DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

North La Union Campus

Bacnotan, La Union

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
(EDUC 101)

PURITA R. ASPURIA
AMPARO Z. VALMORES
 MODULE IV
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Socio-Emotional
Development

Lesson 2 Development of Self and

Social Understandings

Lesson 3 Development of
Motivation and Self-
Regulation

Lesson 4 Moral Development

Theories

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MODULE IV

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

¥ INTRODUCTION

This module discusses the social and emotional development of children

and adolescents. It also discusses theories on the development of self and the
development of motivation and self-regulation. Different moral development
theories are also discussed in this module.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Make a list of social and emotional skills;

2. Compare and contrast the perspectives on self and social understandings;
3. Distinguish of the content and process theories of learning and their
educational implications; and
4. Synthesize the theories of moral development and explain their
educational significance.

G DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from
it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor
or to the CE dean’s office.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during
the face-to-face meeting. If not contact your instructor at the CE Faculty Room.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

& SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

WHAT IS SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT?

Social and emotional development is the change over time in children’s

ability to react to and interact with their social environment.

Social and emotional development is complex and includes many different

areas of growth. Each is described in more detail below:

• temperament: the way a young child acts and responds to different

situations, caregivers, and strangers
• attachment: the emotional bond between a child and caregiver
• social skills or social competence: the ability to get along with other
people
• emotion regulation: the ability of a child to control his or her emotions
and reactions to the environment.

TEMPERAMENT

Temperament is the beginning of personality. It typically refers to the way

a young child acts and responds to different situations, and how he or she
interacts with caregivers and strangers. Most children fall into one of three
temperament categories: easy, slow-to-warm-up, and difficult.

Easy babies, for example, have regular sleeping times, are easily soothed
when upset and are generally positive. Slow-to-warm-up babies are more
hesitant in new situations and with unfamiliar people. Difficult babies are easily
agitated and very sensitive to all sights and sounds.

Given that children have different temperaments, parents and other

caregivers need to learn how to create environments that best support their
children’s temperaments.

ATTACHMENT

Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and caregiver. The

ability to form an attachment is present from birth and plays two important roles
for young children. First, it motivates children to stay near a caregiver, which

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keeps them safe. Second, it allows children to depend on their caregiver as a

source of support as they explore their surroundings. Children who do this
successfully have what is often called “secure attachment.”

The development of a secure attachment is important for many reasons:

• Promotes a positive relationship between a child and caregiver

• Decreases risk for social and emotional problems later in childhood and
adulthood
• Encourages healthy relationships outside the home (e.g., child-care
providers, friends, other adults)
• Fosters positive, trusting relationships in middle childhood, adolescence,
and adulthood.

SOCIAL COMPETENCE

Social competence refers to a person’s ability to get along with others and
adapt to new situations. Children learn social skills very early in life that
determine their social competence. For example, babies make eye contact,
imitate facial expressions, and respond to voices. As children age, they interact
more with other children and adults, which helps them to learn additional social
skills.

Play gives children a chance to practice different social skills. They learn
to acknowledge others’ feelings, play “nicely,” share, and resolve conflict. As
children get older, play becomes more interactive, further improving their social
skills and preparing them for more active social interactions inside and outside
the home.

EMOTION REGULATION

Emotion regulation is the ability of a child to control his or her emotions

and reactions to his or her environment. This does not mean that a child should
be happy, brave, and calm all of the time. It is normal, for example, for babies
to cry to communicate needs or for toddlers to throw temper tantrums and push
boundaries. But some children have a harder time calming down.

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD

Childhood is a time of rapid emotional and social development, as children

learn to regulate emotions and interact with others.

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Key Points:

Ø Emotional development is essentially the way emotions change or remain

constant across the human lifespan. Social development is the way in
which humans learn to interact with one another.
Ø Emotional self-regulation refers to a child’s ability to change his or her
emotional state to either match that of others (social), or make the child
more comfortable in a particular situation (social and personal).
Ø The ability to empathize, or identify with the feelings of another person,
helps aid in the development of prosocial (socially positive) and altruistic
(helpful, beneficent, or unselfish) behavior.
Ø Play is one way in which children develop relationships with others.
Several types of play exist, and each type builds upon the last in a three-
step process.
Ø Intersubjectivity refers to the psychological relation between people; in
child development, it refers to the very rapid cultural development of
newborn infants.
Ø Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own; this is
known as theory of mind.

Emotional development is essentially the way emotions change or remain

constant across the human lifespan. Social development is the way in which
humans learn to interact with one another. Together, the development of both
of these factors reflects the changes in a child’s emotions and relationships with
others that occur throughout childhood.

Emotional Self-Regulation

During a child’s life, he or she goes from looking at emotions from an

external point of view to an internal point of view. As children develop advanced
language skills, they develop the ability to regulate emotions. Emotional self-
regulation refers to children’s ability to monitor, evaluate, and modify their
emotional reactions in any given situation. It is a skill that develops over time,
and involves both responding to situations with emotions that are socially
acceptable and developing the ability to withhold emotions or delay spontaneous
reactions when necessary. A child’s temperament has a large impact on
emotional self-regulation: children who are more negatively focused tend to
have a more difficult time with regulation than those who are focused on the
positive aspects of life.

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Empathy

The development of empathy is a crucial part of emotional and social

development in childhood. The ability to identify with the feelings of another
person helps in the development of prosocial (socially positive) and altruistic
(helpful, beneficent, or unselfish) behavior. Altruistic behavior occurs when a
person does something in order to benefit another person without expecting
anything in return. Empathy helps a child develop positive peer relationships; it
is affected by a child’s temperament, as well as by parenting style. Children
raised in loving homes with affectionate parents are more likely to develop a
sense of empathy and altruism, whereas those raised in harsh or neglectful
homes tend to be more aggressive and less kind to others.

Developing Relationships

Play is one way in which children develop relationships with others.

Several types of play exist, and each type builds upon the last in a three-step
process. Non-social or solitary play occurs in the beginning of childhood, when
children spend most time alone with preferred playthings. It then shifts to
parallel play, when children begin to take an interest in other children but prefer
to play alone and side-by-side. Children engaged in parallel play will sit next to
one another during a play session, but each will engage in his or her own activity.
Finally, there is associative and cooperative play in which children begin to
engage with one another, exchanging and sharing toys and creating games
together.

Intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity refers to the psychological relation between people; in

child development, it refers to the very rapid cultural development of newborn
infants. Research suggests that as babies, humans are biologically wired to
coordinate their actions with others; this ability to sync with others facilitates
cognitive and emotional learning through social interaction. Additionally, the
most socially productive relationship between children and adults is
bidirectional, where both parties actively define a shared culture. Emphasis is
placed on the idea that children are actively involved in how they learn, using
intersubjectivity.

Theory of Mind

Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known

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as theory of mind. Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their
parents to purchase a candy bar for them, or understand why a sibling might be
angry. When children develop theory of mind, they can recognize that others
may have false beliefs.

EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Adolescence is a period of personal and social identity formation, in which

different roles, behaviors, and ideologies are explored. In the United States,
adolescence is seen as a time to develop independence from parents while
remaining connected to them. Some key points related to social development
during adolescence include the following:

Ø Adolescence is the period of life known for the formation of personal and
social identity.
Ø Erik Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus
role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions
are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?”
Ø Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-
awareness, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and
the ability to consider multiple possibilities and identities at once.
Ø Changes in the levels of certain neurotransmitters (such as dopamine and
serotonin) influence the way in which adolescents experience emotions,
typically making them more emotional and more sensitive to stress.
Ø When adolescents have advanced cognitive development and maturity,
they tend to resolve identity issues more easily than peers who are less
cognitively developed.
Ø As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their
parents, and the peer group becomes very important; despite this,
relationships with parents still play a significant role in identity formation.

IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT

Identity development is a stage in the adolescent life cycle. For most, the
search for identity begins in the adolescent years. During these years,
adolescents are more open to ‘trying on’ different behaviors and appearances to
discover who they are. In an attempt to find their identity and discover who they
are, adolescents are likely to cycle through a number of identities to find one
that suits them best. Developing and maintaining identity (in adolescent years)
is a difficult task due to multiple factors such as family life, environment, and
social status. Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more
accurately described as identity development, rather than formation, but
confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one’s
thoughts about the self.

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SELF-CONCEPT

Two main aspects of identity development are self-concept and self-

esteem. The idea of self-concept is known as the ability of a person to have
opinions and beliefs that are defined confidently, consistently and with stability.
Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness,
greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to
think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple
possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from
the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as
children they defined themselves by physical traits whereas adolescents define
themselves based on their values, thoughts, and opinions.

Adolescents can conceptualize multiple “possible selves” that they could

become and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Exploring
these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the
adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the actual
self toward the ideal self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the
feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these
distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement
through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible
selves.

Further distinctions in self-concept, called “differentiation,” occur as the

adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the
perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe
themselves. Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence.
Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the personality traits adolescents use to describe
themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another.
The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source
of distress in these years, but this distress may benefit adolescents by
encouraging structural development.

SELF-ESTEEM

Another aspect of identity formation is self-esteem. Self-esteem is

defined as one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s self-concept and identity.
Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire, across all genders
and ages, to maintain, protect and enhance their self-esteem. Contrary to
popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-
esteem over the course of adolescence. “Barometric self-esteem” fluctuates
rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem
remains highly stable across adolescence. The validity of global self-esteem

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scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might
reveal more about the adolescent experience. Girls are most likely to enjoy high
self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most
important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide
social and moral support. When they fail to win friends’ approval or can’t find
someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these
cases, girls suffer from low self-esteem.

In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their
independence and defining their relation to authority. As such, they are more
likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their
friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example,
failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending
on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent
boys.

IDENTITY FORMATION: WHO AM I?

Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others.

Erik Erikson referred to life’s fifth psychosocial task as one of identity versus role
confusion when adolescents must work through the complexities of finding one’s
own identity (more this psychosocial task and other stages will be discussed
thoroughly in the next lesson). Individuals are influenced by how they resolved
all of the previous childhood psychosocial crises and this adolescent stage is a
bridge between the past and the future, between childhood and adulthood.
Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and
“Who do I want to be?” Identity formation was highlighted as the primary
indicator of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role
confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of
adolescence). This crisis is resolved positively with identity achievement and the
gain of fidelity (ability to be faithful) as a new virtue, when adolescents have
reconsidered the goals and values of their parents and culture. Some adolescents
adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens
develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer
group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in
adolescents’ lives.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE

Parents

It appears that most teens do not experience adolescent “storm and

stress” to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in
the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major

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conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most disagreements
are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from
various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred
over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and
friends. These disputes occur because an adolescent’s drive for independence
and autonomy conflicts with the parent’s supervision and control. These types
of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992).

As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their
parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale,
Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most
teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, &
Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been
associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school
behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al.,
2005).

Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family

relationships remain important too. One of the key changes during adolescence
involves a renegotiation of parent–child relationships. As adolescents strive for
more independence and autonomy during this time, different aspects of
parenting become more salient. For example, parents’ distal supervision and
monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time away from
parents and in the presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide
range of behaviors such as parents’ attempts to set rules and know their
adolescents’ friends, activities, and whereabouts, in addition to adolescents’
willingness to disclose information to their parents. (Stattin & Kerr, 2000)
Psychological control, which involves manipulation and intrusion into
adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents’
feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways is another aspect of
parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to more
problematic adolescent adjustment.

Peers

As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time

with their peers and less time with their families, and these peer interactions
are increasingly unsupervised by adults. Children’s notions of friendship often
focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of friendship
increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings.

During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to

mixed-sex. Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in
behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as being a function of
homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time

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together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) and influence (adolescents

who spend time together shape each other’s behavior and attitudes). Peer
pressure is usually depicted as peers pushing a teenager to do something that
adults disapprove of, such as breaking laws or using drugs. One of the most widely
studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer contagion
(Dishion & Tipsord, 2011), which is the process by which peers reinforce problem
behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the
likelihood of future problem behavior. Although deviant peer contagion is more
extreme, regular peer pressure is not always harmful. Peers can serve both
positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer pressure can
lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic
behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family. For example,
adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes
when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family.
However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and
companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer
relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially
isolated or who have conflictual peer relationships. Crowds are an emerging level
of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships (which are
reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals
who interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations
or images than actual interactions (Brown & Larson, 2009). These crowds reflect
different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with
adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or behaviors.

Romantic relationships

Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic

relationships typically first emerge. Initially, same-sex peer groups that were
common during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer groups that are more
characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the context
of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski, 2000). Although
romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than long-
term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized.
Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and
their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or
lack thereof) than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman &
Shaffer, 2003). Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents’ identity
formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents’ emotional
and behavioral adjustment.

Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to

adolescents’ emerging sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have
devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents’ sexuality, in large part because
of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen

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pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. Sexual
orientation refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to
others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes. For example,
adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or
transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, & Clary,
2009). Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents
experiment with new behaviors and identities.

Many adolescents may choose to come out during this period of their life
once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of
questioning or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual
and heterosexual experiences. A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths
under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one’s sexual orientation
occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and
adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively. Coming to terms with and
creating a positive LGBT identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of
reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their
sexuality or gender identity are surrounded by heteronormative peers and can
cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While
coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated
are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment
often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence. Because
of this, statistically the suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times
higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from
peers or family members.

Diversity

Adolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for
all individuals. Certain features of adolescence, particularly with respect to
biological changes associated with puberty and cognitive changes associated with
brain development, are relatively universal. But other features of adolescence
depend largely on circumstances that are more environmentally variable. For
example, adolescents growing up in one country might have different
opportunities for risk taking than adolescents in another country, and supports
and sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence depend on laws and values
that might be specific to where adolescents live. Likewise, different cultural
norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents’ experiences in
these domains. For example, in some countries, adolescents’ parents are
expected to retain control over major decisions, whereas in other countries,
adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking control of decision making.

Even within the same country, adolescents’ gender, ethnicity, immigrant

status, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality can

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shape both how adolescents behave and how others respond to them, creating
diverse developmental contexts for different adolescents. For example, early
puberty (that occurs before most other peers have experienced puberty) appears
to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than boys, likely in part because
girls who enter puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which in turn is
associated with early sexual behavior and substance use. For adolescents who
are ethnic or sexual minorities, discrimination sometimes presents a set of
challenges that non-minorities do not face.

Finally, genetic variations contribute an additional source of diversity in

adolescence. Current approaches emphasize gene X environment interactions,
which often follow a differential susceptibility model (Belsky & Pluess, 2009).
That is, particular genetic variations are considered riskier than others, but
genetic variations also can make adolescents more or less susceptible to
environmental factors. For example, the association between the CHRM2
genotype and adolescent externalizing behavior (aggression and delinquency)
has been found in adolescents whose parents are low in monitoring behaviors
(Dick et al., 2011). Thus, it is important to bear in mind that individual
differences play an important role in adolescent development.

A child’s social and emotional development is critical to overall success in

school and life. Kids with developmental delays and struggles often experience
significant social difficulties due to their learning and behavioral differences. In
addition, these children may not be meeting their social and emotional
milestones which can further alienate them from their peers. Here is a
breakdown of what to expect socially and emotionally as a child gets older. While
kids mature at different paces, if your child is not meeting these milestones, it
may signify an issue that should be addressed with a professional.

Infants (Ages 0-12 months)

ü Asocial
ü Soothed by rocking
ü Interprets emotional expressions of familiar adults
ü Mimics simple actions of others
ü Actively seeks to maintain interactions with adults
ü Displays separation anxiety when apart from mother
Toddlers (Ages 1-3)

ü Starts to show independence

ü May become angry if activities are interrupted
ü Shows anger through aggressive behavior; may hit, bite, or fight over a
toy
ü Engages in social laughter
ü Seeks comfort from parent — safe-base exploration
ü Demonstrates imitation, parallel, and symbolic play

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ü Is emotionally attached to toys or objects for security

ü Screams, throws temper tantrums for little cause
ü Asks for wants
ü Participates in simple group activity — singing, dancing
ü Expresses affection warmly
Preschool (Ages 3-5)

ü Develops simplistic idea of good and bad

ü Demonstrates inconsistent behavior
ü Shares toys, takes turns with assistance
ü Interprets emotions from facial expressions and intonation
ü Plays cooperatively
ü Has no sense of privacy
ü Understands concepts of right and wrong
ü Often indulges in make-believe
ü Exhibits increased frustration tolerance
ü Self-esteem reflects opinions of significant others
ü Bosses and criticizes
ü Displays concern and sympathy
ü May show increased aggressive behavior
Early Elementary (Ages 6-8)

ü Friendships change rapidly

ü Leads as well as follows
ü Chooses own friends
ü Engages other children in play or role assignments
ü Wants to be the first and best at everything
ü Focuses less on one’s self and shows more concern for others
ü Develops positive, realistic self-concept
ü Begins to learn from mistakes
ü May become infatuated with teacher or playmate of the opposite sex
ü Cares for self, room, and belongings
ü Has a sense of humor and tells jokes
ü Is self-critical; may express lack of confidence
ü Dislikes being singled out, even for praise
Late Elementary (Ages 9-11)

ü Is influenced by peer pressure

ü Seeks immediate gratification
ü Actively seeks praise
ü Is highly social
ü Is both industrious and impatient
ü Wants to put some distance between self and adults
ü Can express a wide range of emotions
ü Understands social roles and appropriate behavior; considers them
inflexible

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ü Can be aloof
ü Controls anger
ü Shows interest in teen culture — music, videos, makeup
ü Tries to avoid looking childish
ü Understands how behavior affects others
ü Is truthful
ü Increasingly self-conscious
Middle (Ages 12-15)

ü Maybe a repeat of the “terrible twos”

ü Tries to establish independence and autonomy
ü Tends to gossip and talk
ü Can adapt behavior to fit situation
ü Exhibits “off-color” humor and silliness
ü Has little impulse control
ü Enjoys recreational activities
ü Is energetic and enthusiastic
ü Takes on more responsibilities at home
ü Takes responsibility for homework with little prodding
ü Is socially expansive and aware
ü Is competitive and wants to excel
ü Can show extremes of emotions
ü Enjoys close interactions with peers, especially same gender
ü Wants immediate gratification
High School (Ages 15-18)

ü Has more interest in the opposite sex

ü Goes through less conflict with parents
ü Shows more independence from parents
ü Has a deeper capacity for caring and sharing and for developing more
intimate relationships
ü Spends less time with parents and more time with friends
ü Feels a lot of sadness or depression, which can lead to poor grades at
school, alcohol or drug use, unsafe sex, and other problems

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COMPREHENSION CHECK!

1. What comes into your mind when you hear the phrase “socio-emotional
development” or “social-emotional development”?

2. Based from the different areas of growth in the social and emotional
development of a child, give one (1) concrete example of each
(temperament, attachment, social skills or social competence and emotional
regulation).

3. How does play play an important role in the social and emotional
development of children?

4. Define and differentiate the following terms: self-concept, self-esteem

and self-differentiation.

5. What does peer pressure mean? Have you experience it? If you do, how
did you handle it?

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Lesson 2

& DEVELOPMENT OF SELF

AND SOCIAL UNDERSTANDINGS

HOW DO CHILDREN DEVELOP A SENSE OF SELF?

From the moment they are born, babies are exposed to information that
can teach them about who they are. By touching their own face and body, or by
kicking and grabbing things, they start to enjoy the influence of their actions on
the world. But it is not until children approach their second birthday that they
start to develop a sense of self and are able to reflect on themselves from the
perspective of somebody else.

One indication of this new objective self-awareness is that children start

recognizing themselves in a mirror or photograph – something most children do
by the age of two. This kind of self-awareness can be assessed scientifically by
surreptitiously putting a small mark on a child’s forehead, such as by kissing them
while wearing lipstick. The child can’t feel the mark so their sense of touch can’t
alert them to its presence – but they can see it if they look in a mirror. If the
child has the capacity to see themselves as another person would, they will reach
up to touch the mark when shown a mirror, indicating that they equate the
mirror image with their own body.

FINDING THE CONCEPT OF THE ‘SELF’

Toddlers also naturally demonstrate their self-awareness by their ability

to use and understand self-referential language such as I, me, you and my.
Another example is when they claim something as their own property – the cry
of “it’s mine” is the origin of many sibling disputes.

The appearance of self-conscious emotions such as embarrassment, pride,

guilt and shame also demonstrates that a child is developing self-consciousness.
Parents may notice that by the time they are three-years-old, their child is
motivated to make amends for wrongdoing, can be proud of their own behavior,
or hides when unhappy about something they have done.

Toddlers’ ability to think about themselves from the perspective of a

second person also marks the start of their acquisition of what’s called “self-
concept” – stable thoughts and feelings about the self. Between their first and
second birthdays, children will be able to produce simple self-descriptions and
evaluations such as “I am a good boy”, which will become more complex over
time. By the time a child is around eight-years-old, they will have a relatively

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stable idea of their own personality traits and dispositions, and whether they
feel like a valuable and competent person.

Individual differences in personality and feelings of self-worth can

influence a child’s approach to social situations and academic achievement.
Children with positive perceptions of themselves have the best social and
academic outcomes, perhaps because they focus on success and aren’t deterred
by failure. Parents can help their child develop positive self-esteem by reacting
positively to them and their achievements, and helping them to overcome
negative events.

Psychologists think parents can also shape children’s self-worth right from
birth: when they provide a positive response to an infant’s actions it provides
them with their first experiences of having a positive impact on the world.

INFLUENCES ON MEMORY AND LEARNING

Regardless of how children feel about themselves, adding an “idea of me”

to their cognitive architecture changes the way they process information. For
example, as adults, we remember very few childhood events. One intuitive
explanation for this “childhood amnesia” is that until memories can be related
to our sense of self, they are very difficult to store and retrieve.

Once a child’s sense of self is established, they are more likely to

remember information that is related to themselves. This is known as the “self-
reference effect” on memory and emerges early on. From at least three-years-
old children are more likely to remember objects linked with themselves than
those linked with another person.

For example, in one experiment, children between four and six-years-old

were asked to sort pictures of shopping items into their own basket, and a
shopping basket owned by another person. After the items were sorted, the
children were shown a wider selection of shopping items and asked which ones
they recognized from the previous game. Children accurately remembered more
of the items that they “owned”, than items that had been sorted into the other
person’s basket.

The self-reference effect occurs because items linked with the self – such
as “my apple” – attract additional attention and memory support within the
brain, ensuring that information of potential use to the self is not lost.

The self-reference effect can be used to help children process and learn
information, especially as it emerges early in life. So asking children to think
about themselves while generating sentences to practice their spelling – such as
sentences beginning with the word “I” – can significantly improve their

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subsequent spelling performance. Putting maths problems in the first-person –

for example: “you have four apples more than Tom” – also improves both the
speed and accuracy of children’s responses.

In summary, selfhood starts at birth, but children don’t start expressing

an “idea of me” until toddlerhood. Children then start to gather information
about themselves and store autobiographical material, starting a life narrative
that guides their responses to the world.

DIFFERENT THEORIES RELATING TO SELF

1. Freud’s Theories of Development

Sigmund Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of

development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field
of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. Freud’s assumption
that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in
which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting
impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians,
and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize
that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits
or emotional states.

His theories of development include: Theory of the Mind, Theory of the

Self and Psychosexual Stages.

Theory of the Mind

Freud believed that most of our mental processes, motivations and desires
are outside of our awareness. Our consciousness, that of which we are aware,
represents only the tip of the iceberg that comprises our mental state. The
preconscious represents that which can easily be called into the conscious mind.
During development, our motivations and desires are gradually pushed into the
unconscious because raw desires are often unacceptable in society.

Theory of the Self

As adults, our personality or self consists of three main parts:

• Id
• Ego
• Superego

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The id is the part of the self with which we are born. It consists of the
biologically-driven self and includes our instincts and drives. It is the part of us
that wants immediate gratification. Later in life, it comes to house our deepest,
often unacceptable desires, such as sex and aggression. It operates under the
pleasure principle, which means that the criteria for determining whether
something is good or bad is whether it feels good or bad. An infant is all id.

The ego is the part of the self that develops as we learn that there are
limits on what is acceptable to do and that often we must wait to have our needs
satisfied. This part of the self is realistic and reasonable. It knows how to make
compromises. It operates under the reality principle or the recognition that
sometimes need gratification must be postponed for practical reasons. It acts as
a mediator between the id and the superego and is viewed as the healthiest part
of the self.

Here is an abbreviated listing of defense mechanisms suggested by Freud.

If the ego is strong, the individual is realistic and accepting of reality and remains
more logical, objective, and reasonable. Building ego strength is a major goal of
psychoanalysis (Freudian psychotherapy). So for Freud, having a big ego is a good
thing because it does not refer to being arrogant, it refers to being able to accept
reality.

Defense mechanisms emerge to help a person distort reality so that the

truth is less painful. Defense mechanisms include:

o Repression: To push the painful thoughts out of consciousness (in other

words, think about something else).
o Denial: Not accepting the truth or lying to the self. Thoughts such as “it
won’t happen to me” or “you’re not leaving” or “I don’t have a problem
with alcohol” are examples.
o Regression: Refers to “going back in time” when the world felt like a safer
place, perhaps reverting to one’s childhood. This is less common than the
first two defense mechanisms.
o Sublimation: Involves transforming unacceptable urges into more socially
acceptable behaviors. For example, a teenager who experiences strong
sexual urges uses exercise to redirect those urges into more socially
acceptable behavior.
o Displacement: Involves taking out frustrations on to a safer target. A
person who is angry with a supervisor may take out their frustration at
others when driving home or at a spouse upon arrival.
o Projection: Defense mechanism in which a person attributes their
unacceptable thoughts onto others. If someone is frightened, for example,
he or she accuses someone else of being afraid.
o Reaction formation: Defense mechanism in which a person outwardly
opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable.

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An example of this might be homophobia or a strong hatred and fear of

homosexuality.

The superego is the part of the self that develops as we learn the rules,
standards, and values of society. This part of the self takes into account the
moral guidelines that are a part of our culture. It is a rule-governed part of the
self that operates under a sense of guilt (guilt is a social emotion-it is a feeling
that others think less of you or believe you to be wrong). If a person violates the
superego, he or she feels guilty. The superego is useful but can be too strong; in
this case, a person might feel overly anxious and guilty about circumstances over
which they had no control. Such a person may experience high levels of stress
and inhibition that keeps them from living well. The id is inborn, but the ego and
superego develop during the course of our early interactions with others. These
interactions occur against a backdrop of learning to resolve early biological and
social challenges and play a key role in our personality development.

Psychosexual Stages

Freud’s psychosexual stages of development are presented below. At any

of these stages, the child might become “stuck” or fixated if a caregiver either
overly indulges or neglects the child’s needs. A fixated adult will continue to try
and resolve this later in life.

For about the first year of life, the infant is in the oral stage of
psychosexual development. The infant meets needs primarily through oral
gratification. A baby wishes to suck or chew on any object that comes close to
the mouth. Babies explore the world through the mouth and find comfort and
stimulation as well. Psychologically, the infant is all id. The infant seeks
immediate gratification of needs such as comfort, warmth, food, and
stimulation. If the caregiver meets oral needs consistently, the child will move
away from this stage and progress further. However, if the caregiver is
inconsistent or neglectful, the person may stay stuck in the oral stage. As an
adult, the person might not feel good unless involved in some oral activity such
as eating, drinking, smoking, nail biting, or compulsive talking. These actions
bring comfort and security when the person feels insecure, afraid, or bored.

During the anal stage, which coincides with toddlerhood or mobility and
potty training, the child is taught that some urges must be contained and some
actions postponed. There are rules about certain functions and when and where
they are to be carried out. The child is learning a sense of self-control. The ego
is being developed. If the caregiver is extremely controlling about potty training
(stands over the child waiting for the smallest indication that the child might
need to go to the potty and immediately scoops the child up and places him on
the potty chair, for example), the child may grow up fearing losing control. He
may become fixated in this stage or “anal retentive,” that is, fearful of letting

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go. Such a person might be extremely neat and clean, organized, reliable, and
controlling of others. If the caregiver neglects to teach the child to control urges,
he may grow up to be “anal expulsive” or an adult who is messy, irresponsible,
and disorganized.

The phallic stage occurs during the preschool years (ages 3–5) when the
child has a new biological challenge to face. Freud believed that the child
becomes sexually attracted to his or her opposite sexed parent.

o Boys experience the “Oedipal Complex” in which they become sexually

attracted to their mothers but realize that Father is in the way. He is
much more powerful. For a while, the boy fears that if he pursues his
mother, father may castrate him (castration anxiety). So rather than
risking losing his penis, he gives up his affections for his mother and
instead learns to become more like his father, imitating his actions and
mannerisms and thereby learns the role of males in his society. From this
experience, the boy learns a sense of masculinity. He also learns what
society thinks he should do and experiences guilt if he does not comply.
In this way, the superego develops. If he does not resolve this successfully,
he may become a “phallic male” or a man who constantly tries to prove
his masculinity (about which he is insecure) by seducing women and
beating up men.
o Girls experience the “Electra Complex” in which she develops an
attraction for her father but realizes that she cannot compete with
mother and so gives up that affection and learns to become more like her
mother. This is not without some regret, however. Freud believed that
the girl feels inferior because she does not have a penis (experiences
“penis envy”). But she must resign herself to the fact that she is female
and will just have to learn her inferior role in society as a female.
However, if she does not resolve this conflict successfully, she may have
a weak sense of femininity and grow up to be a “castrating female” who
tries to compete with men in the workplace or in other areas of life.

During middle childhood (6–11), the child enters the latent stage focusing
his or her attention outside the family and toward friendships. The biological
drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a
larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, he or she will gain a
sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away
from others, even as an adult.

The final stage of psychosexual development is referred to as the genital

stage. From adolescence throughout adulthood a person is preoccupied with sex
and reproduction. The adolescent experiences rising hormone levels and the sex
drive and hunger drives become very strong. Ideally, the adolescent will rely on
the ego to help think logically through these urges without taking actions that

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might be damaging. An adolescent might learn to redirect his or her sexual urges
into safer activity, such as running. Quieting the id with the superego can lead
to feeling overly self-conscious and guilty about these urges. Hopefully, it is the
ego that is strengthened during this stage and the adolescent uses reason to
manage urges.

2. Psychosocial Theory

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a student of Freud’s and expanded on his

theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture
in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult
development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what
motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our
actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices
focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological
ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is
a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a
contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all
psychosocial problems. Erikson divided the life span into eight stages. In each
stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome.
Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life
span as we face these challenges in living.

Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development

1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)

Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two
years of life. The child, well – handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and
security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and
mistrustful.

2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)

The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early

childhood, probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of
age. The “well – parented” child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated
with his new found control, and proud rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not,
however, entirely synonymous with assured self – possession, initiative, and
independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial
crisis, includes stormy self – will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For
example, one sees may 2 year olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent their
mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound of
“NO” rings through the house or the grocery store.

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3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)

Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he
calls the “play age,” or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United
States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child
learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts,
including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow.
Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3)
continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the
development of play skills and in imagination.

4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)

Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better
or worse, during what he calls the “school age,” presumably up to and possibly
including some of junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more
formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing
from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may
demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies,
reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline
increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful
resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of
initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting
child will doubt the future. The shame – and guilt-filled child will experience
defeat and inferiority.

5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)

During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to

about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and
happily the question of “Who am I?” But even the best – adjusted of adolescents
experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls
experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self – doubts flood the
youngster, and so on.

Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time

perspective is developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to
self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different –
usually constructive – roles rather than adopting a “negative identity” (such as
delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than
being “paralyzed” by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time
perspective. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity – manhood or womanhood
– is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and

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gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case
of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence
affords a “psychosocial moratorium,” particularly for middle – and upper-class
American children. They do not yet have to “play for keeps,” but can
experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable
for them.

6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)

The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true
intimacy – the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine
and enduring friendship.

7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care)

In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the

sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and
creatively.

8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)

If the other seven psychosocial crises have been successfully resolved, the
mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is
independent and dares the new. He works hard, has found a well – defined role
in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be
intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what
he creates – his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier
psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with
disgust and despair.

These eight stages of man, or the psychosocial crises, are plausible and
insightful descriptions of how personality develops but at present they are
descriptions only. We possess at best rudimentary and tentative knowledge of
just what sort of environment will result, for example, in traits of trust versus
distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion. Helping the child through the
various stages and the positive learning that should accompany them is a complex
and difficult task, as any worried parent or teacher knows. Search for the best
ways of accomplishing this task accounts for much of the research in the field of
child development.

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3. Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory of Albert Bandura emphasizes the importance

of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Bandura (1977) states: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to
mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own
actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of
how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide for action.”. Social learning theory explains human behavior in
terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational
learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective
valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics
(sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2)
Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic
rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical
capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4)
Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social

learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura’s
theory improves upon the strictly behavioral interpretation of modeling provided
by Miller & Dollard (1941). Bandura’s work is related to the theories of Vygotsky
and Lave which also emphasize the central role of social learning.

Application

Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding

of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the
context of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical
foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in
training programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept
of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997).

Example

The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations

are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain
beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the
admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes
involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in
the commercial and buy the product being advertised.

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Principles

• The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing

and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it
overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in
better retention than simply observing.
• Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in
outcomes they value.
• Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is
similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has
functional value.

Socialization, then is a learning – teaching process that, when successful,

results in the human organism’s moving from its infant state of helpless but total
egocentricity to its ideal adult state of sensible conformity coupled with
independent creativity.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES

1. Freud used the case study method to gather the data he used to formulate
his theories. Among the many case studies, five (5) really stood out as bases of
his concepts and ideas. Do further reading of these case studies and write a
reflection paper on one of these case studies focusing on how he explained the
personality development of the individuals in the case studies. (From your
internet search engine, just type Freud’s case studies. It will be easy to find a
pdf file which you can readily download.)

2. Make further readings on Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Fill

the table below. Stage One is already done for you.

Stage Psychosocial Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue

Crisis
One Trust vs. Sensory Withdrawal Hope
Mistrust Maladjustment

3. Think of someone whom you consider as “idol”. What are the characteristics
of that person makes him/her your idol? In what ways does this idol affect your
personality?

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Lesson 3

&
DEVELOPMENT OF MOTIVATION
AND SELF-REGULATION

There are two main types of motivation theory: content and process.
Content models of motivation focus on what people need in their lives (i.e. what
motivates them). Process theories look at the psychological and behavioral
processes that affect and individual’s motivation.

Motivation Theories: Introduction

Though people have been interested in the idea of motivation for a long
time, the first real models of human motivation that people still regularly refer
to originated in the 1940s and 1950s.

Since then, many different models and frameworks of motivation have

been published. These models fall into two main types of models: content models
and process models. More recently, newer types of models have been
introduced. That said, content and process theories often form the platform on
which these newer models are built.

Having a good understanding of different theories of motivation is a great

help for leaders and managers at all levels.

Content Models of Motivation

Content models of motivation focus on the “whats” of motivation. More

specifically they focus on the different things that people may feel they need in
their lives. The theory is that people’s motivations will be based on acquiring
the things that they think they need. Thus, by understanding their wants and
needs, you can understand why and how people are motivated.

The content model school of motivation theory is the older of the two
schools. Content models are currently very popular in management and
leadership training and the world of work.

Some famous content models include: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,

Herzberg’s Two Factors Theory, McClelland’s Theory of Needs and Alderfer’s ERG
Theory.

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Maslow’s Theory

Abraham Maslow’s theory is one of the earliest and most well know
theories of motivation. It’s often shown as a triangle, or pyramid. It fits into the
content school of motivation theories, meaning that it focuses primarily on what
motivates people, not the processes through which they are motivated.

The theory was first proposed in the 1940s, but first fully expressed in
1954. Like most content models of motivation, some people have challenged the
validity of some aspects of this model. Despite this, its popular and has been
fairly well accepted into the business community. You may well have seen it in
leadership and personal development programs in the world of work.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs says that all humans share the same types of
needs, and that these categories of needs have a hierarchy. Loosely speaking,
this hierarchy goes from the basic things we need for survival through to a sense
of fulfilling our potential and finding our purpose in life.

The hierarchy is important as, from a motivational perspective, it acts as

a ladder. What this means is that individuals must have fully met their needs at
their current level within the pyramid, before they are motivated by achieving
the needs of the next level up. Put more bluntly, an individual who is struggling

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to to put a roof over their head will focus on that before exploring their true
calling in life.

Level 1: Physiological Needs

The most basic category of needs that humans have are physiological.
These are our survival needs, and the first things we need to achieve before we
move on towards more complex and aspirational needs in life. Our physiological
needs include our bodily requirements like sleep, food and water as well as the
basics of shelter and clothing. If we lack any of these needs, we need to fulfill
them before we can be motivated to pursue other needs.

Level 2: Safety Needs

Once someone has achieved their physiological needs, they are motivated
to achieve their safety needs. Fundamentally these safety needs are about
removing risk from life and helping individuals maintain their physiological needs
into the future. Safety needs include physical and emotional security, housing
beyond the most basic of shelters, health and financial security.

Level 3: Social Belonging

The third level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs introduces the need for
social belonging. The model says that once individuals have met their
physiological and safety needs, their next priority becomes the pursuit of social
belonging.

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Humans are fundamentally social beings and the need for social belonging
is strong in most people. Once humans have met their basic needs they start to
pursue things like family relationships, friendships, community relationships and
the sense of acceptance and belonging that many people find rewarding.

Level 4: Self-esteem

Maslow’s model says that once humans have met their need for social
belonging and acceptance, that they start to focus on themselves and their self-
esteem.

These needs are all about satisfying the ego and being valued. Maslow
divided this need into two levels. At the lower level, individuals seek to achieve
status, respect and recognition from others. At the higher level, they seek these
things from themselves.

Level 5: Self-Actualization

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs says that once humans have satisfied their
ego and obtained self-esteem that their ultimate need is that of self-
actualization. This slightly clunky phrase simply means that humans want to feel
that they are fulfilling their potential and making the most of their abilities. In
many ways this is very similar to Aristotle’s concept of eudaimonia, which loosely
translates as fulfilling your true nature.

Later in life Maslow added a further stage which he called transcendence,

which he said was about giving oneself to something beyond oneself. This could
be in the form of altruism or spirituality and could involve people achieving their
purpose in the world. We don’t focus on this sixth stage.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation

Frederick Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation is a content model

of motivation which says that satisfaction and dissatisfaction in work are created
by different factors.

Herzberg uses the phrase “motivating factors” to describe things that,

when present, have the ability to make individuals satisfied or even happy at
work. He also uses the phrase “hygiene factors” to describe things whose absence
has the ability make individuals unsatisfied or unhappy at work.

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The core point of Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation is that

motivating and hygiene factors are very different. Hygiene factors are essential
in helping individuals to stop being dissatisfied at work. But crucially, no matter
how great these factors are, they alone will never help an individual reach high
levels of satisfaction at work. In different language, hygiene factors are a per-
requisite for a good employee experience and for good employee engagement.

Motivating factors are almost the opposite. Motivating factors are

essential in helping individuals become highly satisfied at work, but their
absence will never cause an individual to become extremely unsatisfied at work.

Hygiene factors

Hygiene factors in Herzberg’s model have the power to make people

dissatisfied and are prerequisites for satisfaction at work, but their presence
alone will never make people satisfied at work.

In other words, the absence of hygiene factors will prevent satisfaction,

but the presence of hygiene factors is not in itself enough to lead to high levels
of work satisfaction.

Examples of hygiene factors include: salary, safety, security, working

environment, working conditions and other things with the power to make an
individual unhappy in work.

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Motivating factors

Motivating factors in Herzberg’s model have the power to make

moderately satisfied people highly satisfied, but have no impact on satisfaction
if hygiene factors aren’t already in place.

Examples of motivating factors include: achievement, recognition,

advancement, empowerment, responsibility and intrinsically interesting work.

One key lesson from Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation is that
organizations and leaders need to get the basics right first. It’s only once they
have successfully provided an individual with the basic hygiene factors that the
individual will become moderately satisfied. Furthermore, it’s only once their
hygiene factors have been met that an individual will start to be motivated by,
and achieve higher levels of performance as a result of, motivating factors.

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Motivation Theory

David McClelland’s motivation theory, which is more formally known as

the Expectancy Value Theory of Motivation, states that humans have a total of
three core types emotional needs, which they acquire as a result of their life
journeys. Given that this model focuses on needs, it is considered a content
theory of motivation. The needs the model considers are:

• Achievement (getting things done)

• Power (having influence over others)
• Affiliation (having good relationships)

McClelland says that these needs are scalar and

everyone has a blend of them, though usually
one is dominant.

The blend and strength of an

individual’s needs shapes their behaviors and motivations in work, and in the
wider world. The different needs bring different strengths, weaknesses,
preferred ways of working and behavioral risks into the workplace.

Awareness of your own needs can help you improve your own self-
awareness, self-management and decision-making. Similarly, knowing the needs
of the people you work with (or for) can help you manage them more effectively.

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While many people may have a sense of their own needs, most people chose not
to fully reveal them to others. McClelland uses an iceberg analogy to explain
this.

What we see of others, the bit above the surface, is based on what they
do and includes their knowledge, skills and behaviors. The things that we don’t
see, the bit below the surface, is their true underlying self. This includes their
motives, personality characteristics, values, beliefs and self-opinions. This split
of external and internal presentation is very similar to the concept of personality
and character ethics.

We only see a little bit of who

people are, the bit below the
surface may be much more
complicated.

The Three Emotional Needs

Most individuals have a dominant emotional need. The emotional need

which is dominant will help shape an individual’s feelings, actions and behaviors.
It will also go some way towards shaping their preferences in the working
environment. It may also shape their strengths and potential risks as both part
of a team or as a leader.

The Need for Achievement

The first need detailed in McClelland’s Acquired Needs Motivation Theory

is the need for achievement.

The need for achievement presents itself as an emotional drive towards

progressing quickly, delivering tasks, succeeding, attaining high levels of
performance and other potentially competitive outcomes.

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Work Preferences

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for achievement want to

be constantly overcoming challenging, yet achievable, tasks. They thrive on
being slightly stretched and on the feeling of reward they receive when they
complete a deliverable.

These individuals have a moderate level of risk tolerance in relation to

the work they like to do. They know that if their activities are too risky they may
fail and not receive their hit of achievement they desire. However, if they are
not risky enough, their achievements won’t feel truly rewarding.

Strengths and Risks

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for achievement often have
high levels of drive. They can be a great asset to a team when they are being
well managed and things are going well. When they are focused, they have the
ability to produce a high volume of high quality outputs. To keep them
performing at their best, try to provide them with stimulation. They need
challenge, recognition and active management to the ensure the stretch and
leadership attention they desire.

When things are not going well, though, these individuals can also feel
frustrated. They can become bored or impatient, which can lead to some poorer
behaviors. If this happens, overcome it by reengaging them through a new set of
challenges and an opportunity to deliver.

As a Leader

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for achievement can be

very effective leaders. Their desire for achievement means that they will face
into their work and drive their teams towards high volumes of work and a high
quality of delivery.

Unfortunately, this drive can also be a bit of an Achilles’ heel for these
leaders. If they do not check their drive, and effectively manage their own
teams, these individuals run the risk of overworking their team members and
ultimately losing their follower-ship and support. They also face the risk of
personal burn-out. They may need help to give themselves space to recover from
the exertions of their work.

The Need for Power

The second need detailed in McClelland’s Acquired Needs Motivation

Theory is the need for power.

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The need for power presents itself as an emotional drive towards status,
influence, control over others and winning. Individuals with a high need for
power desire respect and authority over others.

Work Preferences

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for power want to be

constantly competing with, directing, managing and exerting influence over
others. They thrive on winning in competitions with others and the sense of
increased status that winning brings them.

These individuals typically end up with high levels of risk tolerance. Their
often highly competitive natures and their need for ever increasing status means
they may take ever increasing risks in an effort to increase their status and
control.

Strengths and Risks

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for power are often
tenacious and resolute, willing and able to make and deliver on difficult
decisions, and willing to do what it takes to achieve their goals.

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for power can be a mixed
blessing within a team environment. While their needs and desires are aligned
to those of the team or organization, their drive for power can be a helpful tool
in motivating them, and others around them.

However, it the objectives of an individual with a high emotional need for

power become separated from the objectives of an organization, these
individuals will usually pursue their own goals, even to the detriment of the
organization. It’s important for those leading individuals with a high drive for
power to align their goals with the organization’s goals.

As a Leader

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for power can be very
effective leaders in specific situations. Their desire for obtaining and maintaining
power and status means they are often willing to make difficult decisions and
see through difficult objectives, where they think these objectives will help their
personal power goals.

Clearly though, individuals with a high emotional need for power also
bring many risks when they are in leadership positions. Perhaps the greatest risk
associated with these leaders relates to the cultures they create. Leaders with
a high emotional need for emotional power often seek loyalty or subservience in

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others almost above all else. When this happens, organizational cultures become
toxic and fearful and organizational performance often reduces.

Another important risk these leaders bring at an organizational level, is

the risk of these leaders increasing their own power and status at a cost to the
organization. Examples of this type of activity could include inflating team sizes,
taking on work from other divisions, undermining other leaders and generally
doing whatever it takes to increase their status. In some instances, these
individuals may see status and power as zero-sum games (which we’ve yet to
write about). This means they may seek to undermine the status and power of
others to increase their own status and power.

The Need for Affiliation

The third need detailed in McClelland’s Acquired Needs Motivation Theory

is the need for affiliation.

The need for affiliation presents itself as an emotional drive towards being
liked and accepted. Individuals with a high need for affiliation desire having
agreeable and collaborative working relationships with others and a harmonious
social environment.

Work Preferences

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for affiliation want to be

constantly working in an environment where people feel welcomed, included,
harmonious and collaborative. They are often socially perceptive and work
towards maintaining effective social relationships and creating positive
environments.

These individuals typically end up with fairly low levels of risk tolerance.
Their desire for social harmony means they don’t want to “rock the boat” or take
on activities that may upset people or lead to conflict.

Strengths and Risks

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for affiliation can be a real
asset for a team. They often focus on pulling people together, creating social
links and helping teams form. In addition, they can be motivating, enthusiastic,
engaging and drive real team delivery. They are very much at their best when
working towards a common and collaborative goal with others.

It’s important though from a leadership perspective to help these

individuals focus on their deliverables as well as their social relationships and

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structures. Often these individuals will be willing to reduce the pace or quality
of their deliverables if doing so may create more social harmony.

To help these individuals remain at their best, it’s important to focus on

the culture of the team and to create a collaborative environment. This can be
done in part by creating collaborative goals or objectives, by building team
relationships through things like team building activities and by seeking to
minimize conflict, or at least explain the benefits of conflict to these individuals.

As a Leader

Individuals with a high level of emotional need for affiliation can be very
effective leaders in specific situations. Their desire for social harmony and
conviviality means they can create inclusive cultures, cohesive teams and a real
sense of collaboration and commonality.

Unfortunately, though, individuals with a high emotional need for

affiliation run the risk of putting social harmony ahead of progress and delivery.
They may not be as objective as other leaders and there is a definite risk that
these leaders will focus more on outcomes for their people than for the business.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation

Clayton Alderfer developed Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs into a three

factor model of motivation known as the ERG model. In this model the letter E,
R, & G each stand for a different human need: existence, relatedness and
growth. The ERG model is a content theory of motivation.

Alderfer’s model says that all humans are motivated by these three needs.
The most concrete and motivating of Alderfer’s three needs is existence, which
really relates to physical and psychological survival. The next level is the need
for relatedness, a sense of community and a good relationship with yourself. The
least concrete, but still important, of Alderfer’s needs in the ERG model is
growth, which really relates to self-development, fulfillment and the sense of
achieving your potential.

How the model works

Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation states that individuals can be

motivated by multiple levels of need at the same time, and that the level which
is most important to them can change over time. In other words, an individual’s
priorities and motivations may be fluid and can move between the existence,
relatedness and growth levels of need over time. They can move upwards, and
they can move downwards.

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Comparing Alderfer and Maslow

In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, individuals need to have satisfied one

level of needs before moving on to the next one. For example, they need to have
satisfied their safety needs before being motivated by social belonging. Alderfer
disagreed. In his model, individuals do not need to have satisfied their existence
needs before being motivated by their relatedness need.

In fact, Alderfer went further and said that different individuals

potentially prioritize the needs in different orders based on their life views. A
standard example of this could be the starving actor who’s motivated by growth
through their art, potentially at the expense of their existence (i.e. they can’t
pay their rent but are pursuing their passion).

Alderfer also noted that how individuals perceive their progression in

relation to each of the levels of need is important. If an individual feels they are
making great progress at relatedness, they may be increasingly motivated by
growth even though their relatedness need has not been fully satisfied. Similarly,
if an individual feels frustrated with the progress they are making in relation to
growth, they may abandon it and redouble their motivation in relation to
relatedness.

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Process Models of Motivation

Process theories of motivation focus on the “hows” of motivation. Instead

of focusing on what people need, these models focus on the psychological and
behavioral processes that humans follow. By understanding these processes it’s
possible to understand the actions, interactions and contexts that motivate
individuals’ behaviors.

The process school of motivation is the newer of the two schools. These
process models are influencing leadership and management theory more and
more.

Some famous process theories of motivation include:

o Skinner’s reinforcement theory,

o Vroom’s Expectancy Theory,
o Locke’s Goal Setting Theory, and
o Self-Determination Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory says that the way we respond to an individual’s

actions and behaviors has the ability to change their behaviors in the future. This
process is known as operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental

conditioning, is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an
association between a particular behavior and a consequence (Skinner, 1938).

By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other
behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other
than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus
Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is more commonly known as
B.F. Skinner.

Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913).
Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply
more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental
events.

The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was
far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He
believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an
action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

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Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work

was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle,
behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and
behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement.

behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior
which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments

using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s
puzzle box.

A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device

used to objectively record an animal's behavior in a compressed time frame. An
animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as
lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow

behavior.

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase

nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the

probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive
or negative.

• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood

of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

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We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected
by reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of
behaviors and learned from their consequences.

For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and
the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to
hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and
would be likely to repeat the behavior.

If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned,
suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most
certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely
to smoke now.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation is a process theory of

motivation. It says that an individual’s motivation is affected by their
expectations about the future.

Specifically, Vroom says that an individual’s motivation is affected by how

much they value any reward associated with an action (Valence), how much they
believe that by putting effort into something they will be able to generate good
results (Expectancy) and how much they believe that generating good results will
result in a reward (Instrumentality).

It’s important to note that rewards could be intrinsic or extrinsic. Extrinsic

motivations are external things such as money and promotion. Intrinsic
motivations are internal things such as a sense of fulfillment and achievement.

What Vroom’s model means for individuals

Vroom says that an individual’s motivation is product of several factors:

• Valence: How much they value the potential rewards associated

with the specific results or behaviors,

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• Expectancy: How much they believe that their additional effort

will help them achieve the target results of behaviors, and
• Instrumentality: How much they believe the rewards will actually
appear should they achieve the desired outcomes or behaviors.

From an individual perspective this means that if any of these factors are
lacking, you may lack motivation.

If, as an individual, you find yourself feeling unmotivated in the world of

work, it’s worth stepping back and considering these factors. It may be that one
or two of them are lacking for you. For example, you may not value the intrinsic
or extrinsic rewards associated with the work you are doing. Similarly, you may
simply believe that you don’t have the ability to achieve an outcome that would
trigger a reward.

If you assess your motivation through the lens of Vroom’s expectancy

theory, you may identify root causes for your lack of motivation. In turn, this
might help identify actions you could take to restore it. As ever, you may need
help from others to restore your motivation. you may benefit from discussing
your thoughts with a peer, friend or even your line manager.

Locke and Latham’s Goal Setting Theory

Goal Setting

Goal-setting is a hugely powerful tool and there are different types of

goals. Setting goals well can help organizations and leaders achieve their
objectives. Similarly, personal goals are motivating for individuals and help them
achieve their own goals.

Locke and Latham’s Goal Setting Theory

Locke and Latham worked both independently and collaboratively in their

efforts to study goal-setting. In the 1968, Locke published their findings. These
findings showed that individuals are motivated by both appropriate goals and by
feedback. A few years later Latham published further results that corroborated
Locke’s conclusions.

Lock and Latham later collaborated on the topic. In 1990 they published
their famous book, “A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance”. It’s in this
book that they detailed Locke and Latham’s Goal Setting Theory and their five
principles of goal setting. We consider each principle briefly below:

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Clarity

For goals to be motivating they need to be clear and they should be

concise. Ambiguity or complexity makes it harder for people to understand goals.
This, in turn, makes them less motivating.

Challenge

Goals need to be challenging to the right level in order to be motivating.

To be motivated, individuals need to feel that their goals are stretching.
They need to believe that achieving their goals would feel like a genuine
achievement. However, individuals will not be motivated if their goals are too
challenging. If goals are too stretching, individuals will give up before the start
and not even try to achieve them.

Commitment

To be truly motivating, goals need to be accepted by the individual tasks

with achieving them. Just because someone proposes a goal doesn’t mean that
an individual actually accepts it.

Goal acceptance occurs in different ways. Sometimes individuals may

simply accept a goal proposed by someone else, but sometimes individuals will
be more accepting of a goal if they help define it themselves.

Feedback

For individuals to be motivated by goals they need to understand how they

are doing in relation to them. To understand how they are doing in relation to
their goals, people need to have timely and accurate performance related
feedback. This feedback can take many different forms, including metrics, data
or feedback from others.

The specific type of feedback that is appropriate will depend on the type
of goal being pursued. That said, some form of feedback is always beneficial.

Task-Complexity

Leaders should set goals at the right level of complexity. Leaders should
use multiple goals for complex tasks and objectives. If single goals are set for
highly complex tasks, they tend not to be effective. Given this, it’s important to
break goals down into bite-size, comprehensible chunks.

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Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory suggests that people are motivated to grow and

change by three innate and universal psychological needs. This theory suggests
that people are able to become self-determined when their needs for
competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled.

The concept of intrinsic motivation, or engaging in activities for the

inherent rewards of the behavior itself, plays an important role in self-
determination theory.

Self-determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward

Deci and Richard Ryan, who first introduced their ideas in their 1985 book Self-
Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior. They developed a
theory of motivation which suggested that people tend to be driven by a need to
grow and gain fulfillment.

Two key assumptions of the theory:

The need for growth drives behavior. The first assumption of self-
determination theory is that people are actively directed toward growth. Gaining
mastery over challenges and taking in new experiences are essential for
developing a cohesive sense of self.

Autonomous motivation is important. While people are often motivated

to act by external rewards such as money, prizes, and acclaim (known as
extrinsic motivation), self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal
sources of motivation such as a need to gain knowledge or independence (known
as intrinsic motivation).

According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following in

order to achieve psychological growth:

• Competence: People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different

skills. When people feel that they have the skills needed for success, they
are more likely to take actions that will help them achieve their goals.
• Connection or Relatedness: People need to experience a sense of
belonging and attachment to other people.
• Autonomy: People need to feel in control of their own behaviors and
goals. This sense of being able to take direct action that will result in real
change plays a major part in helping people feel self-determined.

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Imagine a person who fails to complete an important project at work. If

this person is high in self-determination, they will admit their fault, believe that
they can do something to fix the problem and take action to correct the mistake.

If that same person was low in self-determination, they might instead look
for other things that they can blame. They might make excuses, assign blame,
or refuse to admit that their own role. Most importantly, perhaps, is that this
person won't feel motivated to fix the mistake. Instead, they might feel helpless
to control the situation and believe that nothing that they do will have any real
effect.

How the Self-Determination Theory Works

It is important to realize that the psychological growth described by self-

determination theory does not simply happen automatically. While people might
be oriented toward such growth, it requires continual sustenance.

Ryan and Deci have suggested that the tendency to be either proactive or
passive is largely influenced by the social conditions in which people are raised.
Social support is key. Through our relationships and interactions with others, we
can either foster or thwart well-being and personal growth.

While social support is important, there are other factors that can also
help or hinder the three elements needed for growth.

• Extrinsic motivators can sometimes lower self-determination.

According to Deci, giving people extrinsic rewards for already intrinsically
motivated behavior can undermine autonomy. As the behavior becomes
increasingly controlled by external rewards, people begin to feel less in
control of their own behavior and intrinsic motivation is diminished.
• Positive feedback and boost self-determination. Deci also suggests that
offering unexpected positive encouragement and feedback on a person's
performance on a task can increase intrinsic motivation. This type of
feedback helps people to feel more competent, which is one of the key
needs for personal growth.

Do you monitor and evaluate your own learning? Do you alter the way you
study based on performance on assessments? If so, you are engaging in self-
regulation practices and, by doing so, increasing the likelihood of academic
achievement. This lesson will define self-regulation, discuss the cyclical process
of self-regulation and explore methods to promote self-regulation in the
classroom.

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Introduction to Self-Regulation

Student 1: 'You look upset. That is probably not the grade you were
expecting. Do you ever try to evaluate the way you are learning to see if
there might be a better way?'

Student 2: 'What are you talking about?'

Student 1: 'I'm talking about the process of self-regulation. Haven't you

heard of it before?'

Self-Regulation Defined

Self-regulation is the process in which students activate, take control of

and evaluate their own learning.

Self-regulation is not the same as motivation. Although motivation and

self-regulation share some common elements, there are some critical
differences. In motivation, choice (specifically referring to autonomy and control
over the situation) does not have to be central to the construct. Self-regulation,
however, requires some degree of choice or intentional selection of strategies
designed to help the learner achieve a goal or behavior.

Self-regulated learners:

• Are aware of their strengths and weaknesses

• Utilize metacognitive strategies, for example, questioning one's learning
and monitoring one's learning, to approach academic tasks
• Attribute their success or failure to factors within their control

The Development of Self-Regulation

There are a host of factors that can influence the development of self-
regulation; three are noted here: cognitive development, motivation, and
classroom contexts. Given the complexity of self-regulated learning, it is a
phenomenon that emerges later in a child's life. There are clear developmental
and maturational constraints on self-regulated learning. Although there are
obviously aspects of self-regulation in place by the time a young child reaches
school, the development of self-regulation for academic tasks takes place over
the course of K–12 education. There is not as much research on the development
of self-regulated learning as there is on how it operates, but it is probably not
until the middle to late elementary school grades (third grade to sixth grade)
that students begin to develop some of the important self-regulation strategies.
In fact, it is likely that much of the development of self-regulated learning takes
place in adolescence, given general cognitive developmental changes as well as

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the changes in the classroom context in middle schools and high schools. At the
same time, there are many students who do not develop self-regulated strategies
at all, even some of those more successful ones who go on to college.
Accordingly, there is a need to develop explicit instructional strategies and
programs to help students learn about self-regulation and develop expertise in
regulating their learning.

Self-regulated learning is also time-consuming and quite difficult for some

students, even when provided with explicit instruction in self-regulation.
Accordingly, it is important that students are motivated to be self-regulating.
Research of Paul R. Pintrich (1999) on the role of motivation in self-regulated
learning has suggested three important generalizations about the relations
between motivation and self-regulated learning. First, students must feel self-
efficacious or confident that they can do the tasks. If they feel they can
accomplish the academic tasks, then they are much more likely to use various
self-regulation strategies. Second, students must be interested in and value the
classroom tasks. Students who are bored or do not find the tasks useful or
worthwhile are much less likely to be self-regulating than those who are
interested and find the tasks important. Finally, students who are focused on
goals of learning, understanding, and self-improvement are much more likely to
be self-regulating than students who are pursuing other goals such as trying to
look smarter than others, or trying not to look stupid. These generalizations have
been found in a large number of studies and seem to be fairly robust, but of
course there is a need for more research on the role of motivation in self-
regulated learning.

Finally, besides developmental and motivational factors, there are

contextual factors that play a role in the development of self-regulation. One of
the most important is that individuals actually have the opportunity to try to
take control of their own learning and are given the chance to try tasks on their
own. Of course, it is important that tasks are not too challenging or too easy,
but in the students' range of competence. In addition, the modeling and
demonstration of various self-regulatory strategies by parents, teachers, and
peers can help students learn these strategies. Students also need the
opportunity to have guided practice with the use of these strategies, with
support and guidance from knowledgeable others, whether they be parents,
teachers, or peers. Finally, there should be incentives in the context for the use
of these strategies, such that students who are successful in using the strategies
are rewarded in terms of praise or more tangible rewards such as better learning
and achievement.

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APPLY!

1. Mr. Garcia wants to teach self-regulation to his students. Which of

the following would you recommend him? Why?

A. Ask his students to test themselves once they finish a lesson.

B. Ask his students to have a journal where they write what
they learn in class every day.
C. Teach his students how to make a chart of academic
progress.
D. I would recommend all of these.

2. Make further readings on the different content and process

theories of motivation. Give one example of each motivation theory
in a classroom setting.

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Lesson 4

& MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

I. Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development

Children’s Understanding of Rules. Piaget observed four stages in the

child’s development of moral understanding of rules, based largely on his
observation of children’s games:

The first stage characterizes the sensorimotor period of development

(children under four years) in which the child merely handles the marbles in
terms of his existing motor schemes. Play is purely an individual endeavor, and
“. . . one can talk only of motor rules and not of truly collective rules” (Piaget,
1932/1962, p. 27, emphasis added).

In the second stage, about ages four to seven, game playing is egocentric;
children don’t understand rules very well, or they make them up as they go
along. There is neither a strong sense of cooperation nor of competition.
Recalling that egocentric children at the preoperational stage seem to have
“collective monologues” rather than true dialogs, these observations do not
seem surprising.

The third stage, at about ages seven to ten or eleven, is characterized by

incipient cooperation. Interactions are more social, and rules are mastered and
observed. Social interactions become more formalized as regards rules of the
game. The child learns and understands both cooperative and competitive
behavior. But one child’s understanding of rules may still differ from the next,
thus mutual understanding still tends to be incomplete.

In the fourth stage, beginning at about age eleven or twelve, cooperation

is more earnest and the child comes to understand rules in a more legalistic
fashion. Piaget calls this the stage of genuine cooperation in which “. . . the
older child shows a kind of legalistic fascination with the rules. He enjoys settling
differences of opinion concerning the rules, inventing new rules, and elaborating
on them. He even tries to anticipate all the possible contingencies that may
arise” (Ginsburg & Opper, 1988, p. 98). But in terms of cognitive development
this stage overlaps Piaget’s formal operational stage; thus here the concern with
abstraction and possibility enters the child’s imagination.

Children’s Moral Judgments. Piaget’s studies of moral judgments are

based both on children’s judgments of moral scenarios and on their interactions
in game playing. In terms of moral judgments, Piaget found that younger children

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(around ages four to seven) thought in terms of moral realism or moral

heteronomy. These terms connote an absolutism, in which morality is seen in
terms of rules that are fixed and unchangeable (heteronomy means “from
without”). Guilt is determined by the extent of violation of rules rather than by
intention.

The second stage in making moral judgments comes later, usually around
age 10, when children come to realize that rules have arbitrariness and are
formed by mutual consent for reasons of fairness and equity. This applies equally
to society’s laws, game rules, and familial standards of behavior. Older children
realize that rules are not fixed and absolute, but that they can be changed as
the need arises. Piaget called this second stage moral autonomy.

Once again, egocentricism plays into moral heteronomy, as the child is

unable to see rules from the broader perspective of another child or adult, or of
society in general. Conversely, moral autonomy requires just such an ability.

Piaget also noted that the stages of moral understanding are not entirely
discreet. Children become capable of certain autonomous judgments before
others, depending on the situation, just as horizontal décalage characterized the
understanding of his conservation tasks for cognitive development. In actuality,
the stages of morality overlap one another to some degree.

II. Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Morality

Lawrence Kohlberg admired Piaget’s approach to studying children’s

conceptions of morality. If Piaget saw children as little logicians, Kohlberg
viewed them as moral philosophers. Unlike so many other psychologists who
concerned themselves with morality, such as Freud, Skinner, and later Albert
Bandura in his research on observation learning and role models, Kohlberg
believed that it was not possible to study moral understanding without also
coming to grips with philosophy, or more specifically, what could possibly be
meant by “morality”.

In brief, Kohlberg assessed morality by asking children to consider certain

moral dilemmas – situations in which right and wrong actions are not always
clear. He was not concerned with whether the children decided that certain
actions were right or wrong, but with their reasoning – at how they arrived at
their conclusions. The story of “Heinz Steals the Drug” is one of his best known
examples (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 19):

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In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was
one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium
that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was
expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost
him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose
of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to
borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half
of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to
sell it cheaper or let him pay for it later. But the druggist said: “No, I
discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” So Heinz got
desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should
the husband have done that?

Based on his study of children’s responses to such dilemmas, Kohlberg

(1958, 1963) expanded Piaget’s two stages into six, organized into three levels –
each level consisting of two stages – as follows. Note that cross-references are
made, where appropriate, to Piagetian and Freudian levels of development.

Level I: Preconventionl Morality. The preconventional child thinks of

morality in terms of the consequences of disobedience to adult rules in order to
avoid punishment. Behaviors are “good” or “bad” depending on their
consequences, or in other words, behavior is guided by rewards and punishments.
The child at this stage does not comprehend the rules of society.

Stage 1. This first stage has been called “punishment and obedience,” or “might
makes right.” Obey your parents, or these powerful authority figures will
physically punish you. The child’s understanding is that punishment must be
avoided for her/his own comfort. The child is still unable to view the world from
the perspective of others (Piaget’s egocentricity), and behavior is largely guided
by Freud’s pleasure principle (is id dominated) – although the ego begins to
emerge as the child understands that reality calls for discretion.

Stage 2. By stage 2 the child recognizes that there is mutual benefit in

cooperation. This stage has been called “instrumentalism” or “look out for
number one” or “what’s in it for me.” The child is a bit less egocentric at this
stage, recognizing that if one is good to others then they in terms will be good
to you. There is now the notion that everyone looks out for their own needs, but
that proper social exchanges are on a “tit-for-tat” basis. In Freudian terms, the
reality principle has emerged to a greater extent at this stage.

Level II: Conventional Morality. At this level the child begins to grasp
social rules and gains a more objective perspective on right and wrong. Freud
would equate this level with superego development, or the formation of a
conscience. In these stages Piaget’s egocentrism has largely or entirely vanished.

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Stage 3. Stage 3 can be called “interpersonal relationships” or “good girl/boy.”

The major motivating factor in good behavior is social approval from those
closest to the child.

Stage 4. Maintaining social conventions or “law and order” are brief but apt
descriptions of the fourth stage. This sense of order becomes generalized beyond
close others to society at large. The concept of “doing one’s duty” is crucial
here.

Level III: Postconventional Morality. At this level the emphasis is no

longer on conventional, societal standards of morality, but rather on personal or
idealized principles.

Stage 5. This can be called the “social contract” stage. The understanding is
that laws, rules, and regulations are created for the mutual benefit of all
citizens. Laws that are unjust ought to be changed. People at this stage
understand and believe in democracy in action.

Stage 6. This is the stage of “universal ethical principles.” Right and wrong are
not determined by rules and laws, but by individual reflection on what is proper
behavior. One might think here of Kant’s categorical imperative in which right
and wrong apply equally to all, without regard to consequences, except that
modern ethicists understand the importance of the situation: What is wrong in
most circumstances (e.g., lying) might be justifiable in others. But essentially,
personal ethical values (e.g., a belief that all life is sacred) take precedence
over any and all laws and conventions. In other words, laws are useful only as
long as they serve the common good. Civil disobedience (such as the civil rights
“sitins” in the 1960s) is justified by the circumstances (in this case segregation
of the races). As a biblical example, think of Jesus, who said in response to the
Pharisees that “The Sabbath was made for man, and not men for the Sabbath.”
Kohlberg believed that few people actually reach this stage, but those who do
are of the stature of Mohandas Gandhi or Martin Luther King, Jr.

Kohlberg’s theory is really one of cognitive development (per Piaget) as

applied to moral understanding because he believed that children developed
their moral principles primarily though thinking about them. The progression
through the stages cannot be accounted for by simple maturation or
development of the nervous system. The child must grapple with these moral
issues as they arise, and as with Piaget, disequilibrium occurs; for instance, when
a child realizes that punishment for an unintentional infraction seems somehow
unfair. Nor did Kohlberg believe that moral understanding was primarily due to
learning of social mores because neither parents nor peers can teach new modes
of thinking.

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III. Gilligan’s Theory and the Morality of Caring

Carol Gilligan opines that Kohlberg’s theories are biased upon the male
thinking process. According to Gilligan, Kohlberg seemed to have studied only
privileged men and boys. She believed that women face a lot of psychological
challenges and they are not moral widgets. The women’s point of view on moral
development involves caring which shows its effect on human relationships.

Hence she proposed a theory which has the same three stages of Kohlberg
but with different stages of moral development. Let us understand the stages in
detail.

Though the names of the stages are the same, the stages differ in this
method. The moral development in Gilligan’s theory are based on pro-social
behaviors such as Altruism, caring and helping and the traits such as honesty,
fairness and respect.

Pre-conventional Level

• A person in this stage cares for oneself to ensure survival.

• Though the person’s attitude is selfish, this is the transition phase, where
the person finds the connection between oneself and others.

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Conventional Level

• In this stage, the person feels responsible and shows care towards other
people.

• Carol Gilligan believes that this moral thinking can be identified in the
role of a mother and a wife. This sometimes leads to the ignorance of the
self.

Post-conventional Level

• This is the stage, where the principle of care for self as well as others, is
accepted.

• However, a section of people may never reach this level.

Levels of Thinking

Carol Gilligan states that the post-conventional level of moral thinking can
be dealt based on the two types of thinking. Gilligan’s theory is based on the
two main ideas, the care-based morality (usually found in women) and the
justice-based morality (usually found in men).

Care-based Morality

Care-based morality is the kind of thinking found in women. This is based

on the following principles.

• More emphasis is given to inter-connected relationships and universality.

• Acting justly focuses on avoidance of violence.

• Women with this are usually interested in helping others.

• More common in girls because of their connections to their mothers.

• Because girls remain connected to their mothers, they are less inclined to
worry about issues of fairness.

Justice-based Morality

Justice-based morality is the kind of thinking found in men. This is based

on the following principles.

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• They view the world as being composed of autonomous individuals who

interact with one another.

• Acting justly means avoiding inequality.

• Individuals with this are usually interested in protecting individuality.

• Thought to be more common among boys because of their need to

differentiate between themselves and their mothers.

• Because they are separated from their mothers, boys become more
concerned with the concept of inequality.

The Carol Gilligan’s theory can be better understood if explained with an

example.

Example of Gilligan’s Theory

In order to understand Gilligan’s theory, a popular example is usually

considered. A group of moles give shelter to a porcupine. But they are being
continuously stabbed by the porcupine’s quills. Now, what should they do?

The Pre-conventional level of thinking states that to think for the good
of oneself, either the moles or the porcupine only can live there. The other has
to leave the place.

According to the Conventional level of thinking, which brings a transition,

from self to the good of others and which might even lead to sacrifice, either
the moles or the porcupine has to sacrifice and again this leads to a stage where
only moles or the porcupine can live in the burrow.

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According to the Post-conventional level of thinking, which states that

the good of both the parties has to be considered, both the moles and the
porcupine come to an agreement that both will have separate places in the same
burrow, where they limit to behave themselves and will not cause any trouble
to other. This helps both of them to live in the same place with peace.

The researchers found that the solution to this scenario is different with
different individuals; gender also plays an important role. The thinkers were
observed viewing the problem in two different perspectives, the care-based and
the justice-based.

In a Justice-based perspective, the solution to the problem is viewed as

a conflict between two individual groups. Only one of them can have the
property. Either moles or the porcupine will get the place in the burrow. Hence
the solution to the dilemma, is not a resolution of the conflict, it is a verdict.

In a Care-based perspective, the approach differs. The problem is viewed

as a difficult situation faced by both the parties together, rather than a fight
between both of them. Hence the solution is sought in a way around the problem
or to remove the problem completely. The solution may sound compromising but
not damaging. The relationship will still be the same, after the resolution.

Researchers found that Justice-based perspective is pre-dominant among

males while Care-based prospective is among females.

IV. Social Domain Theory

Elliot Turiel (1983) argued for a social domain approach to social

cognition, delineating how individuals differentiate moral (fairness, equality,
justice), societal (conventions, group functioning, traditions), and psychological
(personal, individual prerogative) concepts from early in development
throughout the lifespan. Over the past 40 years, research findings have supported
this model, demonstrating how children, adolescents, and adults differentiate
moral rules from conventional rules, identify the personal domain as a
nonregulated domain, and evaluate multifaceted (or complex) situations that
involve more than one domain.

For the past 20 years, researchers have expanded the field of moral
development, applying moral judgment, reasoning, and emotion attribution to
topics such as prejudice, aggression, theory of mind, emotions, empathy, peer
relationships, and parent-child interactions.

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Like Kohlberg’s theory, social domain theory assumes that children

actively construct ways of understanding their world, recognizes the contribution
of cognitive development to moral understanding, and stresses the importance
of peer interactions to moral development. Differing from Kohlberg, social
domain theory distinguishes moral understanding and social convention as
distinct domains of social understanding, rather than viewing these as a
developmental progression, whereas the personal domain constitutes a third
form of social understanding.

? LEARNING ACTIVITY

Library Work: Read further information about the different moral

development theories. Make a summary of the four moral development
theories following this table:

Theory Proponent Argument (What Criticism

the theory is all
about)
Piaget’s Stages
of Moral
Development
Kohlberg’s
Stages of
Morality
Giligan’s Morality
of Caring
Social Domain
Theory

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4
MODULE SUMMARY

In module IV, you have learned the social and emotional aspects and
development of young children and adolescents.

There were four lessons in module IV. Lesson 1 discussed the development
of social and emotional of young children and adolescents; as well as the
different socio-emotional milestone that each and every one passes.

Lesson 2 expounded on the development of self and self-understandings.

Different theories such as Psychoanalytic Theory, Psychosocial Theory and Social
Learning Theory were also discussed in this lesson and somehow gave an
explanation as to how a child views itself.

Lesson 3 showed how the development of motivation and self-regulation.

This lesson explained how a person is being motivated as a springboard in
learning. Different theories were also discussed as support to the discussion.

Lesson 4 helped you to understand clearly why different people have

different value system. This also discussed the moral development theories of
different psychologist.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module IV. now you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. Good Luck!!!

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? SUMMATIVE TEST
A. Answer the given problems. Use a separate sheet if necessary.

1. What are the factors that affect the social and emotional development of
children?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. Suggest at least five (5) ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as
a future teacher.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. Based from experience, what theory do you think affects your motivation?
Explain.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. If you were Heinz, what will you do? And why?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Module IV – EDUC 101 – The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
 MODULE V
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES AND
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Lesson 1 What is Learning?

Lesson 2 Approaches to Learning

Lesson 3 Connectionism

Lesson 4 Conditioning

Lesson 5 Behavior Analysis in

Education

Lesson 6 On Gestalt-Insight
Learning

Lesson 7 Experiential Learning

Theory

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MODULE V
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES
AND APPROACHES TO LEARNING

¥ INTRODUCTION

This module discusses different behavioral learning theories and

approaches to learning. Various learning theories and their proponents are also
discussed in every lesson. It is hoped that you will learn to comprehend and
identify the various contributions of these prominent people and their influences
in education.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

a. compare and contrast various approaches to learning and describe how they
are manifested in the classroom;
b. apply behavior analysis in teaching child and adolescent learners across
curriculum areas;
c. make connections, using knowledge on current research literature, between
behavioral learning theories and developmentally appropriate teaching
approaches suited to learners’ gender, needs, strengths, interests and
experiences.

G DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are seven lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from
it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor
or to the CE dean’s office.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during
the face-to-face meeting. If not contact your instructor at the CE Faculty Room.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

& WHAT IS LEARNING?

The word learning is used routinely in discussions about teaching in higher

education, so it’s important to clarify what we are referring to when we talk
about learning. Educational researchers agree that learning is much deeper than
memorization and information recall. Deep and long-lasting learning involves
understanding, relating ideas and making connections between prior and new
knowledge, independent and critical thinking and ability to transfer knowledge
to new and different contexts.

Some views on learning are:

Ø Learning is “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of

experience and increases the potential for improved performance and
future learning” (Ambrose et al, 2010, p.3). The change in the learner
may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude or behavior. As a result
of learning, learners come to see concepts, ideas, and/or the world
differently.
Ø Learning is not something done to students, but rather something students
themselves do. It is the direct result of how students interpret and
respond to their experiences.
Ø While there are disciplinary differences in what students learn, it is
important to keep in mind that learning content or information constitutes
only one part of learning in university courses. Regardless of the field of
study, students need to have significant opportunities to develop and
practice intellectual skills/thinking processes (e.g. problem-solving,
scientific inquiry), motor skills and attitudes/values that are important to
their fields of study. In addition, students need opportunities to develop
interpersonal and social skills (often referred to as soft skills) that are
important for professional and personal success. Examples of these skills
include teamwork, effective communication, conflict resolution and
creative thinking. As teaching assistants and instructors, we need to keep
in mind that there is much more to learning than content and that we
should pay attention not only to the content but also to thinking processes
and other types of learning.

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Types of Learning

Content

Psychomotor/ Intellectual
Physical Skills Skills

Interpersonal
Attitudes and
& Professional
Values
Skills

Content refers to facts, ideas, concepts, theories and principles that

constitute the knowledge base of the principle.

Intellectual skills refer to the ways of thinking and problem-solving used

by professionals in a field. A general intellectual skill that is important to all
fields of study is critical thinking. Examples of discipline-specific intellectual
skills include: critically evaluating facts and ideas, distinguishing between an
opinion and an argument, critically evaluating sources, generating hypotheses,
designing experiments, constructing an argument, and drawing conclusions
based on evidence.

Attitudes and values refer to a set of beliefs that guide our actions as
individuals and professionals in our fields. Examples include: ethical decision-
making, tolerance, openness to failure, academic and professional integrity, and
respect for culturally different worldviews/perspectives. Learners might merely
become aware of an important value or fully internalize it.

Interpersonal and professional skills are skills that are important for
personal and professional growth and success. Examples include: effective
communication, public speaking, teamwork, conflict resolution and receiving
and giving feedback.

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Psychomotor/physical skills are physical manipulation skills used in labs

or during field settings. Examples include: operating various pieces of equipment
in the lab, conducting experiments, and transcribing research data. Psychomotor
skills usually have an intellectual component since they require knowledge of
steps involved in performing a task and how and when to use them.

COMPREHENSION CHECK!

1. In your own understanding, how would you define learning?

2. What are the manifestations that learning took place? Give 3 concrete examples.
3. What factors affect learning? Why?

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Lesson 2

& APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Over the years many theories have been developed to examine the
processes involved in learning. Most learning theories concentrate on the
significance for the way that learning is delivered.

There are many different ways of learning both formally and informally:
as part of a group, such as in a classroom setting, one-to-one, such as in a
mentoring or coaching arrangement, and self-learning.

Furthermore, people learn differently at different times in their lives and

in different circumstances.

A. Behaviorist Approach to Learning

This approach to learning is based on the idea that learners respond to

stimuli in their environment. The role of the learning facilitator, therefore, is
to provide relevant and useful stimuli so that the learner responds to and gains
the required knowledge or experience.

The behaviorist approach to learning centers around the belief that

appropriate behavior can be taught through constant repetition of a task
combined with feedback from the facilitator. Positive feedback encourages and
reinforces success while negative feedback and immediate correction
discourages the repetition of a mistake or undesirable behavior.

In 1927 Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous experiment with dogs. Pavlov

'taught' the animals to salivate on hearing a ringing bell by linking the time of
their feeding to the bell being rung. Later he stopped feeding them in this way,
but the dogs continued to salivate when they heard the bell. In other words, the
learned behavior was a result of a sequence of events experienced, rather than
a conscious thought process. Pavlov discovered what is now termed ‘classical
conditioning’.

This kind of conditioning can be used to develop repetitive actions within

training, for example looking in the mirror and putting your seatbelt on before
driving off in a car.

The association between stimulus-response can be made more effective

by reinforcement. It is this idea that underpins the theory later developed by
B.F. Skinner (1957). Reinforcement can work in both positive and negative ways.

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A positive reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. In

training, where the aim is learning, for example, this might be stimulated by
verbal praise, a good mark, or a feeling of achievement. On the other hand, if
verbal praise is withdrawn, this will have a negative effect and motivation to
learn will decrease.

The approach is also based on the view that there is one right way, one
truth that the student needs to learn, and that knowledge is the same for all
learners. For this reason, it emphasizes teacher or trainer control; the trainer
employs external reinforcement to motivate and encourage trainees to reach the
stated objectives.

One of the main ways to use the behavioral approach to learning in training and teaching
is to specify clear behavioral objectives at the start and then supply learning opportunities
that ensure that the objectives are met.

B. Social Cognitive Approach

Albert Bandura disagreed with Skinner’s strict behaviorist approach to

learning and development because he felt that thinking and reasoning are
important components of learning. He presented a social-cognitive theory that
emphasizes that the environment and cognitive factors influence behavior. In
social-cognitive theory, the concepts of reciprocal determinism, observational
learning, and self-efficacy all play a part in learning and development.

Reciprocal Determinism

In contrast to Skinner’s idea that the environment alone determines

behavior, Bandura (1990) proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism, in
which cognitive processes, behavior, and context all interact, each factor
influencing and being influenced by the others simultaneously. Cognitive
processes refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs,
expectations, and personality characteristics. Behavior refers to anything that
we do that may be rewarded or punished. Finally, the context in which the
behavior occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes
rewarding/punishing stimuli.

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Behavior

Cognitive Situational
factors factors

Bandura proposed the idea of reciprocal determinism:

Our behavior, cognitive processes, and situational
context all influence each other.

Reciprocal Determinism explains the interactions between behavior,

cognition, and the environment.

Consider, for example, that you’re at a festival and one of the attractions
is bungee jumping from a bridge. Do you do it? In this example, the behavior is
bungee jumping. Cognitive factors that might influence this behavior include
your beliefs and values, and your past experiences with similar behaviors.
Finally, context refers to the reward structure for the behavior. According to
reciprocal determinism, all of these factors are in play.

Observational Learning

Bandura’s key contribution to learning theory was the idea that much
learning is vicarious. We learn by observing someone else’s behavior and its
consequences, which Bandura called observational learning. Just as we learn
individual behaviors, we learn new behavior patterns when we see them
performed by other people or models. Drawing on the behaviorists’ ideas about
reinforcement, Bandura suggested that whether we choose to imitate a model’s
behavior depends on whether we see the model reinforced or punished. Through
observational learning, we come to learn what behaviors are acceptable and

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rewarded in our culture, and we also learn to inhibit deviant or socially

unacceptable behaviors by seeing what behaviors are punished.

We can see the principles of reciprocal determinism at work in

observational learning. For example, personal factors determine which behaviors
in the environment a person chooses to imitate, and those environmental events
in turn are processed cognitively according to other personal factors. One person
may experience receiving attention as reinforcing, and that person may be more
inclined to imitate behaviors such as boasting when a model has been reinforced.
For others, boasting may be viewed negatively, despite the attention that might
result—or receiving heightened attention may be perceived as being scrutinized.
In either case, the person may be less likely to imitate those behaviors even
though the reasons for not doing so would be different.

Humans and other animals are capable of observational learning. As you

will see, the phrase “monkey see, monkey do” really is accurate. The same could
be said about other animals. For example, in a study of social learning in
chimpanzees, researchers gave juice boxes with straws to two groups of captive
chimpanzees. The first group dipped the straw into the juice box, and then
sucked on the small amount of juice at the end of the straw. The second group
sucked through the straw directly, getting much more juice. When the first
group, the “dippers,” observed the second group, “the suckers,” what do you
think happened? All of the “dippers” in the first group switched to sucking
through the straws directly. By simply observing the other chimps and modeling
their behavior, they learned that this was a more efficient method of getting
juice (Yamamoto, Humle, and Tanaka, 2013).

Imitation is much more obvious in humans, but is imitation really the

sincerest form of flattery? Consider Claire’s experience with observational
learning. Claire’s nine-year-old son, Jay, was getting into trouble at school and
was defiant at home. Claire feared that Jay would end up like her brothers, two
of whom were in prison. One day, after yet another bad day at school and
another negative note from the teacher, Claire, at her wit’s end, beat her son
with a belt to get him to behave. Later that night, as she put her children to
bed, Claire witnessed her four-year-old daughter, Anna, take a belt to her teddy
bear and whip it. Claire was horrified, realizing that Anna was imitating her
mother. It was then that Claire knew she wanted to discipline her children in a
different manner.

Like Tolman, whose experiments with rats suggested a cognitive

component to learning, psychologist Albert Bandura’s ideas about learning were
different from those of strict behaviorists. Bandura and other researchers
proposed a brand of behaviorism called social learning theory, which took
cognitive processes into account. According to Bandura, pure behaviorism could
not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external
reinforcement. He felt that internal mental states must also have a role in

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learning and that observational learning involves much more than imitation. In
imitation, a person simply copies what the model does. Observational learning is
much more complex. According to Lefrançois (2012) there are several ways that
observational learning can occur:

1. You learn a new response. After watching your coworker get chewed out
by your boss for coming in late, you start leaving home 10 minutes earlier
so that you won’t be late.
2. You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you
saw happen to the model. Remember Julian and his father? When learning
to surf, Julian might watch how his father pops up successfully on his
surfboard and then attempt to do the same thing. On the other hand,
Julian might learn not to touch a hot stove after watching his father get
burned on a stove.
3. You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.

Bandura identified three kinds of models: live, verbal, and symbolic. A

live model demonstrates a behavior in person, as when Ben stood up on his
surfboard so that Julian could see how he did it. A verbal instructional model
does not perform the behavior, but instead explains or describes the behavior,
as when a soccer coach tells his young players to kick the ball with the side of
the foot, not with the toe. A symbolic model can be fictional characters or real
people who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, television shows, video
games, or Internet sources.

ATTENTION RETENTION PRODUCTION PROCESSES

The consumer has the
The consumer focuses on a The consumer retains this
ability to eprform the
model's behavior. behavior in memory.
behavior.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
MOTIVATION
The consumer acquires and
A situation arises wherein performs the behavior
the behavior is useful to the
earlier demonstrated by a
consumer.
model.

Observational Learning model explains the steps in the modeling

process for observational learning to occur.

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Bandura researched modeling behavior, particularly children’s modeling

of adults’ aggressive and violent behaviors (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961). He
conducted an experiment with a five-foot inflatable doll that he called a Bobo
doll. In the experiment, children’s aggressive behavior was influenced by
whether the teacher was punished for her behavior. In one scenario, a teacher
acted aggressively with the doll, hitting, throwing, and even punching the doll,
while a child watched. There were two types of responses by the children to the
teacher’s behavior. When the teacher was punished for her bad behavior, the
children decreased their tendency to act as she had. When the teacher was
praised or ignored (and not punished for her behavior), the children imitated
what she did, and even what she said. They punched, kicked, and yelled at the
doll.

C. Information Processing

The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions,

including:

(1) information made available by the environment is processed by a series

of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory);

(2) these processing systems transform or alter the information in

systematic ways;

(3) the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that
underlie cognitive performance;

(4) information processing in humans resembles that in computers.

Computer - Mind Analogy

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The development of the computer in the 1950s and 1960s had an

important influence on psychology and was, in part, responsible for the cognitive
approach becoming the dominant approach in modern psychology (taking over
from Behaviorism).

The computer gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor, or analogy, to

which they could compare human mental processing. The use of the computer
as a tool for thinking how the human mind handles information is known as the
computer analogy.

Essentially, a computer codes (i.e., changes) information, stores

information, uses information, and produces an output (retrieves info). The idea
of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of
how human thought works.

For example, the eye receives visual information and codes information
into electric neural activity which is fed back to the brain where it is “stored”
and “coded”. This information is can be used by other parts of the brain relating
to mental activities such as memory, perception and attention. The output (i.e.
behavior) might be, for example, to read what you can see on a printed page.

Hence the information processing approach characterizes thinking as the

environment providing input of data, which is then transformed by our senses.
The information can be stored, retrieved and transformed using “mental
programs”, with the results being behavioral responses.

Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other

approaches and areas of study to produce, for example, social learning theory,
cognitive neuropsychology and artificial intelligence (AI).

Information Processing and Selective Attention

When we are selectively attending to one activity, we tend to ignore other

stimulation, although our attention can be distracted by something else, like the
telephone ringing or someone using our name.

Psychologists are interested in what makes us attend to one thing rather

than another (selective attention); why we sometimes switch our attention to
something that was previously unattended (e.g. Cocktail Party Syndrome), and
how many things we can attend to at the same time (attentional capacity).

One way of conceptualizing attention is to think of humans as information

processors who can only process a limited amount of information at a time
without becoming overloaded.

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Broadbent and others in the 1950s adopted a model of the brain as a

limited capacity information processing system, through which external input is
transmitted.

Stimuli Input Storage Output Response

1

5
Processes Processes Processes

Information processing models consist of a series of stages, or boxes,

which represent stages of processing. Arrows indicate the flow of information
from one stage to the next.

• Input processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli.

• Storage processes cover everything that happens to stimuli internally in
the brain and can include coding and manipulation of the stimuli.
• Output processes are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to
a stimulus.

D. Cognitive Constructivist

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new

information to existing knowledge, as well as enabling them to make the
appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to
accommodate that information.

Dissatisfaction with behaviorism’s strict focus on observable behavior led

educational psychologists such as Jean Piaget and William Perry to demand an
approach to learning theory that paid more attention to what went on “inside
the learner’s head.” They developed a cognitive approach that focused on
mental processes rather than observable behavior. Common to most cognitivist
approaches is the idea that knowledge comprises symbolic mental
representations, such as propositions and images, together with a mechanism
that operates on those representations. Knowledge is seen as something that is
actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures.
Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development, and
understanding the learner’s existing intellectual framework is central to
understanding the learning process.

View of Knowledge

While behaviorists maintain that knowledge is a passively absorbed

behavioral repertoire, cognitive constructivists argue instead that knowledge is
actively constructed by learners and that any account of knowledge makes
essential references to cognitive structures. Knowledge comprises active systems

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of intentional mental representations derived from past learning experiences.

Each learner interprets experiences and information in the light of their extant
knowledge, their stage of cognitive development, their cultural background,
their personal history, and so forth. Learners use these factors to organize their
experience and to select and transform new information. Knowledge is therefore
actively constructed by the learner rather than passively absorbed; it is
essentially dependent on the standpoint from which the learner approaches it.

View of Learning

Because knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a

process of active discovery. The role of the instructor is not to drill knowledge
into students through consistent repetition, or to goad them into learning
through carefully employed rewards and punishments. Rather, the role of the
teacher is to facilitate discovery by providing the necessary resources and by
guiding learners as they attempt to assimilate new knowledge to old and to
modify the old to accommodate the new. Teachers must thus take into account
the knowledge that the learner currently possesses when deciding how to
construct the curriculum and how to present, sequence, and structure new
material.

View of Motivation

Unlike behaviorist learning theory, where learners are thought to be

motivated by extrinsic factors such as rewards and punishment, cognitive
learning theory sees motivation as largely intrinsic. Because it involves
significant restructuring of existing cognitive structures, successful learning
requires a major personal investment on the part of the learner (Perry 1999, 54).
Learners must face up to the limitations of their existing knowledge and accept
the need to modify or abandon existing beliefs. Without some kind of internal
drive on the part of the learner to do so, external rewards and punishments such
as grades are unlikely to be sufficient.

Implications for Teaching

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new

information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate
modifications to their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that
information. Thus, while cognitivists allow for the use of “skill and drill”
exercises in the memorization of facts, formulae, and lists, they place greater
importance on strategies that help students to actively assimilate and
accommodate new material. For instance, asking students to explain new
material in their own words can assist them in assimilating it by forcing them to
re-express the new ideas in their existing vocabulary. Likewise, providing
students with sets of questions to structure their reading makes it easier for
them to relate it to previous material by highlighting certain parts and to

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accommodate the new material by providing a clear organizational structure.

Because learning is largely self-motivated in the cognitivist framework,
cognitivists such as A. L. Brown and J. D. Ferrara have also suggested methods
which require students to monitor their own learning. For instance, the use of
ungraded tests and study questions enables students to monitor their own
understanding of the material. Other methods that have been suggested include
the use of learning journals by students to monitor progress, to highlight any
recurring difficulties, and to analyze study habits.

The most influential exponent of cognitivism was Swiss child psychologist

Jean Piaget. Piaget rejected the idea that learning was the passive assimilation
of given knowledge. Instead, he proposed that learning is a dynamic process
comprising successive stages of adaption to reality during which learners actively
construct knowledge by creating and testing their own theories of the world
(1968, 8). Piaget’s theory has two main strands: first, an account of the
mechanisms by which cognitive development takes place; and second, an
account of the four main stages of cognitive development through which children
pass (please refer to your Module III for more of Jean Piaget).

E. Social Constructivist

Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky. He rejected the

assumption made by Piaget that it was possible to separate learning from its
social context.

According to Vygotsky:

Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first,

on the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies
equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of
concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals.

Although Vygotsky died at the age of 38 in 1934, most of his publications

did not appear in English until after 1960. There are, however, a growing number
of applications of social constructivism in the area of educational technology.

By the 1980s the research of Dewey and Vygotsky had blended with
Piaget's work in developmental psychology into the broad approach of
constructivism. The basic tenet of constructivism is that students learn by doing
rather than observing. Students bring prior knowledge into a learning situation
in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it.

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This process of interpretation, articulation, and re-evaluation is repeated

until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject.

Social Constructivist’s Model of Learning

1. Language, Culture, & Knowledge

Vygotsky (1934) emphasized the role of language and culture in cognitive

development and in how we perceive the world, and claimed that they provide
frameworks through which we experience, communicate, and understand
reality.

He demonstrated the importance of language in learning by demonstrating

that in infants, communication is a pre-requisite to the child’s acquisition of
concepts and language. But, he suggests that people learn with meaning and
personal significance in mind, not just through attention to the facts.

Language and the conceptual schemes that are transmitted by means of

language are essentially social phenomena. Knowledge is not simply constructed;
it is co-constructed.

2. The Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky believed that learning takes place within the Zone of Proximal
Development. In this, students can, with help from adults or children who are
more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their
own. This model has two developmental levels:

1. The level of actual development – point the learner has already reached
& can problem-solve independently.
2. The level of potential development (ZDP) – point the learner is capable of
reaching under the guidance of teachers or in collaboration with peers.

The ZDP is the level at which learning takes place. It comprises cognitive
structures that are still in the process of maturing, but which can only mature
under the guidance of or in collaboration with others.

The Zone of Proximal Development

To ensure development in the ZDP, the assistance/guidance received must

have certain features:

1. Intersubjectivity – the process whereby two participants who begin a task

with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding (Newson &

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Newson, 1975). This creates a common ground for communication as each

partner adjusts to the perspective of the other.
2. Scaffolding – adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit
the child’s current level of performance. This captures the form of
teaching interaction that occurs as individuals work on tasks such as
puzzles and academic assignments.
3. Guided participation – a broader concept than scaffolding that refers to
shared endeavors between expert and less expert participants

White circle: what the student can learn unaided

Blue circle: what student can learn with help
ZDP: area of ‘potential’ where learning takes place

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
Make a table to summarize the different approaches to
learning. Follow the format below:
Approach Proponent Main Point

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Lesson 3

&
CONNECTIONISM

The learning theory of Edward Thorndike represents the original S-R

framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations
forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The
paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses
come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like
all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without
referring to any unobservable internal states.

Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws: (1) law of effect –

responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will
be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2) law of
readiness – a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal
which will result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of exercise – connections
become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is
discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the
likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will
decrease in strength.

The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence
of identical elements in the original and new learning situations; i.e., transfer is
always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of
“belongingness” was introduced; connections are more readily established if the
person perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles).
Another concept introduced was “polarity” which specifies that connections
occur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed than the
opposite. Thorndike also introduced the “spread of effect” idea, i.e., rewards
affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent
connections as well.

Application

Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals

and humans. Thorndike was especially interested in the application of his theory
to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading
(Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and
adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928).

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Example

The classic example of Thorndike’s S-R theory was a cat learning to escape
from a “puzzle box” by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and error
behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with opening the door
(R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of
affairs (escape from the box). The law of exercise specifies that the connection
was established because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the law of effect)
and was rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law of
readiness).

Principles:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the
same action sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

APPLY!

Make a research on the topic related to connectionism. Then write

the problem, findings, conclusions and recommendations.

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Lesson 4

& CONDITIONING THEORIES

Conditioning in behavioral psychology is a theory that the reaction

("response") to an object or event ("stimulus") by a person or animal can be
modified by 'learning', or conditioning. The most well-known form of this is
Classical Conditioning (see below), and Skinner built on it to produce Operant
Conditioning.

Contiguous conditioning is also a part of the behaviorist school. This

approach, developed by Edwin Guthrie, states that a stimulus that causes a
response will cause the same response if the stimulus is experienced again.

Pavlov's Discovery of Conditioning

This mode of learning was demonstrated by the experiments of Ivan

Pavlov, who decided to research conditioning after discovering during separate
gastric tests that his dog subjects began to salivate not only when meat powder
was presented to them, but more significantly, when the person feeding them
came into proximity with them. The dogs had been inadvertently trained through
classical conditioning to associate the person feeding them with the food itself,
and reacted in a similar way (salivation) to the feeders. This is known as a
stimulus-response (SR), when salivation becomes a responsive action to the
stimulus of the person feeding the dogs:

At the start of the experiments:

• The Unconditioned/Neutral Stimulus (US/NS) is the person arriving to

feed the dogs before the salivation as a result of their presence had begun.
• The Unconditioned Response (UR) was for the dogs not to salivate.

By the end of the experiments, when the unconditioned stimulus and responses
had been conditioned:

• The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) becomes the person arriving to feed the
dogs, which stimulates the Conditioned Response:
• The Conditioned Response (CR) becomes salivation (normally a reflex
action to aid digestion when feeding is going to begin) at the sight of the
person.

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On discovering this associative learning on the part of the dogs, Pavlov decided to
carry out further research specific to conditioning...

Classical Conditioning

The most famous experiment by the physiologist related to conditioning

followed this research. Commonly referred to as "Pavlov's Dogs", the experiment
aimed to condition the dogs to associate the opening of a door with feeding time.
By selecting a bell as the Unconditioned Stimulus instead of the person arriving
to feed the dogs, as in his previous tests, Pavlov was providing a stimulus to
which feeding was unrelated.

At feeding time, the door was opened and food was then provided.
Initially, salivation was not secreted with the opening of the door, but over time,
the stimulus became conditioned, and when the door was opened but food was
not provided, salivation still occurred, suggesting that the door opening had
become a Conditioned Stimulus.

Instrumental Learning

An extension of Classical Conditioning was devised by Edward Thorndike

(1874-1949), who placed cats in a puzzle box. The incentive of a fish as food
was placed outside of the box, giving the cats a reason to try to escape from the
box. Initially, they had trouble escaping, and only gained freedom by knocking
the latch of the box. Over time, they learnt that the undoing of the latch would
enable their escape, and so the time spend being trapped in the puzzle box
decreased as their knowledge of how to leave it increased.

Thorndike termed this conditioning the "Law of Effect" in 1911: a positive

outcome to a situation resulted in the stamping in of a particular behavior (in
the case of the puzzle box, the opening of the latch was stamped in). Conversely,
if an outcome is undesirable - had the cats been punished as a result of leaving
the box - the action leaving to it would be stamped out - become less frequent.

Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement

In 1938, B.F. Skinner carried out an experiment with caged rats in an

"operant conditioning chamber" - Skinner's Box - who learnt through Operant
Conditioning that if they pressed on a lever, food would be released for them.
Under Operant Conditioning, reinforcement plays a key role:

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Reinforcement Type: Description: Tendency to

Behave in a
Particular
Manner:

Positive A stimulus is introduced which Increases

Reinforcement incentivizes a particular behavior.
e.g. the reward of a pellet of food
in Skinner's Box.

Negative A desirable incentive is introduced Increases

Reinforcement to not behave in a particular way.

Positive Punishment An undesirable punishment (e.g. Decreases

electric shock) is introduced when
the subject behaves in a particular
way, discouraging such behavior.

Negative Removing the desirable stimulus Decreases

Reinforcement (e.g. food) to prevent a particular
behavior.

The key difference between operant conditioning and classical

conditioning is that the former creates association based on the result of a
subject's behavior and the outcome that it generates as a secondary effect,
whereas classical conditioning more primitively concentrates on the behavior
itself.

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Examples of Conditioning

A dog receiving positive attention after fetching a stick back to its owner,
learns to associate bringing the object back with favorable attention - positive
reinforcement.

A rat in a cage with an electrified floor learns that by pressing a lever, the
electrical shock will stop - negative reinforcement.

A cat being shouted at for scratching furniture is discouraged to repeat

this - positive punishment.

A child not being allowed to watch television after misbehaving associates

bad behavior with an absence of rewards - negative punishment.

Contiguity Theory (Edwin Guthrie)

Guthrie’s contiguity theory specifies that “a combination of stimuli which

has accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that
movement”. According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association
between a particular stimulus and response. Furthermore, Guthrie argued that
stimuli and responses affect specific sensory-motor patterns; what is learned are
movements, not behaviors.

In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no significant role in

learning since they occur after the association between stimulus and response
has been made. Learning takes place in a single trial (all or none). However,
since each stimulus pattern is slightly different, many trials may be necessary to
produce a general response. One interesting principle that arises from this
position is called “postremity” which specifies that we always learn the last thing
we do in response to a specific stimulus situation.

Contiguity theory suggests that forgetting is due to interference rather

than the passage of time; stimuli become associated with new responses.
Previous conditioning can also be changed by being associated with inhibiting
responses such as fear or fatigue. The role of motivation is to create a state of
arousal and activity which produces responses that can be conditioned.

Based on his ideas of learning, Guthrie suggested three methods for

breaking a habit. The threshold method is executed by “introducing the stimulus
at such weak strengths that it will not cause the response and then gradually
increasing the intensity of the stimulus”. Using the fatigue method, the
undesirable behavior is allowed, or forced, to continue to the point that it is no
longer fun. The third method, the incompatible response method, establishes a
condition in which the stimulus or stimuli for the undesirable response are

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presented in conjunction with other stimuli that produce a response that is

incompatible with the undesired response. To break a habit, not only must one
avoid the cues that elicit the undesirable behavior, but they must become
associated with other behavior.

Application

Contiguity theory is intended to be a general theory of learning, although

most of the research supporting the theory was done with animals. Guthrie did
apply his framework to personality disorders.

Example

The classic experimental paradigm for Contiguity theory is cats learning

to escape from a puzzle box (Guthrie & Horton, 1946). Guthrie used a glass
paneled box that allowed him to photograph the exact movements of cats. These
photographs showed that cats learned to repeat the same sequence of
movements associated with the preceding escape from the box. Improvement
comes about because irrelevant movements are unlearned or not included in
successive associations.

Principles

• In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond

(i.e., do things).
• Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements,
instruction must present very specific tasks.
• Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to
produce a generalized response.
• The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the
one that will be associated.

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? LEARNING ACTIVITY

I. Choose the best answer by underlining the letter of the correct answer.

1. In classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus can only be associated with

the unconditioned stimulus if:

a. the neutral stimulus prepares the organism for the other stimulus
b. the neutral stimulus is sufficiently intense
c. the other stimulus produces an intense response
d. the other stimulus is particularly noxious

2. When a dog has food placed in its mouth, the dog begins to salivate. The
salivation behavior is called the:

a. unconditioned stimulus
b. conditioned stimulus
c. unconditioned response
d. conditioned response

3. The stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and then

associated with it is called the:

a. unconditioned stimulus
b. conditioned stimulus
c. unconditioned response
d. conditioned response

4. The “positive” and “negative” terms applied to reinforcement and

punishment refer to:

a. whether a consequence is good or bad

b. whether something is added or removed as a consequence
c. whether a consequence adds or subtracts from behavior
d. whether a consequence is concrete or abstract

II. Make further readings on threshold method, fatigue method and

incompatible response method and give example situation for each.

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Lesson 5

&
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN EDUCATION

B.F. Skinner (1904–90) was a leading American psychologist, Harvard

professor and proponent of the behaviorist theory of learning in which learning
is a process of ‘conditioning’ in an environment of stimulus, reward and
punishment. Skinner explains the difference between informal learning, which
occurs naturally, and formal education, which depends on the teacher creating
optimal patterns of stimulus and response (reward and punishment), or ‘operant
conditioning’.

An important process in human behavior is attributed … to ‘reward and

punishment’. Thorndike described it in his Law of Effect. It is now commonly
referred to as ‘operant conditioning’. The essentials may be seen in a typical
experimental arrangement. A hungry rat [can be seen] in an experimental space
which contains a food dispenser. A horizontal bar at the end of a lever projects
from one wall. Depression of the lever operates a switch. When the switch is
connected with the food dispenser, any behavior on part of the rat which
depresses the lever is, as we say, ‘reinforced with food’. The apparatus simply
makes the appearance of food contingent upon the occurrence of an arbitrary
bit of behavior. The relation between a response and its consequences may be
simple, and the change in probability of the response is not surprising. What is
technologically useful in operant conditioning is our increasing knowledge of the
extraordinarily subtle and complex properties of behavior which may be traced
to subtle and complex features of the contingencies of reinforcement which
prevail in the environment.

The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct.

Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which
students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but
teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the
appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure
of the appearance of behavior which might otherwise never occur.

In improving teaching, it is less important to find new reinforcers than to

design better contingencies using those already available. Immediate and
consistent reinforcement is, of course, desirable but this is not to deny the
importance of intermittent or remote reinforcers. The student who knows how
to study knows how to amplify immediate consequences so that they prove
reinforcing. He not only knows, he knows that he knows and is reinforced
accordingly. The transition from external reinforcement to the self-generated
reinforcement of knowing what one knows is often badly handled. In a small class

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the recurrent behavior of listening, reading, solving problems, and composing

sentences is reinforced frequently and almost immediately, but in a large lecture
course the consequences are infrequent and deferred. If mediating devices have
not been set up, if the student is not automatically reinforced for knowing that
he knows, he then stops working, and the aversive by-product of not-knowing
pile up.

Frequent reinforcement raises another problem if it reduces the teacher’s

reinforcing power. Money, food, grades, and honors must be husbanded
carefully, but the automatic reinforcements of being right and moving forward
are inexhaustible.

Strictly speaking, the student cannot reinforce or punish himself by

withholding positive or negative reinforcers until he has behaved in a given way,
but he can seek out or arrange conditions under which his behavior is reinforced
or punished. He can create reinforcing events, as by checking an answer to a
problem. He can stop emitting unreinforced responses in an unfavorable
situation. For example, he can learn not to read books which are too hard for
him so that his inclination to read other books will not suffer. Education has
never taught the self-management of motivation very effectively. It has seldom
tried. But techniques become available as soon as the problem is understood.

Through a proper understanding of contingencies of reinforcement, we

should be able to make students eager and diligent and be reasonably sure that
they will continue to enjoy the things we teach them for the rest of their lives.

APPLY!

Watch the video clip “B.F. Skinner - Operant Conditioning and Free Will”
on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhvaSEJtOV8&feature=emb_title
Question: What is the connection of freewill to a person’s behavior?
Explain and give two (2) examples.

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Lesson 6

&
GESTALT - INSIGHT LEARNING THEORY

Learning means to bring changes in the behavior of the organism. It is very

difficult to give a universally acceptable explanation of learning because various
theories developed by psychologists attempt to explain the process from
different angles.

During the first quarter of 20th century the quarrels within academic
psychology lay chiefly inside the framework of association psychology
.Structuralism, functionalism and behaviorism were all members of the
association family. They are all examples of the working out of an empirical
methodology of science, where by the accumulation of facts was supposed to
lead one to the proper conception of nature.

Meaning of Gestalt Theory

The Gestalt theorists were the first group of psychologists to

systematically study perceptual organization around the 1920’s, in Germany.
They were Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ernst Mach, and particularly of Christian
von Ehrenfels and the research work of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt
Koffka, and Kurt Lewin According to the Gestalt psychologists certain features in
visual perception are universal. In semiotic terms, these universal features can
be thought of as a perceptual code.

Gestalt is a sensual theory, what we see is a result of light and dark

objects, edges and contours that we form into a whole image. Sensual theories
are of a lower order of thinking than perceptual theories, such as semiotics, that
are concerned with the meaning we attach to what we see.

Dissatisfied with the behaviorist approach of learning, the psychologists

tried to see learning as a more deliberate and conscious effort of the individual
rather than a mere product of habit formation or a machine-like stimulus-
response connection. According to them the learner does not merely respond to
a stimulus, but mentally processes what he receives or perceives. Thus learning
is a purposive, explorative and creative activity instead of trial and error. Things
cannot be understood by the study of its constituent parts only ,but actually it
is understood only by perceiving it as a totality or whole.

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Gestalt theory focused on the mind’s perceptive. The word ‘Gestalt’ has
no direct translation in English, but refers to “a way a thing has been gestalt;
i.e., placed, or put together”; common translations include ‘form’ and ‘shape’.
Gaetano Kanizca refers to it as ‘organized structure’. Gestalt theorists followed
the basic principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In other
words, the whole (a picture, a car) carried a different and altogether greater
meaning than its individual components (paint, canvas, brush; or tire, paint,
metal, respectively). In viewing the “whole,” a cognitive process takes place –
the mind makes a leap from understanding the parts to realizing the whole.

Gestalt theory was introduced as a contrast to at the time dominant

structuralism, which claimed that complex perceptions could be understood
through breaking them into smaller elementary parts of experience, like splitting
graphical forms into sets of dots or melody into sequence of sounds. Gestalt
theory attacked this theory and holds that same melody can be recognized if
transposed into another key and perception of a rectangle can be achieved
through other forms than four lines. The idea of Wertheimer was that the ability
to perceive objects was an ability of the nervous system, which tends to group
together objects that are nearby, similar, form smooth lines, form most of the
shape we can recognize.

According to Gestalt psychology, the whole is different than the sum of

its parts. Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set of
principles to explain perceptual organization, or how smaller objects are
grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as the ‘laws
of perceptual organization.’

Gestalt (t German word means form or whole) is a psychology term

which means “unified whole”. It refers to theories of visual
perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. These
theories attempt to describe how people tend to organize visual
elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are
applied.

Gestalt is a theory that the brain operates holistically, with self-organizing

tendencies. The statement, whole is different from the sum of its parts sums up
the way we recognize figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of
simple lines, curves and shapes.

Examples: describing a tree – it’s parts are trunk, branches, leaves,

perhaps blossoms or fruit. But when you look at an entire tree, you are not
conscious of the parts, you are aware of the overall object – the tree. Parts are
of secondary importance even though they can be clearly seen.

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Perhaps the best known example of a gestalt is the vase/face profile

which is fully explained in the six Gestalt Principles detailed below.

However, it is important to note that while Gestalt psychologists call these

phenomena ‘laws,’ a more accurate term would be ‘principles of perceptual
organization.’ These principles are much like heuristics, which are mental
shortcuts for solving problems.

The Insight Learning

This was observed in the experiments of Wolfgang Kohler involving

chimpanzees. Kohler found that chimpanzees could use insight learning instead
of trial-and error to solve problems.

Learning by conditioning is common to all animals and human beings and

useful for early education. But learning by insight is suitable only for intelligent
creatures both human and animals and useful for higher learning. It is a kind of
learning done by observation, by perceiving the relationship and understanding
the situation.

When an individual or intelligent animal faces a problem, he thinks and

looks over the whole situation and tries to find out solutions. He tries to get some
clues in the ways he should proceed to solve the problem, the method he should
pursue and a general awareness of the results of his actions. Then suddenly, he
arrives at a solution through his mental exercises. But for this, the total view of
the situation should be exposed to the individual who must feel urgency of the
problem and its solution.

Insightful learning is also known as Gestalt learning which means that

learning is concerned with the whole individual and arises from the interaction
of an individual with his situations or environment. Through this interaction

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emerge new forms of perception, imagination and ideas which altogether

constitute insight.

Insight operates when an individual tries to find solutions to problems. A

gestalt means the pattern, configuration or a form of perceiving the whole. In
this situation stimuli and responses are combined in an organized and unified
pattern.

It is a theory regarding ‘perception’. Gestalt considers learning as the

development of insight, which is primarily concerned with the nature of
perception. Perception is a process by which an organism interprets and
organizes sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. It is the
ultimate experience of the world and typically involves further processing of
sensory input.

While learning, the learner always perceives the situation as a whole and
after seeing and evaluating the different relationships takes the proper decision
intelligently. Gestalt psychology used the term ‘insight’ to describe the
perception of the whole situation by the learner and his intelligence in
responding to the proper relationships. Insight refers the sudden flash in the
mind about the solution of the problem.

Insight Learning: This is an extension of the term, insight which was

identified by Wolfgang Kohler while studying the behavior of chimpanzees. He
said that insight learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens
all-of-a-sudden through understanding the relationships various parts of a
problem rather than through trial and error.

Gestalt views on learning and problem-solving were opposed to at the time

dominant pre-behaviorist and behaviorist views. It emphasized importance of
seeing the whole structure of the problem. Discovery of correct solution to the
problem was followed by insight occurrence. This presents insightful learning,
which has following properties:

• Transition from pre-solution to solution is sudden and complete.

• When problem solution is found, performance is smooth and without

errors.

• Insightful learning results in longer retention.

• The principle learned by insight can easily be applied to other problems

• Its an Aha experience. Flash of understanding which comes to us all of

sudden

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• A type of learning that uses reason, especially to form conclusions,

inferences, or judgments, to solve a problem.

Insight, in learning theory, immediate and clear learning or understanding

that takes place without overt trial-and-error testing. Insight occurs in human
learning when people recognize relationships (or make novel associations
between objects or actions) that can help them solve new problems.

Steps in Insight Learning

1. Identification of the problem: The learner identify the presence of a block

as an intervening obstacles on his way to the goal.

2. Analysis of the Problem situation: The learner observes the problematic

situation, analyse the different components in the problematic situation and
perceive the relation between the goal and the block.

3. Establishing mental association in between similar previously acquired

ideas : After analyzing the total situation he selects probable solutions in
conclusions by means of hesitation, pause, concentrated attention etc.

4. Trail of Mode of Response: The learner makes initial efforts in the form of a
simple trial and error mechanism.

5. Sustained Attention: The learner maintains frequently recurrent attention

to the goal and motivation.

6. Establishing cause-effect relationship: In a certain moment there is a

sudden perception of the relationship in the total situation and the organism
directly performs the required acts. This is Insight development.

7. Steady Repetition of Adaptive Behavior: After getting an insightful solution,

the individual tries to implement it in another situation.

Gestalt Laws
Law of Pragnanz

In perception, there are many organizing principles called gestalt laws.

The most general version is called the law of pragnanz. Pragnanz is German for
pregnant, but in the sense of pregnant with meaning, rather than pregnant with
child. This law says that we are innately driven to experience things in as good
a gestalt as possible. “Good” can mean many things here, such a regular, orderly,
simplicity, symmetry, and so on, which then refer to specific gestalt laws.

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The Law of Similarity

As Gestalt principles go, the principle of similarity would seem to be one

of the simplest to grasp. It states things that are similar are perceived to be more
related than things that are dissimilar. Similarity occurs when objects look
similar to one another. People often perceive them as a group or pattern.

Similarity means there is a tendency to see groups which have the same
characteristics The principle of similarity states that things which share visual
characteristics such as shape, size, color, texture, value or orientation will be
seen as belonging together.

Let’s make it a bit easier to perceive some similarity:

There are differences between the many elements above, but there are
also similarities. If asked to categorize the elements above, almost anyone would
say that the strongest communication toward categorization is dependent upon
shape. Based on shape, it seems that the squares are related to one another and
the circles are related to one another. It is important to note that in this example
shape, not proximity or size provides the strongest communication.

In all likelihood, the large squares are related to one another and the
small squares are related to one another. Size is a way to provide contrast,
therefore consistency of size can be exploited to suggest relationships.

Glance quickly at the image below.

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Here similarity of color (or consistent contrast) is the strongest way to

suggest relationships. It is also the characteristic that registers first in our
perception when our brain is working to make sense of our surroundings. Patterns
and chaos can camouflage size and shapes and these characteristics might have
only minor variations, but color penetrates these factors efficiently. Because of
this fact (or possibly as the reason for this fact) color is often used in nature as
a powerful communication tool for danger. Throughout history, a clear
perception of color’s communication has been vital to the survival of humans
and other organisms.

Perceiving similarities not only helps us to assume what elements in a

layout are related to one another, it also then implies structure based on the
patterns that emerge, as demonstrated by the following examples:

The above example shows a grid of elements where no divisional structure

is evident. All of the elements seem to be equally related. This example above
clearly shows that the shapes are consistent. The example above shows that the
elements are split into two categories, where all of the squares are related and
all of the circles are related.

The Law of Contrast

The Law of Contrast states that when two items are presented one after
another, “If the 2nd item is fairly different from the 1st, we tend to see it as
more different than it actually is.” The principle based on the assumption that
individuals base their behavior on comparison of opposites not with sameness.
The phenomenon that when two different but related stimuli are presented close
together in space and/or time they are perceived as being more different than
they really are.

On the other hand, seeing or recalling something may also trigger the
recollection of something completely opposite. If you think of the tallest person
you know, you may suddenly recall the shortest one as well. If you are thinking
about birthdays, the one that was totally different from all the rest is quite likely
to come up;

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Law of Proximity

Proximity occurs when elements are placed close together. They tend to
be perceived as a group. The principle of proximity or contiguity states that
things which are closer together will be seen as belonging together.

Things that are close to one another are perceived to be more related
than things that are spaced farther apart. As this principle does not rely on any
extraneous structure, it is among the first principles to impact our perception
and from which we derive understanding. All of us intuitively understand that
the simplest way to indicate relatedness is to manipulate proximity. What we
might not intuitively understand, however, is how powerful the principle of
proximity is.

In the example below, proximity clearly indicates relatedness and relative

association:

Fundamental mechanisms of our perception are almost always competing

with one another, as exemplified in the image above.

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Example two

The fifteen figures above form a unified whole (the shape of a tree)
because of their proximity.

Similarly, the groups we see below are

1 + 2 = as one group

3 + 4 = as another group

Elements that share uniform visual characteristics are perceived as being

more related than elements with disparate visual characteristics.

Law of Uniform Connectedness

The principle of uniform connectedness is the strongest of the Gestalt

Principles concerned with relatedness. It refers to the fact that elements that
are connected by uniform visual properties are perceived as being more related
than elements that are not connected. As with the principle of proximity,

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uniform connectedness causes us to perceive groups or chunks rather than

unrelated, individual things.

In practice, uniform connectedness is quite simple: draw a box around a

group of elements and you’ve indicated that they’re related. Alternately, you
can draw connecting lines (or arrows or some other tangible connecting
reference) from one element to the next for the same effect.

For instance: Here even though the spacing and colour is consistent with
in this collection of elements, those inside of the connecting lines are perceived
to the more related than the rest.

The final principle employed here is good continuation, which references

the fact that elements arranged on a line or curve are perceived to be more
related than elements not on the line or curve.

Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move through one

object and continue to another object.

Continuation occurs in the example above, because the viewer’s eye will
naturally follow a line or curve. The smooth flowing crossbar of the “H” leads
the eye directly to the maple leaf.

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Law of Figure and Ground

Our perception of the figure ground relationship allows us to organize

what we see by how each object relates to others. The short and sweet version
is: it allows us to determine what we’re supposed to look at and what we might
safely ignore.

We do this instantly and without effort in most cases, as we’re often in

familiar surroundings and looking at familiar things.

Examples:

A simple example of figure and ground relationships. Balancing figure and

ground can make the perceived image clearer. Using unusual figure/ground
relationships can add interest and subtlety to an image.

In this image, the figure and ground relationships change as the eye
perceives the form of a shade or the silhouette of a face.

Similarly, in the picture given below;

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This image uses complex figure/ground relationships which change upon

perceiving leaves, water and tree trunk.

The Law of Closure

Related to principle of good continuation, there is a tendency to close

simple figures, independent of continuity or similarity. This results in a effect of
filling in missing information or organizing information which is present to make
a whole.

The principle of closure is literally about drawing conclusions. We humans

are very adept at drawing conclusions from less-than-all the information. When
presented with less than the full picture, we attempt to employ the principle of
closure to fill in missing information and form a complete image or idea based
on common or easily recognizable patterns from our past experience and
understanding.

The degree to which the principle of closure works is inversely

proportional to the effort required to make it work. So if it is easy to fill in the
missing pieces to see a recognizable pattern or form, closure occurs and we
perceive the completed form. If too much of the form or pattern is missing,
requiring that we work hard to make sense of it, closure is less likely to occur.
So in order to utilize closure as an effective design mechanism, you must make
it easy for closure to occur.

Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is not completely

enclosed. If enough of the shape is indicated, people perceive the whole by filling
in the missing information in full, the principle of closure is much grittier.

When looking at a complex arrangement of individual elements, humans

tend to first look for a single, recognizable pattern.

Although the panda below is not complete, enough is present for the eye
to complete the shape. When the viewer’s perception completes a shape, closure
occurs.

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Similarly, we see the figure of a chair in the picture given below,

Closure is dangerous, volatile, seductive, hypnotic, and even playful. It

works to show us an image that does not actually exist before our eyes; it reaches
into our experience and into our psyche to create a fiction and compels us to
believe it.

Gestalt theory was mostly criticized for being too descriptive instead of
offering explanations and models for described phenomena, investigating
subjective experiences like perception, lack of precision in descriptions and just
qualitative description, denying the basic scientific approach of understanding a
whole as a set of its parts.

THINK!

1. What does it mean by “Gestalt Principles are in the Mind, Not

the Eye”?
2. Pick two (2) laws or principles of Gestalt theory and explain;
give concrete examples.

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Lesson 7

&
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

What is experiential learning?

Learning by doing. This is the basis for the experiential learning theory.
Experiential learning focuses on the idea that the best ways to learn things is by
actually having experiences. Those experiences then stick out in your mind and
help you retain information and remember facts.

For teachers, creating opportunities for students to have experiences

based on the things they are learning about is key. Teachers can help create
environments where students can learn and have experiences at the same time.

Kolb’s experiential learning theory

David Kolb is best known for his work on the experiential learning theory
or ELT. Kolb published this model in 1984, getting his influence from other great
theorists including John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget. The experiential
learning theory works in four stages—concrete learning, reflective observation,
abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. The first two stages of
the cycle involve grasping an experience, the second two focus on transforming
an experience. Kolb argues that effective learning is seen as the learner goes
through the cycle, and that they can enter into the cycle at any time.

Simple points on experiential learning:

v Concrete learning is when a learner gets a new experience, or interprets

a past experience in a new way.

v Reflective observation comes next, where the learner reflects on their

experience personally. They use the lens of their experience and
understanding to reflect on what this experience means.

v Abstract conceptualization happens as the learner forms new ideas or

adjusts their thinking based on the experience and their reflection about
it.

v Active experimentation is where the learner applies the new ideas to the
world around them, to see if there are any modifications to be made. This

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process can happen over a short period of time, or over a long span of
time.

Kolb went on to explain that learners will have their own preferences for
how they enter the cycle of experiential learning, and that these preferences
boil down to a learning cycle.

Kolb's experiential learning cycle model

The experiential learning cycle rests on the idea that each person has a
specific type of learning tendencies, and they are thus dominant in certain stages
of experiential learning. For example, some learners will be more dominant in
concrete learning and reflective observation, while others will be dominant in
abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.

The four learning styles are:

• Diverging. The diverging learning style is full of learners who look at

things with a unique perspective. They want to watch instead of do, and
they also have a strong capacity to imagine. These learners usually prefer
to work in groups, have broad interests in cultures and people, and more.
They usually focus on concrete learning and reflective observation,
wanting to observe and see the situation before diving in.

• Assimilating. This learning style involves learners getting clear

information. These learners prefer concepts and abstracts to people, and
explore using analytic models. These learners focus on abstract
conceptualization and reflective observation in the experiential learning
style.

• Converging. Converging learners solve problems. They apply what they’ve

learned to practical issues, and prefer technical tasks. They are also
known to experiment with new ideas, and their learning focuses on
abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.

• Accommodating. These learners prefer practicality. They enjoy new

challenges and use intuition to help solve problems. These learners utilize
concrete learning and active experimentation when they learn.

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Experiential learning examples

There are many ways that experiential learning is used every day. Some
examples include:

1. Going to the zoo to learn about animals through observation, instead of

reading about them.

2. Growing a garden to learn about photosynthesis instead of watching a

movie about it.

3. Hoping on a bicycle to try and learn to ride, instead of listening to your

parent explain the concept

Benefits of experiential learning

There are many benefits of experiential learning for teachers and

students, including:
• Opportunity to immediately apply knowledge. Experiential learning can
allow students to immediately apply things they are learning to real-world
experiences. This helps them retain the information better.

• Promotion of teamwork. Experiential learning often involves working in a

team, so learning in this setting allows students to practice teamwork.

• Improved motivation. Students are more motivated and excited about

learning in experiential settings. Experiments are exciting and fun for
students, and they will be passionate about learning.

• Opportunity for reflection. Students using the experiential model are able
to spend time reflecting about what they are experiencing and learning.
This is valuable as they are able to better retain information when they
can think about what’s happening to them.

• Real world practice. Students can greatly benefit from learning that helps
them prepare for the real world. Experiential learning is focused on using
real situations to help students learn, so they are then better prepared
for their future.

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Experiential learning activities to include in the classroom

There are many ways teachers can work to include these learning
activities in their class including:

• Field trips

• Art projects

• Science experiments

• Mock cities and trials

• Role playing

• Reflection and journaling

• Internship opportunities

• Interactive classroom games

Students can greatly benefit from experiential learning inside their

classroom. For a teacher or for a pre-service teacher studying to become one,
this learning theory can help to connect with the students more effectively.
Utilizing projects and experiences inside the classroom will help students learn
more effectively and enjoy their learning experiences.

APPLY!

Which of the following examples of Experiential Learning Theory have you

encountered in the past? What was your favorite? Why?

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4
MODULE SUMMARY

In module V, you have learned the different behavioral learning theories

and approaches to learning and education.

There were seven lessons in Module V. Lesson defined the word learning.
It gave you an overview on how learning takes place on a person.

Lesson 2 expounded on the different approaches to learning. Several

theorists were named and introduced on this lesson. Their contribution to the
field of education was also discussed.

Lesson 3 discussed on Connectionism. It further emphasized that learning

is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.

Lesson 4 helped you to understand clearly the different types of

conditioning. Pavlov, Skinner and Guthrie’s theories were further illuminated on
this lesson.

Lesson 5 was focused on behavior analysis in education. Though it was

mainly focused on psychology, it looked into the contribution of this theory in
education.

Lesson 6 discussed the Gestalt-Insight learning. In this lesson, it explained

that interactions emerge new forms of perception, imagination and ideas which
altogether constitute insight.

Lesson 7 expanded on the experiential learning theory of David Kolb. It

simply reminded us that people learn by experiencing the process of learning.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module V. now you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. Good Luck!!!

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? SUMMATIVE TEST
A. Answer the given items. Use a separate sheet if necessary.

1. What are the different types of learning? How are they measured?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. Do people learn at the same age, at the same place and at the same time?
Why or why not?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

3. Choose the correct answer and explain: Thorndike’s conception of

connectionism asserts that:
A. Learning is about responding to questions.
B. Learning is about responding to connections
C. Learning is about forming questions
D. Learning is about responding to stimuli.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. Compare and contrast classical, operant and contiguous conditioning.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

5. What is the importance of behavioral analysis to education?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

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6. How can bias, prejudice and other factors influence our perception?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

7. What are the benefits of experiential learning?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Module V – EDUC 101 – The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
 MODULE VI
SAFETY AND SECURITY IN THE
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Lesson 1 UN Convention on the

Rights of the Child and
PD 603

Lesson 2 Anti-Bullying Act of

2013 (RA 10627)

Lesson 3 Child Protection Policy

Lesson 4 Positive Discipline

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MODULE VI
SAFETY AND SECURITY IN THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

¥ INTRODUCTION

This module discusses different laws pertaining to the child and his/her
learning environment to ensure their safety and security. Some processes and
sample situations are provided in the lessons as a guide for you, pre-service
teachers, for future purposes.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

a. discuss the laws, policies, guidelines and procedures that protect children’s
rights and assure their safety and security in school; and
b. explain and draw implications of policies and procedures on child protection,
and positive/non-violent discipline in the management of behavior.

G DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from
it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor
or to the CE dean’s office.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during
the face-to-face meeting. If not contact your instructor at the CE Faculty Room.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

& UN CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE

CHILD AND PD 603

WHAT IS THE UNCRC?

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) is a

legally-binding international agreement setting out the civil, political, economic,
social and cultural rights of every child, regardless of their race, religion or
abilities.

WHAT IS CONTAINED IN THE UNCRC?

The UNCRC consists of 54 articles that set out children’s rights and how
governments should work together to make them available to all children.

Under the terms of the convention, governments are required to meet

children’s basic needs and help them reach their full potential. Central to this is
the acknowledgment that every child has basic fundamental rights. These
include the right to:

• Life, survival and development

• Protection from violence, abuse or neglect
• An education that enables children to fulfil their potential
• Be raised by, or have a relationship with, their parents
• Express their opinions and be listened to.

In 2000, two optional protocols were added to the UNCRC. One asks
governments to ensure children under the age of 18 are not forcibly recruited
into their armed forces. The second calls on states to prohibit child prostitution,
child pornography and the sale of children into slavery. These have now been
ratified by more than 120 states.

A third optional protocol was added in 2011. This enables children whose
rights have been violated to complain directly to the UN Committee on the Rights
of the Child.

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WHO HAS SIGNED UP TO THE UNCRC?

Since it was adopted by the United Nations in November 1989, 196

countries have signed up to the UNCRC, with only one country still to ratify.

All countries that sign up to the UNCRC are bound by international law to
ensure it is implemented. This is monitored by the Committee on the Rights of
the Child.

The UNCRC is also the only international human rights treaty to give non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), like Save the Children, a direct role in
overseeing its implementation, under Article 45a.

WHO STARTED THE UNCRC?

In fact, the world's very first declaration on child rights was written by
Save the Children founder, Eglantyne Jebb, in 1923.

Presidential Decree No. 603

Presidential Decree No. 603 otherwise known as the “The Child and Youth
Welfare Code” was established on December 10, 1974 signed by President
Ferdinand E. Marcos. This law applies to all persons below twenty-one (21) years
of age. It is an extensive code for children here in the Philippines which contains
four (4) books and 2270 articles.

An overview of this law is listed below:

Title/Chapter/Section Article
Title I – General Principles 1 – Declaration of Policy
2 – Title and Scope of Code
3 – Rights of the Child
4 – Responsibilities of the Child
5 – Commencement of Civil Personality
6 – Abortion
7 – Non-disclosure of Birth records
8 – Child’s Welfare Paramount
9 – Levels of Growth
10 – Phases of Development
11 – Promotion of Health
12 – Education
13 – Social and Emotional Growth
14 – Morality
15 – Spiritual Values

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16 – Civic Conscience
Title II – Child and Youth 17 - Joint Parental Authority
Welfare and the Home 18 – Grandparents
19 - Absence or Death of Parents
Chapter 1. Parental Authority 20 – Guardian
21 - Dependent, Abandoned or Neglected
Section A. In General Child
22 - Transfer to the Department of Social
Welfare
23 - Case Study
24 - Intervention of Department of Social
Welfare
25 - Hearings Confidential
26 - Repealing Clause
27 - Who May Adopt
28 - Who May Not Adopt
29 - Adoption by Husband and Wife
30 - Who May Not Be Adopted
31 - Whose Consent is Necessary
32 - Hurried Decisions
33 - Case Study
34 – Procedure
35 - Trial Custody
36 - Decree of Adoption
37 - Civil Registry Record
38 - Confidential Nature of Proceedings and
Records
39 - Effects of Adoption
40 - Rescission by Adopted
41 - Revocation by Adopter
42 - Effects of Rescission or Revocation
Chapter 2. Rights Of Parents 43 - Primary Right of Parents
44 - Rights Under the Civil Code
45 - Right to Discipline Child
Chapter 3. Duties Of Parents 46 - General Duties
47 - Family Affairs
48 - Winning Child’s Confidence
49 - Child Living Away from Home
50 - Special Talents
51 - Reading Habit
52 - Association with Other Children
53 - Community Activities
54 - Social Gatherings
55 – Vices
56 - Choice of career
57 – Marriage

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Chapter 4. Liabilities
Of 58 – Torts
Parents 59 – Crimes
60 – Penalty
Chapter 5. Assistance To 61 - Admonition to Parents
Parents 62 - Medical and Dental Services
63 - Financial Aid and Social Services to
Needy Families
64 - Assistance to Widowed or Abandoned
Parent and Her Minor Dependents
65 - Criterion for Aid
66 - Assistance to Unmarried Mothers and
Their Children
Chapter 6. Foster Care 67 - Foster Homes
68 - Institutional Care
69 - Day-care service and other substitute
parental arrangement
70 - Treatment of Child Under Foster Care
Title III. Child and Youth 71 - Admission to Schools
Welfare and Education 72 – Assistance
73 - Nursery School
Chapter 1. Access To 74 - Special Classes
Educational Opportunities 75 - School Plants and Facilities
Chapter II. The Home And The 76 - Role of the Home
School 77 - Parent-Teacher Associations
Chapter III. Miscellaneous 78 – Contributions
Title IV. Child And Youth 79 - Rights of the Church
Welfare And The Church 80 - Establishment of Schools
81 - Religious Instruction
82 - Assistance to Churches
83 – Parents
Title V. Child and Youth 84 - Community Defined
Welfare and The Community 85 - Duties of the Community

Chapter I. Duties In General Of

The Community
Chapter 2. Community Bodies 86 - Ordinances and Resolutions
Dealing with Child Welfare 87 - Council for the Protection of Children
88 - Barangay Scholarships
Section. A. Barangay Councils 89 - Youth Associations in Barangays
90 - Aid to Youth Associations
Section. B. Civic Associations 91 - Civic Associations of Adults
of Adults 92 - Accounting of Proceeds or Funds
93 – Functions
94 - Youth Demonstrations
95 - Unwholesome Entertainment and
advertisements

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96 - Complaint Against Child Welfare Agency

97 - Studies and Researches
98 - Exchange Programs
Section. C. Youth Associations 99 - Youth Associations
100 - Rights and Responsibilities
101 - Student Organizations
Chapter 3. Collaboration 102 - Proper Atmosphere for Children
Between The Home And The 103 - Unwholesome Influence
Community
Title VI. Child and Youth 104 - “Samahan” Defined
Welfare and The Samahan 105 – Organization
106 - Duties of the Samahan
Chapter 1. Duties In General Of
The Samahan
Chapter 2. Working Children 107 - Employment of Children Below Sixteen
Years
108 - Duty of Employer to Submit Report
109 - Register of Children
110 - Education of Children Employed as
Domestics
Chapter 3. Labor-Management 111 - Right to Self-Organization
Subjects 112 - Conditions of Employment
113 - Educational Assistance Programs
114 - Welfare Programs
115 - Research Projects
Chapter 4. Collaboration 116 - Collaboration Between the Home and
Between The Home And The the Samahan
Samahan
Title VII. Child and Youth 117 - Classifications of Child and Youth
Welfare and The State Welfare Agencies
118 - License Required
Chapter 1. Regulation Of Child 119 - Guiding Principles
And Youth Welfare Services 120 - Revocation or Suspension of License
121 - Responsible Government Body
122 - Child-Caring Institution Serving as
Child-Placement Agency
123 - Responsible Staff of Employees
124 - Intake Study and Periodic
Investigations
125 – Records
126 - Home Atmosphere
127 - Adequate Diet
128 – Clothing
129 - Physical Surroundings and Outings
130 - Medical and Nursing Care
131 - Religious Training

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132 - Annual Report

Chapter 2. Collaboration 133 - Healthy Growth of Children
Between The Home And The 134 - Puericulture or Health Centers
State 135 - Juvenile and Domestic Relations
Courts
136 - Regional Child Welfare Agencies
137 - Children’s Reading and Recreation
Centers
138 - Parent Education Program
139 - Curfew Hours for Children
140 - State Aid in Case of Public Calamity
Title VIII. Special Categories of 141 - Definition of Terms
Children 142 - Petition for Involuntary Commitment
of a Child: Venue
Chapter 1. Dependent, 143 - Contents of Petition: Verification
Abandoned And Neglected 144 - Court to Set Time for Hearing:
Children Summons
145 - When Summons Shall Not Be Issued
146 - Representation of Child
147- Duty of Fiscal
148 – Hearing
149 - Commitment of Child
150 - When Child May Stay in His Own Home
151 - Termination of Rights of Parents
152 - Authority of Person, Agency or
Institution
153 - Change of Custody
154 - Voluntary Commitment of a Child to an
Institution
155 - Commitment Must Be in Writing
156 - Legal Custody
157 - Visitation or Inspection
158 - Report of Person or Institution
159 - Temporary Custody of Child
160 - Prohibited Acts
161 - Duty to Report Abandonment
162 - Adoption of Dependent or Abandoned
or Neglected Child
163 - Restoration of Child After Involuntary
Commitment
164 - Restoration After Voluntary
Commitment
165 - Removal of Custody
166 - Report of Maltreated or Abused Child
167 - Freedom from Liability of Reporting
Person or Institution

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Chapter 2. Mentally Retarded, 168 - Mentally Retarded Children

Physically Handicapped, 169 - Classification of Mental Retardation
Emotionally Disturbed And 170 - Physically Handicapped Children
Mentally Ill Children 171 - Emotionally Disturbed Children
172 - Mentally Ill Children
173 - Admission of Disabled Children
174 - Training and Opportunities for
Disabled Children
175 - Planning of Programs and Services
176 – Donations
177 - Petition for Commitment
178 – Venue
179 - Contents of Petition
180 - Order of Hearing
181 - Hearing and Judgment
182 - Disposition of Property or Money
183 - Findings and Other Data
184 – Expenses
185 - Children with Cerebral Palsy
186 - Discharge of Child Judicially
Committed
187 - Discharge of Child Voluntarily
Committed
188 - Assistance of Fiscal
Chapter 3. Youthful Offenders 189 - Youthful Offender Defined
190 - Physical and Mental Examination
191 - Care of Youthful Offender Held for
Examination or Trial
192 - Suspension of Sentence and
Commitment of Youthful Offender
193 – Appeal
194 - Care and Maintenance of Youthful
Offender
195 - Report on Conduct of Child
196 - Dismissal of the Case
197 - Return of the Youth Offender to Court
198 - Effect of Release of Child Based on
Good Conduct
199 - Living Quarters for Youthful Offenders
Sentence
200 - Records of Proceedings
201 - Civil Liability of Youthful Offenders
202 - Rehabilitation Centers
203 - Detention Homes

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204 - Liability of Parents or Guardian or Any

Person in the Commission of Delinquent Acts
by Their Children or Wards
Title IX. Council for The 205 - Creation of the Council for the Welfare
Welfare of Children and Youth of Children
206 – Appropriation
Chapter 1. Creation And
Composition
Chapter 2. Powers And 207 - Powers and Functions
Responsibilities 208 - Offices to Coordinate with the Council
for Welfare of Children
Chapter 3. Implementation Of 209 - Implementation of this Code and Rule-
Code And Rule-Making Making Authority
Authority
Final Provisions 210 - General Penalty
211 - Repealing Clause
212 - Separability Clause
213 - Effectivity Clause

COMPREHENSION CHECK!

1. How does the Convention on the Rights of the Child protect children's
rights?

2. Among the seven (7) responsibilities of the child mentioned in PD 603, pick
three (3) responsibilities and expound them using real-life scenarios.

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Lesson 2

& ANTI-BULLYING ACT OF 2013 (RA 10627)

Republic Act 10627, or the Anti-Bullying Act (the “Act”), aims to protect
children enrolled in kindergarten, elementary, and secondary schools and
learning centers (collectively, “Schools”) from being bullied. It requires Schools
to adopt policies to address the existence of bullying in their respective
institutions.

What is Bullying?

Bullying, as defined under the Act, is any severe or repeated use by one
or more students of a written, verbal or electronic expression, or a physical act
or gesture, or any combination thereof, directed at another student that has the
effect of actually causing or placing the latter in reasonable fear of physical or
emotional harm or damage to his property; creating a hostile environment at
school for the other student; infringing on the rights of the other student at
school; or materially and substantially disrupting the education process or the
orderly operation of a school; such as, but not limited to, the following:

• Any unwanted physical contact between the bully and the victim like
punching, pushing, shoving, kicking, slapping, tickling, headlocks,
inflicting school pranks, teasing, fighting and the use of available objects
as weapons;
• Any act that causes damage to a victim’s psyche and/or emotional well-
being;
• Any slanderous statement or accusation that causes the victim undue
emotional distress like directing foul language or profanity at the target,
name-calling, tormenting and commenting negatively on victim’s looks,
clothes and body; and
• Cyber-bullying or any bullying done through the use of technology or any
electronic means. The term shall also include any conduct resulting to
harassment, intimidation, or humiliation, through the use of other forms
of technology, such as, but not limited to texting, email, instant
messaging, chatting, internet, social media, online games, or other
platforms or formats.
• Social bullying, or any deliberate, repetitive and aggressive social
behavior intended to hurt others or to belittle another individual or group.

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• Gender-based bullying, or any act that humiliates or excludes a person on

the basis of perceived or actual sexual orientation and gender identity.

As such, any person who commits any of the foregoing acts, is considered a
bully. Furthermore, any act of retaliation against a person who reports bullying,
who provides information during an investigation of bullying, or who is a witness
to or has reliable information about bullying, is likewise prohibited.

Where may bullying be committed?

• Bullying may happen at the following:

• School grounds;
• Property immediately adjacent to School grounds;
• School-sponsored or School-related activities, functions or programs
whether on or off School grounds;
• School bus stops;
• School buses or other vehicles owned, leased or used by a School; or
• School buses or School services privately-owned but accredited by the
School.

Bullying may also occur at unrelated locations, functions or programs,

through the use of technology or an electronic device or other forms of media,
regardless if such is owned, leased, or used by the School.

School Obligations

What are required of Schools under the Act?

Schools are directed to adopt policies, which are to be regularly updated,

to address the existence of bullying in their respective institutions. These
policies are to be reported to the appropriate school division superintendent of
the Department of Education (“Department”) during the first week of every
academic year. During this period, the School shall also submit a report of
relevant information and statistics on bullying and retaliation culled from the
previous academic year.

What must these policies contain?

First of all, the policies must prohibit bullying as already defined. Schools
must likewise define the range of administrative disciplinary actions that may be
taken against a bully, or a person who commits retaliation. These actions must
be commensurate with the nature and gravity of the offense committed. Such
actions may include written reprimands, community service, suspension,
exclusion or expulsion, as the case may be. In addition to any action taken

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against a perpetrator of bullying or retaliation must necessarily include the

requirement that the perpetrator enter into a rehabilitation program
administered by the School.

The School shall also educate parents and guardians about bullying, its
effects, the anti-bullying policies of the School, and how such parents or
guardians can provide support in imparting upon their charges the gravity of
bullying, and to reinforce the policies of the School. The School shall provide the
students and their parents or guardians with copies of these policies, which shall
likewise be included in the student and employee manual of the School.

The School shall likewise establish clear procedures and strategies for:

o Reporting acts of bullying or retaliation. The School must provide an

avenue wherein students may anonymously report acts of bullying or
retaliation;
o Responding promptly to and investigating reports of bullying or
retaliation;
o Restoring a sense of safety for a victim and assessing the student’s need
for protection;
o Protecting from bullying or retaliation of a person who reports acts of
bullying, provides information during an investigation of bullying, or is
witness to or has reliable information about an act of bullying; and
o Providing counseling or referral to appropriate services for perpetrators,
victims and appropriate family members of said students;
o In all cases wherein a penalty may possibly be imposed, due process must
be observed to prevent false accusations of bullying. At a minimum, the
School complies with the requirements of due process by:
o Informing the student and parent or guardian of the complaint in writing;
o Giving the student, with the assistance of his parents or guardian, an
opportunity to answer the complaint in writing;
o Requiring the School head to issue the decision, in writing, and stating the
facts and reasons thereof; and
o Allowing an appeal for the decision with the appropriate division office of
the Department.

Any student, after due investigation, found to have knowingly made a

false accusation of bullying shall be subjected to appropriate disciplinary action
or intervention in accordance with the rules of the School or the Department.

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Who will implement these anti-bullying policies of the School?

The School’s Child Protection Committee (“Committee”) shall serve as the
body which will handle all bullying cases in the School. The Committee shall be
composed of:
• the School head or administrator as chairperson;
• the School guidance counselor/teacher as vice chairperson;
• a representative of the Schools teachers as designated by the School
faculty;
• a representative of the parents as designated by the Parents-Teachers
Association;
• a representative of the students, except in kindergarten, as designated by
the student council; and
• a representative of the community as designated by the barangay captain
wherein the school is located. The inclusion of a community
representative may be dispensed with by private Schools.

What are the duties of the Committee?

Under the Act, they shall perform the following:

• Conduct awareness-raising programs with school stakeholders in
preventing and addressing bullying;
• Ensure that the anti-bullying policy adopted by the School is implemented;
• Monitor all cases or incidents related to all reported cases of bullying; and
• Make the necessary referrals to appropriate agencies, offices or persons,
as may be required by the circumstances.

How does the School treat the information in bullying cases?

Any information relating to the identity and personal circumstances of the
bully, victim, or person who reported or witnessed the incident shall be treated
with utmost confidentiality by the Committee and the School, provided, that the
names may only be available to the School head or administrator, teacher or
guidance counselor designated by the school head, and parents or guardians of
students who are or have been victims of bullying or retaliation.

What happens if the School, or its personnel, fails to comply with the Act?
School personnel of public Schools shall be subject to administrative
disciplinary proceedings under the rules of the Civil Service or the Department.
Erring personnel of private Schools shall be subject to appropriate administrative

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disciplinary proceedings imposed by the private School. Copies of such decisions

shall be submitted by the private School to the Department’s division office.

Private Schools which fail to comply with the Act and its IRR shall be shall
be given notice of such failure by the Department’s division office. The School
shall be given thirty (30) days within which to comply. A further extension of one
(1) month may me be granted by the Department’s Regional Director in
meritorious cases. Failure to comply with the Act or its IRR may cause the
School’s suspension, or revocation of license.

COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
1. Have you experienced bullying when you were in grade school? How
did you handle it? Did you tell it to your teacher?

2. What do you do when someone bullies you?

3. Have you ever bullied someone? How does it feel?

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Lesson 3

&
CHILD PROTECTION POLICY

Policy and Guidelines on Protecting Children in School from Abuse, Violence,

Exploitation, Discrimination, Bullying and Other Forms of Abuse
DEPED ORDER NO. 40, S. 2012

DECLARATION OF POLICY

DepEd shall ensure that schools are a safe place for the education of
children. The best interest of the child shall be the paramount consideration in
all decisions and actions involving children.

DepEd’s zero tolerance policy for any act of child abuse, exploitation,
violence, discrimination, bullying and other forms of abuse.

LEGAL BASES

• Philippine Constitution
o The State shall protect the right of children to assistance, including
proper care and nutrition, and special protection from all forms of
neglect, abuse, cruelty, exploitation and other conditions
prejudicial to their development (Art. XV. Sec. 3(b))
o All educational institutions shall…x x x… foster love of humanity,
respect for human rights …x x x... develop moral character and
personal discipline… (Article XIV, Section 3, (b))
• Presidential Decree 603 or “Youth and Children Code”
• Republic Act No. 7610 Special Protection Against Child Abuse
• Republic Act No. 10627 or Anti-Bullying Act of 2013
• Republic Act No. 9344, as amended or Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act
• Republic Act No. 10630 RIRR of RA 9344
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
o Protects children from all forms of violence, injury or abuse;
o Establishes the Right of the Child to Education
• Article 218, 220, 233 of the Family Code of the Philippines and PD 603
o “gives the school, its administrators and teachers, or the
individual, entity or institution engaged in child care the special
parental authority and responsibility over the minor child while
under their supervision, instruction or custody”…..

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o “Authority and responsibility shall apply to all authorized activities

whether inside or outside the premises of the school, entity or
institution….”

COVERAGE

Children who are enrolled in the basic education system;

School Personnel
School Head
Teaching or Non-Teaching personnel

School Visitor or Guest

Media
Suppliers or Bidders
Parents and Guardians, etc.

PROHIBITED ACTS

a. Child abuse;
b. Discrimination against children;
c. Child exploitation;
d. Violence against children in school;
e. Corporal punishment;
f. Any analogous or similar acts; and
g. Bullying or peer abuse

Child Abuse: Republic Act No. 7610 also known as “Special Protection of
Children Against Abuse Exploitation and Discrimination.”

Refers to the maltreatment of a child which includes:

• Psychological Abuse;
• Physical Abuse;
• Neglect;
• Sexual Abuse
• Emotional Maltreatment;
• Any act by deeds or words that degrades the dignity of a child as a human
being;

Child Abuse:

• Unreasonable deprivation of the child’s basic needs for survival;

• Failure to immediately give medical treatment to an injured child resulting in
serious impairment of the child’s growth and development and permanent
incapacity or death.

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Discrimination against children

Refers to an act of exclusion, distinction, restriction or preference which

impairs the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by all pupils or students on an
equal footing, of all rights and freedoms.

Child Exploitation

Refers to the use of children for someone else’s advantage, gratification

or profit resulting in unjust, cruel and harmful treatment of the child.

Forms:
1) Sexual Exploitation – refers to the abuse of a position of vulnerability,
differential power, or trust, for sexual purposes.

2) Economic exploitation – refers to the use of the child in work or other activities
for the benefit of others.

VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN COMMITTED IN SCHOOLS

• a single act or a series of acts

• committed by school administrators, academic and non-academic
personnel
• against a child which result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual,
psychological harm or suffering, or other abuses including threats of such
acts, battery, assault, coercion, harassment or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty. It includes, but is not limited to the following acts:
§ Physical violence
§ Sexual violence
§ Psychological violence
§ Other acts of violence

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
Refers to a kind of punishment or penalty imposed for an alleged or actual
offense, which is carried out or inflicted, for the purpose of discipline, training
or control, by a teacher, school administrator, an adult, or any other child who
has been given or has assumed authority or responsibility for punishment or
discipline.

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Bullying (RA 10627)

Any severe or repeated use by one or more students of a written, verbal

or electronic expression, or a physical act or gesture, or any combination
thereof, directed at another student that has the effect of actually causing or
placing
the latter in reasonable fear of physical or emotional harm or damage to his
property; creating a hostile environment at school for the other student;
infringing on the rights of the other student at school; or materially and
substantially disrupting the education process or the orderly operation of a
school.

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF SCHOOLS

1. Ensure the institution of effective child protection policies and procedures

and monitor compliance thereof;
2. Adopt a child protection policy, and organize and convene the Child
Protection Committee (CPC) of the school;
3. Conduct the capacity building activities for the members of CPC and
Guidance Counselors/Teachers;
4. Ensure that the participatory and other rights of children are respected
and upheld in all matters and procedures affecting their welfare;
5. Coordinate with appropriate offices, agencies or instrumentalities for
appropriate assistance and intervention

CHILD PROTECTION COMMITTEE

Composition:

• School Head/Administrator – Chairperson

• Guidance Counselor/ Teacher –Vice Chairperson
• Representative of the Teachers as designated by the Faculty Club
• Representative of the Parents as designated by the PTA
• Representative of pupils/students as designated by the Supreme Student
Council
• Representative from the Community as designated by the Punong
Barangay, preferably from the Barangay Council for the Protection of
Children

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FUNCTIONS OF CPC’S

• Information dissemination programs;

• Establish a system for identifying students who may be suffering from
significant harm;
• Monitor the implementation of positive measures;
• Ensure that the children’s right to be heard are respected and upheld in
all matters and procedures affecting their welfare;
• Accomplishment of Intake Sheet.

Procedure in Handling Bullying Cases in School (IRR)

A. Immediate Responses
1. Attention of any shall be immediately called
2. The school personnel shall intervene, by:
i. Stopping the bullying or retaliation immediately;
ii. Separating the students involved;
iii. Removing the victim or, in appropriate cases, the bully or
offending student, from the site;
iv. Ensuring the victim’s safety
v. Bringing the bully to the Guidance Office or the designated
school personnel.

B. Reporting the Bullying Incident or Retaliation

• All bullying incidents or retaliation shall be immediately reported to the
teacher, guidance counselor or any person designated to handle bullying
incident.
• Intake Sheet, as provided in DepEd Order No. 40, s. 2012, shall be filled
up.
• The school head or the designated school personnel shall inform the
parents or guardian of the victim and the bully about the incident.
• If an incident of bullying or retaliation involves students from more than
one school, the school that was first informed of the bullying or retaliation
shall promptly notify the appropriate administrator or school head of the
other school so that both schools may take appropriate action.
• Anonymous reports shall be entertained, and the person who reported the
incident shall be afforded protection from possible retaliation.

C. Fact - Finding and Documentation

The school administrator or school head, guidance counselor/teacher, or

person designated to handle bullying incidents shall:

1.Separately interview in private the bully or offending student and the

victim.

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2. Determine the levels of threats and develop intervention strategies.

3. Inform the victim and the parents or guardian of the steps to be taken
to prevent any further acts of bullying or retaliation; and

4. Make appropriate recommendations to the Child Protection Committee

on proper interventions, referrals and monitoring.

D. Intervention

The CPC shall determine the appropriate intervention programs for the
victim, the bully and bystanders. The School Head shall ensure that these are
provided to them.

E. Referral

Further assessment and appropriate intervention measures, the school

head or the CPC may refer the victims and the bully to trained professionals
outside the school, such as social workers, psychologists, as may be necessary.

The school head or the designated school personnel shall notify the
Women and Children’s Protection Desk (WPCD) of the local Philippine National
Police, if he believes that appropriate criminal charges may be pursued against
the bully or offending student.

F. Disciplinary Measures

o Bullying incidents or retaliation shall be treated according to their

nature, gravity or severity and attendant circumstances.
o Punitive measures will be the last resort
o Written reprimand
o Community service
o Suspension
o Exclusion or expulsion
o Required to undergo an intervention program which shall be
administered or supervised by the school’s CPC. The parents of the
bully shall be encouraged to join the intervention program.

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Applicability of R.A. 9344, as amended, and other related laws (IRR)

If the bullying incident or retaliation resulted in serious physical injuries
or death, the case shall be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of
Republic Act 9344 or the “Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act,” as amended, and
its Implementing Rules and Regulations, in connection with other applicable
laws, as may be warranted by the circumstances attendant to the bullying
incident.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Assuming you are the principal of a certain school and there is a

cyber-bullying case that you handle. Make a diagram or a process
chart showing the procedure in handling bullying cases in a school.

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Lesson 4

& POSITIVE DISCIPLINE

Positive Discipline is an approach to teaching that helps children succeed,

gives them the information they need to learn, and supports their development.
It respects children’s rights to healthy development, protection from violence,
and active participation in their learning.

The Department of Education has issued Department Order 40, s.2012,

which prohibits the use of corporal punishment and promotes the use of Positive
Discipline.

What is corporal punishment?

Corporal Punishment is defined in the United Nations Committee on the

Rights of the Child General Comment No. 8 as any punishment in which physical
force is used and intended to cause some degree of pain or discomfort, however
light. Most involves hitting (smacking, slapping, spanking) children, with the
hand or with an implement -- a whip, stick, belt, shoe, wooden spoon, etc. It
can also involve, for example, kicking, shaking or throwing children, scratching,
pinching, biting, pulling hair or boxing ears, forcing children to stay in
uncomfortable positions, burning, scolding or forced ingestion (for example,
washing children’s mouths out with soap or forcing them to swallow hot spices).
The Committee believes that corporal punishment is invariably degrading.

There are also non-physical forms of punishment that are cruel and
degrading and are thus incompatible with the Convention. Examples are
punishment that belittles, humiliates, denigrates, scapegoats, threatens, scares
or ridicules the child.

In the Philippines, we aim to put an end to the practice of corporal and

other humiliating and degrading forms of punishment.

Magnitude and Effects of Corporal Punishment

Of the forms of violence experienced by children globally, corporal

punishment is the most common; 80% to 98% of children experience it in their
homes. In the Philippines, a study conducted by Save the Children in 2005
revealed that 85% of children have experienced corporal punishment in their
homes and that the most common form is spanking (65%). A majority of the

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children interviewed for this study (82%) reported that they had been hit on
different parts of their body.

In 2011, about two in three parents of children under 17 said they used
corporal punishment. Spanking the bottom (52%) was the most prevalent form of
corporal punishment used.

Over the past 30 years, numerous studies have been conducted globally
on the effects of physical punishment of children. They have consistently
demonstrated that physical punishment predicts negative outcomes throughout
childhood and into adulthood. It increases children’s risks for increased
aggression, increased delinquency and anti-social behavior, physical injury and
reports to child welfare, poorer parent-child relationships, and poorer mental
health (Gershoff, 2002). It is also associated with lower self-esteem and poorer
academic success.

Legal Basis for Prohibiting Corporal Punishment and the Practice of Positive
Discipline

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child requires that States Parties
“shall take all appropriate measures to protect the child from all forms of
violence (Article 19).” States Parties are also required to “take all appropriate
measures to ensure that school discipline is administered in a manner consistent
with the child’s human dignity and in conformity with the present Convention.
(Article 28(2)).”

In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd) supports the

prohibition of corporal punishment and practice of positive discipline in public
and private schools.

Positive Discipline in Everyday Teaching (PDET)

Effective discipline is positive and constructive. It involves setting goals

for learning, and finding constructive solutions to challenging situations. School
should respect children’s developmental levels, their rights to dignity and
physical integrity, and their right to participate fully in their learning.

Positive Discipline is:

About finding long term solutions that develop students’ own self-
discipline;
Clear and consistent communication;
Consistent reinforcement of your expectations, rules and limits;
Based on knowing your students and being fair;

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Aimed at building a mutually respectful relationship with your students;

Teaching students life-long skills and fostering their love of learning;
Teaching courtesy, non-violence, empathy, self-respect, and respect for
others and their rights; and
Increasing students’ competence and confidence to handle academic
challenges and difficult situations.

Positive Discipline is not:

Permissiveness;
Letting students do whatever they want;
Having no rules, limits or expectations;
Short-term reactions; or
Alternative punishment to slapping, hitting and shaming

The Positive Discipline in Everyday Teaching approach is based on sound

pedagogical principles and practice. Positive Discipline is:

✽ Holistic: It applies not only to students’ behavior, but to all aspects of

their learning and social interactions;

✽ Strength-based: It identifies and builds on the students’ strengths;

✽ Constructive: It is aimed at strengthening students’ self-esteem and

confidence;

✽ Inclusive: It recognizes and respects the diversity of all students;

✽ Pro-active: It identifies the roots of behavioral and learning difficulties

and implements strategies to promote success and avoid conflict; and

✽ Participatory: It engages students in the learning process and in the

school community.

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The practice of Positive Discipline in Everyday Teaching (PDET) uses the

following model:

This model identifies the key elements of the PDET approach. All must be
put into practice in all interactions with students.

IDENTIFYING LONG-TERM GOALS

Teachers play an important role in helping children become caring,
capable and resilient adults. For this to happen, it is crucial that you as their
teacher consider what kind of people you want your students to become, and to
use everyday interactions with them in school to teach the values and skills that
they will need to become strong and compassionate adults. The first step in
implementing PDET is setting long-term goals.

PROVIDING WARMTH
WARMTH is creating school and classroom environments that ensure your
students feel physically and emotionally safe. It requires that you recognize and
respect their developmental levels, are sensitive to their academic and social
needs, and empathize with their emotions and the situations they may be facing.
Children learn best and will cooperate more in a warm, safe and caring
environment. Examples of showing warmth are listening to them, showing them
respect even when they make mistakes, encouraging them especially when they

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are having difficulties and looking at things from their point of view.

PROVIDING STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE is the information students need in order to succeed
academically and behaviorally. It gives students the tools they need to solve
problems, work out conflicts, and succeed academically. Examples of providing
structure are providing opportunities to fix their mistakes in a way that helps
them to learn, hearing their point of view, controlling your anger, teaching them
about the effects of their actions on other people, involving them in setting
rules, explaining the reasons for rules, and being a good role model to them.

UNDERSTANDING CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Students change as they grow and it is important that teachers recognize
that their expectations and ways of teaching should also change as the students’
ways of thinking, needs, and interests change. The warmth and structure that
you provide to your students to reach your long-term goals will change depending
on their stage of development.

IDENTIFYING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

While all children go through the same stages of development, children
are not all alike. They come from different homes and cultural environment and
have different personalities, talents, temperaments and abilities, which all
affect their behavior and performance in school. A teacher who understands and
respects students as individuals can make the difference between their success
and failure in school.

Examples of Responding with Positive Discipline

Positive discipline is practiced every day and not only when problems
occur. We use problem solving when we are facing challenging situations in the
classroom. Let us look at some common classroom situations and explore possible
ways of responding using the Positive Discipline. It is important to note that every
situation is different and that teachers need to consider each situation and follow
each step. Each step will help teachers respond with Positive Discipline. The
examples of the responses to classroom situations below are not the only ways
of responding with Positive Discipline. The teachers may arrive at other
responses when they follow all the steps.

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Kindergarten
Situation: Continuous Crying
A boy in your Kindergarten class has been crying, screaming, and clinging
to his mother every morning whenever he drops him off. You feel this is
disrupting the class and taking much of your time and attention. How could you
find a solution to this problem that does not harm the child?

Step 1 - What are all of the possible reason/s why a child of this age might
behave this way?
Some reasons could be:

✽ It is his first time being separated from his parents.

✽ He has difficulty adapting to new situations/ surroundings.

✽ He has a very intense response to new situations and events.

✽ He is scared of the new surroundings.

✽ He doesn’t know when his mother will return.

✽ He was left behind in a store once, and is now very afraid of being
alone.

✽ He has difficulty managing his emotions.

✽ He is afraid of the teacher because someone told him that children are
hit at school.

✽ The teacher looks like someone he is afraid of.

Step 2 - Now remember your long-term goals.

✽ You want the child to feel safe and happy in a learning environment.

✽ You want the child to gradually become more comfortable in new

environments.

✽ You want the child to gradually become independent and able to

manage stress on his own.

✽ You want the child to gradually learn how to manage his feelings.

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Step 3 - In this situation, how can you show warmth?

✽ Remember that entering school is a huge transition and a tremendous

challenge for children.

✽ Recognize the child’s anxiety and stress, and show empathy.

✽ Show him that you care about his feelings.

✽ Speak to him using a calm and soothing voice.

Step 4 - In this situation, how can you provide structure?

✽ Tell him about the activities he will do at school today.

✽ Ask him what he likes to do and show him how he can do that in your
classroom.

✽ Assure him that his mom will come back for him after school.

✽ Introduce him to one other student who would be supportive.

✽ Ask the child what would help him feel more comfortable.

Step 5 - Responding with Positive Discipline

By putting all of the previous steps together, you will generate a response
that will ensure that the child feels safe and will help him understand more about
the situation. Positive Discipline is about problem solving, so you may try several
different ways of providing warmth and structure before you find the response
that actually addresses the problem as the child sees it. Successful problem
solving requires us to see the situation through the child’s eyes.

Situation: GRABBING OTHERS’ BELONGINGS (TOYS, THINGS, FOOD, ETC.)

While you are conducting activities in your kindergarten class, one of your
pupils approaches you and complains about her classmate who grabbed her
pencil and took her crayons without her permission.

Step 1 - What do you think could be the possible reason/s why a child might
behave this way?
Some reasons could be:

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✽ The child doesn’t really understand the idea of personal property yet.

✽ The child might not fully understand the effects of her behavior on
other children.

✽ The child may not know how to approach another child to borrow things
or ask for food.

✽ The child may think that acting like this is playing.

✽ The child may be seeking attention.

✽ The child may want to initiate socialization with a classmate but does
not know how to do it.

Step 2 - Now, remember your long-term goals.

✽ You want the child to be able to respect others’ belongings.

✽ You want the child to be able to learn to share and to cooperate with
others.

Step 3 - In this situation, how can you show warmth?

✽ Understand that children at this age do not understand the concept of

ownership and the need to ask and wait for permission.

✽ Speak to the child with a gentle, reassuring voice.

Step 4 - In this situation, how can you provide structure?

✽ Explain and establish the rules of behavior right at the beginning of the
school year. The children themselves should participate in identifying
the rules so that they own the rules.

✽ Help the children understand that if they want to borrow something

from their classmate, asking permission is a good way to build a
relationship.

✽ Explain and perhaps role play what the other child might feel if one
does not share and if one takes things without permission.

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Step 5 - Responding with Positive Discipline

Do not punish. Instead of scolding and humiliating the child in front of her
classmates, talk to her privately. In a calm voice, express understanding, care
and concern. Explain the value of asking and waiting for permission to use other
children’s things. Explore the child’s ideas of how to have fun while sharing toys
and things.
You may integrate values education on sharing, cooperation, and taking
turns with teaching concepts such as numbers. You may teach children the values
of sharing and asking for permission to introduce concepts of adding or
subtracting.
Try Role Playing during playtime to teach your pupils about sharing with
others. Then, it would also be good to remind the class about the rules of sharing
and taking turns.

In Grade School
Situation: Disruptive Behavior (Talking in Class)
You are teaching the class and you notice a noisy group of boys and girls
at the back near the window. They keep talking and laughing during the lesson.
The noise disrupts the class and you find it difficult to concentrate.

Step 1 - What do you think could be the possible reason/s why a child might
behave this way?
Some reasons could be:

❏ The children may not understand the lesson so they ask each other
about the topic.

❏ One of their classmates may have shared a joke and the others cannot
control their laughter.

❏ The children may have seen something outside the classroom that
caught their interest.

❏ The children may be getting bored with the lesson.

❏ The children may be talking about something else.

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Step 2 - Now remember your long-term goals.

❏ You want the children to be to able show respect by listening when

someone is talking.

❏ You want the children to be able to set priorities.

❏ You want the children to be aware of the effect of their actions on

others.

❏ You want the children to love learning and prioritize activities in class.

Step 3 - In this situation, how can you show warmth?

❏ Understand that some children can be easily distracted.

❏ Understand that they have different interests and learning styles; some
learn faster through discussions, while some learn better through
activities.

❏ Understand that children may not always be aware of the effect of their
actions on others.

Step 4 - In this situation, how can you provide structure?

❏ Ask them calmly what is happening. Let the children share what they
were talking and laughing about.

❏ Tell them that you and the other pupils are distracted by noise.

❏ Remind them about the rules they have set.

❏ Remind them that conversations about other topics may be done

between classes and during recess time.

❏ Provide interactive discussions or activities so everyone can participate.

Step 5 - Responding with Positive Discipline

Do not throw the eraser or chalk, shame, or shout at the children in front
of their classmates. Instead, control your anger and ask them in a calm voice
what is going on. You may also ask them if they have questions about the lesson.
Explain to them that noise can distract your teaching and thinking process, and
that it is also distracting to their classmates. Remind them about the rules on

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listening and that they were part of creating those rules for the class. Tell them
that they can discuss other topics during their free time or in between classes.
Remind the whole class about the classroom rules and explain to them the
importance of listening. You may also introduce innovative teaching methods
where interaction is possible such as role-playing, dance or action songs so
everyone can participate. This can also provide a break for children who are
easily bored or who need to discuss issues raised in class with other students
rather than just listening to the teacher speak.

Situation: Fighting
You have a group activity for your Grade 2 pupils. Your pupils alerted you
to the fact that two of their boy classmates in one group were fighting. You found
out that the fight started with the pupils teasing each other. They made each
other angry and then started punching each other.

Step 1 - What do you think could be the possible reason/s why a child might
behave this way?
Some reasons could be:

❏ Children may not be aware of how their words and actions affect others.

❏ Children may not know how to respond in a non-violent way when they
are offended.

❏ Children may be sensitive and may easily get angry or irritated.

❏ Children may not know how to handle or manage their anger properly.

❏ Children’s reaction to situations may be very intense.

Step 2 - Now remember your long-term goals.

❏ You want children to be able to manage and handle their anger

properly.

❏ You want children to know how to resolve conflicts without using

violence.

❏ You want children to be aware of the effect of their words and actions
on others.

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Step 3 - In this situation, how can you show warmth?

❏ Understand that at this age, children may not know how to manage or
handle anger effectively.

❏ Understand that children may not know how to resolve conflicts in a

non-violent way.

❏ Remember that some children may come from violent homes and their
exposure to this can sometimes lead them to act out in violent ways in
school.

❏ Understand that children are not trying to annoy you or challenge your
authority.

❏ Understand children’s diverse temperaments.

❏ Make sure that everyone is safe from injury or if injured, that they are
sent to the school clinic for treatment.

❏ Listen to what each child has to say.

Step 4 - In this situation, how can you provide structure?

❏ Talk to the children immediately. Listen to each child’s explanation

about what happened. Ask what the fight was about.

❏ Remind the children about classroom rules.

❏ Remind them about the effects of their behavior on others and on the
rest of the class.

Step 5 - Responding with Positive Discipline

Instead of shouting and getting angry, blaming others or having your
pupils standing outside the room, call them calmly and talk to them separately.
Let each child explain what happened form his/her own perspective. Ask them
about how their behavior affected the other child and the rest of the children in
the class. Ask them what can be done next time to prevent such fights from
occurring and remind them that in whatever situation, hitting or hurting others
will not help resolve the conflict. You can then ask the children for ideas on what
they can do now to resolve the situation.

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In case a fight between and among pupils results to serious physical

injuries or death, teachers and school administrators can refer to the various
DepEd issuances for proper guidance in handling the case.

In High School
Situation: No Assignments or Reports
A graduating high school student in your advisory class is in danger of
failing. He has several projects in different subjects that he could not submit.
There are also projects that he was not able to do.
When you asked him why this is so, he said that he is always running
out of time to do the projects.

Step 1 - What do you think could be the possible reason/s why a child might
behave this way?
Some reasons could be:
▲ The student may have low persistence level.
▲ The student may have difficulty managing his time, balancing school
work and social life.
▲ The student may be pressured by peers to join activities away from
school work such as drinking, smoking, etc.
▲ The project may not be suited to the student’s capability.

Step 2 - Now remember your long-term goals

▲ You want the student to be able to manage time and balance school
work and social life.
▲ You want the student to set priorities.
▲ You want the student to keep trying even if the projects may be
difficult.
▲ You want the student to ask for help when he has difficulties.
▲ You want the student to become a competent person.

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Step 3 - In this situation, how can you show warmth?

▲ Talk to the student in private.
▲ Show concern to the student regarding his performance in school.
▲ Provide support and guidance, rather than punishment and criticism.

Step 4 - In this situation, how can you provide structure?

▲ Provide clear instructions about how to do the projects.
▲ Ask the student about possible time-saving strategies that can be used
to complete the projects.
▲ Provide information about the importance of completing projects.
▲ Let him know that he can always ask for your help if he needs it.

Step 5 - Responding with Positive Discipline

Instead of telling students that they will fail the subject if they don’t
comply with the requirements, show support and concern for the student. Ask
him if he needs help in doing the project.
Negotiate with him on how he can make up for the assignments and
projects. Ask his suggestions on the best possible way to accomplish the task.
The student may need to be shown how learning, projects and assignments
may actually improve his work prospects. Relate the student’s special skills to
what he is learning in class.
Encourage students to help each other in completing assignments (peer-
to-peer learning).

Situation: Absenteeism or Tardiness

You are checking your advisory class record and you notice that one of
your female students is frequently absent.

Step 1 - What do you think could be the possible reason/s why a child might
behave this way?
Some reasons could be:

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▲ The student may be sick.

▲ When the parents are working, the student has to take care of younger
siblings.
▲ The student may be suffering from bullying and she does not want to
go to school.
▲ There is peer pressure to skip school.
▲ The student is having difficulties in class because the teaching methods
used do not fit her learning style.
▲ The student was not able to complete the assignments due on those
days and is embarrass to show up empty-handed.

Step 2 - Now remember your long-term goals.

▲ You want the student to be able to seek help if she is experiencing
difficulties such as bullying.
▲ You want the student to be able to resist peer pressure and set
priorities.
▲ You want her to be a responsible student.
▲ You want her to be accountable for her actions

Step 3 - In this situation, how can you show warmth?

▲ Through caring gestures and conversations, show the students that she
is important to you.
▲ Understand that at this age, socialization is very important to students.
▲ Talk to the student calmly and privately and let her explain why she is
frequently absent.

Step 4 - In this situation, how can you provide structure?

▲ Provide proper monitoring of the child. You may conduct home visits
and talk to her parents or guardians.
▲ Remind the student about the school rules.
▲ Explain the effects of her behavior on her class performance.

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▲ Provide ideas on how to manage time and set priorities.

▲ Consider the student’s learning style and use activities suited to her
learning preference such as music, dance, physical activity, or
interactive discussion where the student and the rest of the class can
participate.

Step 5 - Responding with Positive Discipline

Instead of embarrassing her for always being absent, talk to the student
calmly and privately and ask why she is frequently absent. Listen to her
explanation and explain the effects of her behavior on her school performance.
Remind her of the class rules and provide tips on how she can manage her
time and set priorities. Remind her about the importance of education.
Enhance your teaching methods. Give students more activities suitable to
their learning styles, talents, and interests. Lead discussions where they can
share their opinion, feel that they belong and that they are important

Conclusion
The discussion of the various situations is aimed at providing guidance to
teachers and pre-service teachers in problem-solving using Positive Discipline to
common classroom challenges.
Practicing Positive Discipline involves a thoughtful and holistic approach
to your relationships with young people. It may seem more difficult to you right
now, but it will help make your interactions with students more respectful and
caring, and in the longer term that investment will provide a happier and calmer
classroom and school environment. It is a continuous learning process for both
teachers and students. It requires commitment and adherence to the rights of
the child to be taught and treated with respect while in school.

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? APPLY!

Read the situation below and apply the Positive Discipline following the
format:
Situation: RUDENESS
You noticed that one of your Grade 4 pupils has low grades in most of
her subjects. You decide to talk to her first before talking to her parents or
guardians. When you were talking to her about her grades, she started talking
back at you and answering your queries in what you felt was a rude manner.
Step 1 - Reasons 1.
2.
3.
4.
Step 2 – Long-term goals 5.
6.
7
Step 3 – Warmth 8.
9.
10.
Step 4 – Provide structure 11.
12.
Step 5 – Positive Discipline 13.
14.
15.

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4
MODULE SUMMARY

In module VI, you have learned the different laws pertaining to the safety
and security of children in their learning environments.

There were four lessons in Module VI. Lesson I discussed the United Nations
Convention on the Right of the Child and PD 603 or The Child and Youth Welfare
Code. It expounded mostly on the laws pertaining to the rights and
responsibilities of the child and their home, family and community as well.

Lesson 2 explained briefly the Anti-Bullying Act. It also determined the

different kinds of bullying acts and the obligations of the school in cases where
bullying happens.

Lesson 3 discussed on the Child Protection Policy. In this legal basis, it has
broader scope in terms of the policies pertaining to the protection of children in
school and at home.

Lesson 4 helped you to understand clearly the use of Positive Discipline in

addressing cases in school. Sample situations and suggested solutions for cases
concerning behavior and academic performance in school.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module VI. now you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. Good Luck!!!

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? SUMMATIVE TEST
Answer the given items. Use a separate sheet if necessary.

1. Make a Venn Diagram which indicates the similarities and differences of the
UNCRC and PD 603.

UNCRC PD 603

2. Read the following situations and supply the appropriate action needed.

Situation 1:
You’ve been teasing one of your friends because he or she is really bad
at reading and writing and you noticed that recently he/she has started to sit
alone. Once you noticed tears in the child’s eyes. What should you do?
Answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Situation 2:
You have an older step-brother/sister who’s very fond of you. He/ She
often wants to kiss you, and hug you, but although you like him/her, it makes
you feel uncomfortable. What should you do?
Answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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Situation 3:
A groups of older kids from another school like to pick on younger from
your primary school. They wait to catch a child walking home or waiting for
the bus alone, surround him or her, and take money, food, or toys. They also
throw rocks and threaten to do worse. What should you do?
Answer:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

3. What do you think is the role of educators in preventing and responding to

child abuse, negligence and bullying in schools and at home?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. As a future educator, how do you impose positive discipline without shouting

and spanking?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Module VI – EDUC 101 – The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles