MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION TRODUCTION Mesopotamia, which was home to the world's first civilization, was the land where the world’s first cities were built and early empires flourished. Mesopotamians were among the first to write events down on clay tablets. The Seleucids used the term Mesopotamia to refer to a large geographical area during the Hellenistic period THE SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION-ORIGIN Because it is a riverine civilization, the area between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers serves as its cradle. The valley was geographically located between the Syrian and Arabian Deserts on one side, and the Zagros Mountains on the other. Because the soil was alluvial and fertile, the Valley was productive. It was dubbed “Garden of Eden" or "The Fertile Crescent” because of its productivity and fertility. Unlike early Egyptian civilization, which remained isolated for a long time, Mesopotamia’s history has been one of struggle from the beginning. The Tigris Euphrates River has seen an influx of nomadic tribes. The Zagros mountains were the scene of frequent raids by these tribes, resulting in constant invasions. The civilization is known to have witnessed the rise of ancient states and cities with complex social structures, such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, and others. The Sum n civilization, Babylonian civilization, and Assyrian civilization were the three major civilizations of Mesopotamia, Ur-Nammu (the king of Ur), Sargon (founder of the Akkadian kingdom), Hammurabi (founder of the Old Babylonian state), Tiglath-Pileser I (founder of the Assyrian Empire), and Tigranes the Great (founder of the Armenian Empire) are just a few of Mesopotamia's historical rulers. ‘The ancient Mesopotamian civilization is thought to have developed from around the 4th millennium B.C. until the rise of the Achaemenids in the 6th century B.C, The time period can be broken down into the following categories:The Mesopotamian civilization's heartland was Sumer. Later periods, however, saw the centre of power shift from Sumer to Babylonia, and then to Assyria. As a result, in our course of study, we will discuss these three civilizations separately. ‘THE SUMERIANS are a group of people who live in Asia. According to several accounts, the Sumerians were the first settlers in the Valley. In fact, determining how and when these settlements began is extremely difficult. Physically, the Summerians lacked both Mediterranean and Alpine characteristics. They had a stocky build, an oval face, and a high straight nose. Small states developed and flourished in this civilization, according to the available evidence. Several political dynasties ruled the small states, some of which are listed below. ‘The Uruk dynasty, which ruled in the Northern region from 2800 B.C. to 2360 B.C., was the first kingdom of Sumer, according to the excavations The Uruk dynasty was succeeded by the Ur dynasty, who were known to have a well- established government. A number of tombs belonging to Ur dynasty kings have been discovered. The personal belongings of the deceased were also kept in the brick and stone tombs. The Uruk dynasty was succeeded by the Lagash dynasty. Ur-Nanshe founded the Lagash dynasty and built numerous temples and canals. The cities of Umma, Kish, and Mavi were conquered by Eantum of the Lagash dynasty, and Ur Kazina, the last ruler of the Lagash dynasty, was defeated by Lugdzagesi, the governor of Umma, who founded the Lugalzeshi dynasty. His kingdom spanned the entire Sumerian peninsula, from the lower sea (Persian Gulf) to the upper sea (Mediterranean Sea). The Sumerian culture spread after the conquest of Akkad. Despite their Semitic origins, the Akkadians accepted Sumerian culture. Despite the Sumerian culture's wealth, its lack of unity proved to be a fatal flaw. The Akkadians built a massive kingdom that fell to the Barbarians but was later restored by the Ur rulers. Later, in2200 BC, the Babylonians conquered the entire region and built a new capital city, which they named Babylon, marking the start of the Babylonian period. Cities and Cultural Life in Sumer Kings ruled the cities, with the help of nobles and priests. In Sumerian times, kings were merely symbolic figures. The Egyptians believed that the Kings and Queens were descended from God, not God himself. The most common name for kings was "shepherd," which referred to the king's role as a guardian of the people ‘The Sumerians lived in a well-ordered society. The king, or "patesti” (in Sumerian), was regarded as the god's tenant farmer, whose lease was renewed every year during an annual festival. Collecting offerings, supervising farming and workshops, legalising all business transactions, and defending the city were all responsibilities of the king. Due to competition for land and water, warfare was common. Several times, changes in the river's course resulted in hostilities, and repeated invasions by nomadic tribes from the surrounding area necessitated military readiness. Solar and lunar eclipses were observed and recorded according to the year, month, and day they occurred, Texts dating from the 2nd millennium BC have been discovered that contain botanical and chemical terms that are still used by scientists in these fields. Sumerian Writing is a type of writing that originated in the Sumerian civilization. Sumerian was the first written language, and scholars believe that other spoken languages existed in early Mesopotamia in addition to Sumerian. The Sumerians used a reed to write on clay tablets, creating symbols or lines—a system known as cuneiform. The Summerians did not learn how to make paper, but they did continue to keep a record of their history on clay. They rolled out a lump of soft clay, made wedge-shaped marks on it, and let it dry until it was hard. It was used for everything from counting sheep for taxation to religious rituals, myths, and legends.The name cuneiform (Kyoo-Nee-uh-form) writing comes from the latin word cuncus, which means "wedge," and forma, which means "shape." About 600 cuneiform signs were found. Sumerians developed their writing system based on cylinder seals and used symbols to identify religious and economic terminologies. People, animals, plants, temples, gods, cities, and finally graphs were all associated with specific words and component syllables via designs or signs. A nuler of Persia named Darius the Great put down a rebellion led by nine chiefs centuries after Sumerian culture reached its pinnacle. He directed that the storey be carved in both pictures and writing on a limestone cliff in western Iran. The writing is in a variety of tree languages, all of which are written in cuneiform. The Sumerians also devised a moon calendar with 12 divisions, which they used to bring the year in line with the seasons by adding a year whenever necessary. Each year was named after a significant event, such as a storm or the death of a prominent figure. THE OLD BABYLONIAN PERIOD After defeating the Akkadians, the Babylonians adopted Semitic culture and took control of Mesopotamia. The term Babylonian refers to a culture that combines Semites, Sumerians, and other ethnic groups. Summu-Abbu, one of their chiefs, became the ruler of the small town of Bab-Iu, which later became the centre of power and was named Babylon. Summu-Abu is credited with founding Babylon's first kingdom. Hammurabi, Summmu-fourth Abbu’s descendant, was a popular and powerful ruler. He conquered the city states of Isin, Eshnunna, and Mari, and expanded his empire to hing a centralised government, He ruled with an iron fist, his authority derived from divine the Mediterranean Sea. He was instrumental in uniting Mesopotamia and establi: origins, and he thus possessed absolute power. During his reign, he worked for the welfare of his subjects, and several canals were built to provide irrigation to hissubjects. His reign was unquestionably one of the most glorious periods in Babylonian history. The descendants of Hammurabi had to defend their empire against the Kessite invasions, but only for a short time. In around 1700 BC, the Kassites conquered Babylon and established a new dynasty. Anarchy reigned everywhere during the Kassites' reign, resulting in the deterioration of culture and civilization. A small state like Babylon grew into a major city during Hammurabi's reign, and it was later dubbed Babylonia, which meant "gateway of the gods." However, under the able king's rule, Babylonia regained its lost glory and honour. Hammurabi's Code (Babylonian Law) Hammurabi, on the other hand, is best known for his code of laws. All aspects of Babylonian life were governed by Hammurabi's laws. Some of the laws were about commerce and industry, and they included provisions about wages, powers, and working conditions. There were laws that dealt with property rights, bankruptcy, and marriage and divorce, among other things. The judges were obligated to uphold the laws and were overseen by the king's advisers and officials. The legal definition of adultery in Hammurabi's code was limited to the wife's infidelities. Any attempt to bribe a judge or a witness was punishable by death. The code of Hammurabi has been preserved, carved on an 8-foot diorite stone shaft. He attempted to persuade his subjects that the laws were divinely inspired and given by the Sun God. Despite the fact that his laws were just, the concept of punishment was ruthless —'an eye for an eye! The Babylonians believed that the king was a Marduk’s agent, and that any legitimate ruler should be crowned. The Babylonians had a centralised government in which the king was in charge of everything, The king wielded complete power, and he decided the fate of the state as well as the fate of the common people. His power was absolute because it was founded on the concept of divine origin. Babylonian Literature is a collection of works written in Babylonian seript.Popular proverbs like "Ye who excel in tablet writing shall shine like the sun" show how important learning was to the Babylonians. They took the Sumerian cuneiform writing system and improved it. Libraries could be found in towns and temples. Both men and women were taught to read and write. The majority of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian texts, and the language remained Sumerian, Mythology and epics appeared to be popular, with the Great Epic of Gilgamesh being the most popular, He was a legendary ruler, and the epic depicts the challenges that mankind faces during their lives and after they die, Many Babylonian myths are included in the epic. The epics attempted to explore man's relationship with the universe as well as their very existence in this world. Temple Literatures, which included psalms, hymns, and prayers, were another type of Babylonian literature. Fables were widely written and referred to as “Wisdom Literature" because each storey contained a moral. Epigrams were well-known for their wise and philosophical words. The study of sciences such as astronomy and astrology held a special place in Babylonian society. The king received reports from the Observatories. The Babylonians invented the lunar calendar and were able to predict the planets’ movements. ASSYRIA The Assyrians first settled north of Babylonia, along the Tigris River, and established said to have Assur, a city-state named after their chief god. The first Assyrian Empire is been founded by Tiglath-Pileser I, He became known as "King of Sumer and Akad.” The Assyrian empire reached as far as the Khabur during the reign of Adad-nirati II, who ascended the throne in 911 BC. Ashurnasirpal I turned the Assyrian capital of Kalhu (Nimrud) into an armed state as part of a policy of massive expansion by terrorising people. The Assyrians were warriors, and the Assyrian Empire stretched from the Taurus to the Egyptian border during the reign of the Sargonid dynasty.EEE Assyrians were known for their military prowess. They used mounted horsemen as cavalry and used a lot of iron weapons. This dynasty’s Shalmanesar III (858-824 B.C.) was a powerful ruler who conquered Syria and Palestine and annexed them to his empire. Another powerful ruler, Pilesan III, conquered Babylon and annexed it to his empire. Another powerful ruler of the Assyrian dynasty was Ashur Banipal. He invaded Egypt and defeated the kingdoms of Thebes and Memphis, bringing with him immense wealth. He also defeated Ethiopia, extending Mesopotamian civilization further. As in the case of the Greeks, Assyria's kingdom was well-organized, and the king also served as High Priest. When Assyria became a powerful nation, the Empire was divided into provinces named after its major cities. Governors ruled the provinces and were in charge of maintaining law and order. The districts or provinces were required to pay fixed tributes to the king as well as provide a military contingent. However, there was a significant shift in government, which is often referred to as the start of "the Second Assyrian Empire.” During this time, the government became militaristic. The Assyrian government was primarily made up of political and military organisations. The state's army was well-equipped, with soldiers wielding iron weapons and riding war chariots, among other things. With the king acting as a general, the government became more centralised. The king personally appointed the govemors and messengers, allowing him to keep a close eye on his state's administration. Because of the cruelties and inhumanities inflicted on the people, there was no attempt to restore the Assyrian Empire after it fell. LET US SUM UP ‘The origin of Mesopotamian civilization amidst the rise and fall of different dynasties. The socio-cultural life and political structure of ancient Mesopotamia under the various dynastic rulers. The development of the art of writing in ancient Mesopotamia.