Mixed Castes
6.5 Criticism
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 References
6.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to acquaint you with the ideas of Manusmriti on
preservation of social order and polity. After studying this unit, you should be
able to:
 Explain what Manu means by social order
 What are the main social laws prescribed by Manu
 Place Manusmriti in a social context
 Recount the main criticisms against Manusmriti

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The Manusmriti, or ‘The Laws of Manu’, is considered to be one of the most
authoritative texts in the Brahminical tradition which lays out social and civil
laws and codes of conduct which are necessary for the maintenance of dharma. It
prescribes the conduct for men and women of the four social classes or varnas –
Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra – and rules of interaction between them. In
addition, it lays out rules of conduct for people in the four stages of life,
ashramas – brahmacharya, grihstashrama, vanprastha and sanyasa. It also

*
Dr Amitanshu Verma, Senior Researcher, Centre for Equity Studies, New Delhi

107
Political Concerns prescribes rules and obligations for the King – rajdharma – and laws related to
and Key Ideas
civil matters like business and contract. The purpose of these rigid social rules
and boundaries is to preserve dharma – the social order marked by hierarchical
varna system, where the Brahman enjoys most social privileges and Shudra the
least. The proper sphere of activity for the Brahmin is study of the Vedas and
begging, for Kshatriya is statecraft, for Vaisya it is trade and moneylending, and
for Shudra is to serve the above three. The Shudras are not entitled to an
education. All four varnas enjoy complete control over the women of their social
category. Thus the ‘Laws of Manu’ do not contain a distinction between secular
and religious laws. It is the social law which dominates the political as well as the
personal sphere. Even the kingly functions are aimed towards preservation of the
social order.
Historians do not consider ‘Manu’ to be one historical person. Rather, what we
know as the ‘Laws of Manu’ is handiwork of several Brahmin individuals, which
was compiled in early centuries of the Common Era in Northern India. Manu
appears to be a mythological figure in Brahminical tradition and later in the
Hindu religion, who has often been called the first human being.
The 2694 stanzas divided in twelve chapters of Manusmriti talk about a range of
issues: caste restrictions, dietary restrictions, restrictions on women, rites of
marriage, death and sacrificial ceremonies, purification rituals, penalties for
breaking these rules and rules of polity to be followed by kings. The social laws
of Manu offer us a glimpse into how the powerful sections of early India, the
Brahmins who composed the work, desired the society to be. A study of Manu’s
social laws will also provide a glimpse of how society was sought to be
organized, because the ideas contained in the book were not entirely new, but
culmination of Brahminical tradition of social thought which traced itself to the
Vedas. Such detailed and elaborate rules of social control were made to avoid
chaos, or what Vedic texts have called Matsyanyaya, an anarchic situation where
only the law of the stronger exists. Thus, Manusmriti appears to be an attempt by
socially powerful sections of Indian society to retain and preserve the social order
of their privilege, at a time when rapid historical changes were taking place.

6.2 SOURCES OF LAW

The Manusmriti forms part of the smriti canon of Hindu religious corpus, which
refers to knowledge received from tradition. The other canon is shruti which
refers to revealed knowledge or divine knowledge. The Vedas belong to the
shruti group and occupy a somewhat superior position. The classification of
religious knowledge between shruti and smriti, ultimately indicates two sources
of law – the divine and traditional. Although, repositories of traditional
knowledge claim that revealed texts are their source.
The Laws of Manu claim four sources of sacred law; the Vedas, conduct of
virtuous men learned in the Vedas, conduct of holy men and self-satisfaction. It
also claims that all the social laws prescribed in it are in strict accordance with
108 the Vedas.
Tracing the origin of law to the divine is a way to command obedience, and to Manu Social
Order and Laws
claim that the law stands above human scrutiny. Such a source also enables the
dominant social sections of society to claim that they are eternally entitled to
respect, wealth and political power. Because divinely ordained laws are
unchanging and depend on the conduct of those already in power, they seek to
bolster their position privileged position. For instance, historian K.P. Jayaswal
explained that the divine origin theory of kingship was furthered by Brahmin
king Pusyamitra Sunga in order to make his family’s claim to the throne
permanent, and to discredit the Buddhist theory of state which emphasized
contract amongst people to decide their ruler.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) Why is Manusmriti considered to be a part of ‘smriti’ tradition?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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6.3 RAJDHARMA: THE DUTIES OF THE KING

Why was the king created? The king was created to protect and control chaos and
fear which prevailed in a society without a ruler. A Kshatriya who has received
training in Vedic tradition and has gone through all the prescribed religious
practices from childhood – the initiation (upanayana) and studentship – is fit to
be king, according to Manu. A king is superior to all other living beings because
he is made out of divine elements from the gods. Manu demands total obedience
to the laws of the King. It is the king who preserves and protects the social order
of the four varnas, the dharma. Hence, disobedience of the king is akin to
sacrilege and invites severest reprisal. The instrument employed by the king to
preserve and protect the social order is danda or punishment. Echoing
Arthashastra, the Manusmriti claims that punishment is the king itself. It is
punishment which watches over, which governs, and which protects. Manu warns
that danda has to be applied after due consideration in order to lead towards
happiness. Recklessly applied punishment destroys everything.
If danda is not employed, then ‘the stronger would roast the weaker, like fish on
a pit,’ ‘the crow would eat the sacrificial cake and the dog would lick the
sacrificial viands, and ownership would not remain with anyone, and the lower
ones (would usurp the place of) the higher ones.’ These metaphors explain that 109
the social order, where wealth, property ownership, education and religious
Political Concerns training is reserved for the three higher varnas, would crumble. ‘All castes
and Key Ideas
(varnas) would be corrupted (by intermixture), all barriers will be broken
through.’ Manu fears that in absence of punishment, the endogamous rules of
marriage within the same caste, or between the male of a higher caste and female
of a lower caste, would be broken and caste hierarchy and entitlement over power
and resources would lose all meaning. An ideal king, therefore, has to be truthful
to the social order and should observe justice and dharma by making sure that the
social and economic restrictions placed by the varna order are not broken. A king
who is of unsound mind, who is addicted to sensual pleasures and who is partial
and deceitful will not be able govern or adhere strictly to the caste order. Manu,
therefore, spells out that ‘The King has been created to be the protector of the
castes and orders, who, all according to their rank, discharge their several duties.’
A just King has to ensure that the castes do not break ranks – do not intermarry
and do not take up occupations which are not prescribed for them. In addition, in
dispensing of justice the King ought to ‘with rigour chastise his enemies, behave
without duplicity towards his friends, and be lenient towards the Brahmanas.’
The King should always remember his role as the protector of the social order.
For this purpose, ‘Let the king, after rising early in the morning, worship the
Brahmins who are well versed in the three-fold sacred science and learned in
(polity), and follow their advice.’
In order to strictly protect the caste order, the King should not only worship
learned and aged Brahmins, but should also cultivate virtue and shun vice. Only a
king who has mastered self-control and is free of envy, wrath and resentment will
be able to ensure that each caste follows its stipulated occupation and does not
comingle with others socially through marriage. The only relaxation to this strict
system of social rules could at times be made for the brahmin.
The king should shun all sorts of vices like excessive love for hunting, gambling,
company of women, singing music and dancing, because they can lead him
astray from ruling and cloud his judgement according to Manusmriti. Women for
Manu are similar to property and other objects of desire, who should be
possessed, but their ‘use’ should be controlled. This shall be elaborated upon in
the section on Social Laws for women.
Thus, Manu not only invokes the divine theory of kingship, he also extols danda
as the instrument of rajdharma. It is through punitive violence that things are kept
in their place.
In order to carry out the everyday administration of the state, the Manusmriti
offers a great deal of detailed practical advice to the King regarding appointment
of ministers, foreign relations, conduct of war, system of spies and other juridical
and civil functions.
Manu advices that the King should employ seven or eight ministers from families
who have served him well, who belong to noble (upper castes) families, who are
trained in the use of weapons and whose worth has been proven. The king should
110 daily consult with them on matters of war, peace, administration of towns and
kingdom, treasury and revenue, defence and tributes. Tasks which are difficult Manu Social
Order and Laws
for the King alone become far easier with the aid of trusted assistants. The most
important issues should be discussed with the most trusted and distinguished
Brahmin among his ministers.
Security from external enemies from outside is as important as maintenance of
social order within the kingdom. The Laws of Manu advise the King to have
skillful and knowledgeable ambassadors for conduct of diplomacy. For the
ambassador enables the king to have allies – they negotiate peace or war. The
king should rely on ambassadors to inform him beforehand of the enemies’
designs. Defence should be the uppermost concern of a kshatriya king and by
employing the four
expedients – conciliation, bribery, dissension and force – the king should protect
his kingdom. As Arthashastra, Manusmriti advocates that against a powerful
enemy conciliation should be tried first, followed by bribery and discussion. If all
else fails, only then coercion should be adopted. Yet, the king ought to be
prepared for any eventuality and is advised to build forts at convenient locations
in towns and hills, well stocked with soldiers and weapons.
Regarding war, Manusmriti has a range of practical advice. The principle of
saam (conciliation), dam (bribery), dand (force), bhed (dissension) is to be
employed. Force is to be used only when other three strategies have failed. A
king should only wage war when he is assured of his superiority and his enemies’
weakness and all other forms of diplomacy have been exhausted. It is always
advisable to have a weak but trusted friend than to make him an enemy. The text
advises against waging war if the army of the king is weak and his ammunitions
inadequate. In case the enemy is too strong, it is advised that the king should
divide his armies into two and take refuge in some other friendly kingdom.
After the war if the King has managed to win, his aim should be to win friends
rather than acquiring wealth and lands. Manusmriti seems to favour self-defence
and friendship in inter-state relations rather than a doctrine of imperial expansion.
In this regard, it differs from the Arthashastra which lays emphasis on imperial
conquest.
The Laws of Manu advice the King to be extremely cautious of getting poisoned
and assassinated, should have an elaborate system of spies to watch over not just
the external enemies, but also the enemies within.
The Manusmriti envisages a system of administration which extends from village
to the king. Village is the unit of local administration as each village is to have a
lord, who shall report to the lord of ten villages, who in turn shall report to the
overseer of twenty villages. The lord of the village shall see to it that the
expected amount of – food, drink and fuel – is being supplied from the village
under his command to the King. A minister of village affairs will oversee the
functioning of all these lords. Similarly, a superintendent is to be appointed in
each town who shall look after the work of officials in each department of town
administration. 111
Political Concerns The king is advised to impose moderate taxes, just like the bee or a leech take
and Key Ideas
only moderate amounts of food. The king who exploits his subjects digs his own
grave. Different kinds of taxes in the form of revenue, fees, fines are to be levied.
The property of corrupt officials is to be confiscated. In no circumstance though,
the king can tax a srotriya – a brahmin who studies Vedas. In fact, the king is
advised to donate and gift generously to the brahmins. Without a strong financial
base and an efficient and honest administration to collect taxes, no kingdom can
exist.
The Manusmriti expounds on the organization of justice functions to be
performed by the king in civil and criminal matters. As already explained,
‘justice’ for Manu is primarily the proper maintenance of the four-fold varna
order, with the brahman male occupying the most privileged position, shudra the
least, and with women being treated as property. Justice would also mean that the
powerful positions of brahmin and the king, are retained. Thus, Manu writes, the
Kings court of justice would comprise himself ‘together with Brahmanas and
experienced councillors.’ And ‘let him examine the causes of suitors by the order
of castes (varna).’ In case the king is not able to personally attend to the suits,
then the responsibility should be delegated to a brahmin. Matters of civil suits
concern: non-payment of debt, deposit and pledge, sale without ownership,
concerns among partners, resumption of gifts, non-payment of wages, non-
performance of agreements, recession of sale and purchase, disputes between the
owner (of cattles) and his servants, dispute regarding boundaries, assault,
defamation, theft, robbery and violence, adultery, duties of man and wife,
partition of inheritance and gambling and betting.
Interpretation of the law should only be done by a Brahmin and never a Shudra.
For ‘The kingdom of that monarch, who looks on while a Shudra settles the law,
will soon sink like a cow in a morass.’ And ‘The kingdom where Shudras are
very numerous, which is infested by atheists and destitute of twice-born, soon
entirely perishes.’
The king should see to it that minors, women, widows, and men of all castes are
not robbed of their property. In general, men of all castes could be called as
witnesses. Only in specific and urgent situations should sick men, women and
minors be admitted as witnesses.
The punishments prescribed by Manusmriti reflect the caste order, with the
leniency being reserved for the Brahmin and severity for the three lower varnas.
For giving false evidence fine and banishment should befall on the three lower
varnas, while a Brahmin can only be banished.
Similarly, Brahmin is exempt from corporeal torture and capital punishment. ‘A
Shudra who insults a twice born man with gross invectives shall have his tongue
cut out; for he is of low origin.’ While a Brahmin will be fined 12 panas for
defaming a Shudra.
The laws place special restrictions on Shudras insulting the twice-born men, and
112 prescribes severe corporal punishments. For instance a Shudra who spits on a
twice born man is to have his lips cut-off. In case a twice-born man insults a Manu Social
Order and Laws
Shudra, only a fine may be imposed.
The civil and criminal law system prescribed in Manusmriti, while prescribing
punitive measures for everyone determines the nature of punishment according to
the caste of the accused, and the nature of violation of caste boundaries.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) What is divine theory of the state and why is it important for Manu?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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6.4 SOCIAL LAWS

The preservation of social order – the hierarchy of caste system coupled with the
control of women – is the main concern of Manusmriti. That is why we saw that
even the rajdharma laid out by the text largely concerns itself with the King
using the instrument of punishment to maintain this social order. However,
special attention needs to be paid to how the Manusmriti idealized the social
system. It advocated a social system where each caste stuck to its allotted
profession, and interaction between them was bare minimum. Therefore, it
restricted marriages between different castes, and saw mixed castes with
contempt. This also required that additional restrictions be placed on women. Let
us study these in more detail

6.4.1 Marriage
Marriage laws prescribed by Manusmriti adhere strictly to the caste ranking. It
lays down that a Brahmin’s first marriage should necessarily take place to a
woman of equal caste. For his subsequent marriages he may take a woman from
the three lower varnas as a wife. But the text strongly advises against a Brahmin
man marrying a Shudra woman, warning that such a union will result in
misfortune for the man. ‘Twice-born men who, in their folly, wed women of the
low (Shudra) caste, soon degrade their families and their children to the state of
Sudras,’ says the sage Manu. Technically, the Law of Manu states that a woman
is permitted to marry those of her own caste and those of the higher castes.
Similarly, a man may marry within his caste or to a woman from the lower
castes. 113
Political Concerns Manusmriti elucidates eight rites of marriages that are recognized in the
and Key Ideas
Brahminical tradition –, Brahma Diava, Rishi (Arsha), Prajapatya, Asura,
Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paishacha. The gift of a daughter along with costly
jewelry to a man learned in the Vedas is the Brahma rite. The gift of a daughter
along with costly ornaments to priest who has come to perform a sacrifice
ceremony is called the Daiva marriage. The giving away of the daughter in return
of a pair of cow and bull from the bridegroom is the way of the Rishis. The gift
of the daughter with blessings and honour shown to the couple is the rite of
Prajapatya. When a bridegroom receives the woman after having given her and
her kinsmen as much wealth as he could afford, is called the Asura marriage. The
voluntary union of the woman and her lover from a desire of sexual intercourse is
called Gandharava marriage. The forcible abduction of the woman from her
home after slaying her kinsmen, is the way of the Rakshasas. Stealthy seduction
of a woman who is intoxicated, sleepy or disoriented has been described as the
most base and sinful way of union called Paishacha. The first six methods are
approved for the Brahmins, the last four methods are approved for a Kshatriya,
and the last four, with the exception of Rakshasas rite, are lawful for Vaisyas and
Sudras.
As can be easily seen, marriage is supposed to maintain the superior position of
the higher caste male. The Manusmriti recommends those forms of marriages
where the bride’s family offers costly gifts to the daughter, which along with her
goes to the groom’s household.

6.4.2 Women
From the foregoing discussion, it can be learnt that women have been depicted as
beings who need to be guarded and controlled primarily by their families. The
Manusmriti sees them as treacherous entities who can lead a virtuous man astray
from dharma, and down the path of desires. They have been portrayed as assets
which, if suitably controlled, can lead to pleasure and prosperity of the owner –
the husband.
The duties prescribed by Manusmriti for women, expect women to train
themselves and learn to take pleasure in their position as property owned by men.
‘In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband,
when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent,’ say the
Laws of Manu. A woman who leaves her father or husband to pursue her free
will brings contempt upon herself and her family. Manusmriti prescribes that not
only a woman should manage the household, but she should do it with
cheerfulness. ‘She must always be cheerful, clever in (the management of her)
household affairs, careful in cleaning her utensils, and economical in
expenditure.’
A woman is not only to be treated as valuable property by men, but the text goes
on to demand that she should cultivate herself to be treated as such. That is the
dharma for women. Thus, the foremost duty of a married woman is to be
114 unconditionally loyal to her husband. Even if the husband possesses no good
qualities the wife should cling to him. ‘Though destitute of virtue, or seeking
pleasure (elsewhere), or devoid of good qualities, a husband must be constantly Manu Social
Order and Laws
worshipped as a god by a faithful wife.’ ‘A faithful wife who desires to dwell
(after death) with her husband, must never do anything that might displease him
who took her hand, whether he be alive or dead.’ Even after the death of her
husband, the woman ought not to remarry, and should maintain her ‘chastity’. No
such burden is placed upon men who lose their wives.
The control of ‘their’ women must be exercised by men of all castes. ‘Women
must be guarded against their evil inclinations.’ A woman’s desire, howsoever
trifling needs to be controlled. Manu is careful to note that ‘No man can
completely guard women by force.’ Therefore, he suggests that the best means to
control women is to assign them responsibility: collection and expenditure of
man’s wealth, ‘keeping (everything) clean, in religious duties, in preparation of
his food, and in looking after the household utensils.’ It is not force but woman
‘who of their own accord keep a guard over themselves, are well guarded.’
The social order prescribed in Manusmriti rests on the basis of control over
women and their labour. It is through control of women that varna boundaries are
sought to be maintained. In addition, this control secures the woman’s body and
labour for the exclusive enjoyment and use of men. This order of control of
women across varnas creates the situation where the woman herself would learn
to value the control exercised over her by a man as a form of protection and
recognition.

6.4.3 Mixed Castes

Although Manusmriti lays great stress on maintenance of social order, it seems to
recognize that a perfect order where each caste maintains conjugal boundaries
and sticks to its stipulated profession, is more of an ideal than what concretely
exists. It suggests that in the time of composition of Manusmriti, inter-caste
marriages did take place. In its attempt to establish a complete social order, the
Manusmriti strives to take into account all permutations and combinations of
marital relations that could possibly take place between different varnas and tries
to place the offspring out of such unions into proper social categories.
Intermarriage between men and women of varnas leads to production of what
can be referred to as mixed castes. The Manusmriti not only defines which castes
are produced out of unions across varnas, but also fixes the personal qualities of
such castes, the occupations they ought to occupy and the social restrictions that
should be placed upon them. In anuloma marriages, between a higher caste man
and a lower caste woman, the progeny although associated with the father’s caste
are still considered base-born (apsada). The Manusmriti considers progeny out of
pratiloma marriages, between lower caste man and higher caste woman, as even
more base.
The detailed description of mixed castes seems to be an attempt by writers of the
Manusmriti to place various categories of people who may have existed at that
time in the hierarchies of varna order, defining their occupation and social
position. 115
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) Why and what kind of restrictions does Mnausmriti place on women?
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6.5 CRITICISM
Manusmriti is a text which attempts to weave the diverse peoples of Indian
subcontinent of its time into one social whole, by describing the obligations and
duties of each and how they were to relate to each other. It was an attempt to
create social order in a diverse social field, It will, however, be inadequate if we
conclude our assessment of this ancient text with this charitable view which sees
it as an attempt to unify a diverse reality. The text needs to be placed in its
historical context. Manusmriti, thus, is not a simple commentary on religion,
politics, ideas of justice, administration and society. It is, infact, a text produced
by Brahmins to consolidate their social and political position, and to place
themselves at the very top of a graded society. The ideas of virtue, religion,
justice, law and ethics propounded in the Manusmriti are all geared towards
maintenance of a social order which secures political, social and economic power
in the hands of the three upper varnas – the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas,
while extracting labour and service from shudras and women. The instrument for
maintaining this social order is danda, which explains the significance attached
to political power in the text.
In addition to being a manual for rule, the Manusmriti is also an ideological text
because it seeks to self-validate itself by claiming divine source. By virtue of
being recognized as a religious text within the Hindu tradition, it exerts great
power over how people think and what they believe. It is for this reason that after
hundreds of years, it continues to be relevant because the hierarchy advocated by
Manusmriti still afflicts India. On December 25, 1927 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar led the
burning of the ancient text. In his historic speech at Mahad Satyagraha he said,
“It is not that all the parts of the Manusmriti are condemnable, that it does not
contain good principles and that Manu himself was not a sociologist and was a
mere fool. We made a bonfire of it because we view it as a symbol of injustice
under which we have been crushed across the centuries. Because of Manu's
teachings, we have been ground down under despicable poverty. The counts in
116 the indictment of the hereditary Hindu priest are numerous and appalling. He is a
clog on the wheel of civilization. Man is born, becomes the father of a family and Manu Social
Order and Laws
then in time dies. All along the priest shadows him like an evil genius."

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) Whose interests do the Laws of Manu serve? Give examples.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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6.6 LET US SUM UP

The social laws enshrined in Manusmriti allow us to study ideas and practices on
politics, statecraft, social organization, religion and ethics which were prevalent
in early India. As a text, it is a valuable source to explore the history of early
India. The fact that Manusmriti is the culmination of hundreds of years of
thought by Brahminical thinkers adds to its value as a historical text. A study of
Manusmriti also teaches us the value of locating such texts in their social context,
which also helps us in understanding its continued relevance in religion and
politics. The elaborate rules prescribed in the text for conduct and obligation of
individual reflect the pressing concern to maintain the social order. As the book
itself admits the purpose of statecraft, of ethics and of punishment is to ensure
that the varna system continues in the form in which it is idealized in the text. As
possessors of great social privileges, the Brahmins of that time seem to have been
fearful of change which might undermine their powerful position, hence, their
great fear of chaos which referred to a situation where varna rules will not be
observed. The thrust of the book is towards preservation and protection. Even in
inter-state relations, the Manusmriti exhorts rulers to prefer friendship and peace
rather than enmity and conquest.

6.7 REFERENCES
 Agrawal, V. (2006) Women in Manusmriti. New Delhi: Indian Council of
Cultural Relations.
 Ambedkar, B.R. (2014) Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and
Speeches. New Delhi: Dr. Ambedkar Foundation. Available online:
https://www.mea.gov.in/books-writings-of-ambedkar.htm
 Bhattacharya, P. (1996) Conceptualizations in the Manusmriti. New
Delhi: Manohar. 117
Political Concerns  Buhler, G (Trans.) (1896) The Laws of Manu in Muller, F.M. ed. Sacred
and Key Ideas
Books of The East Vol. 25 Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
 Derrett, J. D. M. (1975) Manusastravivarana, Vol II. Wiesbaden: Franz
Steiner Verlag.
 Doniger. W and Smith, Brian K. (1991) The Laws of Manu. New Delhi:
Penguin Classics.
 Doniger, W. (2009) The Hindus: An Alternative History. New Delhi:
Penguin/Viking.
 Ghosal, U. N. (1929) The Hindu Revenue System Calcutta: Calcutta
University.
 Jayaswal, K.P. (1924) Hindu Polity. Calcutta: Butterworth & Co.
 Kane, P. V. History of Dharmasastra. Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute.
 Mishra, V.B. (1982) From the Vedas to the Manu-saṃhitā : a Cultural
Study. New Jersey: Humanities Press.
 Saletore, B.A. (1963) Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions.
Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
 Thapar, R. (2004) Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley,
CA: University of California.

6.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Your answer should highlight the following points
 Difference between smriti and shruti texts with examples
 The multiple authorship of Manusmriti
 The fact that it is part of Brahminical tradition of thought

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Your answer should highlight the following points:
 The claim that Kingship is divinely created hence sacred
 The identification of king and his actions with God’s actions
 It is used to generate legitimacy among the masses
 It is used to suppress critics of the King

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Your answer should highlight the following points:
 A woman is never to be independent and must always remain
subservient to men
 No freedom to make life choices for marriage and work
 Woman should cultivate loyalty towards husband
 No freedom even after husband’s death
118
Check Your Progress Exercise 4 Manu Social
Order and Laws
1) Your answer should highlight the following points:
 The interests of the Brahmins/Kshatriyas/Vaishyas vis-à-vis
Shudras
 The interests of men vis-à-vis women

119
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas
UNIT 7 KAUTILYA STATE AND DUTIES OF
KINGSHIP*
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2. Kautilya: His Work and His Times
7.3 Kautilya’s Views on State
7.3.1 Swami or the King
7.3.2 Amatya or the Minister
7.3.3 Janpada or the People
7.3.4 Durga or the Fort
7.3.5 Kosha or the Treasury
7.3.6 Danda or Sena or Coercive Power of State (Armed Forces, Secret
Service and Police)
7.3.7 Mitra or Ally/Friend
7.4 Comparisons with Western Political Thinkers
7.4.1 Kautilya and Plato
7.4.2 Kautilya and Aristotle
7.4.3 Kautilya and Machiavelli
7.5 Assessment
7.6 Let Us Sum Up
7.7 References
7.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit would familiarise students with the political ideas of Kautilya, also
known as Chanakya. After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand Kautilya’s views on state
 Describe the Saptanga theory and its elements

*
Dr Raj Kumar Sharma, Maharishi Kanad Post Doc Fellow, Delhi School of
Transnational Affairs, University of Delhi

120
  Explain the duties of King prescribed by Kautilya Kautilya State and
Duties of Kingship
 Critically examine Kautilya’s political views and their contemporary
relevance

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Kautilya, ancient Indian political thinker was a multi-dimensional personality
whose famous work, Arthashastra, is studied across disciplines like political
science, international relations, diplomacy, security studies, economics,
management and public administration. He is considered as one of the finest
ministers and politicians in India. His views on politics and state continue to
resonate in contemporary India; however, it is widely believed that his works
have not received enough attention not only in India, but outside India as well.
The science of statecraft had been developing in India even before Kautilya and
he did not take credit of being a pioneer in this field. He had compiled famous
works and theories before him and gave his own views on them covering various
areas like politics, economy and diplomacy. There were at least four distinct
schools and thirteen individual teachers of Arthashastra before Kautilya.
However, it is very likely that Kautilya’s masterpiece superseded them which
made them redundant leading to their disappearance. It is, therefore, necessary
that Kautilya’s work is studied to analyze its resilience through centuries in order
to understand its contemporary importance for India.

7.2 KAUTILYA: HIS WORK AND HIS TIMES

There is no clear consensus about Kautilya’s life and the times in which he lived.
He is also known by the name Chanakya, based on his father’s name Rishi (Sage)
Chanak, who was a Brahmin. Another name given to Kautilya is Vishnugupta
since he is believed to be a follower of Lord Vishnu. The name, Kautilya, comes
from his ‘kutil’ gotra, which means shrewd and cunning. He lived at the turn of
the fourth to third century BC and thus, was a near contemporary of Aristotle and
Alexander the Great. The place of his birth is also disputed as according to
different sources, Kautilya was born in Takshashila, Gola district in South India
or Patliputra in Magadha. Kautilya played the central role in establishment of the
Maurya Empire under Chandra Gupta (321-297 BCE) – the first pan-Indian state
extending over most of the Indian subcontinent. Chandra Gupta was a student of
Kautilya who overthrew the Nanda dynasty on the wise counsel of his guru,
Chanakya who became Prime Minister in his court.
His book, Arthashastra, has 15 parts (or books), 180 divisions, 150 chapters and
approximately 6,000 verses or shlokas. Details about the King, his ministers and
other officers are given in Book 1. Book 2 lays down the duties of the various
executive officers of the state and state’s role in activities like agriculture, mining
etc. Themes of law and administration are given in Book 3 while Book 4
highlights suppression of crime. Miscellaneous topics like salary of officials etc
are covered in Book 5. Constituent elements of a state and foreign policy are 121
detailed in Book 6. Book 7 also covers additional details on foreign policy.
Political Concerns Various calamities which may hamper functioning of a state are given in Book 8.
and Key Ideas
Details pertaining to war preparations are given in Book 9. The art of fighting
and its different modes are the main concern of Book 10. Book 11 describes how
a conqueror should tackle oligarchies governed by a group of chiefs instead of a
single king. Book 12 highlights how a weak king can overcome a strong king
while Book 13 describes how to conquer an enemy’s fort. Occult and secret
practices are dealt with in Book 14 while the last book highlights logical
techniques and methodology used in Arthashastra. There is a widely held belief
that the text of Arthashastra was not available till it was discovered by Sanskrit
scholar Dr R Shamasastry. He found the 17th century writing on a bundle of palm
leaves from a pandit in Tanjore in 1904. He published the text in 1909 and its
translation in 1915. However, Subrata K Mitra and Michael Liebig in their 2017
work have argued that there has been a continuous oral and written transmission
of the Arthashastra across time as well as a lasting influence of Kautilyan
thought on the politics in South Asia throughout the pre-modern duration. Max
Weber, one of the foundational thinkers of modern social sciences was the first
Western social scientist to recognise the significance of Kautilya in his works,
Politics as a Vocation and in his sociology of religion studies on Hinduism.
Apart from Dr Shamasastry, another Indian scholar who devoted his research
career to Kautilya is Dr R P Kangle whose three volume edition of Arthashastra
was published between 1960 and 1965. Another important translation of Kautilya
has been done by L N Rangarajan (1992) which is a simpler and rearranged
version of the original work. Sanskrit philologists and Indologists have
extensively engaged with Kautilya’s work. However, their focus clearly differs
from the research approach of political science. It should be mentioned that
Kautilya himself states in the very first paragraph of Arthashastra that his work is
a treatise on science of politics.
Before understanding Kautilya’s Arthashastra, one should know the concept of
four Purusharthas which are goals of human life or aims and objectives of a soul.
They are dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (desire) and moksha
(emancipation of soul). The times before Kautilya were dominated by dharma
(promoted by religion) and regulated by Dharmashastra. Pursuit of dharma was
superior to three other goals of life. However, with Arthashastra, pursuit of artha
became an end in itself while other three aims of life were subservient to it.
Kautilya separated polity from religion, something similar that happened in 16th
century Europe when supremacy of religion was challenged by state’s authority.
Dharmashastra pertains to more social, moral and religious aspects while
Arthashastra is more political and economic in nature. It is similar to Nitishastra
as both are policy oriented and give due importance to discipline, punishment and
sanction.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
122 the unit.
 1) Differentiate between Dharmashastra and Arthashastra. Kautilya State and
Duties of Kingship
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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7.3 KAUTILYA’S VIEWS ON STATE

Kautilya’s views on state are similar to what later came to be known as the social
contract theory of origin of state. He had argued that Matsya Nyaya, which is the
law of nature, needs to be eradicated. Matsya Nyaya means a bigger fish always
swallows the smaller fish. It can be seen as a state of anarchy where the powerful
dominate the weak. Similar views were later expressed by Thomas Hobbes.
Kautilya said that people want security and peace and that is why; they chose
Manu, as their king under the system of kingship. People agreed to pay one-sixth
of their food grains and one-tenth of other goods including gold as tax to the king
in return for a guarantee for their security. The king is duty bound to protect his
subjects and ensure their well-being. The king has the power to inflict danda
(punishment) to ensure order and stability in the society. The theory of state in
ancient India before Kautilya argued that the state has to uphold the laws of
Varnashram i.e. social laws based on traditions and customs. State had a
minimalist function to intervene in situations where these laws were not obeyed.
However, with Arthashstra, Kautilya broke this tradition and advocated that the
state could make laws of its own. If there is conflict between Dharamnayay of
state and Dharamshastra, the earlier would prevail.
Arthashastra could be used as a manual of statecraft by any king, it was mainly
meant for the vijigishu (one who wanted to conquer whole Indian subcontinent)
and such a king was described as chakravarti in later Buddhist texts. Kautilya
described structure of the state in his Saptanga theory or seven organs/elements
of state or seven prakriti. These are presented right at the beginning of Book 6.
The text structure of the Arthashstra as a whole follows the sequence of seven
elements, starting with Swami in Book 1. Amatya, janapada, durga, and kosa are
covered in Books 2 to 5. Danda and mitra are dealt with in Books 6 to 14.
Saptanga was not an original contribution of Kautilya as some earlier works have
referred to this theory. The seven elements combine to form a state. The state can
be compared to a living organism where individuals are regarded as its organs.
These individuals lose their essence if they are separated from the state while at
the same time, the state would also suffer if its organs or elements are damaged.
Like Aristotle, Kautilya also believed in organic theory of state. He said that
there cannot be a country without people and there is no kingdom without a
country. The seven elements of state as decribed by Kautilya as explained below.
123
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas 7.3.1 Swami or the King
The ruler is equivalent to the head in a human body. Kautilya did not believe in
divine origin of kinsgship. He believed it to be a human institution. An ideal
king, according to Kautilya is one who has the highest qualities of leadership,
intellect, energy and personal attributes. The leadership qualities a king should
have in order to attract followers include birth in a noble family, truthful,
prowess, intellect, righteous, disciplines, enthusiastic, being stronger than
neighbouring kings and having ministers of high quality. A king’s intellectual
qualities are reflected by desire to learn and to listen to others, grasping and
retaining truthful views and rejecting the false claims. As far as personal
attributes are concerned, a king should be eloquent and have a kind mind with
sharp intellect. He should be amenable to guidance. The king should be just in
both, rewarding and punishing. At the same time, he should eschew passion,
anger, greed, obstinacy, fickleness and backbiting. Kautilya’s political thought is
influenced by a patrimonial state in which authority is primarily based on the
personal power exercised by the ruler. The ruler’s competence in statecraft is
decisive for the power of the state and the welfare of the people. It should be
highlighted that for Kautilya, the king is the first and foremost important factor as
he is the independent variable while the other six elements of the state are
dependent variables. Kautilya said that the king and his rule encapsulate all the
elements of the state. State in Kautilya’s conception is an absolute monarchy, but
the monarch is not a despot who exercises unrestricted and arbitrary power.
Kautilya opined that punishment should be used judiciously if the king wants to
retain popular respect. Unjust exercise of authority could produce resistance and
may even lead to revolt. The ruler is committed to welfare of the people which
guarantees popular support for his rule ensuring political stability. According to
Kautilya, a king who follows his duty of protecting his people justly as per the
law goes to heaven, unlike the one who inflicts unjust punishment and does not
protect his subjects. Kautilya’s kingship could be called a system of benevolent
monarchy. Some of the main duties assigned to the king by Kautilya are:
 Ensuring people’s welfare and give due assistance to pregnant women,
orphans, newly born, destitute and the elderly. According to Kautilya, a
king’s happiness lies in the welfare of his subjects.
 To maintain dharma or prescribed duties of all human being.
 To protect his subjects from internal and external threats.
 Protection of people from eight types of calamities – famine, fire, flood
and drought, epidemic, rats and locusts etc., snakes and aquatic dangers,
wild animals like tigers and crocodiles and evil spirits.
 Maintenance of law and order in the state.
 To ensure universal and free education for all the citizens based on Vedic
system.
 To display Atma vrata (self-control) and to do this, the king had to
abandon six enemies – kama (lust), krodha (anger), lobha (greed), mana
124 (vanity), mada (haughtiness), and harsha (overjoy).
7.3.2 Amatya or the Minister Kautilya State and
Duties of Kingship
Amatya represents eyes of the state. Kautilya argued that the minister with the
highest rank should be born in a high family and should be a native of the state.
He should be under the control of the king. Further, he must be trained in all the
arts and should be far sighted. He should be firmly loyal and endure adversaries
through qualities like boldness, bravery, intelligence and should be energetic. The
council of ministers is needed to provide stable and systematic administration.
Highest grade appointments were given to ministers who had all the requisite
qualities. Low grade ministries were given to ministers who were less qualified.
Apart from the king, there are three top positions in the council of ministers – the
mantri or the prime minister (closest political advisor of the king), the
commander-in-chief (involved in military planning and conduct of foreign
policy) and the crown prince who alternates between political and military
assignments. These four posts form the supreme body of political deliberations.
After them, there are posts like minister of finance, the chief justice, the head of
public administration etc. Kautilya did not fix the number of ministers which
depends on requirement.

7.3.3 Janpada or the People

Janpada represents the legs of the state and includes both, territory and
population of the state. The people should be prosperous while the territory
should have fertile lands, mines, forests and water bodies etc. The demographic
and economic base of the Kautilyan state is the rural population. Vast majority of
the population lives in the countryside engaged in agriculture and crafts. Small
farmers from shudra caste are the main agriculturalists in Kautilya’s state who
have their own land or are tenants. Under land reclamation policy, Kautilya
favours allotment of land to shudra peasants for cultivation. More land under
cultivation would increase state’s economic capacity. Forests are located in the
countryside which has economic and strategic significance. Forests provide
timber, charcoal, dyes, medicines and bamboo leaves etc. Forests also serve as
habitats for elephants which are used for civilian and military purposes. A state
should have well-trained war elephants. Kautilya believed that the rural
population has a stronger physical and mental make-up than the urban population
and that is why; he did not approve of the urban style entertainment like alcohol
consumption and gambling for the countryside.

7.3.4 Durga or the Fort

Durga represents the arms of a state. Security of treasury and army would depend
on fortification of the state. Kautilya says that on the frontiers of the country,
every quarter will have a fort well equipped to defend against the enemies. In
total, four forts shall be constructed in places that are naturally suited for defence.
A land fort is the easiest to capture while a river fort is more difficult. A fort
situated on a mountain is most difficult to capture. Kautilya has detailed many
types of forts in Arthashastra.
125
 Audak fort is surrounded by water body.
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas
 Parvat fort is built amidst high mountains. These forts play an important
part while defending against an external attack.
 Dhanvan fort is surrounded by desert.
 Van fort is situated amidst dense forest. Kautilya further says that the
capital should be built at the centre of the kingdom and it should be
divided in four districts, one for each caste.

7.3.5 Kosha or Treasury

Kosha is considered as the mouth of the state. Kautilya opined that the wealth of
the state shall be acquired lawfully, either by inheritance or by king’s own efforts
consisting of gold, gems and silver. The wealth should be enough to allow the
country to withstand a calamity, even if the calamity is of longer duration in
which there is no income generated. Treasury is located in the fortified capital
which is used to finance the army, the royal court and the state apparatus. Good
financial resources can improve the poor status of armed forces, but a powerful
army cannot survive without money. The main tax of Kautilyan state is the tax in
kind, one-sixth of agricultural production output goes to the state. Kautilya also
recommends special levies to be charged on alcohol, gambling, road tolls, sale of
jewellery, commercial sexual services etc. He also cautioned that excessive
taxation is economically and politically counterproductive which would lower
economic output and pauperise the people.

7.3.6 Danda or Sena or Coercive Power of State (Armed

Forces, Secret Service and Police)
Sena is equivalent to brain in a human body. The soldiers should be strong,
obedient, not averse to long expeditions, with powers of endurance, skill in
handling all weapons and experience of many battles. They should keep their
wives and sons contented. They should have no interest other than that of the
king and should share his prosperity and adversity. A strong army is required to
ward off internal and external threats to a country. Kautilya has described six
types of army.
 Clan army: Constitutes of hereditary soldiers like kshatriyas, as son of a
soldier becomes a soldier. Kautilya gives maximum importance to this
type of army. Such soldiers are loyal to the king and know different types
of war strategies.
 Hired soldiers or militia army. Mobilisation of militia army is time
consuming compared to a standing army.
 An army constituted by the corporations.
 An army raised by recruiting the assistance of friendly countries.
 A fighting unit made up of prisoners of war i.e. enemy soldiers caught
during a war.
 An army made up of tribal people.

Coercive power of state includes the army, secret service and the police. The
126
commander-in-chief or senapati belongs to the inner most circle of the king and
is responsible for military strategic planning and conduct of military operations Kautilya State and
Duties of Kingship
during a war. Arthashastra highlights a well developed defence industry where
state run manufacturers produce military equipments like chariots, siege engines,
tents, trolleys etc. Kautilya did not comment on naval warfare as he did not say
anything about a sea-going navy. Army, according to Kautilya, is divided in four
services – infantry, cavalry, chariots and war elephants. Kautilya has highlighted
four basic forms of warfare.
 Mantra-yuddha: war by counsel or use of diplomacy by a weaker king
who finds it unwise to fight against a strong adversary.
 Prakash-yuddha: regular warfare where opposing armies fight according
to established rules and regulations.
 Kuta-yuddha: irregular warfare including ambushes and raids in enemy
territory.
 Tusnim-yuddha: includes covert operations like sabotage and targeted
killings.

Kautilya advises that if the war becomes inevitable, efforts should be made to
avoid a prolonged war and offensive is recommended in case there is
overwhelming superiority over an already weakened opponent. He favoured
tusnim-yuddha or covert war where mental faculties like intelligence, foresight,
psychological skills and ingenuity matter. Kautilya had also given due
importance to elaborate system of spies in the kingdom. They would keep an eye
on the working of ministers and any type of adverse public opinion against the
king and also information about other kingdoms. A spy could be in a disguise of
kapatik (disciple), udasthita (recluse), griha paitik (house holder), vaidehak
(merchant), tapas (ascetic), satri (classmate or a colleague), tikshana (firebrand),
rasada (a poison specialist) and bhikshuki (a mendicant woman).

7.3.7 Mitra or Ally/Friend

A mitra represents ears of a state. According to Kautilya, an ideal ally is one who
is a friend of the family for a long time, constant and powerful in support,
amenable to control, shares a common interest, can mobilise his army quickly
and is not someone who would double cross his friends. Kautilya says that the
king should focus on strengthening first six elements of the state. In the modern
international relations lexicon, it would mean internal balancing, as the state tries
to gain strength purely on its internal resources. If a state’s resources are
underdeveloped compared to other states, Kautilya advises that state to have
external alliances in order to have time for internal development. The alliance can
be terminated if the state has reached a position where it is not weak in
comparison to other states or if the alliance hampers internal development of the
state. In Kautilya’s scheme of things, a best friend is the state that gives up its
own sovereignty and becomes a vassal state. Like this, the external ally
effectively becomes an internal factor by accepting the status of a vassal state.

127
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) What are the duties of a king as prescribed by Kautilya?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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7.4 COMPARISONS WITH WESTERN POLITICAL

THINKERS
7.4.1 Kautilya and Plato
There are constant comparisons between Oriental and Occidental thinkers.
Kautilya on one hand is often compared to his Western counterparts (Occidental)
thinkers like Plato, Aristotle and Machiavelli. There are similarities between
Kautilya and Plato.
 Both the thinkers thought that the state should be ruled by the learned and
elites, an idea which does not endorse democracy.
 Plato favored slavery while in Kautilya’s Arthashastra, caste system has
been maintained. Functional specialisation was important to their concept
of social structure. Plato never discussed slavery formally and his views
need to be extracted from some remarks made by him in his works, the
Republic and the Laws.
 They also share their contempt towards common man. Plato said that
common man is nothing but a bundle of appetites, while Kautilya said
that common man is inconsistent and unsteady.
 Kautilya advocated conquest of senses (indriyajayah) which is similar to
Plato’s concept of virtue which favors conquest of self or the inner
enemy.
 Both prefer their king to be from the military class. Plato’s guardian is
kshtriya swami of Kautilya.

There were some differences as well between the two ancient stalwarts. Plato
favoured the aristocrats to do two functions, to rule and do intellectual activity.
On the other hand, Kautilya wanted Brahmins to do intellectual activity while the
rule would be done by the kshtriya king. Plato was a philosopher, while Kautilya
was a seasoned politician apart from being a philosopher. Kautilya has made
128
substantial contribution to the field of diplomacy and foreign policy, while these Kautilya State and
Duties of Kingship
aspects did not find much mention in Plato’s works.

7.4.2 Kautilya and Aristotle

Both the thinkers were almost contemporary of each other. The other similarities
between them are:
 Aristotle and Kautilya were teachers of successful kings. Kautilya was
teacher of Chandra Gupta Maurya while Aristotle was tutor of Alexander
the Great.
 Both of them believed in the organic theory of state.
 They had similar views regarding republican states. Aristotle advocated
thoughtfulness, good conduct and well trained citizens. He also said that
the state should be organized to develop a class of virtuous men and
philosophers who could assert supremacy of reason. Kautilya also
attached importance to the king to preserve solidarity of the state. He also
emphasized the importance of the individual and the value of human
endeavor to secure best life under the king.
 Kautilya and Aristotle have discussed economics and sociology of
slavery. Both supported the institution of slavery. Kautilya, at the same
time, prescribed punishment for practicing slavery and seems more liberal
than Aristotle.

Similarities not withstanding; there are many differences between Kautilya and
Aristotle. Aristotle gave a definite concept of the origin of state, while Kautilya
was more interested in statecraft and how to make the state stronger. Aristotle
defended slavery on psychological grounds, but that was not the case with
Kautilya. Aristotle even condemned and denounced accumulation of wealth
while Kautilya supported it as it was the basis of kama and dharma.

7.4.3 Kautilya and Machiavelli

Kautilya’s Arthashastra has much in common with two books written on kingship
by Niccolo Machiavelli, Prince and the Discourses. They pursue the same value,
how a prince can acquire, maintain and enlarge his power. They also champion
the cause of centralised monarchy against all forms of government. Ironically,
Kautilya is often called Indian Machiavelli despite the fact that the Arthashastra
was written some 1800 years prior to Machiavelli’s works and remains much
broader in scope. The denial of legitimate importance to Kautilya and his works
points towards the prevailing Eurocentrism in political science and international
relations. Compared to Machiavelli, Kautilya’s conceptualisation of state power
is systematic and comprehensive. Machiavelli had basic understanding of the
elements of state power and how to measure it. He, however, failed to form a
systematic and coherent theory of state power which could parallel Kautilya’s
saptanga theory. Another difference between them pertains to use of morality by
the king. Kautilya said that a good ruler should also be a good man. On the other
hand, Machiavelli said that it is not necessary for a prince to have virtues, but it is 129
Political Concerns very necessary to seem to have them. Kautilya did not subordinate ethics to
and Key Ideas
politics and barring certain conditions, he advised the king to uphold morality
and good behaviour. In Kautilya, separation between politics and morality is
unimaginable and political power acquires legitimacy so far it promotes human
happiness. Machiavelli believed that morality and power are mutually exclusive.
Machiavelli had asked the prince to adopt two qualities of animals, bravery of
lion and cunningness of fox. Kautilya, in his other work, Rajnitishastra, advised
the king to learn twenty qualities from twenty different animals. For ex, from a
lion, the king should learn to undertake a task well-prepared irrespective of the
fact whether the task is big or small. From the cock, the king should learn four
things – getting up in time, fighting, division of responsibility among allies and
enjoyment of one’s prey after attacking it oneself. Qualities like bravery,
devotion to master and quick awakening could be learnt from the dog. It is not
clear whether Machiavelli was influenced by Kautilya, but a trans-cultural
migration of Kautilyan thought via Iranian and Arab cultural space to Europe is
not impossible to imagine.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) What are the similarities in the works of Kautilya and Plato?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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7.5 ASSESSMENT
Arthashastra was of the same vintage as Aristotle’s Politics and unlike Plato and
Aristotle, Arthashastra is broader in scope and approach. It embraces all the
aspects of political, military, social, economic and cultural life and diverse
components of state power that are the constitutive elements of the state.
However, there is no dearth of Kautilya’s critics. Banabhatta in his work,
Kadambari, had criticised Arthashastra for being shrewd and immoral.
Vijnaneshvara in his work, Mitakshara said that a king should follow
Dharamshastra for welfare of the people, not Arthashastra. Debates aside,
Kautilya should be rightly regarded as the father of Indian political science as his
work is a treatise on science of politics. In modern times, however, all elements
of the state given by Kautilya may not be necessary for the existence of a state. In
the modern conception of state, elements like the king or the sovereign, territory
130
and population only are needed for a state’s existence. Amatya or the minister
would form part of the government in contemporary context. There is a tendency Kautilya State and
Duties of Kingship
to dismiss Kautilya’s state as a police state, but one cannot dismiss welfare
functions of Kautilya’s state. He also declared independent status of polity
separating religion from it. Kautilya argued for a benevolent monarchy instead
of any other form of government to achieve stability and solidarity in the state.
He was not a votary of democracy and in contemporary times, one may wonder
how Kautilya would deal with issues like difference of opinion, gender, diversity,
human rights etc.

7.6 LET US SUM UP

Kautilya is the father of Indian political science; however, his works have not
been given due importance and analysis has not been done not only in India, but
also outside India as well. Ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle
continue to dominate classic political thought while Kautilya remains on the
fringes reflecting Eurocentrism on political science and international relations.
Long before the West witnessed separation of state and church under modernity
in 16th century, Kautilya had already advocated independent status of polity away
from religion. His saptanga theory is a systematic and coherent theory of state
power which was unmatched by Machiavelli. He may not have advocated
democracy, but Kautilya said that the welfare of the people was central to
stability and security of a kingdom. Kautilya’s figure stands tallest amongst the
community of Indian political scientists and there is a need to further analyse his
works in contemporary context.

7.7 REFERENCES
 Mitra, Subrata K & Michael Liebig. (2017). Kautilya’s Arthashastra: An
Intellectual Portrait – The Classical Roots of Modern Politics in India.
New Delhi: Rupa Publishing India Pvt Ltd.
 Padhy, K. S. (2011). Indian Political Thought. New Delhi: PHI Learning
Pvt Ltd.
 Rangarajan, L.N. (1992). Kautilya: The Arthashastra. New Delhi:
Penguin Books India (P) Ltd.
 Sil, Narasingha P. (1985). Kautilya’s Arthashastra: A Comparative Study.
New Delhi: Academic Publishers.
 Singh, M. P. (2017). Kautilya: Theory of State in Himanshu Roy and M P
Singh (eds). Indian Political Thought– Theme and Thinkers. Noida:
Pearson India Education Services Pvt Ltd.

7.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Your answer should highlight following points 131
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas
 Dharmashastra covers social, moral and religious aspects
 Arthashastra is more political and economic in nature

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Your answer should highlight following points
 Ensure public welfare
 Maintain dharma
 Maintain law and order
 Protect people from threats and calamities

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Your answer should highlight following points
 Both prefer rule by elites
 Contempt towards common man
 Prefer king to be from the military class

132
 Kautilya Mandala
*
UNIT 8 KAUTILYA MANDALA THEORY Theory

Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concept of Mandala
8.2.1 Peace Politics or Upayas
8.2.2 War Tactics or Shadgunyas
8.2.3 Role of Envoys
8.2.4 Role of Spies
8.3 Views on National Security
8.4 Realism and Kautilya
8.5 Glimpses of Arthashastra in India’s Foreign Policy
8.6 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 References
8.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading Kautilya’s views on state in the last unit, students would be
introduced to his views on diplomacy and statecraft in this unit. Centuries may
have passed but Kautilya’s views on foreign policy continue to find a place in
India’s contemporary engagement with the world. After studying this unit, you
should be able to:
 Comprehend Kautilya’s views on foreign policy of a state
 Describe the six methods in foreign policy (Shadgunyas)
 Examine Mandala theory and its contemporary relevance

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Interstate relations and foreign policy find a prominent place in Kautilya’s
Arthashastra. He has tried to explain the dynamics of interstate relations through
his mandala theory. Kautilya has also explained upayas (peace politics) and
shadgunyas (six war tactics). These were operational tips to the conqueror to

*
Dr Raj Kumar Sharma, Maharishi Kanad Post Doc Fellow, Delhi School of
Transnational Affairs, University of Delhi

133
Political Concerns conduct his foreign relations in times of peace and war. He also emphasised that
and Key Ideas a king should have a detailed system of diplomatic relations with different states
and insisted on a sound system of espionage or intelligence to protect the state
from internal and external threats. Kautilya argued that welfare of a state depends
on its active foreign policy and he highlighted that there are links between the
domestic factors and foreign policy of a state. He emphasised an active foreign
policy which could used by a king to further his kingdom’s interests. Apart from
highlighting Kautilya’s views on foreign policy, this unit would also underline
his arguments with respect to national security, a theme which is of critical
importance in contemporary international politics dominated by geo-political
interests.

8.2 CONCEPT OF MANDALA

Mandala is a Sanskrit word which means circle. Indians have ascribed pictorial
characteristics to the universe representing it in essential form. Mandala projects
the world in terms of geometry. Kautilya used the shape of mandala to develop a
political geometry that accounts for different political realities. In the seventh
book of Arthashastra, he described international relations as a mandala system. It
was not a new concept given by Kautilya as it was earlier discussed by Manu and
there were indirect references to it in Rigveda. However, it was Kautilya who
gave a comprehensive theory of mandala for security and survival of state.
Kautilya argued that acquiring power and its expansion is the main aim of any
state. He argued that power and success are inter-related. Power and success
resulting from its use are of three types. Intellectual strength (mantra shakti)
gives the power of good counsel; a prosperous treasury and a strong army give
physical power (prabhav shakti) and valour is the basis of morale and energetic
action (utsah shakti). The success resulting from each one is, correspondingly,
intellectual, physical and psychological. Kautilya further said that conducting
relations with a state would require special insight and skill. He gave importance
to geography and economic foundations of a state. In ancient India, due to lack of
advanced means of transport and communications, there could not be a central
government which could extend its control in far-off areas. India was divided in a
number of small states and each state was tempted to annex its neighbours.
Strong states would try to expand their territory while the weaker ones would try
to maintain their independence by paying tribute to them. Kautilya described
foreign policy of small states constantly at war with each other and not of big
empires like the Mauryan. Kautilya listed six guiding principles of foreign policy
as listed below.
 A king would enhance resources and power of his kingdom to embark
upon a campaign of conquest
 Enemies to be eliminated
 Cultivation of allies
 Adoption of prudent course of action
 Peace to be preferred to war
134
 King must behave as just in both, victory and defeat
The central premise of the Mandala theory lies in locating the position of a Kautilya Mandala
Theory
kingdom as an enemy or ally with respect to the intending conqueror and the
kingdom’s spatial placement in the mandala. Kautilya treats the vijigishu (the
conqueror or the ambitious king) as the reference point of the mandala theory
and advocates four basic circles. In the first circle, there are three primary kings
forming a circle, the vijigishu, his friend and his friend’s friend. Each one of them
possesses the five elements of sovereignty, such as the amatya, the janapada, the
durga, the kosha and the danda. Hence, a circle of states would comprise of 18
elements (3 primary kings plus five elements of each which is equal to 15). This
also applies to three other circles of states - ari (enemy of the vijigishu), the
madhyama (the indifferent king) and the udasina (the neutral king) kings forming
the core of each of the three circles. Finally, the mandala theory would consist of
four primary circles of states, 12 kings, 60 elements of sovereignty and 72
elements of states. The 12 kingdoms are shown in the figure below.

Source: www.thetruepicture.org
 Vijigishu: The king who aspires to be the conqueror
 Ari: Shares border with Vijigishu, an enemy
 Mitra: Friend or an ally of Vijigishu, shares border with ari
 Ari-Mitra: Friend of ari, shares border with mitra
 Mitra-Mitra : Friend or an ally of friend
 Ari Mitra-Mitra: Friend of enemy’s friend
 Parshnigraha: Enemy in the rear of the Vijigishu
 Aakranda: Friend in the rear behind Parshnigraha 135
Political Concerns  Parshnigraha-asara: Friend of Parshnigraha behind Aakranda
and Key Ideas
 Aakranda-asara: Friend of Aakranda behind Parshnigrahasara
 Madhyama: Indifferent kingdom
 Udasina: Neutral Kingdom

The four circles are explained as below.

 Circle 1: Vijigishu, his friend, friend’s friend
 Circle 2: Ari (enemy of vijigishu), his friend, friend’s friend
 Circle 3: Madhyama (the indifferent king), his friend, friend’s friend
 Circle 4: udasina (the neutral king), his friend, friend’s friend

The ordering principle of mandala scheme argues that a direct neighbour is an

enemy (ari) while an indirect neighbour is a friend (mitra). It is commonly
expressed as – enemy of my enemy is my friend. First and third circles would be
hostile to the vijigishu state while second and fourth would be friendly. It is not
an iron law and exceptions would always be there. The Madhyama or an
indifferent king in any of the circles could turn out to be an ally or an enemy and
intervene in favour of the victor by supporting him or decide to be neutral
(udasina) or an enemy (ari). The victor’s policy should be to turn as many of the
kings as possible into allies or take neutral position.

8.2.1 Peace Politics or Upayas

There are four upayas – sama (conciliation), dana (concession or gift), danda
(punishment) and bheda (dissension) to realise an objective or aim and they have
existed since the period of epics and the Dharmashastra. These upayas were to
be used in times of peace by the king in his foreign relations. He said that foreign
relations would be determined by self-interest, not by ethical concerns. Modern
states have been practicing what Kautilya had advocated but nobody would say
so. It is pertinent to mention that there is a hierarchy in use of these upayas in the
order as sama, dana, bheda while danda or use of force would be the last resort.
These tactics can be either used alone or in combination as well. In the case of
allies and enemies, a combination of these methods ensures success because the
different methods mutually reinforce each other. 20th century classic realist, Hans
J Morgenthau, in his book Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and
Peace, (1966) has given methods that can be used in balance of power. These
methods are similar to those echoed by Kautilya, but Morgenthau does not give
any reference of Kautilya. The methods discussed by him include divide and rule,
compensation, armaments and alliances. The four upayas given by Kautilya are
explained below.
 Sama: There are five meanings attached to sama or conciliation. One,
merit (actual or fictitious) of the target person is praised. Adulation is
used to soften up the counterpart to erode his will to resist. Pedigree,
personal qualities, occupation and good nature of the target are praised
either personally or to a third party. Second, mutual connections like
136 common kinship, ethnicity or social status and commonalities like taste
 and education are often invoked to psychologically disarm the opponent. Kautilya Mandala
Theory
Third, the counterpart is made to believe that cooperation with the
opponent is in his best interests. Fourth, benefits like material gains or
other advantages are highlighted to the opponent and lastly, concession
and compromise is promised to the opponent irrespective of the fact
whether it would really materialize or not. Giving a high rank or awarding
an honor is also a method of conciliation with a potential enemy.
 Dana: In case conciliation does not work out, one has to take recourse to
dana or gifts. It may include cash payments, valuables, making territorial
concessions or even handing over hostages. Doing a small favor to the
opponent is likely to make him obliged. Dana would mean a price is to be
paid for achieving one’s objectives but the price is to be kept as low as
possible to have a good deal. Dana should be combined with sama to
achieve effective results. Bribery could be one of the possible meanings
of dana and state could use small expenses to achieve bigger political and
economic gains. The state can prevent rebellions through bribery which
would save economic and military resources which could be diverted
towards foreign affairs.
 Bheda: The third upaya involves sowing discord, is also called divide and
rule. By using methods like selective preference or discrimination, actors
are isolated from each other and seeds of dissension are planted against
each other in their thought process. Alliances of states that threaten the
security of one’s own state should be broken or weakened. The attempt
should be to prevent formation of such alliances. The first three upayas,
sama, dana and bheda refrain from the use of force, but not the threat of
use of force.
 Danda: It is the use of force or punishment and in inter-state relations, it
means war. War is very risky and costly and that is why; Kautilya
preferred covert actions – tusnim-yuddha. Sabotage and assassinations of
leaders of a rival country are an effective means to achieve one’s own
state interests. Covert operations have low cost while they can achieve
bigger gains. Kautilya highlighted normative concerns and said that only
those wars and covert actions are legitimate which aim for political
unification of Indian subcontinent. Wars for mere plunder or
indiscriminate destruction are morally reprehensible.

8.2.2 War Tactics or Shadgunyas

In Book 7 of the Arthashastra, Kautilya has argued that a state has six options to
carry out its foreign policy and they are applicable in different set of
circumstances. He wanted to politically unite the Indian subcontinent in the same
way as Machiavelli wanted Italy’s political unification and liberation from
foreign domination. Kautilya did not argue for military conquest of states
bordering Indian subcontinent and he did not even mention any kind of maritime
expansion. War and peace are two extremes and depending on certain
circumstances, the king shall try to achieve either of them. The would-be 137
Political Concerns conqueror shall apply the six methods with due regard to his power. He shall
and Key Ideas make peace with an equally powerful or stronger king; he shall wage war against
a weaker king. A king would go to a war if he has military superiority, if enemy’s
undertakings are about to collapse due to a calamity or a part of enemy’s
kingdom can be conquered as he is busy fighting elsewhere. Kautilya classified
war into three categories – open war where time and place to fight are pre-
decided, secret war is a sudden assault and undeclared war using covert
operations. On the other hand, a king would try to achieve progress through
peace if he can turn enemy’s allies against him, if the king and his rival have
grown or declined equally in a same period of time or the king can ruin enemy’s
undertakings by covert operations etc. When the degree of progress is the same in
pursuing peace and waging a war, peace is to be preferred. For, in war, there are
disadvantages such as losses, expenses and absence from home. If the state
factors of an enemy are destroyed, they cannot be seized and appropriated by the
victorious power which is the true aim of fighting a war for Kautilya. That is
why; Kautilya speaks of injuring or weakening an enemy, but not its annihilation
or destruction. If an enemy’s prakriti is destroyed beyond its fighting capability,
it would be counter-productive for the victor. Kautilya said that the constituent
elements or the seven prakritis is the basis of shadgunyas. In foreign relations,
the ratio between the power potential (prakriti aggregate) of two or more states is
decisive and before making foreign policy decisions, the ruler and his advisers
should ascertain relative weaknesses and strengths of their kingdom. To know the
capabilities of opponents, Kautilya laid emphasis on secret service. Based on this
assessment, there are six foreign policy options in front of a king as explained
below.
 Sandhi or peace: If the king is in a weaker position in relation to his
adversary, a policy of peace and accommodation is prescribed. This time
period of peace would be used by the king to build military capabilities to
move from a position of inferiority to strength. New foreign policy
options would open up once strong capabilities are attained.
 Vigraha or war: This policy is prescribed if the king has military
superiority over its rivals as war can be won without too much loss. The
king should only destroy the fighting capability of the opponent, not its
prakriti. The winner should treat the defeated with generosity and
leniency.
 Asana or neutrality/wait and watch: Policy of asana is prescribed by
Kautilya if the rival of a king has equal power potential. Again, neutrality
buys time for the king to upgrade his military capabilities and as that is
achieved, the king should switch to active and offensive foreign policy.
 Yana or coercion: If the king’s adversaries decline or stagnate while the
king grows stronger, he should follow the policy of coercion and military
mobilization. Covert operations could be used to obtain far reaching
concessions from the enemy and his surrender could be ensured even
without fighting a war.
138
  Samshrya or alliance: If the king does not see a possibility of surpassing Kautilya Mandala
Theory
the capabilities of an adversary in the near future, than he should have an
alliance with other states. It would be a defensive alliance, but the king
should work to make it offensive against the common adversary.

 Dvaidhibhava or duplicity: Depending on a variety of complex situations

and configurations, Kautilya has prescribed a policy of diplomatic double
game. This policy is very demanding with respect to intelligence,
deception, foresight and psychological aspects.

8.2.3 Role of Envoys

Envoy or duta was responsible for conducting diplomacy with other kingdoms.
They were deployed in courts of other rulers and played an important part in
conducting foreign policy. The envoys belonged to a noble family and were well
versed in all types of sciences. They required a good memory in order to recall
their conversations with important people in foreign kingdom. The envoys were
divided in different categories depending on their qualities. The top most envoys
had the power to negotiate on behalf of their king and they stayed in the country
of their accreditation for a longer time to tilt the balance of power in favour of his
king. Others could not exceed the brief given by the king while the lower most
were mere messengers who would pass on the king’s message and fetch the
reply. Certain immunities were enjoyed by the envoys like they could not be
killed, had freedom of movement in the state and were exempted from paying
ferry and custom duties. The king was advised by Kautilya to keep an eye on the
envoys through spies and guards. Duties of the envoy included the following.
 Sending information to his king
 Ensuring maintenance of the terms of a treaty
 Upholding his king's honor
 Acquiring allies
 Instigating dissension among the friends of the enemy
 Acquiring clandestinely gems and other valuable material for his own
king
 Ascertaining secret information and showing valor in liberating hostages
held by the enemy

8.2.4 Role of Spies

Kautilya favoured a highly developed system of espionage and intelligence
gathering and their utility in some cases exceeded that of the envoys. Intelligence
was the most important activity during the war. Any information corroborated by
three different spies shall be taken to be true while any agent who was
consistently unreliable shall be eliminated. There were agents who were based in
one place like the intelligence officer, spies under the cover of monks, merchants
or ascetics. Another type of agents was that of roving agents like the assassin or
the secret agent. There were double agents also who spied for two kings. The 139
Political Concerns king should make efforts to uncover enemy agents operating in his territory. The
and Key Ideas intelligence was transmitted by a code and the transmitters would not know the
identity of the information gatherer.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) Discuss Kautilya’s views about Sandhi or peace.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2) What are the duties of an envoy?
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8.3 VIEWS ON NATIONAL SECURITY

It was the duty of a king to protect his subjects from internal and external threats.
To ensure this, an army was needed. In defending the kingdom from external
threats, Kautilya has highlighted four basic forms of warfare.
 Mantra-yuddha: war by counsel or use of diplomacy by a weaker king
who finds it unwise to fight against a strong adversary.
 Prakash-yuddha: regular warfare where opposing armies fight according
to established rules and regulations.
 Kuta-yuddha: irregular warfare including ambushes and raids in enemy
territory
 Tusnim-yuddha: includes covert operations like sabotage and targeted
killings. He favoured this type of war where mental faculties like
intelligence, foresight, psychological skills and ingenuity matter.

Apart from the physical defence of the kingdom, Kautilya also advised to prevent
internal threats like rebellion, treachery and revolts. It was rare in his times, but
140 Kautilya adopted a multi-pronged strategy towards national security. In the
domestic policy, the king should follow dharma or the ethical code while in the Kautilya Mandala
Theory
foreign policy; national interest is supreme with no room for idealism. By
advising the king to keep the welfare of people a top priority, Kautilya argued
that threats like hunger and epidemics should be prevented. He argued that
famine affects the whole country and deprives the people of their livelihood.
Kautilya explained that a drought had twin impacts on the economy. First, supply
shock would create unemployment which would decrease tax revenue. Second,
decline in tax revenue would reduce government’s spending on public
infrastructure and reduce growth in future income. Lower tax revenue would also
reduce spending on defence. Hence, Kautilya linked economic prosperity with
national security and advised the king to keep the economy in good health to
ensure national security. He articulated the concept of Yogakshema, a
combination of peace, prosperity and security. It was to be realised through
dharma, danda and family (basic unit of society). Health risks and food
insecurity are non-traditional security threats to any country in the contemporary
context and Kautilya’s emphasis on them in those times shows his
farsightedness. He raised the quality of being farsightedness to the level of
national security. He argued that a king should be farsighted enough to avail
himself of the opportunities to right time, place and type of action. Similarly, he
said that a minister should have logical ability to foresee things. Farsightedness
would help the king in preparing for a potential threat well in advance.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) What is the concept of Yogakshema?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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8.4 REALISM AND KAUTILYA

Despite having intrinsic theoretical value in international politics, Arthashastra
has been largely ignored not only in India, but outside as well. Kautilya can be
easily considered as the pre-modern founding father of theory of Political
Realism later expressed by Machiavelli and Morgenthau. Roger Boesche in his
book written in 2002, The First Great Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra,
has argued that Kautilya was the first great, unrelenting political realist. Max
Weber saw no role for any type of ideology in Arthashastra and talked about
141
Political Concerns Kautilya’s trained ability to relentlessly gaze at realities of life. Some of the
and Key Ideas realist foundations in Arthashastra are:
 National interest being paramount in foreign policy
 Anarchic nature of inter-state relations
 Centrality of power in international politics

Classic realist, Morgenthau identifies ancient political philosophy from Greece,

China and India as the starting point of his theory. The methods discussed by him
to maintain a favourable balance of power include divide and rule, compensation,
armaments and alliances which are similar to four upayas given by Kautilya. The
Peloponnesian War written by Thucydides is usually seen as the starting point of
Political Realism, but it must be mentioned that this book is a historical narrative
that mentions realist thought by implication only. Henry Kissinger saw Kautilya
as a combination of Machiavelli and Clausewitz. Clausewitz said that war is just
an extension of domestic politics; Kautilya said that diplomacy is really a subtle
act of war, a series of actions taken to weaken an enemy and gain advantages for
oneself, all to achieve the final aim of conquest. Another important point is that
Arthashastra is generally perceived as a realist treatise, an interpretation that
heavily depends on Western theoretical frameworks. It is very often forgotten
that Arthashastra frequently uses the word dharma which stands for morality or
righteousness. It is not possible for a text not to have normative and moral
foundations which cites dharma as part of governance and daily life. Kautilya’s
approach comes out as a holistic mix of idealism and realism.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1) Discuss the realist ideas given in Arthashastra.
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8.5 GLIMPSES OF ARTHASHSTRA IN INDIA’S

FOREIGN POLICY
There has been a visible impact of Kautilyan thought on evolution of independent
India’s foreign policy, although it has been a slow and gradual process. There has
been an eclectic mix of idealism and realism in India’s foreign policy. India’s
142 first Prime Minister, J L Nehru followed an idealist foreign policy with emphasis
on themes like anti-colonialism, disarmament, non-alignment, Panchsheel etc.
However, he followed a realist policy in India’s neighbourhood where he sought Kautilya Mandala
Theory
to project India as the main power in Indian subcontinent. The realist turn started
in India’s foreign policy after the 1962 war with China. In 1971, under PM Indira
Gandhi, India exercised wit and finesse by signing a Treaty of Friendship with
the erstwhile Soviet Union to safeguard its sovereignty against the US-China-
Pakistan nexus and India successfully helped in bifurcation of Pakistan as an
independent state of Bangladesh was born. India began to understand the value of
military power in international politics and India’s acquired nuclear power in
1998. A state that does not back its diplomacy with military and economic power
cannot protect its national interest. To increase its influence at the global level,
India wants to be a permanent member of UN Security Council. India’s strategic
partners like the US, France, Germany, Russia etc have been instrumental in
getting India membership in three export control regimes except Nuclear
Suppliers Group. China’s rise is a foreign policy challenge for India and New
Delhi is building its defence capabilities keeping in mind the long-term threat
posed by Beijing to India’s security. India takes pride in its civilisation and
cultural heritage reflected in its multicultural and inclusive ethos. China, on the
other hand, is driven by Middle Kingdom mentality to dominate the world. India
is standing up against China and to do so in future, New Delhi will require
substantial hard power to deter China. Some of India’s relations can be
understood using Kautilyan thought. His famous saying that an enemy of my
enemy is a friend is applicable to China-Pakistan relationship as both the nations
see India as a common enemy. Since China is an enemy of India and Pakistan
sees India as an enemy, hence, Pakistan has cultivated an all weather relationship
with China. During the Cold War, China remained India’s adversary and the
former Soviet Union became an enemy of China, hence, India and Soviet Union
came closer. India’s membership in new groupings like the Quadrilateral Security
Group or Quad is an attempt to balance China and alliance against a common
enemy as was suggested by Kautilya.

8.6 LET US SUM UP

Kautilya’s Arthashastra is a pioneering work in diplomacy and strategic studies.
His contribution to international relations theory has not received the desired
attention. Kautilya gave importance to geography and economic foundations of a
state in conducting its foreign policy. He articulated the concept of Yogakshema,
a combination of peace, prosperity and security to be realised through dharma,
danda and family. It was rare in his times, but Kautilya adopted a multi-pronged
strategy towards national security covering traditional and non-traditional
security threats. The four upayas and shadgunya principles were important in
carrying out foreign policy of a country. Kautilya is widely seen as a realist
thinker, but he frequently mentions dharma in Arthashastra. A holistic reading of
his work reveals that Kautilyan thought was a mix of idealism and realism. His
vision continues to guide India’s foreign policy even in the 21st century.

143
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas 8.7 REFERENCES
 Boesche, Roger. (2002). The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and
His Arthashastra. Maryland: Lexington Books.
 Mitra, Subrata K & Michael Liebig. (2017). Kautilya’s Arthashastra: An
Intellectual Portrait – The Classical Roots of Modern Politics in India.
New Delhi: Rupa Publishing India Pvt Ltd.
 Rangarajan, L.N. (1992). Kautilya: The Arthashastra. New Delhi:
Penguin Books India (P) Ltd.
 Shahi, Deepshikha. (2019). Kautilya and Non-Western IR Theory.
Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
 Sihag, Balbir Singh. (2014). Kautilya’s Proactive and Pragmatic
Approach to National Security. URL:
http://www.du.ac.in/du/uploads/events/20102014_Abstract.pdf
 Singh, M. P. (2017). Kautilya: Theory of State in Himanshu Roy and M P
Singh (eds). Indian Political Thought– Theme and Thinkers. Noida:
Pearson India Education Services Pvt Ltd.

8.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Your answer should highlight following points
 If the king is in a weaker position in relation to its adversary, a policy of
peace and accommodation is prescribed
 This time period of peace would be used by the king to build military
capabilities to move from a position of inferiority to strength
 New foreign policy options would open up once strong capabilities are
attained

2) Highlight following points

 Sending information to his king
 Ensuring maintenance of the terms of a treaty
 Upholding his king's honor
 Acquiring allies
 Instigating dissension among the friends of the enemy

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Your answer should highlight following points
 It is a combination of peace, prosperity and security
 Achieved through dharma, danda and family (basic unit of society)
144
Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Kautilya Mandala
Theory
1) Your answer should highlight following points
 National interest being paramount in foreign policy
 Anarchic nature of inter-state relations
 Centrality of power in international politics

145
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas UNIT 9 DĪGHA NIKĀYA – THE IDEA OF
CHAKRAVARTIN*
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Scope of Dīgha Nikāya
9.2 Evolution of Political Ideas and Polity
9.3 Initial Phase: Origin of Kingship as Quasi Contractual Arrangement
9.3.1 Theory of ‘Great Elect’ (Mahasammat)
9.3.2 Implications
9.3.3 Psychological Foundations for Political Speculation
9.3.4 Nature of the Great Elect
9.4 Second Phase: All Powerful Monarchical State
9.4.1 Theories of Kingship
9.4.2 Traces of Republican States
9.4.3 Notion and Symbols of Sovereignty
9.4.4 Seven Symbols of Sovereignty
9.4.5 Ten Royal Virtues (dasa-rājadhamma)
9.4.6 Elements of Regalia
9.4.7 Buddhist Ideas on the Constituents of the State
9.4.8 Objectives of the State
9.4.9 Possibility of Abuse of Power by the State
9.5 Third Phase: The Idea of Chakravartin (Cakkavatti) and the State as an
Instrument of Dhamma
9.5.1 Dhamma and State
9.5.2 The ānā and Dhamma
9.5.3 The Ānā and Attha
9.5.4 State as Ethical Instrument of the Dhamma

*
Dr Ruchi Tyagi, Associate Professor, Kalindi College, University of Delhi

146
 9.5.5 The Idea of Cakkavatti Dīgha Nikāya
The Idea of
9.5.6 Normative Kingship and the Creation of a just Social Order Chakravartin
(Cakkavatti)
9.5.7 Absence of State Religion
9.6 Limitations of Śramanic idea of Kingship
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 References
9.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

9.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the ideas of Śramanic tradition.
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:
 Scope of Dīgha Nikāya
 Origin of Kingship in Dīgha Nikāya
 Evolution of Political Ideas and Polity
 The Idea of Chakravartin in Dīgha Nikāya
 Correlation between State and Dhamma

9.1 SCOPE OF DĪGHA NIKĀYA

Dīgha Nikāya is a collection of the dialogues, mostly of Buddha himself, as they
appear to his earliest disciples in a series of one hundred and eighty six
discourses which, according to Rhys Davids, will occupy a place in the history of
human thought similar to the Dialogues of Plato, the dialogues of Buddha, who is
also the principal interlocutor, in conversation with his disciples are arranged
according to their length. In the Sutta Pitaka or the Basket of discourses, there
are four great Nikāyas or collections, out of which the first two form a single
book and are collectively called Dīgha Nikāya, categorised in 34 long Suttas. Out
of these, the twenty seventh Agganna Sutta, is known for the evolution of
Buddhist thinking on the origin and the development of the state.
Buddhism is primarily understood as a religious and philosophical concept, but
Buddhism is equally concerned with the mundane and transcendental world.
Ideas of power and kingship seem out of context in early Buddhist philosophy.
Scholars like S.J. Tambiah were convinced that the king enjoyed significant
status in Buddhist philosophy, whereas others like Max Weber argued that it was
apolitical. There are scattered references to power and kingship in Pali scriptures,
but there is no direct theory supporting these references.

9.2 EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL IDEAS AND

POLITY
B.G. Gokhale has outlined the evolution of Buddhist thinking on the nature and
functions of the state in three distinct phases.
147
Political Concerns  The initial phase is contained in the theory on the origin of the state as it
and Key Ideas
emerges from the Mahāsammat story.
 The second stage deals with the possibility of as all powerful monarchical
despotism and a possible co-relationship between the two spheres of life,
i.e. the Dhamma and the ānā (the regal). Here, the ānā provides
protection and security to monasteries and Dhamma facilitated with
Vinaya rules and mass acceptance for royalty and regalia.
 The third stage reflects emergence of Dhamma as a cosmic force and the
state becoming an instrument of Dhamma, where the latter contains the
power of the state, while regulating its behaviour; where the state draws
its authority from the Dhamma and instructed by its depository, the
Saṃgha; hence, subscribing to the idea of Cakkavatti or the ideal
righteous ruler.

9.3 INITIAL PHASE: ORIGIN OF KINGSHIP AS

QUASI CONTRACTUAL ARRANGEMENT
While referring to Mandhata Jataka, N.C. Bandyapadhyaya (317) and Law (94)
have stated that the “chosen of all” have been considered the first king in the
beginning of creation. V.P. Varma is of the considered view that the theory of
the “Great Elect” was comprehensively discussed only in the Dīgha Nikāya [3-
Pathika Vagga, 27(4) Agganna Sutta], which he has considered as the ‘most
important book in the early Buddhist literature. The theory presents the
cosmological speculation of the early Buddhists.
Explaining the evolution of mankind, Ernest Gellner, as referred by Collins,
mentioned three historical stages of hunter-gatherers; agrarian society; and
industrial society. These stages are defined in relation to the means or their
absence of producing, accumulating and storing food and wealth; the forms of
coercion and legitimation which accompany them; and to the social distribution
and varieties of cognition. During 5th – 4th Centuries B.C., in Indian society,
Brahmanism was more strongly established in the countryside than in the rising
urban centres, where a competing plurality of ideologies were emerging. These
urban centres, which arose from and encouraged a food surplus, were the market,
military and administrative centres of small scale politics and not the
metropolitan capitals of large empires. These polities were ruled by oligarchies,
gradually turning into monarchies.

9.3.1 Theory of ‘Great Elect’ (Mahasammat)

[As narrated by Buddha and referred to by V.P. Varma (186-87)]
i. Description of primeval conditions: When this world began to re-evolve
after having passed away, it was inhabited by ‘being made of mind’, ‘feeding
on rapture’ (i.e. bliss, enthusiasm, carried away in spirit), ‘self-luminous’ (or
full of light) ‘traversing the air, continuing in glory.’ In this period, there was
148
 no distinction of sex. Beings were reckoned as beings only. It denoted subtle Dīgha Nikāya
body/mind and emancipating person. It was a state of soul and spirit. The Idea of
Chakravartin
ii. Introduction of element of water: After some time, the earth with its savour (Cakkavatti)
was spread out in waters. Some beings of greedy disposition tasted it and then
craving entered into them. When other beings began to feast on the earth,
their self-luminance declined. When it was gone, there was the manifestation
of the sun, the moon, followed by the appearance of stars, night, day, months,
half months, the seasons, the years etc. The beings continued for a long, while
feasting on the earth.
iii. Appearance of soil & rice: Due to the appearance of evil and immoral
customs, specially “pride in their beauty,” vanity and conceit, the savoury
earth disappeared. After its disappearance outgrowths of the soil appeared, it
was clothed with colour, odour and taste. The beings feasted on the
outgrowths for a long. Being well nourished, the differences in their beauty,
which became more manifest and as a result generated pride and conceit. Due
to the growth of pride, the outgrowths disappeared. Then creepers appeared,
the beings fed on them for a long. Later, they also vanished due to the same
phenomena of vanity and conceit. Then rice appeared and also sex
differences. People divided off rice fields and set the boundaries creating
‘private property’, which, in turn, caused the appearance of evil & immoral
customs; one’s notion of one-self; and pride in beauty and conceit.
iv. Stealing appeared: Some greedy person stole another’s plot and started
using it. In spite of being rebuked, he continued to do so. Thus, emerged
stealing, censure, lying and punishment for crime and defiance of rules.
v. People agitated due to evils: The beings got perturbed with the presence of
these evils. In Dialogues of Budha (88), it is stated that ‘…Those beings went
to the being among them who was the handsomest, the best favoured, the
most attractive, the most capable and said to him: ‘come now, good being, be
indignant, censure that which should rightly be censured, banish him who
deserves to be banished. And we will contribute to thee a proportion of our
rice.’ As U.N. Ghoshal states, people committed by saying, ‘(O king) thou
who are a (mere) servant of the multitude and who receives the sixth part (of
the produce) as thine wages.’ Thus, he consented to do so and was given a
portion of their rice.
In other words, Dīgha Nikāya has projected that when greed, selfishness and theft
appeared, in order to maintain the social order, people assembled and agreed to
choose a chief to maintain the social order and judicially inflict punishment. In
return, they committed to spare a part of their paddy. Thus, arose the institution
of kingship where the king was chosen by the whole people.

9.3.2 Implications
Buddhist account of the origin of the universe and social organization reflects
significant Indian contribution to political thought. Origin of State is shown as a
quasi-contractual arrangement under which the king agrees to perform specific
functions on behalf of the people in return for certain rights conferred on him, 149
Political Concerns including taxation. This initial view of kingship is not that of a ‘universal
and Key Ideas emperor’, the Cakkavatti, but is of the ‘Great Appointee’

9.3.3 Psychological Foundations for Political Speculation

Basis of kingship involved psychological factors rather than divine will. Buddha
made a revolutionary change in the worldview of his contemporary society by
initiating a new era in the realm of social investigations. The cosmology
formulated by Buddha totally rejected any theological godhead of philosophical
absolute.
The Buddhist narrative shows that initially, social stratification was absent, the
state of existence was of great happiness and beings were ‘made of mind’. It
reflects the influence of the traditional Hindu psychology about Linga or
Sukshma Sharira or the subtle body. The subtle body was considered an
individual’s real personality which accompanied the soul even during
transmigrations. The corporal body was destroyed after death. Because of being
transient and perishable, it was only an instrument for the action of the soul and
the subtle body. The Buddhist supposition of existence of ‘being made of mind’
(with no solid corporeal bodies) seems strongly influenced by the Upanishadic
and Samkhya psychology of the subtle body. (Keith, 535-551) However, V.P.
Varma identifies a profound difference in the Upanishadic-Samkhya view and the
Buddhist view. The former was concerned with a transcendent state of
emancipation from the world, whereas Buddha secularized the whole thing when
he applied the predications of the emancipated self to beings “coming to life as
human”.
It is perceived that the beings in the original state were caught by greed. It was
followed by the appearance of the sense of social and individual superiority on
the basis of difference in physical beauty. Later appearance of sex differences
paved the way for evils of lust, which in turn led to the institution of dwelling
houses.
In addition to lust, the institution of private property disintegrated the state of
resplendence. Beings divided off the rice fields and made boundaries around it.
This division of property led to stealing. With the appearance of theft emerged
the evils of censure, lying and punishment. Thus, the passion of lust and
acquisitiveness destroyed the resplendent state and for suppressing the socially
subversive elements, the necessity of the institution of the “Great Elect’ was felt.

9.3.4 Nature of the Great Elect

 The Dialogues of Buddha does not specify in detail the nature of the
Mahāsammata, the “Great Elect”. It could reflect either a king or a republican
head. Buddha himself came from the Shākya clan, which had a republican
polity. His father was at one time the head or one of the heads of this state.
Hence, the political traditions of Buddha may denote a republican chief (V.P.
Varma, 194)
 The “Great Elect” was also corroborated by the title Rājā. According to Rhys
150
Davids, the term Rājā was also used for republican chiefs and leaders. Here,
 Rājā did not mean king, but rather something like the Roman consul or the Dīgha Nikāya
Greek archon. Even Kautilya’s Arthashāstra refers to republics like The Idea of
Chakravartin
Lichchavic, Vrajjic, Mallak, Madrak, Kukur, Kuru and Pānchāl which had (Cakkavatti)
Rājā only for name sake.
 According to the Dialogues, the “Great Elect” was instituted by the people to
settle social conflicts, which had been generated by the psychological factors
of greed, theft and desire.
 Since the “Great Elect” receives his authority from the people, there is an
assumption that political authority originally lies in the people, who spare a
portion of their produce for him.
 V.P. Varma refuses to accept “Great Elect” to mean that the Buddhist
political authority was based on consent. However, some element of
consensus cannot be ruled out in the Buddhist theory. Beginning of such a
theory was indeed contained in it as it projected the election of the “Great
Elect” by collective consensus.
 This tradition could be later seen in some idea of election or selection inspite
of the acceptance of the divinity of the king. U.N. Ghoshal (209) has referred
to a later Buddhist philosopher Āryadeva, “What superciliousness is thine, (O
King!) Thou who are a (mere) servant of the multitude and who receives the
sixth part (of the produce) as thine wages.”
 Difference between King and subjects depicts divergence of physical beauty,
attractiveness, capability, etc.
 The notion of Mahāsammata denotes the existence of common social ends
and interests. It implies that society requires a common superior and
eliminates the individual coercive power of punishing thieves and robbers.
 By making the “Great Elect” the repository of the power of censure and
punishment, it paved the way for emergence of the concept of ‘common
good’.
 The “Great Elect” was expected to rule in accordance with Dharma. This
reference to Dharma is significant. Dharma had a strong moral content in
early Buddhism. By stating that the “Great Elect” would charm others by
Dharma, it seems that Buddhism accepted that the existence of a political
superior is associated with the emergence of the significance of Dharma. This
aspect was later reflected from the concept of Cakkavatti and the political
philosophy of Aśoka.
 V.P. Varma has asserted that the Dialogues of Buddha (p. I. 88-91) has
articulated a naturalistic origin, not only of the “Great Elect”, but also of the
social order. He feels that the “Great Elect” was chosen from the social circle
of nobles, called Khattiya or the lord of field. Buddha denounced a
theological Godhead and offered an explanation of the origin of the four
castes in terms of functional occupation, and thereby neutralized mythical and
divine elements to any particular social caste and explained social
stratification in terms of functions. Thus, the Mahāsammata had considerable
sociological significance, though it did not initiate any large amount of
further sociological and political investigation by later thinkers. 151
Political Concerns  The contract is a basic condition of organized human society for in the
and Key Ideas
absence of such a contract before the birth of the state, anarchy prevailed. It
is, therefore, existential and neither the subjects nor the state have any choice
outside it.
 The state arises as a punitive institution charged with the responsibility of
imposing law and order without which human beings cannot survive as an
orderly society. The state becomes an agreement between the government and
the ruled, wherein the ruled transfer a part of their sovereignty to state for a
specific purpose.
 The relationship between the state and the subject is a contractual obligation
in which one commands and the other obeys. The obligation is mutual and if
one party violates it unilaterally, the other is no longer obligated by the terms
of that contract. The contract is symbolized by the institution of taxation,
which is a payment for specific work.
 Hence, the Buddhist view of kingship, particularly the duties and
responsibilities of a chosen ruler governed by the notion of the social
contract, was projected long before Hobbes and other western expositions.
The Buddhist idea of ‘social contract’ supported an evolutionary view of
society, opposed to the Brahminical view of quasi-divine narrative of
monarchy and society.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Analyze the origin of kingship as a quasi–contractual arrangement.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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9.4 SECOND PHASE: ALL POWERFUL

MONARCHICAL STATE
9.4.1 Theories of Kingship
Necessity of the existence of the state was realized for orderly human society.
Accordingly, the rights of private property and family can prevail only under the
state’s regulatory and punitive authority. Buddha describes origin of 4 social
classes; landed ruling class, priestly class, trading class and hunters.
152
9.4.2 Traces of Republican States Dīgha Nikāya
The Idea of
For the early Buddhists, the state generally meant the monarch, though the Chakravartin
(Cakkavatti)
Buddha and many of his disciples came from oligarchic republics. (Gokhale) The
terms commonly used for the state included rattha (country), rajja (kingdom) or
vijita (subjugated territory).
• Republics were known for their regular assemblies within tribal groups, where
government by discussion was the main feature. They collapsed after Buddha,
middle of the 5th century.
• Samghas are an intermediate stage between the collectivism of popular tribal
assembly and individualism of Monarchical state
• Monarchy flourished in 3 contexts – Individualism, urbanisation & density of
population
The trend was to increase the size and power of monarchy at the cost of
republics.

9.4.3 Notion and Symbols of Sovereignty

The state is projected as a sovereign entity and its sovereignty is expressed by a
variety of terms such as ānā, ādhipacca, issariya, vasa and siri. Ānā means order
or command and implies ability to give orders to all. Ādhipacca (Adhipatya)
signifies overlordship, the quality of imposing superiority over others. Issariya
(Ishwariya), which is also called vasa (Vasha), is the quality of exercising
overwhelming influence or control, the capacity to impose sovereignty. Siri
(Shri) is splendour, beauty, glory, majesty and prosperity and is based on material
possessions. Sovereignty connotes total authority, an ability to reward and
punish, capacity to give orders to all and receive orders from none.

9.4.4 Seven Symbols of Sovereignty

Buddhist political philosophy of kingship is associated with seven symbols of
sovereignty called sattharatana or seven constituent elements of kingship
namely: (i) Cakkaratana – wheel treasure (Dominion); (ii) Hathiratna – Elephant
treasure (Control over Dominion); (iii) Assaratna – Horse treasure (Control over
dominion); (iv) Parināyakaratna – Councillor treasure (Control over dominion);
(v) Itthiratna – Woman treasure (Basis of control); (vi) Maniratna – Precious
gems (Basis of control); and (vii) Gahapatiratna – people, taxation (Basis of
control). The seven constituent units of king’s sovereignty can be summed up in
three basic ideas viz. (a) Territory of Dominion represented by the wheel; (b)
Control over the dominion – elephants, horses and parināyaka; and (c) Bases of
control - itthiratana, maniratana and gahapatiratana.
Cakkaratana or the wheel is the most important symbol of sovereignty. Rhys
Davids states that wheel represents the solar disc of the sun and it is symbolic of
heavenly treasure. It is mystical in nature as compared to other six treasures. Sun
illumines and nurtures the earth. In Mahasudassana Sutta, there are anecdotes
which explain the significance of the wheel. For instance, there is reference to 153
Political Concerns the sprinkling water on the wheel so that it can go forth in all four directions
and Key Ideas followed by the four-fold army. It, thus, represents king’s authority over his
dominion and territory.
The Mahasudassana Sutta mentions the elephant and the horse treasure as means
of king’s physical control over the state. Various adjectives describe the two
treasures as powerful, wonderful, and priced possessions of the king. They are
trained and controlled by the king and they are always standing in service to the
king. Magical values are attributed to precious gems because they are considered
to possess the power to safeguard against disease, hunger, demon etc. In
Mahasudassana Sutta, there is a story about how the soldiers were asked to raise
aloft a precious gem and with its light the villagers got up the middle of the
night and started working assuming the day had dawned. Maniratanas are
supposed to be splendid in their brightness and they symbolize full treasury of the
king. Itthiratana or the women treasure refers to ideal queen and it also
symbolizes householder king and family which ensures succession. The other
opinion is that Itthiratana is a symbol of earth and its fertile productive aspects.
There is yet another opinion that this treasure is perhaps influenced by Rajasūya
ceremony in the Brahmanic tradition. Gahapatiratana represents people who
inhabit the domain or the territory and it includes administration, system of
taxation and production. Parināyaka in Pali language means guide, leader or
advisor. In the later text, it also stands for General or a chief in charge of 84,000
Khattiyas. Parināyaka was expected to be wise, and learned who could execute
military and civil power on behalf of the king. He, thus, symbolizes king’s
military strength.

9.4.5 Ten Royal Virtues (dasa-rājadhamma)

The compassionate ruler, the Cakkavatti Sihananda or the universal monarch was
expected to possess ten royal virtues including (i) Dāna (liberality, generosity,
charity, welfare, giving knowledge and serving public interest), (ii) Śila
(refrainment from exploitation, cheating, stealing, adultery, intoxicating drinks,
having senses under control, high moral character, being good example for
others), (iii) Pariccāga (sacrifice in the interest of people), (iv) Ājjava (straight
forward in dealings, honesty, integrity, performing duties with loyalty, freedom
from fear), (v) Maddava (gentleness, kindness, avoiding arrogance, amiable
temperament), (vi) Tapa (austere life, able to suffer for the people’s sake, self-
control over passion), (vii) Akkodha (free from anger, hatred, ill-will, enmity and
resentment, remaining calm), (viii) Avihimsā (abstention from violence, and
destruction of life and peace, compassionate to all, not being vengeful, avoidance
of war), (ix) Khanti (tolerant, forbearance, patience to serve public interest,
understanding) and (x) Avirodhana (very approachable, avoidance of opposition
to the will of the people and measures of public welfare, respecting opinion of
others without prejudice).
That ruler was to conduct as an ‘enlightened altruist’, expected to act with moral
righteousness and was considered as an ideal man of Dhamma, who would
154 control falsehood, anger and scorn, is full of patience and forbearance, keeps
benevolent company and makes people happy with the display of the qualities of Dīgha Nikāya
uniting the subjects. The Idea of
Chakravartin
9.4.6 Elements of Regalia (Cakkavatti)

He was to be well-born, handsome in appearance, possess great wealth, a

powerful army, a man of faith and charity, learned and wise. He was to present
himself as a man of Dhamma. It was believed that Dhamma constitutes kings
with charisma, which is mandatory to rule over subjects. It was believed that the
charisma is conferred on king by his coronation and symbolized by several
elements of his regalia in his possession such as the ‘umbrella’, ‘slippers’,
‘sword’, ‘crown’, ‘throne’, ‘sceptres (ornamental wand)’ and ‘the flywhisk’. The
quasi-divine qualities, along with regalia, create the charisma as the basis of
loyalty of subjects towards the state.

9.4.7 Buddhist Ideas on the Constituents of the State

Though the Buddhist scriptures do not offer a systematized list of constituents of
the State yet one finds mention of following seven constituents:
(i) The King (Mahāsammat, Rājā, khattiya);
(ii) The Territory (rattha/Rashtra), with sub-divisions of the territorial
organizations such as villages (gaama), market towns (nigama), countryside
(janaopada), city (nagara), the frontier (paccanta, existed only sometimes
and its security was always a cause of concern),
(iii) Ministers and bureaucracy (Amacca/Amātya and pārisajja/Parishada);
(iv) The Armed Forces (balam): The early Buddhist recommended delicate
balance of forces to deal with dangers from outside its frontiers and from
within, through rebellion and banditry. War was considered within the
jurisdiction of state (attha and ānā). All injunctions against violence were in
general related to the level of individual and inter-group relations and the
Buddhists reconciled their inability to influence the conduct of state beyond
giving it ethical advice. Hence, while keeping the horrors of war within
reasonable limits, wars were duly recognized and were not outlawed. There
is no evidence to assume that the Buddha ever advised his contemporary
kings to disband their armies or to dismantle their swords. Even the Buddhist
emperor Ashoka is not known to have disbanded his army after Kalinga.
The most frequent challenge came from within: Conspiracy against the
throne and life of the king, robbers, thieves and bandits threatening the life
and property of people. For all practical purposes, Samgha withdrew itself
from consideration of war; admission of soldiers was forbidden; talks and
stories of war were denounced; witnessing army parades was treated as a
waste of time.
(v) The Treasury (kosakotthagara);
(vi) Allies (Anuyuttā, khattiya and kuddarājāno; and
(vii) The People (Manussa/Manushya); presumably had four different assemblies
(parisas/parishada),- one each for Khattiyas, Brahmans, Householders 155
(Gahapati) and Ascetics (Samana/ Śramana).
Political Concerns 9.4.8 Objectives of the State
and Key Ideas
The ideal kingdom was described as the territory without thorns (Akantaka) and
untroubled (Annuppīla). The state was to ensure that “the people should be happy
and contended, living in homes with open doors and playing peacefully with
children in their laps”. The description of such a state is depiction of a perfect
state of law and order. Where, wicked are punished; punishment is to be used to
deter the potential offenders; king to have absolute powers to banish culprits
from his kingdom and also to execute the convicted criminals However, the king
was expected to act with justice in giving punishments.
Gail Omvedt writes about the celestial wheel slipping a little indicating to the
king that his time is up and now he should renounce his throne. The king’s eldest
son inherits the throne and then the wheel disappears. Son seeks advice of a
wise hermit who recommends to the king to set moral example, to perform his
duties in earnestness and to protect his subjects’ In other words, the sage advices
the king to perform good actions like, giving alms to the poor weak and
destitute and abstaining from bad actions. The wheel returns and the king
continues to rule but he fails to control poverty. Poverty becomes widespread and
theft takes place. King attributes theft to poverty and he gives wealth to the thief
hoping that he would stop the evil practice. The message spreads that theft is
profitable and theft thrives. The king then decides to punish the thieves who take
up arms and the result is violence, murder, disorder, adultery incest, evil speaking
and immorality. Finer human relations vanish and wickedness spreads. Moral of
the story is that the Buddhist state should ideally be a welfare state committed to
protect the weak and the destitute. The wheel is not a paternal legacy, but it has
to be won by every king through his good actions and deeds. A parallel can be
drawn here between the Brahmanical notion of kingship which justifies danda
or punishment to maintain Vedic social order and Buddhism which justifies
punishment for establishing a just social order.

9.4.9 Possibility of Abuse of Power by the State

While aspiring for righteous Chakkavati king, Buddhists altogether realized the
possibility of royal tyranny and the abuse of its power by the state. Buddhist
literature has described kings as intolerant, arbitrary, autocratic, greedy and as an
expropriator. The wrath of a king has been compared with that of thieves, fire,
flood, evil spirits or wild animals.
In Aggana Sutta, there is acceptance by a society of a need to exercise legitimate
power to maintain law and order. The king’s main responsibility was to protect
these two areas and in return, he enjoyed the support from his subjects. In
Buddhist text, the ruler and the robber are placed opposite to each other as the
protector and the violator of family and the property. If the king was weak, the
robbers prospered and vice-versa. The legitimate ruler also performed other
functions like protecting the borders recruit strong army, perform judicial
functions and provide patronage to diverse religious groups. He was expected to
156 be vigilant and control his kingdom pragmatically. Pragmatic control of a
legitimate ruler and arbitrary exercise of power have borderline differences. Dīgha Nikāya
Tribal kingship in a republican form of government was associated with popular The Idea of
Chakravartin
control and participation which could not be easily replaced by alternative forms (Cakkavatti)
of control, institutional or otherwise. The Buddhist text refers to king’s arbitrary
exercise of power by citing examples of a king in alliance with robbers, depriving
people of their wealth and becoming a violator of social norms. In the second
instance, king does not apply law in any uniform manner and pursues his own
interest. These two examples illustrate how a king when intoxicated with power
exercises power in an arbitrary manner. The king accepts no limitations on his
power and establishes complete control over people and the material resources of
the kingdom. Kingship is now marked as despotic in nature because the king
starts imposing his will on the people and exercises power in an arbitrary
manner.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Analyze the features and evolution of the monarchical state in Dīgha
Nikāya.
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…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……

9.5 THIRD PHASE: THE IDEA OF CAKKAVATTI AND

THE STATE AS AN INSTRUMENT OF DHAMMA
In their doctrine of Dhamma as the basis of the state, the early Buddhists found a
recourse to escape from the powerful state and the danger of its abuse of powers.
Initially they speculated about the large scale migration of the people as a remedy
against an evil or despotic monarch. However, considering its impracticality
under massive territorial empires, Dhamma was postulated as an all-powerful
force to control an unrighteous king.

9.5.1 Dhamma and State

In the last or the final stage, the Buddhist notions of Ideal kingship emerges when
the state becomes an instrument of Dhamma, which implies that Dhamma not
only controls the challenges of state power, but it also regulates individual’s
conduct and behaviour. Ultimately, the state aims to establish a just social order
based on Dhamma and that alone will impart ethical status to the state. 157
Political Concerns Buddhism correlated politics with Dharma (Dhamma), considered the former
and Key Ideas devoid of the latter as Rativijja (the science of pleasure/lust, which was
considered the antithesis of all that is ethical), regarded Śīla (modesty)
and Sadāchāra (good conduct) as the basis of politics and desired that the king,
as the Mahāsammat (elected by the consent of all), should protect his subjects
according to Dhamma. Buddhism emphasised the moral nature of Dharma and
its concrete influence can be seen in the political philosophy of Aśoka.

9.5.2 The Ānā and Dhamma

Relationship between Buddhism and a well-entrenched and all powerful
monarchical despotism; and the solution is proposed in the theory of two equal
spheres of life.
The kings (including Bimbisāra, Ajātasattu of Magadha; Pasendi of Kośala and
the Maurya emperor Aśoka) built monasteries for the Samgha and amended
many of their laws, which otherwise made the Samgha’s activities very difficult.
The extraordinary impact of Buddha’s personality on the kings cannot be denied.
The relationship between the state and Buddhism could be realized through the
fact that even though early Buddhism began in forests, outside the confines of
organized society, yet the Buddha and his disciples were subjects of the state in
the area they lived and worked. Hence, they could not for long remain outside its
society and could ignore or defy the power of the state. Their supporters and
followers could be found in the state service. They could not ignore felicitous
relationship with the state and accordingly accommodated the demands of the
state by modifying the Vinaya rules. For example, elephant being royal animal,
monks were prohibited from eating elephant flesh. They were to refrain from
eating meet on the days animal slaughter was prohibited. They used to postpone
observing rain-retreat. Royal servants could not be admitted without proper
permission. They could not contact in-service soldiers or thieves wanted by law.
Absconders from justice or lawful royal service may not be given asylum in
Buddhist order. In general, early Buddhism avoided confrontation with the state.
The monks were prohibited to get involved in politics. Unhappy with any
particular king either could leave the territory and reside elsewhere waiting for a
change in his disposition or downfall. The other recourse was to make the state
subordinate to Dhamma.

9.5.3 The Ānā and Attha

Early Buddhists considered temporal and spiritual as two distinct spheres of
Human life. If Dhamma was the source of spiritual, ānā, the source of temporal,
was responsible for the maintenance and conservation of Attha (Artha). Both the
attha and ānā were intimately linked as neither could exist without the other. The
term Attha encompassed interest, advantage, good, blessing, welfare, profit,
prosperity, well-being, riches and wealth. It came closer to Artha, as was used by
Kautilya, to describe Vārtā (economy) and Dandaniti (polity). Initially, Attha
was used to mean something that is vital and desirable both in this world and the
158 next. Later, it was used to denote affairs of this world, especially in an organized
society. As a worldly good, it involves the right to enjoy private property and the Dīgha Nikāya
prerogative to create a family without the fear of molestation and disruption. The Idea of
Chakravartin
However, the worldly possessions including property and family could exist only (Cakkavatti)
under a set of laws, imposed by the ānā. In the absence of any such authority,
kāma (passion or desire) and greed could create anarchy. To rule out such
anarchy, the state aroused as a punitive institution and imposed law and order.
Both Buddhist rulers, Bimbisāra and Ajātasattu recognized the two spheres of
human life, temporal and spiritual.
As the basis of Buddhist political theory, according to Gokhale, Ajātasattu coined
the theory of Two Wheels including the ‘Wheel of Law’ (Dhammacakka) and
the ‘Wheel of Command’ (ānācakka). It was asserted that the affairs of this
world and those of next are like two wheels. Each has its own distinctive identity,
but they are also like the wheels of the chariot, the axle on which they revolve.
Here, they reflect the human society, its desires, aspirations and destiny.
This altogether indicates that dhamma cannot operate in this world by itself, as it
needs the assent of the state, if not the support of ānā or the state.

9.5.4 State as an Ethical Instrument of the Dhamma

To avoid monarchical despotism, ānā was separated from Dhamma and
autonomy of the Samgha was ensured. When the contractual obligation of the
state creating state as a human organization and aa a political institution was
found inadequate and the state became powerful to control the whole range of
human life; the supremacy of Dhamma over ānā was asserted. Dhamma was
projected as a cosmic force capable of containing the power of the state and
regulating its behaviour. Here, Dhamma was never projected as a metaphysical
system or sectarian creed, instead it was depicted as a mystic force obeying its
own laws equated with righteousness, propriety, norm, impartiality and justice.
Accordingly, it was asserted that any neglect of Dhamma by the king could result
in untimely rain or dangers of drought, famine, pestilence or war; while specific
ceremonies suggested by Dhamma, including fasting, charity, vows of
righteousness, meditation etc. could entail control over nature in the form of
adequate rains. Kingship was also declared as a result of good deeds in a former
life. (Gokhale)

9.5.5 The Idea of Cakkavatti

The culmination of this process resulted in the Cakkavatti or Chakravarty
(universal monarch), who was declared the Dhammiko Dhammarājā (the
righteous ruler), who was considered as a counterpart of Bodhisattva in the
temporal world. The Buddhist Dhammarājā was the response to the despotic
ruler who lived at the time of Buddha. It was an attempt to contain absolute
power of the king by applying dhamma as the guiding principle to his power.
U.N. Ghoshal has pointed out that the most important contribution of early
Buddhism to ancient Indian political thought is the application of principles of
righteousness to king’s internal and foreign administration.
159
Political Concerns The normative Cakkavatti king is the protector of his people, he possess as seven
and Key Ideas gems, conquers by righteousness and dhamma and above all, he is not only
interested in territorial expansion or controlling the material and physical
resources, but in establishing a just and moral social order as well. He also
teaches moral precepts to laymen and newly subordinated kings. He ensures that
people live in comfort and destitution is wiped out. Not only does he uphold the
property and family rights of the people, but also provides for the basic needs of
the people as a precondition to establish moral order.
Cakkavatti is a charismatic leader and he is popular amongst his subjects. He
consults people and acts on the basis of consent. Hence, the people are loyal to
him and confirm to his wishes. He patronizes the brahmanas and the śramanas.
Under his leadership and guidance, the moral and just social order is established
and the king is intrinsic in establishing the new moral order. Ultimately, the rule
of Dhammiko dhammarājā is established, which is guided by the principle of
Dhamma.
Such a ruler is presented as a Mahāpurisa (Great Man), gifted with all the signs
of great men, who was believed to be in possession of Iddhis (Siddhis or super
natural powers) and was unique in nature, as there could be no more than one
Cakkavatti at a time in the world. Therefore, the Buddhist theory of kingship
implied that state power would not only be used for punishing, taming or
controlling society, but also more positively to create a new just moral social
order. The powers of Cakkavatti may not be regarded as human or rational, much
less contractual (Gokhale). As was, case of Bodhisattva, the places where the
Cakkavatti was born, crowned, won most significant victory, where he passed
away were declared to be memorable. Stūpa was to be raised over the relics of
his body.
Dhamma was projected as the basis of loyalty to the state and also as an
instrument for legitimization of political power and landing the control of the
state in an agency higher than itself. Under such a state, the functions of the
Samgha was consent and advise to the state, adopting the role of conscience-
keeper of the state, imposing subtle as well powerful sanctions depending upon
circumstances. In the process, as Gokhale has asserted, the state emerged as a
mystic entity, obeying norms of continuance and dissolution beyond the reach of
subjects. As most of the times, the Samgha became far more extensive and
pervasive, its organization reached the smallest village through the monastery.
Kingship, according to Jayasuria, was limited by one’s capacity to act within the
guidelines of the teaching, the Dhamma or the principles of righteousness.
Accordingly, the maintenance of the normative order – Vinaya or the code of
righteousness – seen as a prime requirement of a good ruler.
On one hand, the welfare of the community of monks was dependent on the
goodwill and patronage of the kings or the self-governing republics; and on the
other, kings relied on monasteries for mass loyalty and following, there emerged
a skilfully engineered reciprocity in the relationship between Buddhism and the
160
State. In principle, the Samgha did not formally relate to the state or the ruler, Dīgha Nikāya
the monastic order could not survive without a minimum political support. The Idea of
Chakravartin
9.5.6 Normative Kingship and the Creation of Just Social (Cakkavatti)

Order
One finds a Buddhist testifying the ‘middle way’ as an approach to social well-
being and spiritual progress. They provide guidelines for public policy of the
‘Universal Benevolent Monarch’, who is concerned “not only with the material
welfare of his subject, but also their moral well-being”. (Jayasuria p. 61) The
Aśokan welfare state was built on Buddhist humanism, where the human
relationship were based on compassion, love, sympathy and care for other’s
feelings. The king was advised to promote the collective interests or the
‘common weal’ ahead of himself with the motif of ‘people first’. The king of
righteousness, called the Cakkavattirājā, exemplified in the Emperor Aśoka.
Omvedt has argued that Aśoka’s welfare state policies and statecraft were not
utopian or idealistic, as entrepreneurship and money making were endorsed as
long as these were done by righteous means.
The normative code of the Aśokan ‘welfare state’ included the Buddhist ideals of
a ‘just society’ based on equality, economic prosperity and the practice of good
life. For ordinary persons, underlying the raison d’etre of Buddhist social ethics,
the Buddhist notion of welfare involved seven virtues or skilful actions
expecting to refrain from taking life, stealing, confusing speech and uttering
falsehoods, malicious speech, frivolous talk, harsh speech and vulgar sensibility.
Buddhism was never limited to a private form of salvation or self-contained
individual; instead it acknowledged the interdependent relationship between
the individual and society.

9.5.7 Absence of State Religion

The secularization of religion or the separation between church and state and
guarantee of religious freedom by the state was seen as a post–Enlightenment
phenomenon in western society. The rationale of secularism was implicit in the
Buddhist ideals of governance as revealed in Aśokan polity. The principles and
values of the European Enlightenment, such as equality, tolerance of dissent,
freedom and justice were consistent with the political philosophy of Emperor
Aśoka. Buddhism was never declared a state religion. Acceptance of dissent,
toleration of other faiths, provision for religious freedom, negotiating differences
through participation and consensus building, commitment to freedom, equality
and tolerance, were some of the noteworthy features of Aśokan statecraft. At the
same time, the Samgha was readily available as the moral conscience of the
community ensuring the accountability of the rulers.
From the time of the Buddha to Emperor Askoa, the emphasis on public morality
and social welfare draws attention to the historical continuity of the triangular
relationship between the king or ruler, the monastic order or the Samgha and the
people. 161
Political Concerns Check Your Progress Exercise 3
and Key Ideas
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Analyze idea of Chakravartin (Cakkavatti) and the relationship of the
state with Dhamma.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……

9.6 LIMITATIONS OF ŚRAMANIC IDEA OF

KINGSHIP
Metaphysics being the central concept of the Brāhmanic tradition, identification
and acknowledgment of political thought pose some serious weaknesses.
By mid-fifth century within few years after Buddha’s death, republics
collapsed partly due to aggression of the monarchies, but largely due to
internal disagreements amongst republican nobles and elders. Undisciplined
individualism, moral indolence, individual pride and lack of discipline were the
defining features of changing times.
 Equation of Buddha with unique powers and virtues may be compared with
the Brahamnic belief in quasi-divine kingship.
 Projection of control of Dhamma over nature and emphasis on performance
of fasting, charity, meditation etc. had similarity with Brahmanic ritualism.
 The places where Buddha was born, crowned, where he won his most
significant victory / enlightenment and where he passed away, all were
declared to be memorable.
 Origin of Monarchy in Agganna Sutta, refers to the myth when man
deteriorates from the original state of nature of Rousseau to Hobbes, where a
greedy, dishonest, quarrelsome and violent man emerges. People select the
king to ensure common good and they agree to give a proportion of their
rights and an anarchist and greedy man turns to be a disciplined citizen.
 In the absence of constitutional checks and safeguards against the arbitrary
exercise of power, public opinion alone was the only safeguard against a
wicked ruler or tyrant. To escape such kings, people have fled to a territory
outside their control.
The Buddhist Contribution to Political Theory
The Buddhist contribution to the totality of Indian political thought may be
162 studied from two points of view: firstly, what was their contribution to the
theoretical aspect of the government; and secondly, whether and to what extent Dīgha Nikāya
the greatest Buddhist Emperor followed the Buddhist principles as enunciated in The Idea of
Chakravartin
the Buddhist texts (Cakkavatti)

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Highlight the major limitations of of śramanic idea of kingship.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……

9.7 LET US SUM UP

Digha Nikayas are a collection of the dialogues, mostly of Buddha himself, as
they appear to his earliest disciples. The Aggana Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya refers to
the myth regarding the origin of the world and the evolution of mankind. In
stages, it describes the gradual deterioration of man from a perfect stage or the
original state to a stage where greed and passion erode the moral and physical
qualities and man is transformed into an ordinary human existence. In the second
stage, there is further progressive fall of mankind, social differences emerge. The
new social order is based on the rise of family and private property.
The origin of the state is described as a social contract, which is an agreement
between the king and the people. The king agrees to perform specific functions
on behalf of the people and people are obliged to obey his commands. The focus
is on two major areas and the state negotiates between ānā, that is, authority and
Dhamma. In other words, there is an implicit acceptance in people’s mind that
they have to respect each other’s family and property and they accept the
authority of the king who would now regulate their relationships on this matter.
In other words, there is an implicit acceptance in people’s mind that they have to
respect each other’s family and property and they accept the authority of the
king, who would now regulate their relationships on this matter.
Agganna Sutta challenges the Vedic ideas on divine creation of the social order,
In Agganna Sutta, the division of people in society is based upon need and
convenience rather than any hierarchical division. In other words, the division in
the social order is based upon functional performance of activities by the groups
and not determined by varna model. It follows that Brahmanical king ideally
maintains the varna division in the social order; while in the Buddhist literature,
king’s primary task was to maintain a social order in which the property and
family of individuals are protected in accordance with Dhamma. 163
Political Concerns In Buddha’s contemporary times, two forms of government existed in the
and Key Ideas Gangetic plains in Northern India, Republican and monarchical in competition
with each other. The trend was to increase the size and power of monarchy at the
cost of republics. Government by discussion was the keystone of a republican
form of government. In tribal groups, the common life was regulated by
discussion amongst the elders and noblemen of the tribe and these assemblies
were called Sanghas. During this period, republics were known by the name of
the sanghas. Members of the sangha were not elected, but they were the leading
men of the tribe and most of them belonged to the Kshatriya clan.The form of
government was aristocratic rather than democratic. However, the final authority
in all matters lay with the sangha.
In the last or the final stage, the Buddhist notions of Ideal kingship emerges when
the state becomes an instrument of Dhamma, which implies that Dhamma not
only controls the challenges of state power, but also regulates individual’s
conduct and behaviour. Ultimately, the state aims to establish a just social order
based on Dhamma and that alone will impart ethical status to the state.
The Buddhist believe that Buddha was Cakkavatti king in his earlier life. The
normative Chakkavati king is the protector of his people, he possess seven gems,
conquers by righteousness and dhamma and above all, he is not only interested in
territorial expansion or controlling the material and physical resources, but in
establishing a just and moral social order. He also teaches moral precepts to
laymen and newly subordinated kings.
Cakkavati is a charismatic leader and he is popular amongst his subjects. He
consults people and acts on the basis of consent. Hence, the people are loyal to
him and confirm to his wishes. He patronizes the brahmanas and the
shrammanas. Under his leadership and guidance, the moral and just social order
is established and the king is intrinsic in establishing the new moral order.
Ultimately, the rule of Dhammiko dhammaraja is established which is guided by
the principle of Dhamma. Dhamma is above the king and the king revers and
esteems dhamma. Therefore, the Buddhist theory of kingship implied that state
power would not only be used for punishing, taming or controlling society, but
also more positively to create a new just moral social order.

9.8 REFERENCES
 Banyopadhyaya, Narayan Chandra, (1927) Development of Hindu Polity
and Political Theories, Part I, Calcutta, R. Bombay & Co.
 Chakravarti, Uma, 1996, The Social Dimension of Early Buddhism, New
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
 Collins, Steven (ed), (2001) Agganna Sutta: An Annotated Translation,
New Delhi: Sahitya Academy, pp. 44-49. S. Collins, (2001) ‘General
Introduction’, in Agganna Sutta: The Discussion on What is Primary (An
Annotated Translation from Pali), Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, pp. 1- 26.
164
 Dialogues of Buddha (Dīgha Nikāya), (1899-1921) Translated by T.W. Dīgha Nikāya
Rhys Davids, 3 Parts, London, Oxford University Press. The Idea of
Chakravartin
 Ghoshal, Upendra Nath, 1966, A History of Indian Political Ideas, New (Cakkavatti)
York: Oxford University Press.
 Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind, 1994, New Light on Early Buddhism, New
Delhi: Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd.
 ………………………., “The Early Buddhist View of the State”, Journal
of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 89, No.4 (Oct-Dec 1969), pp. 731-
738. Available at <http://www.jstor.org/stable/596944>
 ………………………., (1966) ‘The Early Buddhist View of the State’,
The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. XXVI, (1), pp. 15- 22.
 Jayasurya, L. ‘Budhism, Politics and Statecraft’, International Journal of
Buddhist Thought & Culture, Sep. 2008, Vol. 11, pp.41-74 Available at
ftp.buddhism.org/Publications/.../Voll1_03_Laksiri%20Jayasuriya.pdf,
Accessed: 19.04.2013.
 Jayaswal, K.P., (1967), Hindu Polity, Bangalore: Bangalore Printing &
Publishing Co. Ltd.
 Keith, A.B., (2007), Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and
Upanishads, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
 Law, Narendra Nath, (1921), Aspects of Ancient Indian Polity, Oxford,
Clarendon Press.
 Mehta, V.R., (1996), Foundations of Indian Political Thought, New
Delhi, Manohar.
 Omvedt, Gail, (2001) “The Buddha as a Political Philosopher”, Economic
and Political Weekly, May 26.
 Paul, James, (2003), Development in Early Buddhist concept of
Kamma/Karma, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
 Sharma, R.S., (1989), Origin of the State in India, D.D. Kosambi
Memorial Lecture, 1987, Bombay, University of Bombay Publication,
 Singh, Mahendra Prasad, (2017), “Dhamma: Buddha’s and Aśoka’s”, in
Himanshu Roy and Mahendra Prasad Singh (eds.) Indian Political
Thought: Themes and Thinkers, Noida, Pearson.
 Thapar, Romila, (1997), Aśoka and the Decline of Mauryas, Delhi,
Oxford University Press, Revised Edition with New Foreword, pp.144-
50.
 Varma, V.P., (1974), Studies in Hindu Political Thought and its
Metaphysical Foundations, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.

165
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas
9.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Theory of ‘Great Elect’ (Mahasammat)
 Implications
 Psychological Foundations for Political Speculation
 Nature of the Great Elect

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Theories of Kingship
 Traces of Republican States
 Notion and Symbols of Sovereignty
 Seven Symbols of Sovereignty
 Ten Royal Virtues (dasa-rājadhamma)
 Elements of Regalia
 Buddhist Ideas on the Constituents of the State
 Objectives of State
 Possibility of Abuse of Power by the State

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Dhamma and State
 The ānā and Dhamma
 The Ānā and Attha
 State as Ethical Instrument of the Dhamma
 The Idea of Cakkavatti
 Normative Kingship and creation of just social order
 Absence of State Religion

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Equation of Buddha with unique powers
 Traces of ritualism in Buddhist thought
 Human greed and dishonesty in the roots of origin of kingship
 Absence of constitutional checks and safeguards against the arbitrary
exercise of power
 Control of Dhamma over state

166
 Zia ul Barani
UNIT 10 ZIA–UL–BARANI: ROYAL Royal Authority
and Just Rule
AUTHORITY AND JUST RULE*
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Early life and Influence
10.3 Major Works
10.4 Core Polit1ical Ideas
10.4.1 The Advocacy and Defence of Historiography as a Field of
Knowledge
10.4.2 The idea of Political Expediency and Realism
10.4.3 Zawabit/State Laws: The Ideal Polity
10.5 Theory of Kingship
10.5.1 The Ideal Ruler
10.5.1.1 Five Qualities of the Sultan
10.5.2 Idea of Justice and Just Rule
10.5.2.1 Appointment of Judges
10.5.2.2 Justice for Hindus and Muslims
10.5.2.3 Remission of Taxes
10.5.2.4 Favouring the Elites
10.6 Nobility
10.7 Bureaucracy
10.8 Army
10.9 Criticism
10.10 Let Us Sum Up
10.11 References
10.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

*
Dr Swasti Rao, Associate Fellow, Europe and Eurasia Center, Manohar Parrikar
Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses

167
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas 10.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the political ideas of Zia–Ul–
Barani, a medieval Indian historian and philosopher who was the most important
political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate. After studying this unit, you should be
able to understand:
 Context of Zia–Ul–Barani’s life and times
 Early influences on his philosophical thought
 Important characterics of his political thought like political expediency,
 His historiography
 His ideas on theory of Kingship, Laws and Just rule
 His ideas on Bureaucracy and Army

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Zia–Ul–Barani (1283–1359) was the most important political thinker of the Delhi
Sultanate, particularly, during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad bin
Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq. The attention given to Baranī is, in part, also
due to the fact that he chronicled the reigns of eight sultans of Delhi, beginning
with Ghiyās al-Dīn Balban (1266–87) and ending with Fīrūz Shāh (1351–88). In
addition, he was an influential courtier under Muḥammad bin Tughluq (1324–
51), the ruler he served as an emissary and as a court advisor for 17 years.
His ideas have been considered significant in understanding medieval polity and
other strands of thinking that existed in that period of history. He represented
and championed the idea of political expediency in Islamic history which he
conveyed to the ruler by way of his nasihats (advices). He has often been
criticized as a fundamentalist and a bigot for his emphasis on following the
Shariat (laws of the Quran and the Prophet’s tradition) (Advice II) and his views
on the Hindus (Advice XI.2), as compared to relatively liberal thinkers like Abul
Fazl. This itself is an irony because in the earlier days he was mocked upon by
the Ulemas and others for not following the Quranic principles and for calling
himself an Indian rather than a Turk. However, later in life, when he adopted a
politically hard line for governance, he was dismissed from the court at the age of
68 (1351 AD) and lived in penury on the outskirts of Delhi. For all these things
together, Barani remains to be an enigmatic and an important political thinker of
Medieval India.

10.2 EARLY LIFE AND INFLUENCE

Early Life: Barani was extensively educated. He was conversant with both
Arabic & Persian and was trained in Muslim theology. He had studied history
comprehensively. He was close to the mystic saint Nizamuddin Auliya and to
Amir Khusrau. Later, he spent 17 years with Muhammad Bin Tughlaq with
whom he learnt the art of governance and statecraft, particularly how monarchy
functions. Hence, his political theory is basically a reflection of what he saw
168
firsthand from his proximity to the political power and that is why he was in such Zia ul Barani
good know of how the internal contradictions exist in issues of governance. Royal Authority
and Just Rule
10.3 MAJOR WORKS
1. Fatawa-i-Jahandari (Edicts of World Rule), written in 1357, written as
nasihat (advices) for the Muslim kings, is a classic work on statecraft which
can be compared with Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince. In
Fatawa-i-Jahandari, he advised the Sultans and the Kings, through the mouth
of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna, his ideal ruler, as to how an effective system of
government could be established by implementing the Islamic Shari’ah. This
work acts as a mirror for the ruler. Through fictitious character and their
discussions, it is explained to a ruler how to best resolve problems. Another
interesting feature of Barni’s writing style is that he is speaking through a
number of characters, but the ideas conveyed by these characters are very
much the ideas of Brani himself.

This work is mainly an opinion on government. It has neither a preface nor an

epilogue and no name of any sultan is mentioned. Some historians like Md
Habib have opined that it was composed after Tareekh –e Firozshahi.
2. Tarikh-i-Feroze Shahi -is a dependable source of history from the later times
of Ghiasuddin Balban to the early years of Feroze Shah Tughluq to whom the
book is dedicated. It was meant to please Firoz Shah Tughlaq and regain his
lost royal patronage. But it wasn’t simply meant to that end but also
contained other important ideas regarding his political thinking. This way, it
contains some sources of his political thought. Along with the historical
accounts of the period, Barani discusses the Muslim political problems
including implementation of Islamic laws in the newly established Muslim
State in India.

Nasihat(Advice) – This concept is very significant to understanding Barni’s

thought . His political ideas are mentioned in the form of advices that the ruler
has to follow in order to maintain a more just and a more fair administration.
Most of his writings are in the genre of advices.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Who was Zia–Ul–Barani and what was his ideology? Explain the
dichotomy of his life.
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169
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Political Concerns 2. Who were the teachers and mentors of Zia–Ul–Barani in his early life and
and Key Ideas what did he learn from them?
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3. What were the major works of Zia–Ul–Barani? Explain.
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10.4 CORE POLITICAL IDEAS

10.4.1 The Advocacy and Defense of Historiography as a
Field of Knowledge
Zia–Ul–Barani and his views on the knowledge of history are very important.
Predating their contributions, Baranī’s writings represent the only discussion on
the subject in Islamic literature of South Asia from the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. As with many historians of his time and earlier, Baranī shared a high
view of history. In the introduction to the Tārīkh-i Fīrūzshāhī, Baranī writes, “I
have not profited from the benefits of any system of knowledge or study, besides
Qurʾānic exegesis (tafsīr), ḥadīth, law (fiqh), and the way of the shaykhs (ṭarīqat-
i mushāʾikh), as I have in the knowledge of history (ʿilm-i tārīkh).”
Baranī noted seven qualities of history that make it worthy of dedication. On the
basis of these qualities, he builds his foundation for the knowledge of history. At
that time it was popular amongst historians to list the qualities of history in a
prefatory matter. What did Baranī consider the proper place for history among
various fields of knowledge? In the introduction to the Tārīkh-i Fīrūzshāhī,
Baranī expresses his views on four related historiographical topics that reveal his
opinion on this question:
(a) The relationship of the Qurʾān to Islamic historiography;
(b) The role of Muḥammad as an historical exemplar of religious and worldly
rule;
170
(c) The knowledge of history (ʿilm-i tārīkh) as a discipline of scholarship
(d) The history of Islamic historiography. Zia ul Barani
Royal Authority
Barani attempted to answer the basic questions, that why should Muslims study and Just Rule
history and for what purpose?
According to Baranī, these are the seven major qualities of studying history
which are as following:
1. History was first and foremost beneficial because it is the means of
profiting from what he refers to as the possessors of insight, principally
the prophets and sultans whose deeds are recorded in the heavenly books
(kutub-i samāwī). He argues that the ultimate example of the usefulness
of history is found in the Qurʾān. He defines the Qurʿān as a historical
text, which played a central role in the development of Islamic
historiography.

2. Along with the knowledge of the Qurʾān, Baranī also sees the knowledge
of history as sharing certain traits with the knowledge of ḥadīth. It has
long been noted that the knowledge of ḥadīth played a major role in the
development of historiography. Baranī argues that this relationship exists
primarily on the level of method. He refers to the process by which ḥadīth
scholars criticise or praise the narrators of the circumstances of
transmission of the sayings and deeds of the Prophet, thus establishing
their validity.

3. The third quality that Baranī lists is that the knowledge of history
contributes to the abundance of reason, discernment, personal opinion and
putting things in order. According to Baranī, through the knowledge of
history one gains personal experience through the experience of others.
By understanding the misfortunes of others, one develops vigilance.

4. For Baranī, history also plays an important advisory role for Muslim
rulers. Baranī asserts that the fourth quality of history is that it provides
hope to sultans and kings so that they are fortified against the accidents of
time. He insists that the path of today’s generation of leaders is lit by
those who have gone before and who applied a remedy to the maladies of
the government.

5. Related with the Fourth Quality is the next one. Fifth quality is that for
those who know history and the record of the prophets and their
encountering misfortune, and their escaping calamity, history becomes a
source of acceptance (riẓā) and patience (ṣabr). He concludes this section
saying that the believers in Islam do not lose heart in the face of
misfortune

6. For the sixth benefit Baranī focuses more specifically on the instruction
history provides for rulers and governance. In this way, history assumes
an essential function as advice literature and is not merely a record of past
171
Political Concerns events. Historians were frequently employed within courts to supply
and Key Ideas advice to the ruling powers, as was the case with Baranī.

7. The final quality of history is that the knowledge of history is based on

truth (ṣidq), a discussion that leads into religious polemics. Baranī
conceives of history writing as a trust for which there are divine rewards
and punishments. He claims that ‘whatever the historian writes falsely
will, on the Day of Judgment, be the cause of his most severe punishment
(sakhtarīn ʿazāb)’

10.4.2 The idea of Political Expediency and Realism

In order to do justice to Barani’s thought it will be appropriate to contextualize
his political thinking. As with anywhere else in the world, political thinking
develops in response to the challenges that a particular society is grappling with,
which as much applies to Barani. Delhi Sultanate symbolized a rule which was
governed by a faith which was new to India. It was essentially an urban centric
rule with hardly any reach in the country side. Although Islam had come to India
in the 8th century in the coastal areas in South, but Islam becoming the faith of
the ruling class, i.e. the hallmark of the Sultanate period, was a new development.
It was the first time that the ruling nobility had a different faith from the ruled
majority. The class composition of the ruling class was also in transition.
Nobility was not hereditary. It was transferable, particularly, until the time of
Firoz Shah Tughlaq. Therefore, it was a period of transition and turmoil. So, the
political expediency and realism that Barani demonstrates in his work were the
need of the hour of that time.
Historian Muzaffar Alam has opined that the peasant revolt of 1330 in the Doab
led by the Hindu elites also symbolizes a turbulent moment in the Sultanate
period. All these experiences must have gone into the mind of Barani when he
was writing his political ideas. Therefore, how to secure the future of the state
and how to make the foundation of the Sultanate regime more sturdy became the
desideratum when he was talking about the ideal polity and a good sultan and
hence, made political expediency the main aim of all his statecraft.
Hence, despite the reputation for being conservative and a bigot, Barani remains
an enigmatic and a unique thinker. The two major thoughts that stand out in his
thought are the idea of justice and the idea of moderation .But these ideas find
their justification from the core idea of Political Expediency. Although he was
against reason and science, unlike Abul Fazal, but it was political expediency
which emerged as the hallmark of his political thinking. So much so that he
shows a lot of flexibility in the religious teaching and related precepts. He
advises the ruler to make adjustment and allows moderation for dealing with the
challenges of those times. Because of this kind of realism that he demonstrates in
his writings on statecraft they are compared with the Arthshastra of Kautilya
because of his focus on realism and on political expediency.

172
10.4.3 Zawabit/ State Laws (Advice XIV): The Ideal Polity Zia ul Barani
Royal Authority
Barani categorized laws into two kinds, the Shariat and the Zawabit. While the and Just Rule
Shariat meant the teachings and practices of the Prophet and of the Caliphs, the
Zawabit were the state laws formulated by the monarch in consultation with the
nobility in the changed circumstances to cater to the new requirements which the
Shariat was unable to fulfill. It was ideal for the king, nobility and the personnel
of administration to follow the Shariat, both in personal domain and in public
policies. The state laws, however, were also to be formulated in case of the
inability to follow/apply the Shariat. But, he cautioned simultaneously that the
lawmakers must take into account the practices of the past and contemporary
socio-political conditions while formulating the laws. The Zawabit, he said, must
be in the spirit of the Shariat and numerated four conditions (Advice XIV) for its
formulation as guidelines, which are as follows:
 First, the Zawabit should not negate the Shariat;

 Secondly, it must increase the loyalty and hope among the nobles and
common people towards the Sultan;

 Thirdly, its source and inspiration should be the Shariat and the pious
Caliphs;

 Fourthly, if at all it had to negate the Shariat out of exigencies, it must

follow charities and compensation in lieu of that negation.

Thus, what he envisaged in the Zawabit was an ideal law which could cater to the
needs of the state without offending any section of the nobility in particular and
the masses in general. The combination of both religious and state laws are
another important dimension of Barani’s thought. Unlike an orthodox
fundamentalist, Barni goes for moderation. Therefore, his only test for adopting a
particular law is the interest, security and stability of the state. Even if the ruler
has to deviate from the Quranic laws, he must do ‘if’ it is done in protecting the
interest of the state. In other words, we can say that for Barani- Ends justifies
Means. If the end of strengthening the state is being ensured there is no harm is
deviating from the religious laws. Interest of the state is paramount. Hence, it was
stated in the preceding section that the hallmark of Barani’s thought is in political
expediency. In the section under the Zawabit, he advised the formulation of new
laws where, in the changed circumstances, the Shariat was unable to serve the
purpose of the state.
Laxity in not following the Shariat, both in personal and political domains was
tolerable till it began to affect the stability of the state. Suppressing the rebellious
elite, both Hindus and Muslims, banning education to the under-privileged and
nondescript people including Muslims (Advice XI) ‘welfare’ of the subjects, etc.
were all intended for consolidating the powers of the Muslim rulers. He knew
that, philosophically, monarchy is anti-Shariat (Advice IX.2), yet he accepted it
on the grounds of reality. This reveals his intentions of treating the Shariat as a 173
means for political ends.
Political Concerns Check Your Progress Exercise 2
and Key Ideas
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. According to Barani why should Muslims study history and for what
purpose?
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2. How did Barani justify and usher in the idea of Political Expediency?
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3. What are Zawabit and Shariat? What were the conditions that Barani put
to formulate Zawabit in the light of Shariat and how should they be
implemented?
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10.5 THEORY OF KINGSHIP

10.5.1 The Ideal Ruler
The advices related with this subject are Advice II , Advice XXIV, Advice X,
Advice XXIV , all of which spring up from this fundamental understanding -
174 Since the Islamic following was still restricted to a very narrow section of the
population, Barani felt it necessary to widen the Islamic base for political Zia ul Barani
obligation towards the monarchy. Royal Authority
and Just Rule
Barani made a distinction between the personal life of the Sultan and his political
role (Advice II). In both aspects, however, he envisaged in him an ideal person—
noble born, preferably belonging to the family of the monarch, having an innate
sense of justice, wise enough to understand the deception and conspiracies of the
wicked (Advice XXIV), understanding the importance of his time and dividing it
judiciously between his personal needs and political requirement (Advice X) and
following the path of the Shariat, which laid down that he was an agent of god on
earth to do the ‘welfare’ of the people. The Sultan was expected to reflect
supplication, helplessness, poverty and humility (Advice XXIV) to compensate
for the existence of monarchy which was contradictory to the principles of Islam.
As far as following the Shariat was concerned, Barani conceded that in the
personal realm, the Sultan may choose to be lax but he opposed the idea of laxity
in the political sphere as it might lead to disease in the administration, for the
ideal polity and the political avatar of the Sultan were intertwined.
10.5.1.1 Five qualities to desist for the Sultan
The Sultan must desist from five mean qualities such as falsehood, changeability,
deception, wrathfulness and injustice (Advice XXIII). Similarly, differentiation
between the determination in the enterprises of the government and
tyranny/despotism (Advice IV) was necessary to command faith, fear and
prestige among his friends and foes. High resolve, lofty ideals, fair
administration, distinctiveness from other monarchs, obligation over people, etc
(Advice XV) were the other required characteristics to influence people.
As people were influenced by the character and actions of the monarch, it was
necessary for him to maintain all the regalities associated with kingship.
Counsellors, army and intelligence officers were indispensable parts of these
royal functions. Their selection, gradation, etc. were obviously the duty of the
Sultan and required careful attention.
It was the king’s responsibility to protect the old political families, to check their
possible usurpation of power and to ensure they are not left to live in material
deprivation (Advice XXII).

10.5.2 Idea of Justice, Royal Authority and Just Rule

Barani considers justice as the foundation of social organization and political
order. For the same, he apprehended the ruler as the curator of justice and
described power and authority as the two major components of efficient
kingship. The justification for the royal authority of kings lies in their power and
dignity, which enabled them to apply justice. The supremacy of the Sultan and
the safety of his Sultanate, then, couldn’t have been secured without delivering
justice to the subjects. ‘The real justification for the supremacy of the kings and
of their power and dignity’, Barani had remarked, ‘is the need for enforcing
justice’ (Advice V).
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Political Concerns 10.5.2.1 Appointment of Judges
and Key Ideas
Accordingly, what came next was the appointment and gradation of judges, with
the king himself being at the apex. The functions delineated for them were
‘protection of money, property, women and children of the weak, the obedient,
the helpless, the young, the submissive and the friendless’ (Advice V). Further, it
was to ‘prevent the strong from having recourse to oppression in their dealings
with people’ (Advice V) without which ‘there would be a complete community
of women and property’ (Advice V), leading to anarchy in the ruling class. While
delivering justice, however, the king should know the appropriate occasions for
both forgiveness and punishment (Advice XII). Punishment to the rebellious,
cruel, mischievous, etc. had to be combined with mercy and forgiveness for those
who accepted their sins and were repentant (Advice XIII).
To dispense justice, the courts were divided into civil and criminal categories
and they operated at central and provincial levels. The judges were to be
appointed by the king, with himself at the apex of the judicial structure, and the
fountain-head of justice and highest court of appeal.
10.5.2.2 Justice for Hindus (Zimmis) and Muslims
In all these deliberations on justice, one aspect was conspicuous by its absence,
i.e., the deliverance of justice was to be according to the religious practices of the
subjects, though Barani nowhere mentioned separate kinds of justice for Hindus
and Muslims. Yet, it may be argued that when justice based on the Shariat was
favoured by Barani, then justice based on religion was already implicit in it.
Moreover, his proclamation for all-out war against zimmis made his intention
clear. But, as observed earlier, the growing redundancy of the Shariat in the
changed circumstances and the corresponding importance of Zawabit,
emphasized by Barani himself (Advice XIV), explicitly nullified the existence of
any Islamic religious justice as state policy of the Sultanate. Moreover, Barani’s
recognition that Sultans in India behaved moderately towards the zimmis (Advice
XI.3) recognizes the existence of customary justice during the Sultanate period.
Although Barani emphasized following the Shariat wherever possible, the very
possibility of its operation was, first, marginalized by the changing composition
of the rulers and military-bureaucratic, quasi-judicial personnel of the
administration and greater incorporation of Hindus and Indianized Turks into it.
The economic basis of the Sultanate necessitating revenue collection and leading
to compromises with the local aristocracy was the second factor that annulled the
operation of the Shariat. The third factor was the vast population of Hindus
inhabiting the rural areas surrounding the miniscule population of the Muslims
living within the restricted urban-administrative centres who could not have been
antagonized at the cost of jeopardizing the security of the state.
Therefore, it is found that adoption of a liberal attitude on the part of the
Sultanate ruling class towards the Hindus for which Barani complained, but also
simultaneously emphasized the formulation of the Zawabit. Barani’s theory of
176
justice, thus, essentially emanated from the perspective of the security of the Zia ul Barani
state. Royal Authority
and Just Rule
10.5.2.3 Remission of Taxes
Another aspect related with justice and consequently with the security of the state
was remission of taxes. At least during calamities, Barani suggested, the king
should remit or reduce taxes and extend monetary help from the treasury till the
time it was possible and necessary. All these suggested measures did not emanate
from any philanthropic reasoning-rather these were the articles of advice of a
realist concerned with the security of the state.
10.5.2.4 Favouring the Elite
Barani’s conception of justice was strongly tilted in favour of the rich and
powerful. His hatred against the rustic and underprivileged and bias in favour of
the noble-born clarifies the basis of his justice. Infact, the very paradigm of the
Fatawa was based on the consolidation and expansion of the elite in the
Sultanate; and like any other element of feudal society to be used as an
instrument for the perpetuation of monarchy, justice was meant to be a facade for
maintaining the serenity of the Sultanate.
Concluding: Three main points may be summarized from the above discussion
on Barani’s ideas and purpose of Justice. Firstly, using religion he attempted to
consolidate the Muslim population and various factions of the ruling class and
tried to link the two; secondly, through the Zawabit he tried to solve the
grievances of the Zimmis, and other social problems which remained unsolved by
the Shariat; and finally, he used ‘justice’ as an instrument to expand the basis of
political obligation of the subjects towards the state.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Who is the ideal ruler according to Barani?
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2. Explain the five qualities that the Sultan needs to avoid and those that he
needs to have.
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177
Political Concerns …………………………………………………………………………...……
and Key Ideas
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3. What is the idea of Justice and Just rule that Barani advocated?
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10.6 NOBILITY
The nobility was the second component of the monarchy. The nobles were the
chosen individuals whom the Sultan assigned ‘the right to levy the revenue in
particular territories’ which was known as iqta. It was the basic unit of landed
property whose holders formed the main class of landed proprietors. The iqtas
were frequently transferred from one person to another, which made them non-
hereditary.
Since the basic function of the Sultanate was revenue collection, for which the
entire paraphernalia of administration existed, and which could not have been
performed by the king alone, a set of people existed to collect the revenue and
advice or formulate administrative policies for it. The selection of such people by
the Sultan, therefore, was of a crucial nature for which Barani set certain
guidelines, and advised the king to be careful. The criteria were two (Advice
XIX). :
1. the people to be selected should be noble-born with loyalty, both personal
and political, towards the Sultan;

2. they must possess the quality of sound political judgement and render
advice to the monarch while taking into account the prospects and
contradictions of the impact of the policies to be undertaken

While the first was explicit, he prescribed nine conditions (Advice III) for the
second to test the political quality of the counselors. From fear of god, knowledge
of history, lack of greed to practical knowledge of state affairs, all must be
present in the advisers. Further, he prescribed eleven criteria (Advice III) to judge
a policy, which the monarchy planned to undertake, in order to formulate the
right one. Finally, he suggested the grading of nobility as per their birth and
merit.
These advices, however, must be seen in the social context of the time in order to
understand their import. In AD 1351, just six years before Barani penned down
his advices, there was a severe political crisis created by the rebellion of a large
section of the ruling class, and the sweeping changes in their composition. Then,
178
there was ‘large-scale recruitment of foreigners, still greater recruitment from the Zia ul Barani
lower strata of the Indian population and from the Hindus. Royal Authority
and Just Rule
Thus, it was in such a social milieu that Barani expressed himself in favour of
noble birth and personal loyalty, about the security of life and tenure of nobility,
of their gradation, etc., to keep the ‘upstarts’ at the lower echelons of
bureaucracy, to check them from the intricacies of the administration. The fear of
takeover by the Hindus, who were recruited in considerably large numbers by
Muhammad Tughlaq, might have been the other but equally important factor that
led him to express his opinions strongly against the Hindus. As the nobility
occupied one of the crucial positions in the state structure, Barani prescribed
tough conditions for their selection.

10.7 BUREAUCRACY
The bureaucracy was another necessary component of the Sultanate whose basic
function was to measure the land, fix and collect the taxes for its disbursement
among its beneficiaries; and in its absence, the very existence of the ruling class
would have become redundant and neither would have the army sustained itself.
It operated at three levels, viz., centre, province and village. The Diwan-i
Wazarat headed by a wazir (the head of revenue and finance, also known as the
prime minister) and assisted by a naib, Musharif-i-Mamalik, Mustawfi-i-Mamalik
and dabirs, was at the apex of the revenue department.
The three-tier structure of the revenue bureaucracy, which was highly centralized
in spite of its vast spread in terms of territorial extent, played the same important
role, along with the army, throughout the Sultanate period without much changes
either in the percentage of revenue collection per cultivator or in checking the tax
burden being passed on to the weaker elements by their superiors. To Barani all
these were means of dispensing justice which has been already discussed.

10.8 ARMY
After the Mauryas, the Sultanate was the largest (in terms of territorial extent)
and most powerful state (in terms of centralization of power) in India. Obviously,
the administration played varied roles, from revenue collection to maintaining
law and order, and from public works to dispensing justice. Out of the main
pillars of the administration, the army was the preeminent one which was based
on the Turkish-Mongol model. It was divided into four parts, viz., infantry (foot
soldiers or payaks), cavalry (horsemen), war elephants and auxiliary, viz., boats,
engineers, transporters, scouts, spies, etc. The cavalry was further divided into
three wings. The rank and file such as khan, malik, amir, sipahsalar etc. (Advice
VII) which were composed of Turks, Tartars, Rajputs and others were paid either
in cash or were assigned the revenues of different villages as per their grades.
As the Sultanate ultimately rested on the power of the army, whose basic
functions were the security and expansion of the state, Barani advised the king to
take greater care in its efficiency, checking corruption and conspiracies within it
and so on 179
Political Concerns The monarch also maintained personal troops called qalb for his safety and
and Key Ideas ultimate reliability in case of rebellion occurring from within the nobility. The
army, apart from performing its above mentioned roles, acquired importance for
another reason as well. It acted as a facilitator in the expansion of Islam since the
ruling class of the Sultanate came as invaders and immigrants and it needed a
large support base.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Who were the Nobles and what were their duties?
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2. What is the role and functions of Bureaucracy?
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3. How did Barani describe the composition and function of Army?
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10.9 CRITICISM
The major points of criticisms leveled against Barani are as follows:

180
He was misunderstood and some scholars labeled him a fundamentalist, an Zia ul Barani
orthodox and a bigot for promoting Islam and discriminating against Hindus. Royal Authority
and Just Rule
Although not true, but this was a result of his often conflicting writings on the
surface. Secondly, the charge of being fundamentalist also heightens in
comparison to Abul Fazal who was definitely much more secular and reasonable
in his argumenta and world view. It is an irony that while Barani spent so many
years at the service of the Sultan, he was left on the streets of Delhi and spent his
life in penury during the old days

10.10 LET US SUM UP

Barani’s eminence lies in his theory of history and its constant application in
different aspects of society of his time resulting in his theory of statecraft which
made him unique and enigmatic. In fact, it won’t be wrong to say that he
marshalled all his knowledge and experiences from the past and the events of his
time to serve the interests of the Sultanate. The prominent elements of his theory
were his belief in the hereditary status of the nobility, espousal of political
expediency on the part of monarchy and nobility, and contempt for the
downtrodden.
The second element was intended to serve the purpose of consolidation and
expansion of the Sultanate and consequently of the ruling class. To this end all
means, such as religion, despotism, benevolence, annihilation of the Hindus etc.
were to be employed. He was not against the Hindus per se as it has been alleged,
but against the Hindu elite from whom he feared a potential threat to the
Sultanate.
Zawabit rather than the Shariat therefore finds more prominence in his theory.
Moreover, Shariat was only the tool to be used for the benefit of the Sultanate;
and for the same purpose he suggested judicious mixing of benevolence and
despotism in order to enhance the power prestige and wealth of the Sultanate.
Justice likewise was intended to serve the interests of the state rather than to
fulfill the politico-economic needs of the masses. It was meant to expand the
social base of political obligation towards the monarchy. He consistently upheld
the interests and values of the traditional Muslim (Turk) aristocracy who he
thought were intrinsically superior to any other section of society. His contempt
for lowborn was so strong that even those who moved into the realm of nobility
were looked down upon. All the changes that he suggested, for formulating the
Zawabit, which emanated from new necessities, was essentially geared to serve
the overall interests of the Sultanate.
Thus, the entire theory of Barani had a definite interest. On the surface, his
Fatawa or Tarikh may look like a bundle of contradictions, but beneath it lies the
consistency of his interest–the protection, consolidation and expansion of the
Sultanate, the methods applied to achieve these aims notwithstanding. Essentially
a conservative aristocrat in his outlook, he yearned for stability.
However, as luck would have it, he was surpassed by the changing circumstances 181
of his time, and sidelined by the class whom he desired to represent.
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas 10.11 REFERENCES
 Mohammad Habib and Afsar Umar Salim Khan, The Political Theory of
the Delhi Sultanate (Allahabad: Kitab Mahal, 1957)
 Irfan Habib, Essays in Indian History (henceforth Essays) (New Delhi:
Tulika, 1995),
 B. M. Habibullah, The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India (Allahabad:
Central Book Depot, 1976),
 Fatāwā-ye ǰahāndārī, tr. M. Habib and A. Afzal-al-din, The Political
Theory of the Delhi Sultanate, Aligarh, 1960.)
 M. Habib and K. A. Nizami, eds., A Comprehensive History of India V:
The Delhi Sultanate, Delhi, 1970,
 Singh, M.P “Indian Political Thought” 2011 Dorling Kindersley (India)
Pvt. Ltd.
 I H. Qureshi, The Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi, (Patna:
Oriental Book, 1979),
 K. S. Lal, History of the Khaljis (Delhi: Munsi Ram Manohar Lal, 1980
 Irfan Habib, ‘Barani’s Theory of The History of The Delhi Sultanate
Indian Historical Review, Vol. VII, No. i-2, July 1980–January 1981

10.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Medieval political thinker
 Conservative and orthodox on the one hand and undermining Shariah on
the other hand.
 Misunderstood by the Sultan in latter part of his life
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 The learning from his mentors and from the king he served
3. Your answer should highlight following points
 Fatwa e jahandari
 Tarikh e firozshahi
 Nasihat

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 The major seven qualities of studying history as discussed by barani
182
 Four related historiographical topics
2. Your answer should highlight following points Zia ul Barani
Royal Authority
 The idea of political expediency and realism and Just Rule
 Context of Delhi Sultanate rule
3. Your answer should highlight following points
 Shariat pertains to religion and Zawabit pertains to state
 Their limitations in implementation
 The larger need for such concepts

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

 Distinction between personal and political life
 Role of shariat and its limitations
 Qualities to be avoided and qualities to be nurtured by the Ideal ruler
 Duties of the ideal ruler in maintaining Justice

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Hereditary nobility vs acquired nobility
 Their duties
 Criteria to become noble
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Role
 Function
 Composition
3. Your answer should highlight following points
 Ranks
 Order
 Functions of army
 King’s army

183
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas UNIT 11 ABUL FAZAL: MONARCHICAL
AUTHORITY AND POPULAR WELL
BEING*
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Early Influence
11.1.2 Impact of his Father’s struggles on his Intellectual Tradition
11.1.3 Influence of Ibn Arabi
11.1.4 Important works and Style
11.2 Association of Akbar and Abul Fazal
11.2.1 Context of Mughal Inheritance and a Search for Unity
11.2.2 Major Approaches to Governance
11.3 Abu Fazal’s Methodology
11.4 Sovereignty and Social Contract
11.5 Secularism of Din e- Ilahi
11.5.1 Decree of Mazhar
11.5.2 Din-e-Ilahi
11.5.3 Critique of Traditionalists
11.6 The Divine Origin of the Badshah/King: Divine Theory of Monarchical
Authority
11.6.1 Sovereignty in Badshahat
11.6.2 Just and Unjust Ruler
11.6.3 Supreme Authority of the Just Ruler
11.7 Divine Tolerance and Sulh-e-Kul
11.8 Akbar as an Ideal King and Spirit of Age
11.9 Division of Society: Comparison with Plato
11.10 Theory of Justice

*
Dr Swasti Rao, Associate Fellow, Europe and Eurasia Center, Manohar Parrikar
Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses

184
11.11 Abul Fazal’s Views on Administration and popular well being: Reforms Abul Fazal:
Monarchical
11.11.1Departure from Delhi Sultanate Authority and
Popular Well
11.11.2Importance to Talent
Being
11.11.3Changes in Tax system
11.12 Criticism
11.13 Let us sum up
11.14 References
11.15 Answers to check your progress Exercises

11.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the political and administrative
ideas of Abul Fazal ,a medieval Indian historian and philosopher who served at
the Court of Akabr. After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:
 Context of Abul Fazal’s life and times
 Early influences on his philosophical thought
 Important characterics of his political thought
 His methodology
 His ideas of peace, Secularism, Sovereignty, division of society, divine
origin of king, rationality
 Administrative and political reforms in the times of Akbar
 Analyze some of his limitations and criticisms

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Sheikh Abu’L-FaŻl (1551-1602) was a historian, officer, chief secretary, and
confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar. He was born on 14 January 1551 and
was the second son of Shaikh Mobārak, a teacher and scholar who had migrated
to Agra in 1543 from Nagaur, Rajastan. Fazal was an eminent historian of
Medieval India along with Barani.
Fazal occupies a place of distinction. This is mainly because of the predominance
of intellectual elements in his writings, his unfailing appeal to reason against
religious and cultural traditions, broader view of history and a new methodology
which he sought to apply to his task. His interpretation of history was integrally
linked to the political, social, economic and religious realities of that period and
strove to address the plurality and diversity of Indian society at large that Akbar
wished to rule in the best possible manner.

11.1.1 Early Influence

It is very important to understand the early influence on Fazal as those were the
ideas that shaped his entire political discourse. While his elder brother Fayzi was
already at poet at the Royal Mughal Court, Fazal didn’t show that inclination in
the beginning. He applied himself to a rigorous life of study, and by the age of
185
fifteen he had read widely in Arabic, Greek philosophy, and Sufism. His
Political Concerns precociousness seems to have made him something of a social misfit, however,
and Key Ideas and by the time he was twenty, he had already embarked on a life of ascetic
withdrawal. Then, how come he landed at the courts of Akbar? We turn to this
question now.

11.1.2 Impact of his Father’s struggles on his Intellectual

Tradition
Fazl was known to be against hardline Islam. This can be traced back to his
personal experience as he saw his father being humiliated by the Mughal
religious scholars or the Olama. The leading members of the
Mughal ʿolamāʾ were mounting an intense campaign against Shaikh Mobārak
(Fazal’s father), because the latter had publicly defended a member of the
Mahdawī sect whom the hardliners did not approve of. Abu’l-Fażl had
exacerbated matters by publicly challenging the opinions of one of the
leading ʿolamāʾ which made the atmosphere at court tense. Shaikh Mobārak,
accused of being a Mahdawī and a Shiʿa himself, was driven with his family
from home to home seeking refuge. For a while, he lived in Delhi.
The events surrounding his father’s persecution made a profound impression on
Abul Fażal; he devoted a major part of his autobiography to describing them, and
he dedicated his subsequent career to exposing what he considered the narrow-
minded bigotry of the ʿolamāʾ. In 1574 Abul-Fazal made his first appearance in
Akbar’s court. He favorably impressed the emperor and soon thereafter entered
court service where he remained for the next two and a half decades.

11.1.3 Influence of Ibn Arabi

It should be observed that the dominant influences which led to the formulation
of the new views by Akbar and Abu'l Fazal came most significantly from Ibn `
Arabi.
As modern critics point out, Ibn Arabi’s theory does not amount to simple
monism, or pantheism It focuses on a "transcendental" Unity. Once its reality is
recognized, the differences seen in the sensory world are bound to lose their
significance and become illusory. From this a worldview followed, which Abu'l
Fazl describes while introducing Akbar's spiritual views in his Ain-i Akbari:
When world-ornamenting wisdom-giving God desires that the essence
(gauhar) of humankind should come into existence, and from the diversity
in the degree of (spiritual) capacity, the cloud of Duality ( do-rangi ) rises
and fashions Religion (din) and World ( dunya ), every creature begins to
have a distinct leader ( kar-giya ), and these become engaged in mutual
denunciation. As lack of vision and unwisdom become the touchstone, the
knowledge of (true) worth and acquisition of love become scarce.
Otherwise, what is Religion, what is World? There is one heart-ensnaring
Beauty which casts splendour through many thousands of veils. They have
spread an expansive carpet, and it sheds forth many different colours.
186
This passage may be treated as the starting point of Abu'l Fazl' s political Abul Fazal:
thought. Both religion and the secular sphere ("world") are placed at par, and as Monarchical
Authority and
equally illusory, being products of a false Duality. This immediately liberates Popular Well
temporal sovereignty from any dictates of theological doctrine. In plain words, it Being
means that such a position erases the condition that religious leaders are superior
to the king, because they interpret religion while the king is the master of worldly
affairs. This idea is developed in the subsequent sections.

11.1.4 Important works and Style

His most famous and definitive work, the Akbar Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, were
composed in the latter part of the sixteenth century. It marks a decisive and
schematic departure from the predominant historiographic format of the time, as
it does in several other aspects of the construction of an alternative world view.
Akbar Nama and Ain-i-Akbari together constitute a single book. Ain –e –Akbari
is the third part of Akbar Nama. The work was undertaken in 1595 and, after five
revisions, completed in 1602.
The Akbar Nama opens with the praise of Allah, and then moves to Adam and
traces Akbar’s lineage back to fifty-three generations of his ancestors. What is
important to note is that it dislocates the historiographic axis from the pivot of
Islam and seeks to construct an alternative teleology of universal history in
which Akbar is the heir, not of Muhammad and the caliphs, but of Adam himself,
the first human being, and thus, the ruler of all.
Akbar Nama is divided into three parts as follows:
1. The first part of the Akbar Nama- contains an account of Akbar’s
ancestors, including that of his father Humayun.
2. The second part - gives the most complete account of Akbar’s reign up to
the 46th year, in a chronological order.
3. The Third part of Akban Nama is Ain-i-Akbari- which is a unique
compilation of the system of administration and control over the various
departments of government in a great empire. It faithfully and minutely
records, to the minutest detail, a wide array of facts illustrating its extent,
resources, condition, population, industry and wealth as the abundant
material supplied from official sources could furnish. It also contains an
account of the religious and philosophical systems of the Hindus, as
described in their ancient books, and of their social customs and practices.
Thus, Abul Fazl widened the range and scope of history as no medieval historian
before him had done and his work is considered the most comprehensive account
of the Mughal administration and state structure.

11.2 ASSOCIATION OF AKBAR AND ABUL FAZL

Akbar was looking for a philosophical and theoretical justification to consolidate
power against the other power centers of society. He needed ideological support
against the powerful vested interests he had inherited, in particular, the Tūrānī 187
Political Concerns nobility, the swollen class of madad-e maʿāš grantees (those holding land in
and Key Ideas perpetuity) and the Sunni ʿolamāʾ. Abu’l-Fażal, with his background as a forceful
debater, independent thinker, and opponent of the conservative ʿolamāʾ, was
perfectly suited for this role. So the coming together of Akbar and Abul Fazl was
a mutually win- win situation for both.

11.2.1 Context of Mughal Inheritance and a Search for Unity

At the beginning of the Mughal period, India was divided into many smaller
kingdoms, and this frequently led to a great deal of political instability. This
ended with the victory of the Mongol ruler Babar over Ibrahim Lodi, the last
ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. The Mughals eventually conquered much of India
resulting in an integrated and vast Mughal Empire which had many new
characteristics. These new structures gave rise to a novel integrated culture that
had elements from both Hindu and Muslim thought, an idea that found a clear
expression in the tradition of Bhakti and Sufi movements. It is noteworthy that
Abul Fazal was exposed to the Hindu and Sufi traditions too. The primary
message was that all humans are equal and that, there is a basic unity and
equality in all religions. However, some problems remained. The main problem
was that there was still no recognized law of succession and in such matters, the
survival of the fittest ruled. The strongest would emerge as the ruler.
The other problem was that a difference existed between theory and practice. In
theory, the Sultan was subject to the Khalif and the Shariah, but in practice the
ruler tended to be more sovereign in his own person. At the same time the, Delhi
Sultanate was marked by the intolerant approach towards the non-Muslims on
whom Islamic Shariah laws were applied at the time of criminal proceedings and
also symbolized in taxes like the Jaziya, which later was abolished by Akbar.

11.2.2 Major Approaches to Governance

Abu’l-Fażal’s major importance was as a theorist who developed an ideology not
only for the Indian empire ruled by Akbar, but for Mughal civilization in the
broadest sense. He boldly addressed the difficulty of reconciling the theory of
Islam as a universal religion in which state and community are ideally
coterminous, with the historical fact that Islam in India was the religion of a
minority community ruling over a Hindu majority. To this end, three main
approaches can be seen as prevalent during those times:
1. Barani- One approach to this dilemma had been presented by Żīāʾ-al-dīn
Baranī. Ignoring the theory of the coterminous state and community,
Baranī had de-universalized Islam into a tribal religion, viz., a religion of
the Turks in India.
2. Firuz Toghlaq- Another approach, advanced by Fīrūz Toḡloq among
others, was to shape the Indian reality to fit the Islamic theory by
converting the subcontinent’s indigenous population to Islam.
3. Abul-Fażal’s approach to the same issue was twofold and revolutionary.
188
 a. In the first place, he regarded all creeds as inherently possessing the Abul Fazal:
same universal truth. Hence, propagating an equality among all Monarchical
Authority and
religions. Popular Well
Being
b. Separation of politics from religion: This he endeavored to do by
elevating allegiance to Akbar above the constraints of any single
religious community; in effect, creating a cult of loyalty around the
personality of the emperor. These ideas have been looked upon in
detail in the subsequent sections.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. What are the early influneces on the thought of Abul Fazal that shaped his
ideas later in Akbar-Nama?
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2. What were the problems before Mughal Empire and why were they
searching for a model of unity to rule a country like India?
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11.3 ABUL FAZAL’S METHODOLOGY

Abul Fazal had a rational and secular approach to history which is the hallmark
of his writings. He also applied a new methodology to collect facts and marshal
them on the basis of critical investigation. He widened the scope of history by
recording a mass of facts pertaining to political, social, economic and cultural
life, and by incorporating chapters on administrative regulations, procedures and
topographical accounts of various provinces. He worked hard for the collection
of material, selected important facts after careful enquiry and investigation, and
then presented them in a clear and systematic manner. He questioned the validity 189
Political Concerns of a source and accepted it only when it satisfied the principles of historical
and Key Ideas investigation formulated by him.
Creating an epistemology for the interpretation and study of history -He
created a new idiom for understanding and interpreting history, widened its range
and scope and laid down the principles of historical investigation. It may,
therefore, be suggested that in Abul Fazl’s writings we can discover a philosophy
of history, i.e., a definite concept about the nature and purpose of history,
principles for its interpretation, and the critical apparatus for the collection and
selection of facts of history.
Originality and cross checking of sources through critical examination -
Abul Fazl realized and recognized the importance of original sources and gave
his utmost attention and care to there study. He did not depend on a single source
or account in order to ascertain a fact, but obtained as many versions as he could.
They were put to a critical examination before they were accepted. He states that
he has formulated a set of questions which were put to the reporter of an event or
fact. This procedure, he points out, is of great help to the historian in ascertaining
the truth. His source material consisted of accounts of events written by
eyewitnesses. Reports, memoranda, minutes prepared by the offices, imperial
Farmans, and other records were carefully consulted.

11.4 SOVEREIGNTY AND SOCIAL CONTRACT

In the political field, Abul Fazl can be compared with Barani of Delhi Sultanate.
While both of them were concerned with social stability, Abul Fazl’s method of
handling this concept was different. Ain-i-Akbari creates a theory of sovereignty
promised on social contract and not based on Shariah. He drew a picture of
society that existed before and then explained how sovereignty emerged. He
emphasized that without a strong ruler there would be lawlessness and rebellion
in the society and that will be harmful. In this, a clear parallel can be seen with
Thomas Hobbes who gives a negative picture of the state of nature (pre –contact)
and then, the emergence of a state after the social contract.
Social Contract: Abu'l Fazl appeals to a theory of social contract to justify the
necessity of political authority. In a chapter entitled 'The Provision of Livelihood
(Rawai-i Rozi)' he says:
Whereas abundant differences are embedded in the nature of humankind,
and disturbance, internal and external, is of daily growth, and huge
desires speed fast and anger is quick to break out, in this demon- land of
unmanliness, [therefore] friendship is scarce and justice absolutely non-
existent. In all circumstances, in such a place of tumult, relief is not
possible except through the punitive power of a single man ( qahri-i
wahadat). That life-saving medicine cannot be provided except through
the terror ( shikuh ) of just rulers. When a house or inhabited quarter
cannot be administered without the fear or hope from a perspicuous head
(peshwa), how is it possible for the disturbance of the world's nest to die
190 down without that recipient of Divine Light ( paziranda-i farr-i Jzidi) [the
 righteous ruler] and how would the property, life, honour and religion of Abul Fazal:
the world's people be protected? Monarchical
Authority and
Abul Fazal, free from any sectarian, religious roots, located the basis of Popular Well
Being
sovereignty in the needs of the social order. Here his reasoning first follows the
pure dictates of reason (`aql), appealing to the tradition of the philosophers
(fìlasafa) and the scientists (hukama)
According to Abul Fazal, sovereignty was in nature, a divine light (farr-i-izadi)
and with this statement he, seems to dismiss as inadequate the traditional
reference to the king as the shadow of God (zill-I Ilahi).

11.5 SECULARISM OF DIN–E-ILAHI

In a pure modernist tradition that can be clearly seen in the West, Abul-Fażl also
anted to divorce religion from politics altogether. This is the basis of his secular
ethos which was epitomized in the philosophy of Din-e-Ilahi.

11.5.1 Decree of Mazhar

Akbar was interested in establishing the authority of the ruler over all other
elements of the state. In 1579, through a decree named mazhar, Akbar gained a
great deal of authority to interpret law.

11.5.2 Din e-Ilahi

However, Akbar was not satisfied with this limited power. He wanted a wider
concept of religion. He sought for a new justification of religious thoughts and
Abul Fazal provided this to him. Abul Fazal told him the new meaning of
sovereignty as a divine light. Later on, Akbar portrayed himself as an agent of
god who worked on his behalf.
In the new approach, Fazal elevated allegiance to Akbar above the constraints of
any single religious community, and in effect creating a cult of loyalty around the
personality of the emperor. The cult of tawḥīd-e elāhī or dīn-e elāhī seems to
have been modeled primarily on the Sufi pīr-morīd relationship in which the
disciple pledges absolute obedience and devotion to his master. It was Abu’l-
Fażl’s intention to endow the office of emperor with an ideology that would
replace the Sunni šarīʿa as the sole principle by which the state was run.

11.5.3 Critique of Traditionalists

Abul Fazal criticizes that the good effort of some "recluses" (tajarrud - gazinan)
to appear as "breakers of old customs" (khariq-i ' adat), and remedy the troubled
state of affairs was unsuccessful because of lack of support from "exalted
Sultans." This is obviously a dig on prophets trying to be sovereigns on the basis
of their creeds, especially keeping in mind the Islamic experience. He was very
critical of such traditionalists and found them an impediment to progress and
stability of the state.

191
Political Concerns Check Your Progress Exercise 2
and Key Ideas
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Elaborate the methodology of Abul Fazal.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2. Elaborate the notion of Sovereignty and Social Contract in Abul Fazal’s
thought.
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3. Why is Din e Ilahi a secular Philosophy?
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11.6 THE DIVINE ORIGIN OF THE BADSHAH/

KING: DIVINE THEORY OF MONARCHICAL
AUTHORITY
According to Abul Fazl, the term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established
owner’ where Pad stands for stability and shah stands for owner. Padshah
therefore, means powerful, established owner who cannot be eliminated by
192 anyone. The Badshah had a superior place in the Mughal Empire. He was the
ultimate authority on all social, economic, political and judicial powers. This Abul Fazal:
theory of Badshahat was a combination of Mongol, Turkish, Iranian, Islamic and Monarchical
Authority and
Indian political traditions. According to Abul Fazl, ‘Badshahat is the light Popular Well
derived from God which has been sent by God himself. God throws his kindness Being
on Badshah; who works as the agent of god’..

11.6.1 Sovereignty in Badshahat

The king established his sovereignty by considering himself an agent of god and
used his absolute powers according to the rule of controller, guide and state. Abul
Fazl considered Badshah as the father of his people so it was the duty of people
to respect him and obey his orders. But if the Badshah discriminated on the basis
of caste, religion and class, then he could not be considered a good king. He
differentiated between the Just and the Unjust Ruler

11.6.2 Just and Unjust Ruler

While the rule of the king is legitimate in the divine light, but it does not mean
that it absolves the ruler from his duties. He goes on to make an important
distinction between the just and the unjust ruler. It is only "a just ruler (kar-
giya)" who is able "to convert, like a salt- bed, the impure into pure, the bad into
good. The just ruler was characterized by tolerance , respect for reason and a
fatherly love to all the subjects regardless of their religion or creed.

11.6.3 Supreme Authority of the Just Ruler

During the Delhi Sultanate, the king was the final authority in governance,
administration, agriculture, education and in other fields, but he had no say if
they were related to religious matters. But when Akbar acquired kingship, he
made himself the final authority even in religious disputes vis-à-vis the Imam-e-
Adil because he followed the order of God and he could not be wrong. Therefore
people must follow his order. It is clear that Akbar was the ideal king for Abul
Fazl and that’s why he looked at Akbar as a ‘complete man who could never be
wrong’.

11.7 DIVINE TOLERANCE AND SULH-E-KUL

Sulh-e-kul - known as universal peace pervades all of Abu’l-Fażl’s political and
religious theory. It was in the spirit of universal peace, for example, that Akbar’s
government integrated diverse cultural groups into a stable administrative and
military system. Insofar as the same principle has provided an antecedent for the
secular ideology of independent India, it remains Abu’l-Fażl’s most far-reaching
legacy.
Divine Tolerance: The agent of God could not practice discrimination among
the various faiths present in society. A doctrine for justifying the tolerant
religious policy was now the need of the hour. Sovereignty was not restricted to
any particular faith. It became overarching. They believed all religions were, in
essence, the same but only the paths varied. Abul Fazl believed that in a poly-
religious country like India, the theory of monarchical sovereignty was more 193
Political Concerns relevant. Here, sovereignty was not to be related with any particular religion as
and Key Ideas the monarch was above all the religions. He promoted the good values of
different religions and thus, assembled different faiths for maintaining peace
everywhere. He had to sustain those qualities by adopting an appropriate
religious status.
After evaluating Abul Fazl, we can conclude that a sovereign must have the
quality of tolerance for the existing beliefs and he should not reject the traditional
ways of his people which were necessary and complementary. Abul Fazl justified
the views of Akbar by promoting him as having a rationalist approach to social
reforms. Fazl argued that he did so, as he wanted to construct a ‘Hindustan’ that
could stand out in the world with greater confidence

11.8 AKBAR AS AN IDEAL KING AND SPIRIT OF

AGE
Abul Fazl mentioned in Akbar Nama that Akbar always worked wisely for the
welfare of his people. He had tolerance, broad mindedness and a strong sense of
justice. He provided stability to the state and gave good governance to ensure
economic prosperity, peace and safety of his people. He provided religious
freedom to all. His political views were clear and were intended for the
expansion of the state boundaries.
According to some scholars, Abul Fazl envisions the sovereign essentially as
paterfamilias (father figure) , and bestows absolute power to them. Everything
that the ruler does, all gifts Mansabs or rewards bestowed by him upon his
nobles, princes or subjects are favours; nothing is gained by anyone as a matter of
right. On the other hand, Abul Fazl’s binds the ruler with bestowing paternal care
to his subjects. The running thread in Abul Fazl’s several discussions of kingship
is the composition of a paternal love towards his subjects, the priceless jewel of
justice and fair play, and observance of absolute peace, Sulh-i-Kul, without
discrimination.
Spirit of Age and use of Reason: Other conditions may vary with the context,
but an Ideal King is required to understand and look through the need of the hour.
The true King must understand the ‘spirit of the age’ and exercise reason and
favor talent instead of primordial identities like religion.
To understand the Spirit of the age (need of the hour) and shape his conduct
accordingly was the positive aim of the Ideal King.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. What is the Divine origin of Badshahat? Differentiate between Just and
Unjust ruler.
194
………………………………………………………………………...……
 …………………………………………………………………………...…… Abul Fazal:
Monarchical
…………………………………………………………………………...…… Authority and
Popular Well
…………………………………………………………………………...…… Being
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2. What do you understand by Sulh–e-kul?
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3. What are the characteristics of an Ideal king?
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11.9 DIVISION OF SOCIETY: COMPARISON WITH

PLATO
Just as Plato conceived of a society based upon the principle of division of
functions, Abul Fazal too arrived at a similar order. Plato mentions three classes
of (i) Guardian or warriors, (ii) The rulers or the official class, (iii) The
agriculturists, traders and industrial workers. Fazal divides his society in 4 classes
– (i) The warriors, (ii) The learned men, (iii) Husbandmen and laborers, (iv)
Artificers and merchants. The last two are subdivisions of Plato’s third class. And
the first two are identical. Further, Abul Fazal further compares his four classes
to the four elements of Fire, Air, Water and Earth, and remarks : "As the grand
political body maintains its equilibrium by the above four ranks of men, of men,
so does royalty receive its final tint from a similar fourfold division" : viz . (a) the
Nobles of the State; (b) Assistants of Victory; (c) Companions of the King; and
(d) Servants. Just as the welfare of the whole world depends upon the successful
working of the above mentioned four classes, as settled by kings, so does the
body politic depend upon the proper formation of the latter four divisions. It is,
therefore, obligatory for a King to put each of these in its proper place, and, by
195
Political Concerns uniting personal ability with a due respect for others, to cause the world to
and Key Ideas flourish.

11.10 THEORY OF JUSTICE

It was also the duty of the king to provide justice to his people and always punish
the wrongdoers and ensure that justice helped the innocent people. According to
him, a king should be kind and harmonious while dispensing justice and treat his
people as his children and himself as their father. He should keep it in his mind
that he was sent by God on earth to ensure peace and justice for all. He is a
medium for their welfare. He should always remain indifferent and take care that
nobody was hurt by him. Abul Fazl’s basic premise was that the ruler should not
depend on any religious person. His moral level should be high and should know
the moral and spiritual qualities. His ideal conception of justice cannot be
reached without the use of reason

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. How has Abul Fazal divided society? How do you compare this division
with Plato’s division of society?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
2. What do you understand by Abul Fazal’s theory of Justice?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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…………………………………………………………………………...……
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11.11 ABUL FAZL’S VIEWS ON ADMINISTRATION

AND POPULAR WELL BEING: REFORMS
Humayun did not have the time to revise the old administration. It was Akbar
196 who revised it and gave it a structure of government and administration based on
his knowledge of the Delhi Sultanate. He did not make any changes in Abul Fazal:
administration at the district and sub-district levels. His land revenue system was Monarchical
Authority and
almost the same. Popular Well
Being
An important question arises here as to what was different or new that made the
Mughal Empire stronger than the Delhi Sultanate? What were those new policies
by which Akbar could govern such a large, stable, long-lasting political and
administrative structure? As we know a strong and well planned administrative
structure is a sound link of great governance. It is also necessary for welfare and
peace of the state that people should not fear an enemy’s attack.

11.11.1 Departure from Delhi Sultanate

In reality, Mughal polity was not a complete continuation of the Delhi Sultanate.
He changed the designation of the officials. His important contribution was the
development of a provincial administration, patterned on the central system of
government. Detailed rules and regulations were made for better control. In his
administrative views Abul Fazl gave supreme place to advocates among all the
officers. According to him, advocates should have those qualities which could
solve both private and social problems of the king.
As we see in Kautilya’s Arthashashtra, we can find the same concept of state
being divided into many levels with many officers at each level in the Ain-i-
Akbari. Akbar divided his empire into Subas, Sarkars and Mahalls. He appointed
a chain of officers at various levels who were controlled by ministers at the
centre. In this system, the religion of the officers could not interfere in their
administrative work, so this system was also followed by his successors. Akbar
wanted a sovereign rule so he gave importance to it. He systematized and
centralized his administration.
The Mughal state had a vast centralized patrimonial system. In this system, they
bestowed various kinds of ranks and hierarchies borrowed from the Mansabdari
system of Persia (In Persian (Mansab means rank)
This system gave rise to a community with various grades between the people
and the ruler and a hierarchical system came into existence. Summing up, in
medieval times, Indian society had a complicated system of rank and status on
the basis of military power. The military power became a status symbol and the
whole framework was designed around it. The Mughals also followed this pattern
for peace in their kingdom and they did not try to change it.

11.11.2 Importance to Talent

Abul Fazl had a strong belief in hierarchy, but he was more concerned about the
need of talent for the kingdom. He did not bother about the social background of
a talented person. It is for this reason that he stated that Akbar was moved by the
spirit of the age, for he knew the values of talent, honoured people of various
classes with appointments in the rank of army and raised them from the position
of a common solider to the dignity of a grandee.
197
Political Concerns 11.11.3 Changes in Tax system
and Key Ideas
Abul Fazl narrates that Akbar during his reign started a system of collecting tax
on an individual basis. This system allowed the farmer to pay his tax based on his
individual harvest. He only had to pay the tax on whatever produce he got. This
system was different from the previous one found in the Mughal Empire, where a
whole village had to pay the tax collectively. In this system, every farmer had to
pay the tax whether he had a good produce or not because everyone had to share
the tax equally. So, when Akbar became the ruler, he changed this system, taking
a step to reform the condition of farmers.
Major Political Reforms: Akbar Abolished the Jaziya (paid by non –muslims)
and stopped collecting the pilgrimage tax from non –muslims.
Major political reforms included regulation of Prices and wages, control of
Liquor, fixing of minimum wages , prohibition of forced conversion, prohibition
of slaughter of cows, prohibition of enforced Sati,

11.12 CRITICISM
Abul Fazal is usually criticized for the following:
Criticized for not being a true Muslim and for being a kafir. Fazl did not think
that Islam was superior to all religions while Barani and other thinkers regarded it
as supreme. This was the reason that many people called Abul Fazl a rebel, a
Kafir, Hindu or Agnipujak etc. He was too skeptical of tradition and those hostile
to him record that he had brusquely brushed aside Ghazali's criticisms of the
scientists with the short remark that Ghazali "had spoken nonsense.
His cosmopolitan philosophy and Din e ilahi could only be partially successful in
India. Policies like Sulh-kul and Din-i-Ilahi gave strength to his governance and
administration, but these new experiments were not as successful as Akbar
hoped.
Inconsistency in the theory of social contract and in his theory of divine origin of
sovereignty since the two theories are not logically compatible with each other.
Indeed, he may be said to have tried to combine the two, but certain logical
inconsistencies remained.

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Discuss the administrative and political reforms done by Akbar according
to Abul Fazal’s philosophy.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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198
 …………………………………………………………………………...…… Abul Fazal:
Monarchical
…………………………………………………………………………...…… Authority and
Popular Well
…………………………………………………………………………...…… Being
2. What are the major points of criticism for Abul Fazal?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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11.13 LET US SUM UP

Abul Fazl was Akbar’s trusted courtier however; he had a genuine adulation and
reverence for Akbar. His firm belief in religious tolerance owed its origin to his
formative years, when he and his family experienced the worst type of
persecution at the hands of the orthodox Ulama. This proved to be the basis of a
lasting friendship with Akbar. His religious thoughts were based on secularism
which considered all religions equal and believed in religious fraternity and Sulh-
i-Kul (peace everywhere). He was considered an intellectual, a thinker who
believed in the goodness of all religions. He liked rationality and innovations in
every field. He did not like orthodox, traditional and customary values. He said if
traditions were sufficient for all the times, then why the Prophet brought new
thoughts. He argued that change in law and religion must be initiated with the
passage of time. His modernity and religious rationality were reflected in the
thoughts of Akbar who also declined to be a traditionalist himself and started
innovative policies and customs in his reign.
Moreover, few could doubt that Akbar possessed the highest and noblest qualities
of head and heart. No wonder that Abul Fazl found in Akbar the qualities of a
king, philosopher and hero. Abul Fazl’s official position, as well as his personal
views on religion and politics, required that he should defend, justify and extol
Akbar and his activities.
Yet, he was undoubtedly one of the greatest thinkers and scholars that India has
produced. The essential bedrock of rationality and secularism in Abul Fazl’s
thought commands respect, even admiration. Certainly no one after him in India
debated the issues of sovereignty at the same high level of reason and abstraction

11.14 REFERENCES
 Fatāwā-ye ǰahāndārī, tr. M. Habib and A. Afzal-al-din, The Political
Theory of the Delhi Sultanate, Aligarh, 1960.)
199
Political Concerns  M. Habib and K. A. Nizami, eds., A Comprehensive History of India V:
and Key Ideas
The Delhi Sultanate, Delhi, 1970,
 Singh, M.P “Indian Political Thought” 2011 Dorling Kindersley (India)
Pvt. Ltd.

11.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Influence of father’s struggles
 Influence of Ibn Arabi
 Influence of Sufism
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Akbar’s need to consolidate the power of the king
 Fazal fitting the requirement of Akbar as he was a critic of traditionalists
 Problem with other approaches to governance during those times
 Fazal’s approach of secularism and unity amidst diversity

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Creation of a philosophy of studying history
 Use of sources
 Cross checking of sources
 Importance of primary sources
 Role of observation
 Originality of Sources
 Validity of sources
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Social contract of Fazal
 Basis of Sovereignty being a social need
3. Your answer should highlight following points
 Decree of Mazhar
 Need for expansion of that thought leading to Din e Ilahi
 Critique of Traditionalists

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Divine Origin of Badshahat
 Sovereignty in Badshahat
 Just and Unjust Ruler
 Supreme authority of Just Rule
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Sulh e kul
200
 Importance of Tolerance
3. Your answer should highlight following points Abul Fazal:
 Akbar as an Ideal King Monarchical
Authority and
 Characteristics of an Ideal King Popular Well
 Spirit of Age Being

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Division of society and its need
 Comparison with Plato
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Theory of Justice, impartiality, use of reason
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Administrative reforms
 Importance to talent
 Tax system changes
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Limitations
 Critique by Islamists
 Theoretical inconsistency
 Limited impact

201
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas UNIT 12 AKKA MAHADEVI: CRITIQUE OF
SOCIAL ORDER*
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Birth and Early Age
12.1.2 Guru in the life of Akka
12.2 Spiritual Life: Mahadevi as a Saint
12.2.1 Marriage and Renunciation
12.2.2 Mahadevi the Saint and entry in Anubhava Mantapa
12.2.3 Arguments at Anubhava Mantapa
12.2.4 Journey to Sri Sailam
12.3 Major Writings: Vachans
12.4 Intellectual Inspiration from the Lingayat tradition and Critique of the
Social Order-1
12.4.1 Impact of the Lingayat Tradition
12.4.2 Social Value of the Vachana tradition
12.4.3 Resistance to Caste and Religious Oppression
12.4.4 Sharana Movement and Anubhava Mantapa as an argumentative
space
12.4.5 Symbol of Ishtalinga as a resistance to Brahmanical oppression
12.4.5 1Pillars of Lingayatism:
12.5 Intellectual Inspiration from Lingayat tradition and Critique of Social
Order –2 Impact on Mahadevi’s Vachanas.
12.5.1 Vachanas of the women saints as a form of social resistance
12.5.2 Breakdown of Caste Hierarchies
12.5.3 Smashing of Patriarchy
12.5.4 Critique of Monarchy

*
Dr Swasti Rao, Associate Fellow, Europe and Eurasia Center, Manohar Parrikar
Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses

202
 12.5.5 Nudity and defiance of social order Akka Mahadevi:
Critique of Social
12.6 Feminist Epistemology Order
12.7 Criticism
12.8 Let Us Sum Up
12.9 References
12.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

12.0 OBJECTIVES
The unit will tell you about the life and ideas of Akka Mahadevi, who was an
early female poet of the Kannada Literature and an eminent personality in the
Lingayat religion of 12th century India. This unit will describe and understand
how and why she ostracized the social constraints on women. After studying this
unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the life of Akka Mahadevi and why she denounced the
oppressive social constructs
 Characteristics of the Lingayat tradition
 Critique of social order and resistance to patriarchy
 Akka as a Feminist icon
 Feminist Epistemology of Akka
 Some Criticism of hers and of the Lingayat Tradition

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Akka Mahadevi was born in Udutadi, near Shivamoga in the Indian state of
Karnataka around 1130. According to some scholars, she was born to a couple
named Nirmalshetti and Sumati, who were both the devotees of Para Shiva.
She was a woman saint from Medieval India who claimed like many other
‘enlightened’ people of her time and age (in India) that differences like those of
sex/gender, good fortune, wealth or caste (jaati) didn’t matter in the quest for the
‘Knowledge of ultimate reality’. She ‘wrote’ vachanas (sayings), free verses or
prose-poems that talk of her quest for the ‘Knowledge of ultimate reality’ and the
path to it. Her vachanas have been interpreted as important contributions to the
Indian feminist and social epistemological tradition.

12.1.1 Early Age

Akkamahadevi was born as Mahadevi in Uduthadi to parents who seem to have
already been ardent devotees of Shiva. Akka or sister was later added to depict
the respect and sense of endearment with which the sharanas held her. Accounts
suggest that a Guru, who blessed her with the Istalinga, introduced her to the
worship of Shiva at a very young age. Thus, shunning the material world and its
worldly men, she adopted her chosen god, Chennamallikarjuna, as her husband. 203
Political Concerns 12.1.2 “Guru” in the life of Akka
and Key Ideas
At the age of seven or eight, Akka Mahadevi was initiated by her guru, Sri
Gurulingadeva, and given the Ishtalinga. Some scholars are of the opinion that
the name Gurulingadeva is symbolic and the Lord Himself was her Guru.
However, in many of her vachanas Akka Mahadevi pays high tribute to her Guru,
emphasizing his role in her spiritual progress.
Akka Mahadevi’s inherent spiritual temperament was nurtured with the blessings
of her Guru. Although Deeksha is considered to be the spiritual birth of an
individual, in the case of an evolved spiritual aspirant like Akka Mahadevi, it can
be said that it was merely an initiation of the completion of her spiritual journey.
The spiritual maturity of an ordinary devotee and a devotee of Akka Mahadevi’s
stature can be likened to the lighting of a lamp. While a lamp lit with ordinary
wicks takes time to catch fire, a lamp lit with camphor catches fire immediately.
For a disciple, the spirit of surrender to the Guru is of utmost significance in
one’s spiritual progress. This noble spirit of surrender is expressed externally by
worshipping the Guru’s feet in Lingayatism and Sanatan Dharma. This was
visible in Akka’s adulation for her guru as well.

12.2 SPIRITUAL LIFE: MAHADEVI AS A SAINT

12.2.1 Marriage and Renunciation
Regarding marriage, there are disagreements among her numerous
hagiographers. Some scholars, including Harihara, hold the opinion that she
caught the attention of the local King Kaushika and was forced into a marriage
with him, but on the condition that he would not disrupt her religious practice.
Other scholars insist that she never married anyone except her divine lord
Chennamallikarjuna. As per popular legend, the marriage did take place but as
A.K. Ramanujan put it, the rivalry between the divine lover and the human love
seems to have come in the way.
Akkamahadevi was unable to reciprocate Kaushika’s worldly desire for her as
she considered herself betrothed to Lord Chennamallikarjuna. Kaushika’s
advances towards her seem to have come in the way of her worship and hence,
she is said to have walked out of the marriage. Many oral retellings and legends
suggest that she walked out naked, renouncing all worldly desires, including her
clothes, while others suggest that her hair grew out suddenly to protect her from
the advances of Kaushika. Thus, began her journey as an ascetic-wanderer in
pursuit of her divine lover Chennamallikarjuna.
On analysis of this incident in Akka Mahadevi’s life one gets an insight into the
shackles of societal norms that bind individuals. Although her parents were
Lingayats and were aware of the Linga pati, sarana sati (the Lord as the husband
and the devotee as the wife concept), they found it difficult to accept that their
daughter was going to practise it literally.
204
12.2.2 Mahadevi the Saint and entry in Anubhava Mantapa Akka Mahadevi:
Critique of Social
Upon walking out from her marriage, she reached Kalyana and spent an Order
important period at the Anubhava Mantapa, a stage for open discussion on
different issues including reasoning and social change. There Mahadevi
expressed her views boldly. The interactions that took place there are compiled in
the 15th century anthology of vachanas called Sunya Sampadane. She was very
open in her criticism of society and patriarchy and was extremely bold in stating
her views through her vachanas. Her conviction earned her the honorific title,
'Akka', signifying 'elder sister'. The other notable saints of those times are
Basavanna, Chenna Basavanna, Prabhudeva and Madivalayya, in whose
company and argumentation, she accomplished development.

12.2.3 Arguments at Anubhava Mantapa

In the text of Sunya Sumpadane which gives a poetic account of the spiritual
deliberations held in the Anubhava Mantapa by the Sharanas (saints of the
Lingayat Tradition), provides a moving description of how Akka Mahadevi was
put to an acid test by the Sharanas (poets of the Lingayat tradition) before
accepting her into their fold.
Her exchange with Allama Prabhu is deeply insightful, not merely regarding her
spiritual status, but also regarding her absolute surrender to her beloved,
Chennamallikarjuna. Her entry into the anubhava mantapa is preceded by a
series of questions by Allama Prabhu.
Akkamahadevi’s response to these questions establishes her detachment from the
world of desire. When Allama tries to ascertain why a woman who claims to
have reached a state of union with the Lord would be conscious of covering her
body, Akkamahadevi’s response is one of absolute rejection and defiance to
social conventions.
It is impossible to escape the power of her realisation:
What if the body is dark and withered, O Lord
What if the body is glowing and glittering, my Lord
After the inside is pure,
O Lord Chennamallikarjuna
What matters if
O Lord
How the body you love is?
Hearing the humbling response of Akkamahadevi must have brought about a
change of heart in the sharanas who then allowed her entry into the Anubhava
Mantapa. Basavanna, Allama Prabhu and Chennabasavanna also go on to
honour the heights of her spiritual attainment and the brilliance of her words in
their own vachanas.
205
Political Concerns 12.2.4 Journey to Sri Sailam
and Key Ideas
Even with this acceptance and respect that she eventually received amongst the
sharanas, Akkamahadevi pushed forth in her journey. Her search for the divine
knew no limitations and it is well known that at an age of 25 ,emerging out of
Kalyana, Akkamahadevi continued her journey in search of the divine and is
finally said to have found union with her Lord Chennamallikarjuna in the dense
forests of Kadali in the Srisaila mountains of Andhra Pradesh.
Mystical developments of the period gave a vent to bhaktins like Akka to protest
against the existing systems in the society and come out of the relationships they
were unwillingly pushed into. Akka sought to consummate her love with the
divine. As she kept on pondering, Akka's idea of Chenna Mallikarjuna
transformed from that of the Puranic Shiva to the nebulous Divine — the person
who plagued her spirit. She saw the Absolute in all things. Each tree was the
kalpavriksha (the heavenly tree), each shrub was the Sanjeevani (life giving
medicine) each spot was a teertha (pilgrimage) each water body contained
Amritha (elixir) and each rock was the chintamani pearl (pearl). Her very breath
turned into the divine scent. His structure turned into hers. Having known the
divine, there was nothing else to know. She turned into the honey bee that drank
the nectar of Chenna Mallikarjuna, and broke down into it. What remained was –
“Nothing, none at all"! This paragraph symbolizes her as a complete spiritual,
mental and emotional unification with the Divine after which no other desire
remained .

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. What was the early life of Akka and what was the role of her first Guru?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2. Describe Mahadevi’s renunciation of marriage and jouney up till
Srisailam. What is the role of Anubhava Mantapa in this regard?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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206
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12.3 MAJOR WRITINGS Akka Mahadevi:
Critique of Social
Order
Akka Mahadevi's encounters, both otherworldly and residential, spilled out as
basic verses (vachanas) in Kannada. Set in casual language and loaded up with
consistent with life comparisons, her vachanas infiltrate the inner voice of the
peruser with their profundity of significance and melodious excellence.not only
an emotional distillate, but also as a critique of the existing social order.
The total number of vachanas is more than 300 which are highlighted in Yoganga
Trividhi, Her Vachanas are from where her ideas against patriarchy and social
order can been seen.
Her brilliance came from the fact that she surrendered her social position and
residential security for the company of Shiva. She battled to demonstrate that
each spirit, regardless of sexual orientation, has a privilege to investigate and
arrive at the Divine. She was a progressive, a social reformer, a vigorous
aficionado and an extraordinary writer. Her vachanas are full of revolutionary
ideas that we will look at coming sections.

12.4 INTELLECTUAL INSPIRATION FROM THE

LINGAYAT TRADITION AND CRITIQUE OF
SOCIAL ORDER -1
12.4.1 Impact of the Lingayat Tradition
Mahadevi’s parents were both Lingayats. Hence, while studying Akka
Mahadevi’s life and her vachanas, it is imperative to understand the tenets of
Lingayatism since she was born in a Lingayat family. Her vachanas suggest that
her formative years were deeply rooted in its ideologies
The two important currents of Bhakti that impacted the lives of a very large
section of society in the medieval Karnataka have been the 12th century
Virasaiva(also known as Lingayats) and the 16th century Haridasa movement.
Bhakti marga based on an intense and passionate love for the God was
characteristic of the movement. Love and devotion are the most important means
of spiritual perfection. A proliferation of poetic literature in the vernacular
marked the movements. The path of devotion was expounded by the saints.
These saints, some of whom were women, spoke and wrote in the regional
language and their experiences were expressed through their mother tongue. By
communicating in simple language, they tried to instill into the hearts of the
people Bhakti which did not involve scouring the scriptures, instead it preached
pure love and devotion to the God.

12.4.2 Social Value of the Vachans

The Bhakti movement that flourished across various literary cultures, gave rise to
a distinct genre of expression in Kannada. This was the vachana, loosely
understood as free verse poems or sayings, which arose within the Kannada
literary tradition during the 12th century sharana (Lingayat) movement. Although 207
Political Concerns it did not develop with the exclusive intention of turning into a literary form, the
and Key Ideas language used by the sharanas, the content of their vachanas and the people they
addressed through these vachanas, broke with the existing literary canon in
Kannada and consequently, brought about a defining turn in Kannada language
and literature.
Unity of Speech and Action: While the vachanas reflect various aspects of
Bhakti, the vachana poets lay great emphasis on the unity of speech and action.
This unity, they stressed, is central to the worship of Shiva. Thus, vachanas—
these passionate dialogues in pursuit of union with the ishtadevta (sharana’s
chosen form of Shiva for worship)—not only break with the existing literary
tradition, but also reject social divisions, hierarchies, formal structures of learning
and worship, and pursuit of worldly pleasures.
What is important is that in a simple way, the movements exposed the degraded
social institutions and values. It was through their writings that an expression of
revolt against the existing social system was made. The Sharana (Lingayat or the
Virasaiva) movement was vociferous expressing its views against the strongly
entrenched equality, of sexes, caste system, superstitions and blind beliefs,
meaningless rituals, animal sacrifices, pilgrimages and such other beliefs by
which they provoked the people to assess and think of the socio-religious
conditions. As such, the traditional beliefs and social systems came to be
challenged. In a way, these movements tried to bring about an intellectual
awakening in society.

12.4.3 Resistance to Caste and Religious Oppression

Scholars have different opinions on the way Lingayatism should be defined.
Some consider it as an offshoot of Saivism, while others regard it as an
independent religion. However, the focus here will be to understand the socio-
religious ideals of Lingayatism. It can be said that the great philosopher and
statesman Basavanna in Karnataka resurrected Lingayatism in the 12th c A.D. It
was a time when Hinduism was at its ebb. Ritualism and caste rigidities were at
its peak. The emphasis on the ritualistic aspect of the Vedas naturally empowered
the Brahmin caste. Without the priestly caste, it was not possible for people to
worship the Lord. It led to the practice of untouchability and the inhuman
exploitation of the Sudras. After touching a Sudra, one was not just expected to
take bath but also fast in order to atone for the sin! Under such apathetic
circumstances, Basavanna issued a clarion call for reformist Lingayatism. It is
noted that Basavana’s aim was the “establishment of universal faith and
brotherhood and the abolition of caste system. His object was not only to reform
secular religion, but also to uplift man as a whole – socially, morally and in the
matter of piety and devotion.”

12.4.4 Sharana Movement and Anubhava Mantapa as an

Argumentative Space
It is under the Lingayat saint-poet Basavanna that the sharana movement grew
208
expansively, turning the city of Kalyana into an important center of interaction
and dialogue for the sharanas. At Kalyana, Basavanna set up the anubhava Akka Mahadevi:
mantapa (hall of experience) with the intention of attracting the sharanas to hold Critique of Social
Order
important discussions around social, spiritual and political issues. Thus, it is no
surprise that this period witnessed the flourishing of vachanakaras (vachana
poets).
Even though there existed a broad similarity amongst the sharanas, each had their
own spiritual experience and way of communicating their devotion, love, angst,
struggle and journey to be one with the ishtadevta. One is struck by the vast
differences in their pathways and the absence of a rigid religious doctrine in
many instances. Each had their own language of intimation while reflecting on
the social and spiritual realities.
For instance, Basavanna’s vachanas are strong commentaries on the socio-
political realities, while Allama Prabhu is mostly mystical in his vachanas and
employs an esoteric language. Akkamahadevi’s vachanas are astounding in their
lyrical expanse and the force of devotion in them.
It is not surprising then that a significant number of women, with Mahadevi
leading them, were a part of this 12th century movement, creating a fertile ground
for the emergence of many women vachana poets. They criticized personal and
social hypocrisy, corrected even their own husbands and in a sharane like Akka
Mahadevi, we come across an intellectual and spiritual peak of the movement
The anubhava mantapa was a space where women came forward in discussion
and debate and in the process gave birth to vachanas that present an account of
their own spiritual struggle.

12.4.5 Symbol of Ishtalinga as a resistance to Brahmanical

Oppression
Lingayatism or Virasaivam was an attempt to bridge the gap between the secular
and the spiritual by the realization of spiritual ideals and their implementation in
society. The Lingayats accepted and upheld the message of jnana kanda
(imparting knowledge of the Self) from the Vedas but rejected the karma kanda
(ritualistic aspect). To ascertain this and castigate the Brahminical superiority,
Basavanna used the concept of Ishtalinga. The Ishtalinga is similar to the
Sivalinga, but its worship does not require any mediator priest. The Guru gives it
at the age of eight to a Lingayat child during the diksha (initiation) ceremony.
Every Lingayat, irrespective of gender, wears it on the body and worships it. This
worship is completely personalized; the person needs only devotion and faith in
the Lord to be able to perform it. The same was championed by Mahadevi.
12.4.5.1 Pillars of Lingayatism
Lingayatism stands on three pillars: Guru, Linga and Jangama. They command
equal reverence, as it is understood that, in essence (tattva), they are the same.
They represent the same Supreme consciousness. A brief description of the three
terms is as follows:
209
Political Concerns  Guru is the spiritual guide who initiates the aspirant into the Lingayat
and Key Ideas faith with diksha. This is of paramount importance as during diksha, the
Guru, with his grace, gives the aspirant the Ishtalinga to be worn on the
body. The Ishtalinga, being a symbol of Divine Consciousness, is a
reminder to the aspirant of the spiritual goal of life. Also, the Guru
imparts the principles of Lingayatism on this occasion. So it is like a
second birth – a spiritual birth. The Guru’s guidance becomes imperative
for the spiritual maturity of the aspirant.
 Linga represents the Supreme Lord or Divine Consciousness. The
aspirant is expected to treat it as Siva Himself. Just as Siva resides in the
heart of a person in the form of Chaitanya (Consciousness), Siva is
present in the Ishtalinga.(and not sivalinga). The Guru gives this
Ishtalinga to the aspirant, who is expected to worship it regularly, keeping
it on the palm of the hand.
 Jangama can be best defined as one who has overcome janana (birth),
gamana (life), and marana (death). The specialty of the Jangama is that he
does not stay in a particular place. Rather, he moves from place to place,
preaching the ideals of Lingayatism and guiding spiritual aspirants..

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. What are the main writings of Akka knows as?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2. What is the role of the LIngayat Tradition and how is it related with Akka
mahadevi’s social and political ideas?
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210
 3. Why is Lingayat tradition considered a resistance to Brahmanical Akka Mahadevi:
oppression? Critique of Social
Order
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12.5 INTELLECTUAL INSPIRATION FROM THE

LINGAYAT TRADITION AND THE CRITIQUE
OF SOCIAL ORDER-2: IMPACT ON
MAHADEVI’S VACHANAS
Impact of the Lingayat Tradition on Mahadevi’s Vachanas
Akkamahadevi‘s vachanas share all the characteristics of the Lingayat tradition
and explicitly express the resistance to patriarchy as well as monarchy /kingship
in the 12th century vehemently. She resisted the custom-ridden society which
would suffocate the lives of women in the name of Vedas and Brahmanical
priesthood, in general and men in the name of kingship in particular. She is
deemed to be the first woman who has the traces of feminism or rather she is the
archetype of feminism, as early as 12th century.
She not only resisted the patriarchal society but found a parallel society to
establish woman‘s identity: by deeming the Almighty as the eternal husband
contrary to the earthly husband. She knew it very well that it was an arduous task
to face the patriarchal society once a woman comes out of the wedlock.

12.5.1 Vachanas of the Women Saints as a Form of Social

Resistance
The Vachanas composed in the twelfth century by men and women saints from
across the society finds no parallel in literary movement or the impact and
imprint it left on the society. The fact that this explosion took place in a caste-
ridden twelfth century Karnataka society, in which all the shudra and
untouchable castes were denied right to literacy, makes the vachana revolution
even more amazing. They rejected the stereotypes and traits traditionally
attributed to and assigned to women. Their very emergence in the movement was
a social revolt. The spiritual path helped women to break out of all traditional
stereotypes and as saints; they made the unacceptable, acceptable. They tried to
break away from the shackles of tradition, orthodoxy and convention which
sought to control women’s sexuality

211
Political Concerns A galaxy of saints numbering over 300, including women saints, enriched the
and Key Ideas Lingayat movement thereby revolutionizing the religio-social fabric of their
times

12.5.2 Breakdown of Caste Hierarchies

The Virasaiva/Lingayat movement produced a community of saints drawn from
diverse socio-economic back grounds from the upper castes to the lowest in the
caste hierarchy. A large number of the Vachanakaras were from the lower strata
and the artisan classes. The movement opened itself to all castes and trades.
There were many who came from occupations such as tanners, farmers, wood
cutters, rope makers, ferry men, cobblers, toddy tappers, basket makers and so
on. It was such a collapsing of classes and occupations in the new community of
saints.
All the Virasaiva Vachanas make it clear that there is no gender or caste
differentiation and hence, the idea of pollution whether in the case of the female
or of the untouchable is illogical or redundant

12.5.3 Smashing of patriarchy

True to the above presented tradition, Akka made a radical departure from
established social norms, in her own fashion. Use of mystical vocabulary turned
God into a husband. Hence, patriarchy and social constructs were smashed by
women who sought the spiritual path, because they defied the very existence of
their husbands by regarding only God as the husband.
Take these husbands who die,
decay, and feed them
to your kitchen fires!

12.5.4 Critique of Monarchy

The Sharanas like Akka defied the belief that the king is the master of the state.
Instead, they upheld the view that the Almighty is the only master of the
universe. Hitherto, the womenfolk of the time did believe that the husband is the
master of one‘s homestead. Now, they realized that the Almighty is the only
master and they need to sacrifice themselves heartily.

12.5.5 Nudity and defiance of social order

From the sublimation of worldly love, Akka Mahadevi passes on to
transcendence. Reaching the heights of sexual transcendence, where gender
differences have become meaningless, the saint, male or female, begins to go
naked. While male nudity despite being unusual, may not have evoked the kind
of reaction female nudity did. Akka went naked with her body covered only by
her lengthy hair. Akka going nude and shedding all inhibitions was an act of
defiance against the patriarchal notions concerning a woman’s sexuality and
attempts to control it. Besides it was a blatant refusal to submit to male demands.
212
Nakedness is a way of protesting against the injustice, atrocities, oppressions
meted out. She resorted to the same means to protest against the institution of Akka Mahadevi:
marriage. Critique of Social
Order
She writes
To the shameless girl
Where is the need
for cover and jewel?

12.6 FEMINIST EPISTEMOLOGY

Feminist epistemology: Akka’s vachanas, have been considered an instance of
an important contribution to the Indian feminist epistemological tradition because
they helped create and understand new categories of Feminist inquiry. Akka
Mahadevi defies the traditional feminine images by giving expression to her
desire. Besides being a mystic, seer, poet, she is also seen as a social reformer. In
a time when women were not even allowed to attend school, she became part of a
learned group.
Dissolving of gender lines: In an important departure from her times, she sees
men as posing a hindrance to the path of enlightenment and a challenge that she
must overcome. This is important as many sharanas see only women as maya, an
illusion to be distanced from in the path to spiritual transcendence. Akka presents
a different picture without singling out either of them:
Maya haunts the ego of a man
In the form of a woman.
Maya haunts the ego of a woman
In the form of a man.
To this world of Maya
A Sharana’s madness seems like Maya.
For a Sharana who has the love of Chennamallikarjuna,
There is no Maya, no madness, no ego.
This dissolving of ender lines is definitely creating a new category of Feminist
epistemology and enquiry. Akka was ahead of her times in every way .

12.7 CRITICISM
The Major criticisms are as follows:
1. Women within Virasaivism had almost all the rights to a spiritual life with one
notable exception. They were not conceded the status of a Jangama by which
women were denied the conduct of priestly ceremonies nor become head of a
Virasaiva mutt or religious organization. Despite the equalitarian character of the
movement it is evident that it was not totally free from gender bias
213
Political Concerns 2. Akka getting criticized by fellow women : Other Virasaivite women saints ,
and Key Ideas were not very welcoming to the whole question of discarding of clothes in the
spiritual path was. It was more or less negative. Akka Mahadevi seems to have
faced criticism from her own sex in this respect.
3. Shunya Sampadane, i.e. a compilation of Akka’s writings were done by the
royal kings much later after Akka’s death as Virasaivam became the royal
religion. Some critics have pointed out that they may have only picked up
vachanas with a suitable political agenda. Hence, no genuine pattern or real order
to Akka’s works can be found now.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. Explain Mahadevi’s ideas on patriarchy, nudity, monarchy and other
resistances to Social order like caste hierarchies.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
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2. Describe Akka’s Feminist Epistemology.
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3. What are the major criticisms or limitations of Akka’s thoughts as
stemming from the Lingayat Tradition?
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…………………………………………………………………………...……

12.8 LET US SUM UP

The society in which Akka lived neither approved of her behavior nor her
214
resistance very easily. However, she did not give up her attempts to change the
society. She faced very many challenges all through her life even for her basic Akka Mahadevi:
necessities like food and shelter. She bore all hardships and achieved what she Critique of Social
Order
was passionate about: the mystic height in which she excelled even her male
counterparts, namely Basaveshwara and Allamaprabhu. She expresses her
arduous task thus:
When hungry, alms are available in town.
When thirsty, ponds, streams and wells are there,
When the body catches cold,
There are cast off clothes to cover it with
And for bed to sleep in, deserted temples.
For my soul’s companion
You are there, O Cennamallikarjuna!
Thus the woman saint Akka Mahadevi documented her resistance to patriarchy
and monarchy simultaneously: by practicing bridal mysticism after she came out
of the palace of her earthly husband, King Kousika.
The Bhakti Movement emerged in different parts of southern India, and produced
a number of women poets. History has many instances where women have
broken stereotypical bondage of womanhood and taken to writing. Some of them
wrote about the problems faced by women.. Akkamahadevi wrote nearly 350
vachanas in Kannada. She described how she broke the restriction imposed on
her through her writings which became a formidable tool of critiquing the social
order.
Having said this, the entire tradition of Lingayats and Akka are not free from
some criticism which spring up mainly as women were not allowed to become
heads of religious organizations even within the Lingayats. The second main
criticism stems from the fact that Akka’s choice of discarding clothes was seen
as too radical and unnecessary by women themselves. Lastly, it is pointed out
that Sunya Sampadane , the compilation of Akka’s works might have their own
political bias.
How do we re-conceptualize the role of feminism in India today? Can we
envisage a dialogue between feminism and the Indian traditions without
imposing the categories of one upon the other? This is a worthy pursuit as
Feminist icons with revolutionary ideas like Akka Mahadevi must not be
forgotten for their contribution to our intellectual tradition and history of
resistance against all forms of oppression.

12.9 REFERENCES
 Chandrasekhar, Laxmi, Vijaya Guttal, Chennegowda, Vinaya Chaitanya
and Pradeep Kumar, tr. 2005. Selected Vachanas of Saranas. Edited by
H.S. Shivaprakash and O.L. Nagabhushanana Swamy. Bangalore: Basava
Samithi,. 215
Political Concerns  Chaitanya, Vinaya. 2005. tr. Songs for Siva: Vacanas of Akka
and Key Ideas
Mahadevi. U.K.: AltaMira Press.
 Dabbe, Vijaya and Robert Zydenbos. January-June 1989. ‘Akka
Mahadevi’. Manushi (Delhi) 50-51-52: 39-44.
 Guttal, Vijaya. Winter 2002. ‘The Akka Mahadevi: The Saint-
Poet’. Studies is Humanities and Social Sciences IX (2): 133-142.
 Guttal, Vijaya. January-June 2012. ‘Shivasharanes and the Vachana
Movement’. Sharana Patha 14 (1): 8-15.
 Michael, Blake. R. 1983 (Apr-Jun). ‘Women of the Sunyasampadane:
Housewives and Saints in Virasaivism’. Journal of the American Oriental
Society 103 (2): 361-368.
 Ramanujan, A.K., tr. 1973. Introduction to Speaking Of Siva. England:
Penguin Books.
 Shivaprakash, H.S. Winter 2003-Spring 2004. ‘Vachanas of
Akkamahadevi’. India International Centre Quarterly 30 (3/4): 32-37.
 ----------tr. 2010. Introduction to I Keep Vigil of Rudra. India: Penguin
Books.
 Shintri, S.B. 1984. ‘Women in the Virasaiva Movement’. Basava
Journal 8 (4).
 Tyagi, Alka. 2014. Andal and Akka Mahadevi: Feminity to Divinity. New
Delhi: D.K. Printworld,.
 Yaravintelimath, C.R., and M.M. Kalburgi, tr. 2003. Heaven of Equality.
Edited by Veeranna Rajur and Basavaraj Hugar. Dharwad: Shree
Basaveshwara Peetha.
 Dr. Yeravinatelimath, C.R. The Vacanas of Women Saints. Bangalore. Sri
Basava Samithi.2008.
 Prof. Ramanujana. A.K. On Women Saints. New Delhi. Oxford
University. 1999.
 Dr. Subbaraj. Vijaya. Akkamahadeviya Vachanagalalli Prathibhatane
Mattu.

12.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Born in Karnataka to shaivite parents
 Guru giving her ishtalinga
216  Profound impact on Akka’s later spiritual life
2. Your answer should highlight following points Akka Mahadevi:
 Marriage with Kaushika Critique of Social
Order
 Renunciation
 Journey to Kalyana
 Anubhava Mantpa as an space for discussion
 Journey to Srisailam
 Unity with the divine

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 300 Vachanas
 Full of revolutionary ideas
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 A critical response to ebbing Hinduism in 12th century
 Vachans as having deep social value
 Sharana movement
3. Your answer should highlight following points
 Resistance to caste oppression
 Symbol of Ishtalinga
 Pillars of Lingayatism

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should highlight following points
 Breaking down of Caste Hierarchies
 Vachans on Patriarchy
 Vachanas on Nudity
 Ideas on Monarchy
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 New feminine images
 New categories
 Dissolving differences between men and women
3. Your answer should highlight following points
 Women not given the status of Jangama
 Women could not become head of a religious organization
 Mahadevi was criticized by fellow women on discarding clothes
 Compilation of writings – agenda being questionable.

217
Political Concerns
and Key Ideas UNIT 13 KABIR: RELIGIOUS BOUNDARIES
AND THE QUEST FOR SOCIAL
HARMONY*
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Religious and Social Harmony in Kabir
13.3 Kabir’s Political and Social Ideas
13.3.1 Kabir’s Thoughts on Women
13.4 Let Us Sum Up
13.5 References
13.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

13.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the nature and key aspects of 15th
century Indian mystic, saint and philosopher, Kabir’s ideas on religion and social
harmony. After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe Kabir’s ideas on politics and society
 Explain Kabir’s views on religious harmony
 Examine Kabir’s thoughts on women; and
 Evaluate the legacy of Kabir

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Kabir was one of the shining lights of the Bhakti movement which started around
eighth century in India. Bhakti movement was syncretic with a strong focus on
love and devotion to God. It did not confine itself to the religious domain and had
a much larger influence on society. Followers of the Bhakti movement
questioned several regressive social practices of the time. Bhakti movement has
been seen by scholars as a means of protest and rebellion against the divisions
and unfairness of the existing social order through the path of devotion and love.
It transcended religions, castes and had universal appeal with followers from
diverse faiths and regions. As a matter of fact, Sufism, an Islamic syncretic sect,

*
Dr. Abhiruchi Ojha, Assistant Professor, Department of Politics & Governance, Central
University of Kashmir

218
is seen by many as being part of the larger Bhakti movement. Sufism also Kabir: Religious
focused on love and devotion to God with a universal message and appeal. Some Boundaries and
The Quest for
of the key figures of the Bhakti movement include the famous 12th century saint, Social Harmony
Ramanuja (1016 CE to 1137 CE).
The influence of Bhakti movement was spread across the country. It was a mass
movement that drew followers from people from different strata of society. This
was partly because of the fact that many of the key figures of the Bhakti
movement used largely local languages spoken by the common people to convey
their ideas, instead of limiting themselves to Sanskrit. Kabir himself is believed
to have used an older version of Hindi. This meant that more people could
understand the precepts of the Bhakti movement without language acting as a
barrier. Many leaders of the Bhakti movement including Kabir also made a
conscious attempt to simplify theological concepts and make them practically
relevant and comprehensible for the common people. The themes they chose
were relatable to common people and they used appealing songs, poems, parables
from everyday life and incorporated folk practices to make their ideas reach a
wider section of the population.
One of the key features of the Bhakti movement was its focus on progressive
social reform. The leaders of the Bhakti movement which included saints, poets,
musicians, social reformers and radical thinkers, questioned many regressive
social practices of their times, including the hierarchical caste system, class
divisions that were widely prevalent and religious antagonisms. Through their
promotion of a syncretic God of love, they sought to unite Indian society which
was then divided by religious, caste, regional and class fault lines. It is, thus,
undeniable that the Bhakti movement left a lasting impact on the social, cultural,
political and religious life of Indian society. It influenced many modern leaders
of India like Mahatma Gandhi and continues to inspire spiritual awakening
among people from diverse religions backgrounds.
It is in the context of such an influential and popular movement with a rich
tapestry, one has to locate Kabir, his works and their enduring legacy. Despite
his great popularity, the life of Kabir still remains shrouded in mystery. There is
scant evidence with respect to the finer details of the life of Kabir. Myths and
parables intermingle freely with historical facts, making it really difficult to
separate reality from fiction. It is known with certainty that Kabir lived in the 15th
century, but beyond that it is difficult to specify particular years for his birth and
death. Some of his followers claim without much hard historical evidence that he
was born in 1398 CE and died in 1518 CE. This would make him a contemporary
of Ramananda, who was a central figure of the Bhakti movement in North India.
However, many modern scholars place his birth in the middle of the 15th century,
around 1440 CE and death in 1518 CE. Kabir was also a contemporary of Saint
Ravidas, another influential leader of the Bhakti movement.
Kabir is believed to have been born near the city of Banaras, present day
Varanasi, to a family of Muslim weavers. Kabir also became a weaver like his
father and lived most of his life in Banaras. However, it is worth noting that there
are several other versions of his birth in circulation among people. By one
account, Kabir is believed to have been born miraculously to a Brahmin woman 219
and was brought up in Banaras by his foster parents, a Muslim weaver and his
Political Concerns wife. Banaras, a culturally vibrant and historically significant city, quite certainly
and Key Ideas
played a key role in the life of Kabir. The social, political, cultural, religious and
economic ethos of 15th century Banaras was a great influence on Kabir and his
ideas.
Kabir’s poems, songs and sayings, popularly dubbed as ‘Kabirvanis’, began to be
collected only several decades after his death. Kabir himself did not likely write
down his ideas. Kabirvanis include couplets called as ‘dohas’ and short songs
called as ‘sabdas’ or ‘padas’. Moreover, Kabirvanis have been co-opted over the
centuries by people belonging to diverse cultures, religious and regions. This has
resulted in significant variations in linguistic aspects as well as other sensibilities
in Kabir’s works. Questions have also been raised about the authenticity of many
of the writings attributed to him as Kabir inspired many copycat poets in
subsequent centuries. Scholars have been making progress in authenticating
Kabirvanis through critical textual analysis and other methods. Today, some of
the key sources to explore the ideas of Kabir include Adi Granth, Bijak,
Panchvani, Sarvangi and Granthavali. There are significant variations between
these sources and it is through a comparative analysis of these different sources,
one can get close to understanding the historical Kabir and his thoughts.
The universal and transcendental nature of Kabir’s influence is highlighted by the
fact that his legacy is equally claimed by people of different faiths. Kabir has
been viewed as a Sufi Muslim as many of his ideas are somewhat comparable to
those expressed by Sufi saints. On the other hand, Kabir has been viewed as a
Vaishnavite by some, while Sikh holy books also have references of Kabir. In
reality, Kabir was critical of traditional religions of any kind, be it Islam or
Hinduism. During his lifetime, Kabir was disliked by orthodox forces of both
Islam and Hinduism. He advocated a direct relationship to God through love and
devotion. His ideas cannot be bracketed that easily within one religion or sect.
Kabir’s influence has also been applauded by many, especially by modern
scholars, for encouraging unity among Muslims and Hindus. As noted earlier,
many myths and legends have emerged about Kabir’s life. A popular one about
his death is revealing. It is said that Hindus and Muslims fought for the right over
his dead body. Eventually, the body is believed to have turned into flower petals
which were equally shared by Hindus and Muslims who laid them to rest
according to their respective customs. This myth highlights how Kabir came to
be perceived, as a figure who belonged equally to both Islam and Hinduism.
Further, as noted earlier, Sikhism has also embraced Kabir with great enthusiasm
with their holy book Adi Granth comprising more than five hundred sayings of
Kabir. These show the truly inclusive and transcendental nature of Kabir’s ideas.

13.2 RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL HARMONY IN

KABIR
Kabir was pained and repelled by the violence that took place in the name of
religion which resulted in people killing each other. He saw all human beings as
equal with no hierarchies between them based on religion or caste or any other
factor. As a matter of fact, Kabir even rejected the idea that human beings are
superior to animals. He saw all creations of God as equal. This is because, in his
220
view, all souls were inhabited by the same Supreme Being and therefore, it is
pointless to fight over differences over religious beliefs. Kabir, thus, had a Kabir: Religious
monotheistic conception of God. Kabir advocated belief in a formless Supreme Boundaries and
The Quest for
Being, a spirit. This conception is referred to as the nirguna path as opposed to Social Harmony
the Saguna path. The former (nirguna) philosophy saw God as formless and
without attributes. While the latter (saguna) philosophy saw God as having form
and attributes. Being an advocate of the nirguna path, Kabir was opposed to idol
worship and ritualistic practices in all religions, be it Islam or Hinduism.
However, it has to be noted that some depictions of Kabir do portray him as
having elements of the saguna tradition as well (Omvedt, 2008). This is another
testimony to the transcendental nature of Kabir’s philosophy and the efforts of
diverse groups to appropriate his legacy.
The argument that all creations are endowed with the same supreme spirit was a
deeply spiritual one, something which would inspire Mahatma Gandhi later, who
also spoke about a cosmic spirit inhabiting all creatures. For Kabir, the individual
soul in all human beings, the Jivatma and the divine soul, Paramatma have to
become one for a human being to attain salvation. Though not identical, there are
indeed other Indian philosophical traditions like the Advaita Vedanta philosophy
which express similar spiritual ideas, inspired by the Upanishads. Kabir argued
that Hindus and Muslims were the children of the same God, and therefore,
blessed with the same supreme divine spirit, the Paramatma. They, then, share
the same goal for salvation, i.e. becoming one with the divine spirit.
“Who can be called a Hindu and who a Turk (Muslim) when the same
God is the Father of both, and they are brothers embodying the same
spirit?” (Kabir, Bijak)
Kabir believed strongly that even though different people and different religions
have their own names for God, ultimately God is one, the eternal supreme spirit
that inhabits the soul of all human beings and all creations. People might worship
God in diverse ways, but ultimately because God is one, it did not make a
difference how one worshipped. This was a radical conception of spiritual unity.
However, what is interesting to note is that to advocate his ideas of the unity of
God and equality of all human beings, Kabir not only put forward spiritual
arguments, but also practical ones based on reason and common sense.
“No Hindu came out of the womb with knowledge of the Vedas, and no
Muslim came out of the womb being circumcised. All people are born
from the womb of the mother, and after birth they accepted many
pretended forms and actions. Then we are both of the same blood, and the
same breath sustains us. Then with what kind of knowledge you became
different from one another as Hindus and Muslims?” (Kabir, Ramaini).
The above saying of Kabir is an example of how he used common sense and
practical arguments which appealed to people from all strata of the society.
Through his spiritual doctrine of cosmic unity, aided further by his practical
arguments, Kabir questions the madness of religious partisanship and hostility
between people of different religious faiths. To give another example of the
same, consider the following words of Kabir -
“Brother, where did your two gods come from? Tell me, who made you
221
mad? Ram, Allah, Keshav, Karim, Hari, Hazrat – so many names. So
Political Concerns many ornaments, all one gold, it has no double nature. For conversation
and Key Ideas
we make two – this namaz, that puja, this Mahadev, that Muhammed, this
Brahma, that Adam, This a Hindu, that a Turk, but all belong to earth.
Vedas, Korans, all these books, those Mullas and those Brahmins – so
many names, so many names, but the pots are all one clay” (Kabir, Bijak)
In the above example, Kabir uses simple, easily relatable arguments, like giving
the analogy of how different ornaments are made from the same gold or the
analogy of different pots being made from the same clay, to point out that despite
outwardly appearance of differences, God is one, and all human beings are equal.
Such sayings, due to their simplicity despite their spiritual depth, endeared Kabir
to the common people.
Kabir’s advocacy of human equality extended beyond just religion and also
included caste hierarchies which was a prevalent reality in 15th century Banaras.
It has to be noted that the Muslim weaver family Kabir grew up in belonged to a
lower caste, known as Julaha. Hence, he must have faced caste oppression and
discrimination while growing up in Banaras. Again, Kabir’s critique of caste
system is both spiritual and rational. The spiritual critique flows from his belief
about the supreme spirit and its universal prevalence. The fact that all human
beings are endowed with the spirit of the same God, makes everyone spiritually
equal for Kabir, regardless of their caste. There can be, thus, no spiritual
argument in favour of the caste system. Rationally, Kabir argues that there is no
evidence to indicate that people of some castes are superior to others. Everybody
has the same flesh and do everything in similar manner. There is no biological
difference between an upper caste person and a lower caste person. Kabir then
asks, how then can it be that people of some castes can claim to be superior to
others?
“It is all one skin and bone, one piss and shit, One blood, one meat... Who
is a brahman, who is a shudra?... Kabir says plunge into Ram, There no
Hindu, no Turk” (Kabir, Bijak)
As a matter of fact, Kabir was very aggressive in his attack on the caste system
and its proponents as shown by the following verses -
“Pandit, look in your heart to know. Tell me how untouchability was born
– untouchability is what you made so… We eat by touching, we wash by
touching, from a touch the world was born. Says Kabir, only he’s
untouched who has no link with Maya” (Kabir, quoted in Omvedt 2008)
&
“All are born as human beings, this is known by all, Sudras are made by
lying rogues: this is Kabir’s call” (Kabir, quoted in Omvedt 2008)
Kabir was quite consistent in his belief that not just human beings, but all
creations of God are equal because of his conviction that they are all endowed
with the same supreme spirit. He is therefore, critical of slaughtering of animals,
even for religious rituals in the name of God and preached humane treatment of
animals. This was a very radical idea for that time and to a great extent is a
progressive idea even in the present times. Kabir was unequivocal in expressing
222 his belief about the equality of animals and humans.
 “Beast meat and man meat are the same, Both have blood that is red… Kabir: Religious
For gods and goddesses of clay, You slaughter living beast! If your God Boundaries and
The Quest for
is real, why can't he go to the field and have his feast!” (Kabir, Bijak) Social Harmony
Kabir’s devotion and love towards God extended as a love of all God’s creations.
He, thus, preaches compassion and love for all species. It is this fraternity of all
creation which lies at the core of Kabir’s philosophy that forms the basis of the
religious and social harmony advocated by him. After all, if people realized that
they share the same supreme spirit with not just each other but even with animals,
how will they think of people from different religions and castes with enmity?
Spiritual arguments aside, as noted earlier, Kabir’s impact was also due to the
practical and accessible arguments he offered. His couplets and songs with
illuminating examples and parables made people think and even question their
long held beliefs about critical social issues like religion and caste.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. According to Kabir, how does one attain Salvation?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
2. What is the basis for social and religious harmony in Kabir’s philosophy?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……

13.3 KABIR’S POLITICAL AND SOCIAL IDEAS

Kabir’s political and social ideals were encapsulated in his utopian ideas which
were proposed by him as a worthy alternative to the society of his time. The term
Begumpura i.e. a place without sorrow, is often attributed to Saint Ravidas who
was a contemporary of Kabir (Omvedt, 2008). Ravidas’ idea of Begumpura, an
utopian village society, has long captured the imagination of people. It is akin to
Plato’s Republic in imagining an ideal city. Kabir’s thoughts on ideal state of
affairs have also greatly contributed to the general conception of Begumpura
(Roy 2017). Kabir had his own terms for the utopian society as he sang of
Amarpur i.e. Immortal Place and Premnagar, i.e. Land of Love (Kumar, 2019). 223
Political Concerns Kabir was in fact seen as more aggressive in the tone of his criticism of society
and Key Ideas
and its evils in comparison to Ravidas. Before one discusses the nature and key
elements of Kabir’s political and social ideas, one has to locate the socio-political
milieu which inspired Kabir towards proposing alternate political and social
ideals. Kabir’s political imagination emerged in the context of 15th century
Banaras. Hence, a little understanding of the social, economic and cultural forces
of that period is needed to fully understand the driving factors behind Kabir’s
ideas.
Banaras of 15th century was a key centre of trade, religion, culture and politics.
Kabir, as noted earlier, was himself a weaver in Banaras, likely trading his
produce of textiles in the bustling markets of Banaras. This was a period when
trade was increasing in Banaras, thereby enabling people from lower sections of
the society to have slightly increased social mobility. Increased trade and rise of a
strong, new merchant class often leads to questioning and dismantling of old
feudal structures and privileges like the caste system. It is thus likely that Kabir’s
critique of caste system can be partly attributed to him being part of a period in
which merchant classes were on the rise, questioning some of the privileges of
the dominant old feudal classes. However, it has to be kept in mind that the big
traders still belonged to the traditional trading castes. Hence, Kabir was also
critical of the trading classes and he even compares them to rogues. While 15th
century Banaras offered social mobility for small traders like him, they continued
to be looked down upon by the traditional feudal castes. Much of the economy
was still dominated by agriculture or related activities with feudal landlords being
very powerful. It was a period when big traders and big landlords (Zamindars)
comprised of both Hindus and Muslims and they exploited the poor who also
belonged to both the religions (Roy, 2017). This domination was made possible
by the presence of a strong administrative state as well as a priestly class which
provided a religious justification of the exploitation. The former imposed taxes
while the latter constructed a cultural hegemony through religious myths which
served the purpose of keeping people in their allotted social positions (Roy,
2017). The exploitation of the poor was the result of a collusion between the
urban as well as the rural rich, the administrative state and the priestly classes of
all religions. Hence, it is no wonder that Kabir rages against all of these
structures in his couplets and songs without any regard for religion, caste or sect.
He advocates for a complete reconceptualization of society, wherein such
differences disappear and people live together peacefully, without any
discrimination.
It is thus clear that Kabir’s political and social ideas were based on his
experiences and observations of the society of his time. Kabir wishes to remove
all societal evils, hierarchies and exploitation from society. In his view, this can
only be achieved through ‘Bhakti’, the devotion and love of people towards God.
His ideal society will not have the exploitation of the poor by the rich. This is
achieved partly because there will not be any private property in his conception
of ideal society. All resources will be shared. Kabir is also not in favour of
having a hierarchical government which ends up oppressing people and
reinforcing feudal structures of power. In his view, people should take part in
224 collective decision making without any need for a king or a hierarchical
government. Therefore, there will not be any taxation, nor will there be any need Kabir: Religious
for it because of the nature of his society. Moreover, discriminatory social Boundaries and
The Quest for
structures like the caste system will also not exist in his ideal society. Similarly, Social Harmony
religious animosity will not be present in Kabir’s vision of ideal society (Roy,
2017).
Such an ideal society is only possible through devotion and love of its residents
to God, or to be precise, Kabir’s idea of God.
“Kabir calls out, write two things down, worship God and feed the
hungry. The world died of reading tomes, no one turned out wise; from
the single word of ‘love’ wisdom will arise” (Kabir, quoted in Omvedt
2008)
Residents of Kabir’s ideal society will be followers of the monotheistic, syncretic
God of Kabir such that they are not judgmental of different religions. This would,
of course, enable them to not discriminate against each other based on caste or
religion or class as they would recognise that the same supreme spirit exists
within all human beings. They would also show respect for all God’s creations
and will not be motivated by greed or money or jealousy. Kabir’s quest for an
ideal society is a genuine expression of his devotion to God based on a firm
belief that bhakti can make people transcend social evils and live in harmony
with each other. He truly believed that people can tear down the old social order
and create a new one through bhakti as expressed in his call in the following
verse –
“Kabir stands in the market, flaming torch in hand. Burn down your
home, then come and walk with me” (Kabir, quoted in Santhanam 2018).
Kabir was a revolutionary whose quest for harmony involved rejection of old
social norms.
13.3.1 Kabir’s Thoughts on Women
Despite his progressive views on many social issues, Kabir’s views on women
have been criticized as being regressive and influenced by prevalent prejudices
of his time. He has been criticized for idolizing the patriarchal construct of a
faithful wife (Roy, 2017). As a matter of fact, it has been pointed out by many
that Kabir even looks favourably at the practice of Sati, whereby widowed
women were expected to die on the funeral pyre of their husbands (Upadhayay,
2018). Kabir portrays this regressive practice at times as an example of pure love
(Upadhayay, 2018). Moreover, in some places, Kabir indicates strongly that
women could distract men from true devotion and he warns men about the
temptation of women. The following verses are examples of such a depiction by
Kabir –
“Kabir says many have been ruined due to the love for women. Many
more will go to the hell laughing all the way through” & “A snake has
two hoods, a woman has twenty hoods If she stings one, there is no
chance to survive” (Kabir, quoted in Upadhayay 2018)
Such biased views about women which portrayed them as temptresses and
poisonous were common during his period and they find expression in Kabir’s 225
Political Concerns sayings as well. Kabir’s lack of support for gender equality is somewhat
and Key Ideas
surprising because if the same supreme spirit was present in all creations of God
as Kabir believed, then there should have been no reason for Kabir to think of
women as any different from men. The same arguments he had put forward
against discrimination based on religion and caste should have been logically
extended by him to advocate gender equality as well which was unfortunately not
the case. Even though Kabir talks in praising terms about women as mothers and
ideal wives in some places, those favourable descriptions were in line with the
prevalent patriarchal notions of that period. As a matter of fact, as noted earlier,
some of those glorious depictions did more harm than good as they reinforced
problematic social practices like Sati. Kabir’s regressive views on women are an
exception in his otherwise progressive outlook on society.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your progress with the model answer given at the end of
the unit.
1. According to Kabir, what is the key for people to be able to build an ideal
society?
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
2. Briefly describe Kabir’s thought on women.
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……
…………………………………………………………………………...……

13.4 LET US SUM UP

Kabir’s ideas were revolutionary for not only his time, but many of them
continue to be progressive even in our period. Kabir’s poems and songs captured
the frustrations of the marginalized sections of society. His belief in a single
supreme spirit that permeated through all creations enabled him to conceive a
radical conception of equality and advocate for societal unity. He dismissed
outwardly differences between religions as immaterial and questioned the
ritualistic nature of different faiths. His views greatly influenced calls of unity
between Hindus and Muslims even though during his lifetime, he was disliked by
226 the orthodox forces in both Hinduism and Islam.
Further, Kabir firmly opposed caste discrimination in all forms including Kabir: Religious
untouchability and vehemently questioned the supporters of caste system. His Boundaries and
The Quest for
sense of compassion extended even to animals as he saw them as having the Social Harmony
same supreme spirit. Thereby, he criticized animal sacrifices and argued for
humane treatment of them. Kabir lived in 15th century Banaras and its socio-
political context greatly influenced his ideas. He wished for a society free of the
exploitation of an oppressive state that was controlled by rich landlords and
greedy traders. He was also critical of the priestly class of all religions who in his
view provided religious justification for the exploitation of the poor by the state
and the rich. In his ideal society, people would have a direct relationship with
God through ‘Bhakti’ and this did not depend on any ritual or sacrifice. The
monotheistic and syncretic God advocated by Kabir provides the foundation for
fostering the kind of social unity Kabir desired. However, as noted earlier,
Kabir’s views on women and gender equality leave much to be desired to say the
least.
Kabir has left behind a rich and enduring legacy. As noted earlier, Kabir
conveyed his ideas to the common people through not only spiritual arguments,
but also through practical and relatable couplets, parables and songs. This
endeared him to the people not only during his lifetime but even till today. The
fact that different religious traditions, including Hinduism, Islam and Sikhism
have co-opted Kabir is a testimony to his universal appeal and unifying effect.
Kabir ultimately was a humanist whose ideas on social reform and ideal society
still reverberates strongly.

13.5 REFERENCES
 Agarwal, P. (2009). Akath Kahani Prem ki. New Delhi: Raj Kamal.
 Dwivedi, H.P. (2013). Kabir: A Critical Study. New Delhi: Raj Kamal.
 Hedayetullah, M. (1977). Kabir: The Apostle of Hindu-Muslim Unity.
New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (India).
 Hess, L. and Singh, S. (2002). The Bijak of Kabir. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
 Kabir. (1977). The Kabir Book: Forty-four of the Ecstatic Poems of
Kabir. Boston: Beacon Press.
 Kabir. (2005). One Hundred Poems of Kabir. Translated by Rabindranath
Tagore. Boston: Adamant Media Corporation.
 Keay, F. E. (1997). Kabir and His Followers. New Delhi: Aravali Books
International.
 Kumar, K. (2019). Seeking a City without Sorrow. The Hindu. URL:
https://www.thehindu.co m/books/books-authors/seeking-a-city-without
sorrow/article29398696.ece
 Jafri, A.S. (1999). Kabir Bani. New Delhi: Raj Kamal.
 Lorenzen, D. (1991). Kabir Legends and Ananta-Das's Kabir Parachai.
Albany: State University of New York Press.
227
Political Concerns  Lorenzen, D. ed. (2004). Religious Movements in South Asia, 600-1800.
and Key Ideas
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Mehta, R. and Mehta, S. (2007). J. Krishnamurti and Sant Kabir: A Study
in Depth. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.
 Omvedt, G. (2008). Seeking Begumpura: The Social Vision of Anticaste
Intellectuals. New Delhi: Navayana.
 Rajkishore. ed. (2001). Kabir Ki Khoj. New Delhi: Vani Prakashan.
 Roy, H. (2017). Political Ideas of Kabir. in Singh, M. and Roy, H. ed.
Indian Political Thought (2nd Edition). New Delhi: Pearson.
 Santhanam, R. (2018). Making Kabir Your Own. The Hindu. URL:
https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/making-kabir-your-
own/article24461054.ece#!
 Singh, S. (1994). A Touch of Grace: Songs of Kabir. New Delhi:
Shambhala.
 Upadhayay, S. (2018). Seeking Femininity in Kabir’s Poetry. Feminism in
India URL: https://feminisminindia.com/2018/07/11/seeking-femininity-
kabir-poetry/
 Vaudeville, C. (1974). Kabir. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 Vaudeville, C. (1993). A Weaver Named Kabir: Selected Verses with a
Detailed Biographical and Historical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
 Verma, R. (1977). Kabir: Biography and Philosophy. New Delhi: Prints
India.
 Westcott, G.H. (1953). Kabir and Kabir Panth. New Delhi: Sushil Gupta
India Ltd.

13.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should highlight following points

Each person has a personal soul which is called as Jivatma

There is one supreme spirit which permeates everything, which is called
as Paramatma
 Salvation is when a person’s Jivatma becomes one with the supreme
spirit, Paramatma
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Kabir believes that one supreme spirit permeates all of creation
 This means that people of all castes, religions and sects are all endowed
with the same supreme spirit
 This is the basis for social and religious harmony in Kabir’s philosophy.
228
Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Kabir: Religious
Boundaries and
1. Your answer should highlight following points The Quest for
Social Harmony
 In Kabir’s view, Bhakti is the key for building an ideal society
 Bhakti is love and devotion towards God.
 It is that love and devotion which extends towards all creations of God.
2. Your answer should highlight following points
 Kabir idolizes prevalent patriarchal notions of women like ideal wife or
mother, even to the extent of glorifying regressive practices like Sati.
 Kabir also portrays women as temptresses who could distract people in
their devotion to God.
 Kabir’s views on women are regressive.

229
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