Jurnal Pendidikan Bisnis dan Manajemen, Volume 9, Number 1, July 2023, Pages 36-49

Organizational Change Communication, Workplace Bullying and

Job Insecurity: The Moderating Role of Trust in Management

Pika Handayani1, Reni Rosari2*, Miftachul Mujib3

1Directorate of Social Security, Ministry of Social Affairs Republic of Indonesia
2Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
3Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro, Indonesia

corresponding author: rrosari@ugm.ac.id

Abstract: This study aims to examine the relationship between organizational change
communication and workplace bullying on job insecurity, as well as investigate the
moderating role of trust in management. The objects of this research were employees who
work in companies affected by Covid-19 in Indonesia, particularly in the tourism, banking,
education, and entertainment sectors. The data were obtained through a survey by
distributing questionnaires using a purposive sampling technique to 174 respondents, and
it was analyzed using the partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM).
The results of the study showed that organizational change communication has a negative
effect on job insecurity, workplace bullying has a negative effect on job insecurity, and
trust in management moderates the positive effect of workplace bullying on job insecurity.
However, there is no moderating effect of trust in management on organizational change
communication and job insecurity. There are some limitations and suggestions discussed
in this paper.

Keywords: Organizational change communication, Workplace bullying, Trust in

management, Job insecurity

INTRODUCTION

The economic restructuring, industrial competition, technological developments,

and the economic crisis caused labor market disruptions. This condition causes an
increasing number of people to feel job insecurity (Nemteanu et al., 2021). In
addition, global competition requires organizations to downsize, labor
outsourcing, and fluctuating employee demand can cause employees to feel job
insecurity (Shoss, 2017). In the context of the Covid-19 pandemic, individual
perceptions of Covid-19 psychologically can play an important role in shaping the
level of job insecurity they feel (Lin et al., 2021). Job insecurity is defined as a
threat to the continuity and stability of the job that is currently experienced, or it
can be said that the loss of welfare due to the uncertainty of their job (Castiblanque
& Calatayud, 2020).
A prior study remarked that job insecurity occurs when a previously safe job
becomes insecure and the continuity and stability of work are threatened (Shoss,
2017). A sense of job insecurity emerges from contextual and individual factors
(Lee et al., 2018). Environmental conditions can form threats, while individual
characteristics can strengthen awareness of these threats (Shoss, 2017). Sverke
and Hellgren (2002) suggested the need to examine environmental factors such as
labor market characteristics, economic fluctuations, and organizational changes in
employment contracts. Individual characteristics, certain conditions, and the

Article info: Received: 7 January 2023 Revised: 12 February 2023 Accepted: 3 March 2023
Permalink/DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/um003v9i12023p036
37 Jurnal Pendidikan Bisnis dan Manajemen, Volume 9, Number 1, July 2023, Pages 36-49

availability of resources also play a role in the formation of feelings of job

insecurity (Lee et al., 2018).
It is expected that these factors (contextual & individual) interact in
influencing job insecurity, but previous studies have not obtained strong evidence
(Debus et al., 2014). Research on predictors of job insecurity has received little
attention (e.g., Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 2010), thus, it is needed to be explored
more. To the best of our knowledge, several works of literature divide the
antecedents of job insecurity into several categories that broadly refer to
contextual and individual factors (e.g., Keim et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2018). Later,
Shoss (2017) stated that it is necessary to test further how the conditions of the
various antecedents apply correctly. One factor that is considered to influence job
insecurity is the lack of clear organizational communication.
To convey organizational policies, especially those related to employee work,
it is necessary to have effective organizational communication. Clear
organizational communication in crises is useful for employees to adjust to reduce
the insecurities they feel about the future (Pratama et al., 2021). In the context of
organizational change, a lack of organizational communication can increase
employees' feelings of job insecurity (Smet et al., 2016). Conversely, adequate
communication of organizational change has the potential to reduce feelings of job
insecurity (Kramer, 1999). Inadequate organizational communication or lack of
information obtained by employees causes increased job insecurity that employees
feel (Vander Elst et al., 2010).
Adkins et al. (2001) found that organizational change communication is
negatively associated with job insecurity. When organizational communication
about change is deemed lost or does not provide sufficient information, employees
will seek information through informal sources such as rumors (DiFonzo & Bordia,
1998). A longitudinal study conducted by Kinnune et al. (1999, 2000) showed
different results, which found no evidence of a negative relationship between the
two. Organizational changes that occur without organizational communication that
provides sufficient information arouse employees’ feelings of uncertainty,
including the continuity of their work. In this study, organizational communication
is more focused on forms of organizational communication during the change
process in influencing employee job insecurity.
Despite the matter of this theme, research on the relationship between job
insecurity and its interpersonal antecedents is still lacking (Shoss, 2017; Glambek
et al., 2018). Lee et al. (2018) investigated antecedents of job insecurity, such as
demographic variables, individual traits, employability/career adaptability, and
behaviors. Saeed et al. (2021) reported that emotional exhaustion affects
increasing job insecurity but did not find evidence that perceived employability did
not affect job insecurity. Another finding stated that higher change-related self-
efficacy was related to lower job insecurity (Roczniewska et al., 2020). Several
studies have found a positive effect of burnout on job insecurity, where the higher
the level of burnout felt by employees, the higher the job insecurity (Zeida et al.,
2022; Opera & Iliescu, 2019).
Another interpersonal factor that may have a significant effect on job
insecurity is workplace bullying. The impact of bullying in the workplace has not
been widely studied, even though it has the potential to have a significant impact
 Handayani et al., Organizational Change Communication.… 38

on those who have experienced it (Glambek et al., 2018). Bullying at work is

defined as the continuous unwanted treatment of someone by other people at
work and creates social pressure that interferes with mental health for individuals
and causes work problems such as job insecurity (Jalali et al., 2020). Workplace
bullying is a disturbing factor for the object, so it can have negative impacts such as
reduced mental health (Hauge et al., 2010), decreased dedication, and job
satisfaction (Rodríguez-Muñoz et al., 2009).
Several research results regarding the effect of organizational change
communication on job insecurity show inconsistencies. For instance, a study by
Adkins et al. (2001) showed that organizational change communication is
negatively associated with job insecurity. Indeed, Vander Elst et al. (2010) found
that inadequate organizational communication received by employees led to
increased perceived job insecurity. However, different results were shown from a
longitudinal study conducted by Kinnunen et al. (1999, 2000), who revealed no
evidence of a negative relationship between the two. The inconsistency of the
results of this study can be clarified by including other factors in the study. Trust in
management is one of the factors that weaken the influence of organizational
change communication and workplace bullying on job insecurity.
The effect of organizational change communication on job insecurity is likely
to be weakened by trust in management (Smet, 2016). Employees who receive
inadequate organizational change communication are expected to have low job
insecurity if they believe that management can provide certainty about their work.
Bullying at work has the potential to weaken its effect on job insecurity if the
object experienced has trust in management. This study aims to examine the effect
of organizational change communication and workplace bullying on job insecurity.
It also investigates the moderating effect played by trust in management on the
effect of organizational change communication and workplace bullying on job
insecurity.
This study contributes significant implications to enriching the literature on
job insecurity, specifically by exploring the factors that become its antecedents.
This study adds empirical evidence to the antecedents of job insecurity by
examining the impact of organizational change communication and workplace
bullying. It also examines the role of trust in management in moderating the effect
of both antecedents on job insecurity. Practically, it adds a reference for
organizational managers in carrying out and implementing organizational
communication properly and adequately, especially on ongoing organizational
changes to prevent perceived job insecurity among employees. It also serves as
guidance for preventing bullying in the workplace and reducing feelings of job
insecurity by increasing employee trust in management.

METHODS

Research Design
This study was designed as explanatory research since the purpose of the research
was to examine the effect of an independent variable on the dependent variable.
The independent variables are organizational change communication and
39 Jurnal Pendidikan Bisnis dan Manajemen, Volume 9, Number 1, July 2023, Pages 36-49

workplace bullying. The dependent variable is job insecurity, while trust in

management acts as a moderating variable. The research model and hypotheses
developed are shown in Figure 1.

Trust in
Management

Organizational H3(-) H4 (-)

change
=+
communication
H1 (-)

Job Insecurity

H2 (+)
Workplace
bullying

Figure 1. Research Model

H1: Organizational change communication has a negative effect on job insecurity

H2: Workplace bullying has a positive effect on job insecurity
H3: Trust in management moderates the negative effect of organizational change
communication on job insecurity
H4: Trust in management moderates the positive effect of workplace bullying on
job insecurity

Sampling and Data Collection

The population in this study are all workers who work in companies affected by
Covid-19 in Indonesia, including tourism, finance, fashion, entertainment,
education, and other sectors. This population was chosen because it was
considered to be able to capture phenomena related to change and job insecurity
in accordance with the research context. The workers who work in these sectors
have experienced organizational change policies in response to the conditions of
the Covid-19 pandemic. The total number of workers in companies affected by
Covid-19 is not known with certainty, so the sampling technique used is non-
probability sampling with the respondent criteria, namely: (1) work in companies
directly affected by the Covid-19 pandemic (i.e., industrial tourism, entertainment,
finance, education, and retail) and (2) a minimum of one year working period.
The data used was primary data obtained by distributing questionnaires to
respondents. Data analysis was performed using the partial least square structural
equation modeling (PLS-SEM), and as suggested by Hair et al. (2010), the minimum
sample size when using this technique is ten times the number of conceptual
framework paths. This research framework has six paths, so we set a minimum
sample size of 150 respondents to increase statistical power. From the results of
distributing the questionnaires, the obtained data exceeded the minimum number
 Handayani et al., Organizational Change Communication.… 40

of samples set with a total of 174, therefore all incoming data was used for the
subsequent data processing.

Measurement
Job insecurity was measured using an instrument developed by De Witte et al.
(2014), which consists of four question items. The organizational change
communication variable was measured using a 12-item instrument developed by
Colquitt (2001). Workplace bullying is measured using the Short-Negative
Affective Questionnaire developed by Notelaers et al. (2018), which contains nine
questions. Trust in management was measured using an instrument developed by
Robinson (1996) consisting of seven questions.

Data Analysis
Data analysis was carried out by first testing the validity and reliability tests. The
validity test consists of convergent validity and discriminant validity. Instrument
reliability is known by looking at the composite reliability value and Cronbach’s Alpha.
Hypothesis testing was performed using the Structural Equation Model (SEM)
technique with the Partial Least Square (PLS) approach. The model is said to be fit if
the Average Path Coefficient (APC), Average R-squared (ARS), and Average Adjusted R-
squared (AARS) have significant P-values and Tenenhaus GoF values.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Demographic of Respondents
The characteristics of the respondents include age, gender, work tenure, and industrial
sectors. Most respondents were aged 26-30, namely 77 people (44.2%). Based on
gender characteristics, the majority of respondents were female, with a total of 97
people (55.8%), while male respondents were 77 people (44.2%). Most respondents
have been working for 1-3 years, with a total of 105 people (60.3%). The sectors of
industry in which the respondents worked varied, with most respondents working in
the hospitality sector, with a total of 48 people (27.5%). The summary of the
characteristics of the respondents can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographic of Respondents

Profile Category Amount Percentage (%)
Age ≤ 20 1 0.6%
21-25 51 29.3%
26-30 77 44.3%
31-35 27 15.5%
36-40 7 4.0%
≥ 41 11 6.3%
Gender Male 77 44.3%
Female 97 55.7%
Work tenure 1-3 years 105 60.3%
4-8 years 51 29.3%
9-12 years 10 5.7%
13-16 years 4 2.3%
41 Jurnal Pendidikan Bisnis dan Manajemen, Volume 9, Number 1, July 2023, Pages 36-49

Profile Category Amount Percentage (%)

≥ 16 years 4 2.3%
Sectors Finance 48 27.6%
hospitality 30 17.2%
Retail 22 12.6%
Education 12 6.9%
Health 9 5.2%
Communication 9 5.2%
Entertainment 8 4.6%
Other 36 20.6%
Total 174 100%

Measurement Model
The validity test is provided in two ways, namely convergent validity and
discriminant validity. The indicator criteria are accomplished to be convergently
valid if each data is grouped into one construct (Hair et al., 2014). Another
requirement is that the indicator has a loading factor value of more than 0.7 with a
P-value below 0.05 (Hair et al., 2014). Several indicators that did not meet the
requirements were excluded from the data analysis process. Table 2 shows the
loading factor value of each indicator along with its P-value.

Table 2. Combining Loading Factor and Cross Loading

OCC WB JI TM P value
OCC3 (0.75) <0.00
OCC5 (0.76) <0.00
OCC6 (0.72) <0.00
OCC9 (0.77) <0.00
OCC10 (0.62) <0.00
WB1 (0.67) <0.00
WB3 (0.73) <0.00
WB5 (0.66) <0.00
WB6 (0.65) <0.00
WB7 (0.71) <0.00
JI1 (0.85) <0.00
JI2 (0.78) <0.00
JI3 (0.83) <0.00
TM2 (0.70) <0.00
TM3 (0.78) <0.00
TM4 (0.69) <0.00
Note. OCC=Organizational change communication, WB= Workplace bullying, JI= Job
insecurity, TM= Trust in management

Another requirement for testing convergent validity is that the average

variance extracted (AVE) value for each variable must be greater than 0.5. From
the results of data analysis, it was obtained that the AVE value of each variable was
higher than cut-off value, so all variables were declared convergently valid. Table 3
displays the AVE value of each variable.
 Handayani et al., Organizational Change Communication.… 42

Table 3. AVE Value

OCC WB JI TM
AVE 0.62 0.53 0.72 0.58
Note. OCC=Organizational change communication, WB=Workplace bullying, JI=Job
insecurity, TM=Trust in management

The following process is the discriminant validity test to ensure that each
variable differs from the other variables. The main requirement for a variable to
have discriminant validity is if the indicator has the highest loading value (AVE
root) in its variable group (Hair et al., 2014). The results show that each construct
has a higher AVE root value than the correlation values between the constructs
(see Table 4). Thus, all the variables in this study are discriminantly valid, or in
other words, they can explain their constructs.

Table 4. AVE square root value for discriminant validity

OCC WB JI TM
OCC 0.79
WB -0.38 0.72
JI -0.28 0.54 0.85
TM 0.54 -0.34 -0.31 0.76
Note. OCC=Organizational change communication, WB=Workplace bullying, JI=Job
insecurity, TM=Trust in management

A variable is considered reliable when it has a Cronbach’s Alpha value and

composite reliability greater than 0.60 (Hair et al., 2014). Based on the results of
data processing, Cronbach’s Alpha and composite reliability values were obtained
for all variables above 0.60, so it can be concluded that all variables are reliable.
Cronbach’s Alpha value and composite reliability of each variable are shown in
Table 5.

Table 5. Variable Reliability Value

OCC WB JI TM
Composite reliability 0.86 0.84 0.88 0.81
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.79 0.77 0.80 0.64
Note. OCC=Organizational change communication, WB=Workplace bullying, JI=Job
insecurity, TM=Trust in management

The model fit test is carried out by checking the P-value on the Average Path
Coefficient (APC), Average R-squared (ARS), Average Adjusted R-squared (AARS),
and whether there is multicollinearity by looking at the Average Block VIF (AVIF)
and Average Full values. Collinearity VIF (AFVIF) (Kock, 2018). A model can be
considered strong or weak by looking at the size of the Tenenhaus GoF (GoF)
value. As shown in Table 5, the model meets the standards of conformity with the
criteria so that further analysis can be conducted to test the hypothesis.
43 Jurnal Pendidikan Bisnis dan Manajemen, Volume 9, Number 1, July 2023, Pages 36-49

Table 6. Goodness of Fit Model

Indicators Value Requirement Conclusion
APC 0.20*** P-sig Accepted
ARS 0.37*** P-sig Accepted
AARS 0.36*** P-sig Accepted
AVIF 1.64 Accepted if ≤ 5, Ideally ≤ 3.30 Ideal
AFVIF 1.53 Accepted if ≤ 5, Ideally ≤ 3.30 Ideal
GoF 0.45 Weak ≥ 0.10, Medium ≥ 0.25, Strong ≥ 0.36 Strong Model
Note. APC: Average Path Coefficient, ARS: Average R-squared, AARS: Average Adjusted
R-squared, AVIF: Average Block VIF, AFVIF: Average Full Collinearity VIF, GoF:
Tenenhaus GoF. P <.001=***, n= 174.

Hypothesis Testing
After conducting a fit model analysis, the next step is testing the structural model
to test the proposed hypothesis. Hypothesis testing with structural models was
carried out by analyzing the path coefficient value (β), the coefficient of
determination (adjusted R-squared), the level of significance (P-value), along with
the effect size for the path coefficient. The results of testing the structural model
for testing the hypothesis are shown in Figure 2. The moderation hypothesis is
carried out by looking at the path coefficient value and its significance level. A
positive path coefficient indicates that the moderating effect is strengthening,
while a negative moderating effect indicates that the moderator variable plays a
role in weakening the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

TM

β= 0.01 β= -0.07
β= -0.13
OCC (P= 0.44) (P= 0.01)
(P= 0.03)

JI

R2= 0.38

β= 0.61
WB (P<0.01)

Figure 2. Full Model

Figure 2 exhibits the results of structural model testing used to test

hypothesis 1, hypothesis 2, hypothesis 3, and hypothesis 4. Figure 2 shows the
coefficient value (β) of the effect of organizational change communication on job
insecurity is -0.13 (P-value= 0.03), so H1 is supported. Workplace bullying
perceived by employees is proven to have a path coefficient value of 0.61 with a P-
value <0.01. It can be concluded that H2 is supported. The path coefficient value of
trust in management moderates the effect of organizational communication on job
 Handayani et al., Organizational Change Communication.… 44

insecurity, that is, 0.01 (P-value= 0.44). The P-value of the path coefficient is
greater than the threshold, it can be concluded that trust in management does not
moderate the effect of organizational communication on job insecurity. Thus, H3 is
not supported. The results show that the path coefficient value of the moderating
variable of trust in management in the effect of workplace bullying on job
insecurity is -0.07, with a P-value of 0.01. It means that there is a moderating effect
of the variable trust in management on the effect of workplace bullying on job
insecurity, so H4 is supported. The moderating effect of trust in management in
this relationship is negative, indicating that trust in management can reduce the
negative effects arising from workplace bullying on job insecurity. The summary of
the hypothesis testing results is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results

Hypotheses Coefficient P-value Result
H1 OCC —> JI -0.13 0.03 Supported
H2 WB —> JI 0.61 <0.01 Supported
H3 OCC*TM —> JI 0.01 0.44 Not Supported
H4 WB*TM —> JI -0.07 0.01 Supported
Note. OCC=Organizational change communication, WB=Workplace bullying, JI=Job
insecurity, TM=Trust in management

Discussion
The first hypothesis is that organizational change communication has a negative
effect on job insecurity. The results prove that the first hypothesis is supported.
The results of this study affirm a prior study by Pratama et al. (2021), who found
that organizational communication in times of crisis has a negative effect on job
insecurity. In addition, these results are in line with Bordia’s (2004), which
remarked that the quality of organizational change communication is negatively
related to job insecurity. Another study by Vander et al. (2010) also remarked
evidence for a negative relationship between organizational change
communication and job insecurity. Jiang and Probst (2014) also revealed that
positive organizational communication can reduce the level of job insecurity.
The results of this study indicate that employees who receive inadequate
organizational change communication will have a higher sense of job insecurity.
Feelings of job insecurity can be influenced by organizational environmental
factors such as organizational communication. If the organizational
communication received by an employee is inadequate and results in unclear
information, uncertainty and ambiguity about all matters can trigger job
insecurity. The uncertainty that someone feels will occur if the organization does
not communicate clearly what to prepare in the face of change (Elving, 2005). The
results of this study indicate that there is a negative influence of organizational
change communication on job insecurity. In indicates that the more inadequate the
communication of organizational change received by employees will promote to
the higher the level of job insecurity felt by employees and vice versa.
The second hypothesis states that bullying in the workplace has a positive
effect on job insecurity. Based on the test results showed that the second
hypothesis is supported. These results reinforce Jalali et al. (2020); Park and Ono
(2016), who revealed evidence that bullying behavior positively correlates with
45 Jurnal Pendidikan Bisnis dan Manajemen, Volume 9, Number 1, July 2023, Pages 36-49

job insecurity. The results of this study corroborate the research of Glambek et al.
(2018), who found that workplace bullying has a significant effect on job
insecurity. Bullying that is felt continuously by the survivor can trigger the object
to feel that the continuity of his work is threatened, thus increasing the level of job
insecurity (Glambek et al., 2014). Based on the results, the more workplace
bullying employees feel, the higher the level of job insecurity.
The feeling of job insecurity can be caused by pressures from one’s social
environment. Someone who obtains bullying can be seen by the presence of verbal,
physical, or social intimidation from co-workers. The workplace bullying
experienced by victims’ triggers feelings of anxiety and loss of hope for their future
work. Bullying behavior at work usually occurs because survivors do not have
equal power to retaliate, and this is a threat to working (Glambek et al., 2018). This
increased sense of worry and reduced hope for the continuation of his work in the
future is what then creates job insecurity. Bullying behavior in the workplace can
cause victims to perceive the continuity of their work as being threatened and
therefore show high levels of job insecurity (Jalali et al., 2020).
The third hypothesis is that trust in management has a moderating role in the
influence of organizational change communication on job insecurity. However, the
result shows that this hypothesis is not supported. The effect of organizational
change communication on job insecurity cannot be strengthened or weakened by
trust in management. This phenomenon indicates that trust in management cannot
overcome the effect of a lack of organizational change communication on the
emergence of feelings of job insecurity in employees. This can happen because
employees who feel that the communication carried out by the organization needs
to be improved will have a little significant impact that can reduce job insecurity
because management is considered a representation of the organization.
Even though employees trust management, they will not receive more
organizational change information. When the communication of organizational
changes received by employees is lacking, they tend to seek information through
informal channels such as rumors (Smet et al., 2016). This is in line with the Job
Insecurity Framework developed by Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984), which
explained that rumors evolve in the context of a lack of formal communication.
Rumor is a group talk process that discusses something, assesses an unclear
situation, and tries to clarify it (Shibutani in Smelt et al., 2016). In an
organizational context, employees will discuss and seek clarification regarding the
lack of change communication received through the rumor medium (DiFonzo &
Bordia, 1998).
The final hypothesis in this study is that trust in management moderates the
positive effect of workplace bullying on job insecurity. The result supports the
fourth hypothesis. This indicates that trust in management can play a role in
strengthening or weakening the effect of workplace bullying received by
employees on perceived job insecurity. Dirks and Ferrin (2001) found that trust in
management can reduce the stress level felt by employees. The feedback that
employee obtains from the trust in their management will acquire the support that
strengthens them from social and psychological pressures. Employee may feel that
their job will not be safe in the future if he is continuously bullied at work.
 Handayani et al., Organizational Change Communication.… 46

The negative impact of work bullying experienced by employees will be

minimized when employees acquire support from management as a result of their
trust in management. The result showing that the path coefficient is negative
proves the role of trust in high management will weaken the influence of
workplace bullying felt by employees on the emergence of job insecurity.
Conversely, low trust in management will strengthen the perceived influence of
workplace bullying on perceived job insecurity.

CONCLUSION

This study concludes that organizational change communication has a negative

effect on job insecurity, workplace bullying has a negative effect on job insecurity,
and trust in management moderates the positive effect of workplace bullying on
job insecurity. However, there is no moderating effect of trust in management on
organizational change communication and job insecurity. This study has several
theoretical contributions to the development of the literature. First, job insecurity
can arise when the formal communication of organizational changes is inadequate.
In addition, work bullying received by employees at work is also one of the
triggering factors for the emergence of job insecurity. In the context of the
influence of inadequate organizational change communication, trust in
management cannot strengthen or weaken its influence on the emergence of job
insecurity.
The findings of this study make a practical contribution to the practice of
human resource management. Practitioners are advised to provide adequate
information on organizational change plans and processes to minimize the
possibility of job insecurity being felt by employees. With the research finding that
bullying in the workplace has an impact on increasing levels of job insecurity,
organizations should create a conducive and friendly social work environment for
all employees. Management can develop an organizational culture that upholds
equality and respect for all individuals to ensure that no employee is subjected to
bullying treatment. This study is inseparable from limitations that need to be
corrected in future research. First, the data collected is cross-sectional, so it cannot
explore in detail how the process of bullying in the workplace occurs and
influences the formation of job insecurity. Retrieval of cross-sectional data cannot
reveal this phenomenon in detail.
Second, there are many unfavorable question items which, if the respondents
do not understand carefully, tend to be filled with the same answers as the
favorable question items. This causes many instrument items that must be
removed from the data processing. Third, the adjusted R-square value on the
dependent variable, which is relatively small, indicates that there are many other
variables outside of this study that may affect job insecurity. Future research is
advised to use longitudinal data to reveal the phenomenon of bullying in the
workplace in shaping job insecurity. Fourth, it is recommended to choose
instruments that have few unfavorable question items to minimize bias in filling
out the questionnaire by respondents who tend to rate all question items well.
47 Jurnal Pendidikan Bisnis dan Manajemen, Volume 9, Number 1, July 2023, Pages 36-49

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