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PAKISTAN AFFAIRS
LECTURE 11

DR. SANAWAR IQBAL

B.Sc (PU), B.D.S (PMC), M.S HEALTH ADMINISTRATION( IAS, PU)

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Lecture 11
1. The Kashmir Issue
2. Foreign Policy of Pakistan Post 9/11

THE KASHMIR ISSUE

Introduction:
 The Kashmir conflict is a territorial conflict over the Kashmir region, primarily
between India and Pakistan, with China playing a third-party role.

 The conflict started after the partition of India in 1947 as both India and
Pakistan claimed the entirety of the former princely state of Jammu and
Kashmir.
 It is a dispute over the region that escalated into three wars between India and
Pakistan and several other armed skirmishes.
 India controls approximately 55% of the land area of the region that includes
Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, most of Ladakh, the Siachen Glacier, and 70% of
its population; Pakistan controls approximately 35% of the land area that
includes Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan; and China controls the remaining
20% of the land area that includes the Aksai Chin region, the mostly
uninhabited TransKarakoram Tract, and part of the Demchok sector.
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 According to scholars, Indian forces have committed many human rights abuses
and acts of terror against the Kashmiri civilian population, including extrajudicial
killing, rape, torture, and enforced disappearances.

 According to Amnesty International, no member of the Indian military deployed

in Jammu and Kashmir has been tried for human rights violations in a civilian
court as of June 2015.

 Amnesty International has also accused the Indian government of refusing to

prosecute perpetrators of abuses in the region.

Historical Background

 The Afghan Durrani Empire ruled Kashmir from 1752 until its 1819 conquest by
the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh.

 The Raja of Jammu Gulab Singh, who was a vassal of the Sikh Empire and an
influential noble in the Sikh court, sent expeditions to various border kingdoms
and ended up encircling Kashmir by 1840.

 Following the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846), Kashmir was ceded under the

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 Treaty of Lahore to the East India Company, which transferred it to Gulab
Singh through the Treaty of Amritsar, in return for the payment of indemnity
owed by the Sikh empire.
 Gulab Singh took the title of the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.

 From 1846 till the 1947 partition of India, Kashmir was ruled by maharajas of
Gulab Singh's Dogra dynasty, as a princely state under British Paramountcy.
 The British Raj managed the defence, external affairs, and communications for
the princely state and stationed a British Resident in Srinagar to oversee the
internal administration.

 According to the 1941 census, the state's population was 77 percent Muslim,
20 percent Hindu and 3 percent others (Sikhs and Buddhists).Despite its
Muslim majority, the princely rule was an overwhelmingly a Hindu-dominated
state.The Muslim majority suffered under the high taxes of the administration
and had few opportunities for growth and advancement.

Partition of Subcontinent and Kashmir:

 British rule in the Indian subcontinent ended in 1947 with the creation of new
states: the dominions of Pakistan and India, as the successor states to British
India.

 The British Paramountcy over the 562 Indian princely states ended.

 According to the Indian Independence Act 1947, "the suzerainty of

His
Majesty over the Indian States lapses, and with it, all treaties and agreements in
force at the date of the passing of this Act between His Majesty and the rulers of
Indian States".

 States were thereafter left to choose whether to join India or Pakistan or to

remain independent.
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 Jammu and Kashmir, the largest of the princely states, had a predominantly
Muslim population ruled by the Hindu Maharaja Hari Singh.

 He decided to stay independent because he expected that the State's Muslims

would be unhappy with accession to India, and the Hindus and Sikhs would
become vulnerable if he joined Pakistan.
Accession of Kashmir:

 The Instrument of Accession of Kashmir to India was accepted by the Governor

General of India, Lord Mountbatten.
 The Maharaja's troops could not withstand the tribal militia attack in September
and October 1947; they were heavily outnumbered and outgunned by the tribal
militias, and were also facing internal rebellions from Muslim troops.

 The Maharaja made an urgent plea to Delhi for military assistance. Upon the
Governor General Lord Mountbatten's insistence, India required the Maharaja
to accede before it could send troops.

 Accordingly, the Maharaja signed an instrument of accession on 26 October

1947, which was accepted by the Governor General the next day.

 While the Government of India accepted the accession, it added the provision
that it would be submitted to a "reference to the people" after the state is
cleared of the invaders, since "only the people, not the Maharaja, could decide
where Kashmiris wanted to live." it was a provisional accession.

 The Indian troops, which were airlifted in the early hours of 27 October,
captured the Srinagar airport. The city of Srinagar was being patrolled by the
National Conference volunteers with Hindus and Sikhs moving about freely
among Muslims, an "incredible sight" to visiting journalists. The National
Conference also worked with the Indian Army to occupy the city.

 In the north of the state lay the Gilgit Agency, which had been leased by British
India but returned to the Maharaja shortly before Independence. Gilgit's
population did not favour the State's accession to India. Sensing their
discontent, Major William Brown, the Maharaja's commander of the Gilgit
Scouts, mutinied on 1 November 1947, overthrowing the Governor Ghansara

Singh.

 The bloodless coup d'etat was planned by Brown to the last detail under the
code name "Datta Khel".

 Local leaders in Gilgit formed a provisional government (Aburi Hakoomat),

naming Raja Shah Rais Khan as the president and Mirza Hassan Khan as the

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 commander-in-chief. But, Major Brown had already telegraphed Khan Abdul
Qayyum Khan asking Pakistan to take over. According to historian Yaqoob Khan
Bangash, the provisional government lacked sway over the population which
had intense pro-Pakistan sentiments.Pakistan's Political Agent, Khan
Mohammad Alam Khan, arrived on 16 November and took over the
administration of Gilgit. According to various scholars, the people of Gilgit as
well as those of Chilas, Koh Ghizr, Ishkoman, Yasin, Punial, Hunza and Nagar
joined Pakistan by choice.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

 In May 1948, the Pakistani army officially entered the conflict to defend the
Pakistan borders.

 On 1 November 1947, Mountbatten flew to Lahore for a conference with

Jinnah, proposing that, in all the princely States where the ruler did not
accede to a Dominion corresponding to the majority population (which would
have included Junagadh, Hyderabad as well as Kashmir), the accession should
be decided by an "impartial reference to the will of the people". Jinnah
rejected the offer.

 According to Jinnah, India acquired the accession through "fraud and

violence". A plebiscite was unnecessary and states should accede according to
their majority population

 For a plebiscite, Jinnah demanded simultaneous troop withdrawal for he felt

that 'the average Muslim would never have the courage to vote for Pakistan'
in the presence of Indian troops and with Sheikh Abdullah in power.

 Prime Ministers Nehru and Liaquat Ali Khan met again in December, when

Nehru informed Khan of India's intention to refer the dispute to the United
Nations under article 35 of the UN Charter, which allows the member states
to bring to the Security Council attention situations 'likely to endanger the
maintenance of international peace'.

 Nehru and other Indian leaders were afraid since 1947 that the "temporary"
accession to India might act as an irritant to the bulk of the Muslims of
Kashmir.

 V.P. Menon, Secretary in Patel's Ministry of States, admitted in an interview

in 1964 that India had been absolutely dishonest on the issue of plebiscite.

UN mediation
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 India sought resolution of the issue at the UN Security Council, despite

Sheikh Abdullah's opposition to it.

 Following the set-up of the United Nations Commission for India and
Pakistan (UNCIP), the UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April
1948. The measure called for an immediate cease-fire and called on the Government of
Pakistan 'to secure the withdrawal from the state of Jammu and Kashmir of tribesmen and
Pakistani nationals not normally resident therein who have entered the state for the purpose
of fighting.' It also asked Government of India to reduce its forces to minimum strength, after
which the circumstances for holding a plebiscite should be put into effect 'on the question of
Accession of the state to India or Pakistan.'

 However, it was not until 1 January 1949 that the ceasefire could be put into effect, signed by
General Douglas Gracey on behalf of Pakistan and General Roy Bucher on behalf of

India.However, both India and Pakistan failed to arrive at a truce agreement due to differences
over interpretation of the procedure for and the extent of demilitarisation. One sticking point
was whether the Azad Kashmiri army was to be disbanded during the truce stage or at the
plebiscite stage.

 The UNCIP made three visits to the subcontinent between 1948 and 1949, trying to find a
solution agreeable to both India and Pakistan. A two-part process was proposed for the
withdrawal of forces. In the first part, Pakistan was to withdraw its forces as well as other
Pakistani nationals from the state. In the second part, "when the Commission shall have notified
the Government of India" that Pakistani withdrawal has been completed, India was to withdraw
the bulk of its forces. After both the withdrawals were completed, a plebiscite would be held.The
resolution was accepted by India but effectively rejected by Pakistan.

 The Pakistan government held that the state of Jammu and Kashmir had executed a standstill
agreement with Pakistan which precluded it from entering into agreements with other countries.
It also held that the Maharaja had no authority left to execute accession because his people had
revolted and he had to flee the capital. It believed that the Azad Kashmir movement, as well as
the tribal incursions, were indigenous and spontaneous, and Pakistan's assistance to them was
not open to criticism.

 Cold War historian Robert J. McMahon states that American officials increasingly blamed India
for rejecting various UNCIP truce proposals under various dubious legal technicalities just to
avoid a plebiscite. McMahon adds that they were "right" since a Muslim majority made a vote
to join Pakistan the "most likely outcome" and postponing the plebiscite would serve India's
interests.

 Scholars have commented that the failure of the Security Council efforts of mediation owed to
the fact that the Council regarded the issue as a purely political dispute without investigating
its legal underpinnings.

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Dixon Plan

 The UNCIP appointed its successor, Sir Owen Dixon, to implement demilitarisation prior to a
statewide plebiscite on the basis of General McNaughton's scheme, and to recommend solutions
to the two governments.

 Dixon's efforts for a statewide plebiscite came to naught due to India's constant rejection of the
various alternative demilitarisation proposals, for which Dixon rebuked India harshly.
 Dixon then offered an alternative proposal, widely known as the Dixon plan. Dixon did not view
the state of Jammu and Kashmir as one homogeneous unit and therefore proposed that a
plebiscite be limited to the Valley.

 Dixon agreed that people in Jammu and Ladakh were clearly in favour of India; equally clearly,
those in Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas wanted to be part of Pakistan. This left the
Kashmir Valley and 'perhaps some adjacent country' around Muzaffarabad in uncertain political
terrain.Pakistan did not accept this plan because it believed that India's commitment to a
plebiscite for the whole state should not be abandoned.

 Dixon also had concerns that the Kashmiris, not being high-spirited people, may vote under fear
or improper influences. Following Pakistan's objections, he proposed that Sheikh Abdullah
administration should be held in "commission" (in abeyance) while the plebiscite was held. This
was not acceptable to India which rejected the Dixon plan. Another grounds for India's rejection
of the limited plebiscite was that it wanted Indian troops to remain in Kashmir for "security
purposes", but would not allow Pakistani troops the same. However, Dixon's plan had
encapsulated a withdrawal by both sides. Dixon had believed a neutral administration would be
essential for a fair plebiscite.

 Dixon came to the conclusion that India would never agree to conditions and a demilitarization
which would ensure a free and fair plebiscite. Dixon's failure also compounded American
ambassador Loy Henderson's misgivings about Indian sincerity and he advised the US to maintain
a distance from the Kashmir dispute, which the US subsequently did, and leave the matter for
Commonwealth nations to intervene in.

1950 military standoff

 The convening of the Constituent Assembly in Indian Kashmir in July 1950 proved
contentious.

 Pakistan protested to the Security Council which informed India that this development
conflicted with the parties' commitments. The National Conference rejected this resolution
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and Nehru supported this by telling Dr Graham that he would receive no help in
implementing the Resolution.

 On 15 July 1951 the Pakistani Prime Minister complained that the bulk of the Indian Army
was concentrated on the Indo-Pakistan border.

 The Commonwealth had taken up the Kashmir issue in January 1951.

Australian Prime Minister

Robert Menzies suggested that a Commonwealth force be stationed in Kashmir;

that a joint Indo-Pakistani force be stationed in Kashmir and the plebiscite administrator be
entitled to raise local troops while the plebiscite would be held. Pakistan accepted these
proposals but India rejected them because it did not want Pakistan to have an equal footing.

 The UN Security Council called on India and Pakistan to honour the resolutions of plebiscite
both had accepted in 1948 and 1949.
 The United States and Britain proposed that if the two could not reach an agreement then
arbitration would be considered.

 Pakistan agreed but Nehru said he would not allow a third person to decide the fate of four
million people.

Sino-Indian War

 In 1962, troops from the People's Republic of China and India clashed in territory claimed by
both.

 China won a swift victory in the war.

 Aksai Chin, part of which was under Chinese jurisdiction before the war,remained under
Chinese control since then.

 Another smaller area, the Trans-Karakoram, was demarcated as the Line of Control (LOC)
between China and Pakistan, although some of the territory on the Chinese side is claimed
by India to be part of Kashmir.
 The line that separates India from China in this region is known as the "Line of Actual

Control". 1971 Indo-Pakistani war and Simla Agreement

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 The Line of Control between India and Pakistan agreed in the Simla Agreement

 The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 led to a loss for Pakistan and a military surrender in East
Pakistan. Bangladesh was created as a separate state with India's support and India emerged
as a clear regional power in South Asia.

 A bilateral summit was held at Simla as a follow-up to the war, where India pushed for peace
in South Asia.

 At stake were 5,139 square miles of Pakistan's territory captured by India during the conflict,
and over 90,000 prisoners of war held in Bangladesh. India was ready to return them in
exchange for a "durable solution" to the Kashmir issue.

 The deadlock was broken in a personal meeting between the Prime Ministers Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto and Indira Gandhi, where Bhutto acknowledged that the Kashmir issue should be
finally resolved and removed as a hurdle in India-Pakistan relations; that the cease-fire line,
to be renamed the Line of Control, could be gradually converted into a de jure border
between India and Pakistan;


and that he would take steps to integrate the Pakistani-controlled portions of Jammu and
Kashmir into the federal territories of Pakistan.

Accordingly, the Simla Agreement was formulated and signed by the two countries, whereby the
countries resolved to settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations
and to maintain the sanctity of the Line of Control. Multilateral negotiations were not ruled out,
but they were conditional upon both sides agreeing to them

 The Simla Agreement also stated that the two sides would meet again for establishing
durable peace.

Autonomy and plebiscite (1947–1953)

 Article 370 was drafted in the Indian constitution granting special autonomous status to the state
of Jammu and Kashmir, as per Instrument of Accession. This article specifies that the State must
concur in the application of laws by Indian parliament, except those that pertain to
Communications, Defence and Foreign Affairs. Central Government could not exercise its power
to interfere in any other areas of governance of the state.

 In a broadcast on 2 November 1947, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru announced that the fate of
Kashmir would ultimately be decided by the people, once law and order was established,
through a referendum "held under international auspices like the United Nations." A similar
pledge was made by the Government of India when the Kashmir dispute was referred to the UN
Security Council on 1 January 1948.


 According to historian Zutshi, in the late 1940s, most Kashmiri Muslims in Indian Kashmir were
still debating the value of the state's association with India or Pakistan

 On 15 January 1952, students staged a demonstration against the

hoisting of the state flag alongside the Indian Union flag. They were penalised,
giving rise to a big procession on 8 February. The military was called out and a
72-hour curfew imposed

 The '1952 Delhi Agreement' was formulated to settle the extent of applicability of the Indian
Constitution to the Jammu and Kashmir and the relation between the State and Centre. It was
reached between Nehru and Abdullah on 24 July 1952. Following this, the Constituent Assembly
abolished the monarchy in Kashmir, and adopted an elected Head of State (Sadr-i Riyasat).
However, the Assembly was reluctant to implement the remaining measures agreed to in the
Delhi Agreement.
Period of integration and rise of Kashmiri separatism (1954–1974)

 From all the information I have, 95 per cent of Kashmir Muslims do not wish to be or remain
Indian citizens. I doubt therefore the wisdom of trying to keep people by force where they do
not wish to stay. This cannot but have serious long-term political consequences, though
immediately it may suit policy and please public opinion.— Jayaprakash Narayan's letter to
Nehru, May 1, 1956.

 On 21 November 1964, the Articles 356 and 357 of the Indian Constitution were extended to the
state, by virtue of which the Central Government can assume the government of the State and
exercise its legislative powers.

 After Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Kashmiri nationalists Amanullah Khan and Maqbool Bhat, along
with Hashim Qureshi, in 1966, formed another Plebiscite Front in Azad Kashmir with an armed
wing called the National Liberation Front (NLF), with the objective of freeing Kashmir from Indian
occupation and then liberating the whole of Jammu and Kashmir. Later in 1976, Maqbool Bhat is
arrested on his return to the Valley. Amanullah Khan moved to England and there NLF was
renamed Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF).

 In 1974, the State Subject law was officially abolished in Gilgit Baltistan, which allowed any
Pakistani to settle and buy land.


Timeline of Kashmir issue

 16 March 1846: Jammu and Kashmir (princely state) was created with the signing of the Second
Treaty of Amritsar between the British East India company and Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu. It
was an addendum to the Treaty of Lahore, signed one week earlier, which gave the terms of
surrender of the Sikh Darbar at Lahore to the British. The Sikhs could not pay part of the demand
made by the British; Gulab Singh paid Rs 7,500,000 on their behalf, and in return received
Kashmir Valley, part of the Sikh territories, to add to Jammu and Ladakh already under his rule.
Gulab Singh accepted overall British sovereignty. Kashmir Valley was a Muslim-majority region
speaking the Kashmiri language and had a distinct culture called Kashmiriyat.

 10 May 1857 – 1 November 1858: India's First War of Independence.

 2 August 1858: End of Company rule in India.

 20 April 1927: Maharaja Hari Singh grants exclusive rights to state subjects (permanent
residents) for the first time in the 1927 (and subsequent 1932 order) Hereditary State Subject
order. One could gain state subject status after 10 years of permanent residence.

1931: The movement against the repressive Maharaja Hari Singh began and was brutally
suppressed by the State forces. Hari Singh was part of a Hindu Dogra dynasty which ruled over a
majority Muslim State. The predominantly Muslim population was kept poor, illiterate and
inadequately represented in the State's services.

23 March 1940: The Pakistan Resolution was passed at Iqbal Park, Lahore. The resolution
demanded the establishment of an independent state comprising all regions with Muslim
majorities. The letter "K" in the name "Pakistan" represented Kashmir.

 1946–1947: Kashmir unrest and accession

 May 1946: Sheikh Abdullah launched the Quit Kashmir movement against the Maharaja; he was
arrested and charged with sedition. Jawaharlal Nehru attempted to go to Kashmir to defend
Abdullah in court but was arrested and forced to leave the State.

 June 1946: Representatives of the Muslim Conference met Jinnah in Karachi and were told to
capitalise on the failure of Sheikh Abdullah to unseat the Maharaja.




 July 1946: The Muslim Conference complained that Prime Minister Ram Chandra Kak was
oppressing Muslims.

 July 1946: The Maharaja declared that Kashmiris would decide their own destiny without outside
interference.

 March 1947: Lord Mountbatten arrived in India as the last Viceroy of India, amidst country-wide
communal riots. The Unionist government of Punjab collapsed.

 3 June 1947: Mountbatten proposed the partition plan to divide British India into independent
dominions of India and Pakistan.

 19 June 1947: Lord Mountbatten visited Kashmir for 5 days to persuade the Maharaja to accede
to India or Pakistan. The Maharaja showed reluctance.

 June 1947: Poonchis started a 'No Tax' campaign against the Maharaja's administration.

 11 July 1947: Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that if Kashmir opted for independence, Pakistan
would have friendly relations with it. Liaquat Ali Khan endorsed this position.

 1 August 1947: The Gilgit Agency was transferred by the British to the Maharaja. British Political

Agent Colonel Roger Bacon handed over power to Major Ghansara Singh, the appointed
Governor of Gilgit. Major William Brown was appointed the commander of Gilgit
Scouts.

 14 August 1947 – 15 August 1947: Independence and Partition of British

India into India and Pakistan. Kashmir signed the Standstill Agreement with
Pakistan. India requested further discussions for a standstill agreement.
 13 September 1947: Pakistan accepted the accession of the Junagadh State. The Poonch rebels
in Murree began to lobby Jinnah with telegrams: "Atrocious military oppression in Poonch....
Kindly intervene."

26 September 1947: Civil & Military Gazette reported on the 'Exodus of Muslims from Jammu'.
50,000 Muslims were said to have migrated to West Punjab, halving Jammu city's Muslim
population.


 14 October 1947: Some activists of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and the Akalis mounted
attacks on villages of the Jammu district, which killed Muslims and set houses on fire, stated to
be the beginning of the 1947 Jammu violence.

 21 October 1947 – 22 October 1947: Pakistan precipitated the first Indo-Pakistani War when it
launched a tribal lashkar (levy) from Waziristan to overthrow the Maharaja's

government.Thousands of Pashtuns from Pakistan's North West Frontier Province, recruited

covertly by the Pakistani Army, invaded Kashmir along with the Poonch rebels, allegedly
incensed by atrocities against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in
looting and killing along the way. Pro-Pakistan members of the Maharaja's army rebelled at
Domel (Muzaffarabad) and took control of the Jhelum river bridge.

 26 October 1947 – 27 October 1947: The Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession (IOA),
acceding the state to the Indian Union. India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional until
such time as the will of the people could be ascertained.

 27 October 1947: The Indian army entered the state to repel the invaders. Sheikh Abdullah
endorsed the accession but termed it ad hoc and to be ultimately decided by the people of
Jammu and Kashmir. He was appointed head of the emergency administration.

 27 October 1947: Mohammad Ali Jinnah ordered General Douglas Gracey to send Pakistani
troops into Kashmir. Gracey declined, pointing out the fact of Kashmir's accession to India.
Gracey had a 'stand down order' from Supreme Commander Claude Auchinleck to the effect
that, in the event of an inter-Dominion war, all the British officers in both the armies must stand
down.

 8 December 1947: A meeting between Nehru and Liaquat Ali Khan, along with ministers and Lord
Mountbatten, was deadlocked. Mountbatten proposed that the UN be invited to break the
deadlock.

 31 December 1947: India referred the Kashmir problem to the UN Security Council.

 15 January 1948: India and Pakistan made presentations to the UN Security Council. While India
reiterated its demands in the original referral, Pakistan made wide-ranging allegations against
India including 'genocide' against Muslims in various places in India, unlawful occupation of
Junagadh and other issues. Pakistan demanded the withdrawal of both the raiders and the
Indians from Kashmir.

 17 January 1948: UN Security Council passed Resolution 38 which called upon India and Pakistan
to refrain from aggravating the situation and requested they inform the Council of any "material
changes" in the situation.



 20 January 1948: UN Security Council passed Resolution 39 which announced a 3-member

commission to investigate the Kashmir dispute. However the Commission did not come into
fruition until May 1948.
18 March 1948: The Republic of China, as the current Chair of the Security Council, tabled a
resolution in three parts: restoration of peace by calling upon Pakistan to withdraw the raiders,
request that India appoint a plebiscite administration with UN-nominated directors, and a




request that India broaden the interim government with representatives from all major political
groups.

21 March 1948: UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 which called for a three-step process
for the resolution of the dispute: Pakistani withdrawal of its nationals, India to reduce its troops
to minimum level, and arrangements for a plebiscite. The UN Commission, which was proposed
in January, was enlarged from three to five members under the name of United Nations
Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP). Both India and Pakistan rejected the resolution but
promised to work with the Commission.

 1 January 1949: A ceasefire between Indian and Pakistani forces left India in control of the
Kashmir Valley, most of the Jammu province and Ladakh, while Pakistan gained control of the
western districts comprising the present day Azad Kashmir, the Gilgit Agency and Baltistan.

 5 January 1949: UNCIP stated that the question of the accession of the State of Jammu and

Kashmir to India or Pakistan would be decided through a free and impartial plebiscite. As per the 1948
and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the principle that Pakistan would secure the
withdrawal of Pakistani intruders followed by withdrawal of Pakistani and Indian forces, as a basis for the
formulation of a truce agreement, the details of which were to be determined, followed by a plebiscite.
However, the countries failed to arrive at a truce agreement due to differences in interpretation of the
procedure for and extent of demilitarisation, one of them being whether the Azad Kashmiri army was to
be disbanded during the truce stage or the plebiscite stage.  28 April 1949: Azad Kashmir signed the
Karachi Agreement with Pakistan, which ceded control over defence and foreign affairs and complete
control over Gilgit-Baltistan. The agreement was kept secret until 1990.

 17 October 1949: The Indian Constituent Assembly adopted Article 370 of the Constitution,
ensuring a special status and internal autonomy for Jammu and Kashmir, with Indian jurisdiction
in Kashmir limited to the three areas agreed in the Instrument of Accession: defence, foreign
affairs and communications

 May 1950: UN mediator, Sir Owen Dixon, arrived in the subcontinent.

 July 1950: India–Pakistan summit in the presence of Owen Dixon failed to make progress. After
the summit, Dixon received a tentative proposal from Nehru for "partition cum plebisicte":
plebiscite to be held in the Kashmir Valley and the remaining state to be
partitioned as per prevailing control.

 August 1950: Liaquat Ali Khan accepted the partition-cum-plebiscite

principle provided India agreed to put the state under neutral administration.
India rejected any idea of replacing the National Conference administration. Dixon reported failure.

 June 1951: India moved troops to the India–Pakistan border in response to the rhetoric from
Pakistan. A military stand-off ensued. Pakistan regarded India's behaviour as "aggressive".Liaquat
Ali Khan displayed a clenched fist in defiance.

 September 1951 – October 1951: Elections were held for the Constituent Assembly of Jammu
and Kashmir, with 75 seats allocated to the Indian-administered part of Kashmir and 25 seats
reserved for the Pakistan-administered part. Sheikh Abdullah's National Conference won all 75
seats in a rigged election. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 91 to the effect that such
elections did not substitute a plebiscite.

 August 1953: Nehru pushed for a plebiscite in talks with Pakistan, and the two countries agreed
to appoint a Plebiscite Administrator within six months. A plebiscite would be held in all regions
and the state partitioned on the basis of the results.

 May 1954: Pakistan and US signed a mutual defence assistance agreement. Nehru withdrew the
plebiscite offer to Pakistan. He stated his concerns about the cold-war alignments and that such
an alliance affects the Kashmir issue. India resisted plebiscite efforts from this point

 February 1955 – 1956: The violent 1955 Poonch uprising erupts in Poonch Division in Pakistan
administered Jammu and Kashmir as a result of the dismissal of Sardar Ibrahim Khan. The
uprising is most severe in Rawalakot and Pallandri.

 17 November 1956: The state Constituent Assembly adopted a constitution for the state which
declared it an integral part of the Indian Union.

 24 January 1957: The UN Security Council passed Resolution 122 which stated that the state
constitution was not a final legal disposition of the State. India's Home Minister, Pandit Govind

Ballabh Pant, during his visit to Srinagar, declared that the State of Jammu and Kashmir was an
integral part of India and there can be no question of a plebiscite to determine its status afresh.
India continued to resist plebiscite efforts.

 1957: Elections were held for the first Legislative Assembly. National Conference won 69 of the
75 seats, where 47 seats were unopposed. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad continued as prime
minister.

 8 August 1958: Sheikh Abdullah was arrested in the Kashmir Conspiracy Case.

 1959: China annexed Tibet. Tensions rose between China and India on the issue of the boundary
between Tibet and India, especially in Aksai Chin.

 1962: Elections were held for the second Legislative Assembly. The National Conference won 68
of the 74 seats.
 1963–1987: Rise of Kashmiri nationalism

 March 1963: The Chinese government signed an agreement with Pakistan on the boundary
between the Northern Areas and the Xinjiang province, ceding the Trans-Karakoram Tract.

 27 December 1963 – 4 January 1964: A mass uprising occurred in the Kashmir Valley when the
holy relic was found missing from the Hazratbal Shrine; the lost relic was recovered after a few
days.

 8 April 1964: The government dropped all charges in the Kashmir Conspiracy Case. Sheikh
Abdullah was released after 11 years.

 21 November 1964 – 24 November 1964: Articles 356 and 357 of the Indian Constitution were
extended to the State, by virtue of which the Central Government can assume the government
of the State and exercise its legislative powers. The State Assembly then amended the State
Constitution, changing the posts of Sadr-i-Riyasat and "prime minister" to Governor and "chief
minister", consistent with the Indian Constitution. Scholar Sumantra Bose regarded it the "end of
the road" for Article 370 and the constitutional autonomy guaranteed by it.
 3 January 1965: The Jammu and Kashmir National Conference dissolved itself and merged into
the Indian National Congress, a centralising strategy.

 August 1965 – 23 September 1965: Indo-Pakistani War of 1965: Pakistan took advantage of the
discontent in the Kashmir Valley and sent a few thousand armed Pakistani infiltrators across the
cease-fire line in Operation Gibraltar. Incidents of violence increased in Kashmir Valley, and a full
Indo-Pakistani war broke out until a ceasefire was made.

 1966: :On 10 January, the Tashkent Declaration was signed by both countries, agreeing to revert
to their pre-1965 positions under Russian mediation. Pakistan-supported guerrilla groups in
Kashmir increased their activities after the ceasefire. Kashmiri nationalists Amanullah Khan and
Maqbool Bhat formed another Plebiscite Front with an armed wing called the Jammu and
Kashmir National Liberation Front (NLF) in Azad Kashmir, with the objective of freeing Kashmir
from Indian occupation.

 1972: India and Pakistan agreed to respect the cease-fire as Line of Control (LOC).

 2 July 1972: India and Pakistan signed the Simla Agreement which stated that the final
settlement of Kashmir would be decided bilaterally in the future and that both sides would
respect the LOC.

 1974: The 1927 State Subject law is officially abolished in Gilgit Baltistan, allowing Pakistanis to
settle and buy land.

 1979: The USSR invaded Afghanistan. The US and Pakistan became involved in training,
recruiting, arming, and unleashing the Mujahideen on Afghanistan. The Mujahideen so recruited
would, in the late 1980s, take on their own agenda of establishing Islamic rule in Kashmir.
  1980: Pakistani President Zia ul-Haq informed Maulana Abdul Bari, the Jamaat-e-Islami chief in
Azad Kashmir, that he had agreed to contribute to the American-sponsored war in Afghanistan to
serve as a smokescreen for a larger conflict in Kashmir. He requested Bari's help in mobilising
support. Bari travelled to Indian-administered Kashmir and conferred with the
Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir. Through his own later recollection, he told them, "You
will have to do the fighting and they [Pakistan] will provide all assistance."

 13 April 1984: The Indian Army successfully captures the Siachen Glacier
region of Kashmir during Operation Meghdoot.

 February 1986: Riots erupt in Anantnag and the rest of Kashmir erupt in response to outrage in

Jammu against the construction of a mosque on the site of an ancient Hindu Temple. Many
Hindu temples as well as businesses owned by Kashmiri Hindus are targeted.[218]

1987–present: Kashmir Insurgency

 26 June 1987: The Indian Army successfully captures Bana Top in Operation Rajiv, a strategic post
formerly controlled by Pakistan in Siachen Glacier and an area not captured by the Indian Army
during Operation Meghdoot.

 1988: Protests and anti-India demonstrations began in the Valley, followed by police firing and
curfew.
 1989: The end of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan released a great deal of militant energy
and weapons to Kashmir. Pakistan provided arms and training to both indigenous and foreign
militants in Kashmir.

 20 January 1990: An estimated 100 people were killed when a large group of unarmed protesters
were fired upon by Indian troops at the Gawkadal bridge. This incident provoked an insurgency
by the entire population.

 1 March 1990: An estimated one million took to the streets and more than 40 people were killed
in police firing.

 1990 – present: An officially estimated 10,000 Kashmiri youths crossed into Pakistan for training
and procurement of arms. Indigenous and foreign militant groups besides pro-India renegade
militants proliferated through the 1990s with an estimated half a million Indian security forces
deployed in the Kashmir Valley. Increasing violence and human right violations by all sides led to
tens of thousands of civilian casualties.

 1998 Operation Sadbhavana (Goodwill) launched officially by the Indian army in Jammu and
Kashmir.

 3 May 1999 – 26 July 1999: Kargil War

 14 July 2001 – 16 July 2001: General Pervez Musharraf and Atal Bihari Vajpayee met for peace
talks.

 October 2001: : Kashmiri assembly in Srinagar was attacked, 38 fatalities.

 December 2001: The Indian Parliament in New Delhi was attacked.

 April 2003 – May 2003: Operation Sarp Vinash launched by the Indian army. The largest network
of terrorist hideouts covering 100 square kilometers in Pir Panjal found and more than 60
terrorists killed.

 2 May 2003: India and Pakistan restored diplomatic ties.

 11 July 2003: : Delhi-Lahore bus service resumed.

 24 September 2004: Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and President Musharraf met in New York
during UN General Assembly.

 July 2006: Second round of Indo-Pakistani peace talks were held.

 22 August 2008: Following 2008 Kashmir unrest, hundreds of thousands of Muslims marched in
Srinagar for independence, the largest protest against Indian rule in over a decade.

 June 2010: Following the killing of a young Kashmiri, Tufail Ahmad Mattoo, protest
demonstrations continued in Kashmir for months.
 August 2012: The Chief Minister of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir, Omar Abdullah,
said that the security situation was not yet conducive to the revoking of the Armed Forces Special
Powers Act (AFSPA) in the state.

 September 2012: Indian President Pranab Mukherjee visited Indian-administered Jammu and
Kashmir within two months of taking office. Despite the threat of protests from separatists (see
Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir) there were no security incidents.

 25 November 2014 – 20 December 2014: Despite boycott calls by separatist Hurriyat leaders, the
2014 state election saw the highest voter turnout in the 25 years since insurgency erupted in the
region. Indian authorities claimed that this was a vote of the Kashmiri people in favour of
democracy of India.

 8 July 2016: Following the killing of Burhan Muzaffar Wani on 8 July, violent protests broke out in
Kashmir Valley. An imposed curfew continued for more than 50 days, and more than 90 people
were killed by Indian armed forces.

 July 2017 – present: Operation All-Out is an intensified offensive against the separatists, after the
protests across the Valley. More than 50 civilians were killed, allegedly by Indian security forces
in 2017.
  2019–2021 Jammu and Kashmir lockdown was a security lockdown and communications
blackout imposed to prevent unrest, violence and protests following Revocation of the special
status of Jammu and Kashmir via scrapping of the Article 370 of the Constitution of India, Article
35A of the Constitution of India and the introduction of Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act,
2019.

 From 1 August 2019, at least 627 people were detained in disputed region Jammu and Kashmir,
with many being separatists, overground workers for terrorist groups and stonepelters. As of
March 2021, the government sources have stated 173 people are still detained, with no one
under house arrest.

 According to a 6 September 2019 report of the Indian government, nearly 4,000 people have
been arrested and many were tortured. The report also claimed children were detained, which
was later found to be false in December 2019. More than 200 politicians, including two former
chief ministers of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), along with more than 100 leaders
and activists from All Parties Hurriyat Conference were detained in the disputed
region.

Solutions for Kashmir

I. Following UN Resolutions

II. Revoking 5 August Actions of Indian Government

III. Right of Self determination to Kashmiri Youth

IV. Demilitarization of Valley

V. Special session of UN in presence of Kashmiri leaders

Foreign Policy of Pakistan Post 9/11

Foreign policy

 ‘NO Foreign Policy …no matter how ingenious,,,has any chances of success if it is born in the
minds of few and carries in the hearts of none’ ----------------------------------------Henry Kissinger

 ‘The foreignpolicy of a country is in a sense a projection of its internal policies, social , political ,
and economic’------------------------------------------Ayub Khan
 The policy of a sovereign state in its interaction with other sovereign states---Mariam Webster
Dictionary
PROCESS OF FOREIGN POLICY MAKING
EXAMPLE

GUIDING PARAMETERS OF PAKISTAN’s FOREIGN POLICY

 Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Founder of Pakistan and its first Governor General, in a
broadcast talk to the people of the USA in February 1948, outlined the following goals of
Pakistan’s foreign policy:

“Our foreign policy is one of friendliness and goodwill towards all the nations of the world.
We do not cherish aggressive designs against any country or nation. We believe in the principle of
honesty and fair play in national and international dealings and are prepared to make our utmost
contribution to the promotion of peace and prosperity among the nations of the world. Pakistan will
never be found lacking in extending its material and moral support to the oppressed and suppressed
peoples of the world, and in upholding the principles of the United Nations Charter.”

 The Constitution of Pakistan also lays down guidelines for the conduct of foreign policy of the
country. Article 40 of the constitution provides that:
 “The State shall endeavour to preserve and strengthen fraternal relations among Muslim
countries based on Islamic unity, support the common interests of the peoples of Asia, Africa and Latin
America, promote international peace and security, foster goodwill and friendly relations among all
nations and encourage the settlement of international disputes by peaceful means.”

 The foreign policy of Pakistan is primarily directed to the pursuit of national goals of seeking
peace and stability through international cooperation. Special emphasis is laid on economic
diplomacy to take advantages offered by the process of globalization as also to face challenges of
the 21st century. Our foreign policy is also geared to project the image of the country as a
dynamic and moderate society.

 The foreign policy of Pakistan seeks to promote the internationally recognized norms of
interstate relations, i.e. respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity of all States,
noninterference in the internal affairs of other State; non-aggression and peaceful settlement of
disputes. Pakistan has therefore always sought to develop friendly and cordial relations with all
countries of the world.

Foreign Policy Objectives

In light of the guiding principles laid down by the founding fathers and the constitution as
also aspirations of the people of Pakistan, the objectives of foreign policy can be summarized as
under:

1. Promotion of Pakistan as a dynamic, progressive, moderate, and democratic Islamic country.

2. Developing friendly relations with all countries of the world, especially major powers and
immediate neighbours.

3. Safeguarding national security and geo-strategic interests, including Kashmir.

4. Consolidating our commercial and economic cooperation with international community.

5. Safeguarding the interests of Pakistani Diaspora abroad.

6. Ensuring optimal utilization of national resources for regional and international cooperation.

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN

 I. Pakistan Ideology II.

History

III. Strategic location

IV. Indian factor

V. Kashmir

VI. Economic challenges

VII. Regional Dynamics

VIII. Portraying soft image of Pakistan

IX. Balancing relations with world powers

X. Friendly relations with Muslim ummah

Timeline of foreign policy decision making 1947-1953-----Neutral
Foreign policy

1953-1962------Pro-WEST (SEATO,CENTO,Mutual Cooperation Pact, US Foreign Aassistance Act)

1963-1971----Phase of transition

1971-1979-----Bilateralism and Non-Alignment

1980-1988---Non-Aalignment but Pro-US

1989-2000---Search for allies (Issue-based Foreign Policy)

2000-2008---frontline state in war on terror

2008-onwards---Pro-China, Soft image , Export oriented, Relatively free decision making

Post 9/11 Foreign policy

2000-2013

I. Remolding itself into a more co-operative ally

II. Joining the ‘War On Terror’

III. Strategic Alliance with US

 IV. Intelligence sharing with US

V. To sever ties with Taliban

2013-Onwards

I. Pro-China

II. Gulf with USA

III. Economy centric (CPEC)

IV. Geostrategic Interests based

V. Tilt toward Regional powers

HOW TO FORMULATE A SUCCESSFUL FOREIGN POLICY?

I. Soft power

II. Lobbying

III. Pro-Tourism (Brand Pakistan)

IV. Goodwill Toward all

V. Exports centric