Lecture 2

• THE ORIGINS OF LATIN LITERATURE

Foundation of Rome (April 21 753)
Indoeuropean Migration
Greek and Phoenicians
settlements
 Phoenicians and Greeks
• Etruscans (origins?) Etruria

• Phoenician settlements: groups of Phoenician merchants and

colonists from Tyre and other coastal towns of Palestine and Syria
were adventuring in the Western Mediterranean around the eight
century (?) and gradually established themselves at Utica,
Carthage, and other sites of North Africa. Possibly they made some
small settlement on the coast of Italy.

• Greek settlements: From the second half of the eight century to the
sixth century the Greeks of the Aegean area established a series of
colonies on the coast of Sicily and in western and southern Italy. The
earliest and most northerly colony was settled in about 760 BC on
the island of Pithecusae just north of the bay of Naples.
The Etruscans
 Map of Pre-Roman Italy
• Italy before the Romans

• Pre-Indo-European substratum:
– · Ligures (North of Etruria)
– .Etruscan

• Indo-European invasion (second

millennium):
– · Veneti (Northern Italy)
– · Umbrians
– · Piceni (Central Italy)
– · Sabini, Marsi, Volsci, Latini
(Central Italy)
– · Osci (Campania)
– · Messapians (Messapia)
– · Lucani and Brutti (Lucania

• Greek Colonies
• Phoenician Colonies
Etruscan Art 1
Etruscan Art 2
Etruscan Art 2
Etrscan Art 4
Etruscan Art 5
 The Pyrgi lamellae
• This inscribed gold tablet from
the Etruscan port of Pyrgi
records a dedication by the
ruler of Caere, probably during
the early 5th century BC. The
text is in Etruscan,
accompanied by a shorter
version in Phoenician.This fact
seems to indicate close
relations between the
Etruscans and the Phoenician-
speaking Carthaginians; the
Carthaginians had also made a
treaty with Rome at the
beginning of the Republic
Pyrgi Tablet-Translation
The Etruscan Alphabet
Syllabic
Ologram ?pictogram
Alphabet
 The Etruscan Tomb
• When the team removed the sealed slab blocking the tomb, they saw two large platforms. On
one platform lay a skeleton bearing a lance. On another lay a partially incinerated skeleton.
The team also found several pieces of jewelry and a bronze-plated box, which may have
belonged to a woman, according to the researchers.
• "Initially, the lance suggested the skeleton on the biggest platform was a male warrior,
possibly an Etruscan prince. The jewelry likely belonged to the second body, the warrior
prince's wife. But bone analysis revealed the prince holding the lance was actually a 35- to 40-
year-old woman, whereas the second skeleton belonged to a man.
• In this instance, the lifestyles of the ancient Greeks and Romans may have skewed the view of
the tomb. Whereas Greek women were cloistered away, Etruscan women, according to Greek
historian Theopompus, were more carefree, working out, lounging nude, drinking freely,
consorting with many men and raising children who did not know their fathers' identities.
Instead of using objects found in a grave to interpret the sites, archaeologists should first rely
on bone analysis or other sophisticated techniques before rushing to conclusions, Weingarten
said.
The Origins of Latin
Literature
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ORIGINS OF LATIN
LITERATURE?
 Early Writings in Rome

Lapis Niger (around 500 BCE) Fibula Praenestina (7th century?)

MANIOS MED FHEFHAKED NVMASIOI

The reconstructed Proto-Italic ancestor would have
been:
*Mānjos mē fefaked Numazjōi
 Early Latin Prose
• Laws and Treaties:
– Laws of the 12 tables: So called because
they were engraved on 12 bronze tablets
displayed in the Roman forum
– The Fasti: The Roman community had
developed an official calendar, regulated and
sanctioned by the religious authorities. The
days of the year were divided in Fasti and
Nefasti according to whether the conduct of
public affairs was permitted or forbidden.
 Latin PreLiterary Forms of
Communication– Oral Poetry
• Carmina: the most common meaning of Carmen which derives from cano is “poem”.

– Heroic Poetry:
• Carmina convivalia: verse accounts of heroic deeds conceived orally and
performed at private gatherings, such as parties and funerals. These heroic songs
could have had a notable influence on the development of a native Latin epic poetry.
See the funeral elogia found upon the tombs of two illustrious persons from the
family of the Scipios (composed in Saturnian).
– Sacral Poetry:
• The Carmen Saliare: chant of the priestly college of the Salii. The Romans
connected the name etymologically with salio “leap”. The college consisted of 12
sacred priests of the god Mars, who in March carried in procession the 12 sacred
shields, ancilia. While advancing in a sort of ritual ballet they pronounced different
carmina.
• The Carmen arvale: “Carmen of the Arval Brethren”. In May the fraters Arvales
(12 priests) sang a hymn for the purification of the fields (arva). We have a fairly
reliable version of the text. Insistent on triple rhythm.
• Popular Poetry:
• The Fescennine Verses: either from Fescennia, town in southern Etruria, or from “fascinum” “the evil eye”
expression of an apotropaic function which these songs were thought to have. Fescennine verses came into play
on many social occasions in ancient Rome: the jests traditional at weddings (Catullus 61); public defamation
(Catullus 17).
• The Atellan: preliterary spectacle, probably performed ex tempore, by improvisation and based on
rudimentary plots. The improvisation involved farcical action and fixed masks, like Bucco, (the braggart) and
Dossenus (the evil hunchback)
•
• Carmina Triumphalia: at a triumph the soldiers improvised songs that mingled praise for the conqueror with
mockery. Perhaps here to can be discerned an apotropaic function.
•
•
 The Origins of Latin Literature
• On the basis of the evidence we have the transformation in cultural
practice that occurred during the Second Punic War, is best
regarded not as the “INVENTION” of Latin Literature, but as a
revolution in the sociology of literary production. Whereas
archaic literary culture seems to have been characterized by
performances that were not necessarily transmitted in writing, the
new culture of the late third century began to be intimately
connected with the preservation, importation and circulation of texts.
• Two developments define this revolution:
– reliance on writing
– professionalization of performance
• The new literary culture of the late third century is distinguished by
its employment of literary professionals (establishment of a
collegium for scribae (writers) and histriones (performers)
 The Hellenocentric Theory
• Romans developed Latin Literature at the end of
the third century because during that period they
came into close contact with a variety of foreign
cultures (that of the Greek pre-eminent among
them.) Captivated by the literary models of the
Hellenic world and aware of their own limitations
in this regard, the Romans are said to have set
about creating for themselves a literature that
could compete with the masterworks of the
Greek tradition. (see also Virgil Aen. 6 848 ff.)
•
• Is the theory valid?
 Naevius and Ennius
•
• Naevius: Roman citizen, fought in the First Punic War. His life bears traces of polemic against the nobility
(Metelli) and is suggested that he was imprisoned for certain allusions contained in his plays. He wrote tragedies
and comedies. His principal work is the Bellum Poenicum in Saturnians.
•
• Bellum Poenicum (main features)
• The plot:
• Book 1 : events of 264-262 ??
• Fall of Troy and departure of Anchises and Aeneas
• Book 2 : assembly of the gods
• Journey of Aeneas?
• Encounter between Dido and Aeneas?
• Foundation of Rome. Romulus, grandson of Aeneas
•
• Book: 3-7: events of the First Punic War after 261.
•
 Ennius
• Tha Annals:
•
• Plot: (contrary to Naevius, the narration is without breaks and in chronological order, hence the title
Annales from the Annales Maximi)
• Books 1-3: proem, Aeneas’ arrival in Italy, Romulus and Remus and the period of the kings
• Books 4-6: great war against Pyrrhus
• Book 7-10: Punic wars
• Book 10-12: campaigns in Greece
• Books 13-16: Wars in Syria
• Books 16-18: most recent military campaigns.
The XII Tables
and
Cato the Elder
The Twelve Tables

• The Twelve Tables

• Having gained protection against the magistrates, the plebs next demanded that the law should be published so that the patricians might no longer be able to interpret
unwritten customs as they willed. In 451 BCE a board of ten was elected , which had the purpose of drawing up a new code of Laws. This code was the basis of the
development of later Republican law. They are not a comprehensive legal code. The main topic seem to have been
• the family (strong patriarchal structure)
• ownership of property
• assault and injury to person and property
• debt
• legal procedure
• Thanks to the 12 Tables:
• State justice was made accessible at all
• The death sentence could be pronounced only by the sovereign assembly of the people, that is the comitia centuriata
• The last two tables prohibited marriage between members of the patriciate and members of the plebs. This arrangements was revoked in 445 by the Canuleian Law.
The Twelve Laws

TABLE IX. PUBLIC LAW

1. Laws of personal exception shall not be proposed.
2. [Laws] concerning the person (_caput_)[56] of a citizen shall not be passed except by the greatest assembly and
through those whom they (the consuls)[58] have placed upon the registers of the citizenry.
3. A judge (_iudex_) or an arbitrator (_arbiter_) legally (_iure_) appointed, who has been convicted of receiving
money for declaring a decision, shall be punished capitally (_capite_).
4. [Provisions pertaining to] the investigators of murder (_quaestor parricidii_) [appointed to have charge over
capital cases].
5. Whoever shall have incited a public enemy (_hostis_) or whoever shall have delivered a citizen (_civis_) to a
public enemy shall be punished capitally (_capite_).
6. It is forbidden to put to death ... unconvicted any one whomsoever.
The Twelve Tables (or Laws)
TABLE IV. PATERNAL POWER
TABLE V. Inheritance and Guardianship
1. A dreadfully deformed
Women shall remain under guardianship
child shall be killed quickly. even though they shall become of full age 17] ...

2. If a father thrice surrender a son for sale, the son shall the Vestal Virgins are excepted [and] shall be free [from control].
2. The mancipable (conveyable or movable) possessions
be free from the father.[15] of a woman who is under tutelage of [her] agnates[18]

3. [To repudiate his wife her husband] shall order her to mind shall not be acquired rightfully by usucapion
(long usage or long possession), save if these (possessions) by herself
her own affairs, shall take [her] keys [, shall expel her]. shall have been delivered with the sanction of [her] guardian (_tutor_).

4. Into a legal inheritance he who has been in the womb [19] 3. According as a person shall have ordered regarding his property
or the guardianship of his estate, so shall be the law.
(_in utero_) is admitted 4. If a person die intestate and have no self-successor
the [deceased's] nearest male agnate shall have possession of the estate.
[if he shall have been born].[16] 5. If there be no male agnate, the [deceased's] clansmen[20
] shall have possession of the estate. 6. To persons[21] for whom a guardian
(_tutor_) shall not have been appointed by will to them [their] agnates shall be guardians.
TABLE VII. REAL PROPERTY 1. [Ownership] within [a strip of] five feet [along a boundary] shall not be acquired by long usage (_usucapio_).
[31] 2. The way round [each outer wall of a building] shall be two and one-half feet.
3. If they (the parties) disagree, boundaries shall be marked by three arbitrators (_arbiter_).[32]
4. [Regulations relating to] inclosures, inherited plots, cottages.[33]
5. The width of a road [extends to] eight feet on a straight [stretch], [but it extends to] sixteen [feet] on a bend.
6. [Neighboring] persons shall mend the roadway. If they keep it not laid
with stones, one shall drive [one's] beast vehicles [across the land] where one shall wish.
7. If rain-water do damage [through artificial diversion from its natural channels, the offending owner]
shall be restrained by an arbitrator (_arbiter_).
8. If a water-course directed through a public place shall do damage to a private person,
to the [same] private person shall be [the right to bring] an action (_actio_)
, that damage shall be repaired for the owner. 9. Branches of a tree may be lopped all around to a height of fifteen
feet.[34] If a tree on a neighbor's farm [be bent crooked] by the wind [and] lean over one's farm, [one can take] legal action
(_agere_) for removal of that [tree or at least of the offending part of it]. 10. [The owner of a tree] may gather its
fruit which falls upon another's farm.
• What kind of society do the XII Tables represent?
 • ROME
• FROM CITY-STATE to
WORLD POWER

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY- This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-
SA SA
 • Wars against Carthage
• First Punic War (264-241)
• Second Punic War (218-201)

Rome and
• Third Punic War (149-46)
• From the beginning of the 6th century Carthage was at the head of an empire which gradually extended beyond
the confines of North Africa, namely in Sicily, Spain, Sardinia, and Corsica and had developed a great sea power.
Rome’s policy of defensive imperialism (?) and the exploiting commercial imperialism of Carthage (?) was one

Carthage •
of the causes of the First Punic War which ended in 241 with the defeat of Carthage.
Second Punic War - Rome suffered a series of serious defeats at Ticinus, Trebia, and Trasimene and Cannae but
was eventually able to defeat the Carthaginians at Zama in 201.

• Third Punic War – Under the leadership of Scipio Aemilianus, Carthage was razed to the ground. Punic territory
became the Roman province of Africa.
The Macedonian Wars

• Macedonian Wars
• First Macedonian War (214-05)
• Second Macedonian War (200-196)
• Third Macedonian War (172-167)
• The Macedonian Wars ended with the battle of Pydna in which Aemilius Paullus
defeated Perseus (168). Both Macedonia and Illyria were subjected to pay a huge tribute
to Rome. Macedonia was annexed in 148. In 146, after the destruction of Corinth, the
Romans dissolved the Achaean league. Each city state now had separate relations with
Rome, but the governor of Macedonia was empowered to intervene to settle disputes and
preserve public order.
Rome in
133BC
 • Works:

LIFE AND
• Life:

• Born in Tusculum in 234 BCE, helped along by L. Valerius Flaccus, Cato

came to Rome. During the Second Punic War, Cato was a military • Cato was the first Roman to publish speeches on
tribune. In 204, the year of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus maior's a large scale. Cicero knew of more than 150, we
consulship, he was quaestor (Sicily). Returning to Rome (via Sardinia), have fragments of 80. There were letters to his

WORKS
he introduced the poet Ennius. In 199, Cato became plebeian aedile, a
year later he became praetor (Sardinia). In 195, Cato and L. Valerius son (presumably the older), apophthegmata, and
Flaccus were chosen consul. Cato opposed the repeal of the lex Oppia the carmen de moribus.
(forbidding women to wear more than 1/2 oz. gold, multi-colored
dresses, ride in two-horsed vehicles ) that year. After the consulship, he
•

Cato the
received the province of Spain (Hispania citerior). Cato became censor
together with L. Valerius Flaccus in 184. In that office he presented
himself as the champion of the ancient Roman virtues against moral • The de agri cultura (written ~160):
degeneration.

• didactic treatise on "farming"

Elder
•

• In the years following the censorship, Cato remained politically active. •

Eager to strengthen the moral, social, and economic fiber of Rome, he
supported, for example, the lex Orchia sumptuaria in 182 (limiting the
number of guests at an entertainment) and the lex Voconia de mulierum • Origines (7 books; written from ~ 168-149)
hereditatibus (this law limited women's right of inheritance and restricted
individual legacies to less than the portionof the heir/s instituted in the • book 1: regal period
last will) in 169. In 155, he spoke against the philosophic embassy (a
Stoic, a Peripatetic, and an Academic) from Athens. Cato's intervention
cut the philosophers' stay short and "terminated its intellectual side effects • book 2 and 3: rise of Italian cities
(E. Gruen Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome (1992), p.
53). Two years later (153), Cato visited Carthage. Observing the city's
new prosperity, he championed its destruction. War was declared over the • book 4: the First Punic War
objection of Scipio Nasica in 150. The following year (149), the 85 year
old Cato supported the prosecution of Servius Sulpicius Galba, who as • book 5: the Second Punic War
praetor of Hispania ulterior had massacred Lusitanians asking for peace.
The prosecution failed. Cato died that year.
• book 6 and 7: history to 149
•
M. Porcius Cato
(234-139 BCE)
• Historical background
•
• The end of the Second Punic war (201) had freed Rome from the Carthagianian threat. The next 50 years were a period of
continuous expansion (Second and Third Macedonian Wars—conflicts with Antiochus—defeat of Perseus at Pydna, 168).

• It is only to be expected that beginning with the end of the Second Punic War, Roman culture and Literature show the arising
of new demands and conflicts.

• One of the central problems is the relation to the Greek cultural model the importation of which is interpreted as one of the
factors that unleash moral corruption.
• In an extreme polarization, Roman cultural life of the period has been viewed as a struggle between two opposite
factions, the philhellenic party of the Scipiones, and the anti Hellenic party, represented by the wing of the aristocracy
led by Cato the Censor.
Cato On Agriculture
Cato– The Origins
• How does Cato envision the Ideal Roman Society?
• How does Cato conceptualize the differences between Greek and
Roman society?
Twelve Tables

By: Liam, Hannah, Armaan, and Sara

 Why were the Twelve Tables written down?
● The Conflict of the Orders
○ 500 - 287 BCE
○ Uneven political power
○ Plebeians secessions
● Establishment of the Twelve
Tables - 450 BCE
○ decemviri
○ Basic procedural rights for
all Roman citizens
 Table IV. 1. A dreadfully deformed child shall be quickly killed.
● Negative Roman view of people with disabilities
● Abandoned and persecuted
○ Ex: Thrown into river, mutilated, left in
woods to die
● Value of military strength
○ A deformed child contradicts those values
● Society cared deeply about honor
 Table IV.3. As a man has provided in his will in regard to his money and the care of his
property, so let it be binding. If he has no heir and dies intestate, let the nearest agnate
have the inheritance. If there is no agnate, let the members of his gens have the
inheritance.

● Wills
● Importance of property
● Preserve patrician power
● Sudden death
● Reflects the significance of family
○ Heirs, agnate, gens
 Table VIII. 12-13.
12: If the theft has been done by night, if the owner kills the thief, the thief
shall be held to be lawfully killed.
13: It is unlawful for a thief to be killed by day….unless he defends himself
with a weapon; even though he has come with a weapon, unless he shall use
the weapon and fight back, you shall not kill him. And even if he resists, first
call out so that someone may hear and come up.
● Honor; needless bloodshed avoidable.1
○ Preventing murder under false pretenses1a
● Night = dishonorable, deceitful; day = permissible without violence2
 Table IX. 6. Putting to death any man, whosoever he
might be unconvicted is forbidden
●
M
o
s
t
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r
i
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e
s
a
Sources
The Minnesota Governor's Council on Developmental Disabilities. “Parallels In Time: A History of Developmental
_____Disabilities.” Parallels In Time | A History of Developmental Disabilities | Part One,
_____https://mn.gov/mnddc/parallels/one/3.html. Accessed Jan 22, 2023.
Kahoot
https://create.kahoot.it/details/3eaa2b01-ac67-4a19-ab87-6b5b38338537
Plautus
Menaechmi
 Formal Structure of the plot
THE HELLENISTIC MODEL
• Prologue
• a) The Syracusan story
•Epitasis:
• b) The Epidamnian • Menaec 2
sequel • Error 1: Menaec 2 and Cyl.
• Protasis: • Error 2: Menaec 2 and Ero
• a) Peniculus (parasite), • Error 3 Menaec 2 and Pen.
Menaec.1 (married) • Error 4 Menaec 2 and Ancilla
organize
• Menaec 1
• a lunch with Ero (lover).
• Error 5:Menaec 1 and Pen +wife
• Error 6: Menaec 1 and Ero
 • Menaec 2

Peniculus
Take me for example. I've been
ACT I
Scene 1
coming to see Menaechmus here
for some time now,
PEN: The young folk call me Peniculus
because when I come to dinner I sweep the table clean.
You know, people who throw prisoners into chains
or put leg irons on runaway slaves [80]
are pretty stupid in my opinion. Think about it. and he has me firmly under his
Here you've got this poor slob, you're going to add insult to injury?
Of course he's going to want to run away and cause trouble!
He'll get out of those chains some way or another,
thumb - and I love it.
saw the leg irons off [85]
or smash the lock with a stone. That's nonsense!
If you want to keep him so he won't run away,
You see, that guy doesn't just feed
bind him to you with food and drink.
Just tie the guy's snout to a loaded table.
his guests, he refreshes them
and makes them reborn. Nobody
If you give him enough to eat and drink – [90]
what he thinks is enough - everyday,
by Pollux, he'll never run, not if his life depended on it.
Yes sir, use that kind of chain and you won't need to post a guard.
These food chains (so to speak) are mighty elastic: can cure what ails you better!
the more you stretch them the tighter they bind. [95]
That's just the kind of guy he is.
He gives feasts fit for the gods.
 Husbands and Wives
• Maen 1 : And if you were not such a mean, stupid, obstinate, and
impossible female, you would not want to do anything that you see
your husband dislikes … If you go on like this any longer, I will
divorce you and pack you off to your father. Every time I choose to go
out of doors you try to stop me and call me back, pester me with
questions, what am I going to fetch, what have I brought back, what
did I do when I was out…….. Good that is done! Now then, all you
loving husbands …. Arent’ you going to load me with gifts and
congratulations for my heroic fight?.... Look I have just stolen this
gown of my wife’s and I am taking it to my girl! That’s the way to
treat them!
 Sosicles
• Maen 2 (called Sosicles in the play) p. 473. Oh gods above, did ever a
man expect less of your bounty and receive more in one day than I
have? Lunch, drinks a woman and this for a prize which its rightful
owner is not going to see again?
•
•
•
ANDY CAPP
Garfield
• Characters and Types: What is the difference?
•
• How do the characters of Plautus’ comedy differ from the characters
of Menander?
• How are they represented? Are they morally good?
• How do they relate to one another?
•
Atellanae
• Atellanae
• preliterary spectacles, probably performed at first ex tempore, by improvisation, did not call for a professional
structure and were based on rudimentary plots: a dramatic story line that included plays on words, incidents of
farcical action, quarrels and wrangling, and ribald exchanges in the spirit of the Fescennine verses.
• The most important characteristic is that improvisation involved fixed, recurring masks.
•
• Maccus the fool
• Bucco (from bucca "mouth') the glutton
• Pappus the foolish old man who is easily deceived
• Dossenus the clever trickster
•
Dossenus Pappus
Maccus Commedia dell’arte
Roman Comedy
• Roman comedy as seen in Plautus is the perfect synthesis of two different traditions:
• a) Roman pre-literary comic elements (Atellanae)
•
• b) Greek new comedy (Menander)
• plot
• setting
 The Plot and the Formula
Roman slave COMEDY
• The formula of the plot may be reduced to a mathematical equation
•
• w (xz-y )= x+y
•
• x-y represents the separated couple, x+y the united couple, z (money,
enemy) the obstacles of their union and w (usually the slave) the mode
of overcoming the obstacles.
 Pseudolus
• Plot: The basis of the plot is Calidorus' love for the prostitute
Phoenicium and his lack of money to purchase her. Pseudolus is the
slave of Calidorus's father Simo. Pseuldolus inquires into the apparent
sadness of the young man and gets swept up in the boy's over dramatic
description of the pain of love. He seems to enter into the situation
because he sees an opportunity to have some fun and make a little
money. Ballio appears on-stage and announces that it is his birthday.
He sends his courtesans out to come home with gifts from their lovers.
It is here that the audience gets a look at the girl Calidorus loves. It is
also here that the audience learns that she has been sold to a military
officer for twenty minas. Calidorus is heart broken and Pseudolus
must devise a completely new plan of action . To complicate things
more, Simo has caught word of his son's lust and warns Ballio that
 Pseudolus may try to trick him. Simo is so confident that he has

The Role of the Slave in Archaic Rome

• When oxen grow old, sell them, likewise an old cart,old iron tools, an
old slave or a sick slave (Cato the elder from De Agri Cultura).
•
Slave Collars
 Slave Rights
• slaves have no head in the State, no name, no title, no register; they
have no rights of matrimony, and no protection against adultery; they
can be bought and sold, or given away, as personal property; they may
be tortured for evidence, or even put to death, at the discretion of their
master.
 The Enemy
• The enemy
• Senex:Periphanes (Famous); Teopropides (Son of Prophecy);
Nikobulus (conquering in consul). The senex is usually a senator, the
most esteemed member of Roman society
•
• Miles (soldier): military hero of Roman society
•
 Ends of Plautine Slave Comedies
• 1)Leonida (slave): Now first of all, we don't deny we're both of us
your bondsmen
• But if we give you 20 minae all in cash,by what name will you
call us?
• Argyrippus (master): Freedmen
• Leonida : Why not masters?
• Argyrippus: All right
•
• 2) A slave : Am I to give in another beating or is it peace?
• Pyrgolopolinices: I'm all in pieces with your beating. Spare me for
 The Saturnalia

Saturnalia: Festival in honor of Saturn originally celebrated on December 17. By the late Republic, the festival fluctuated
from 3 to seven days, from December 17 to 23. The festival was a winter solstice festival to honor Saturn the god of seed –sowing.
The sacrifice began with a big sacrifice at the temple of Saturn in Rome, followed by a public feast open to everyone.
•As a general rule, Roman at this time adopted a comportament inverting their normal conduct.
•The social order was inverted
•Slaves dined before their masters and could allow themselves a certain insolence.
•Leisure wear was worn instead of the toga as well as the felt bonnet proper to slaves (pilleus)
• What is your opinion is the function of the Saturnalia?
Roman Slaves
• Who were the slaves?
• inhabitants of towns and country captured in war
• offspring of slaves
• people enslaved for debt
• people convicted of capital crimes
• children exposed by their families
• children sold by families
•
• What is the difference between Modern Slavery and Roman slavery?
• What are the implications?
 Sallust
The Conspiracy of Catiline
 • After a series of secessions of the plebs new magistracies, new laws. and new assemblies were created.
• Structure of the Roman state by the end of the 4th century BC

• Magistrates-Elected Offices (all male Roman citizens could be elected)

• Senior Magistrates:
• Censorship: 2 censors were elected for 18 months every 5 years . They were former consuls. they 1)
took a census of citizens 2) established an album senatorium 3) they rented out the ager publicus
• Consulship: 2 consuls were elected each year. They held imperium domi militiae.

Magistrates • Praetorship: elected each year.

• Praetor urbanus—in charge of administration of justice within the city
• Praetor peregrinus—his duty probably involved maintaining Roman authority among
the foreign people.
• Later more praetors were added as the administrative needs of the State increased
• Minor magistracies:
• Curule Aedilship (2): The function of the aedile was to look after the provisioning of Rome and to
take care for markets, public orders, and the public games.
• Quaestorship (4): had chiefly financial power, in particular concerning the administration of the
public treasury.
 • Non-elected offices:
• Dictatorship: the dictator was appointed by the consuls on the decision of
the consuls. The dictator was appointed for the accomplishment of a
precise mission and on no account he was allowed to last longer than six
months.
• interrex: was appointed by the Senate in the event of the death of the
two consuls. His power lasted only five days.
• The Tribuni Plebis (originally 2, later 10)
Magistrates • The origin of the tribuni plebis is obscure. Their person was sacrosanct.
They represented the people and only plebeians could be elected to that
office.
• The had various powers:
• Power of veto – the veto power could be exercised against any
decision by any other magistrates (except dictators)
• Power of auxilium -- they could safeguard any citizen who placed
himself under their protection
• They could summon citizens to vote
 Assemblies
• Open to all Roman citizens (male only)
• Centuriate assembly. It represented all the populus divided into 5
classes and 193 centuriae. The first class that of the richest citizens
had 98 centuriae and enjoy absolute majority.
• Comitia centuriata
Elected senior magistrates, military leaders, and censors.

Assemblies
• Voted on constitutional laws
• Had the right to declare war
• Judged capital cases
• Comitia tributa —divided in 35 tribes (4 urban tribes and 31 rural
tribes).Each man voted within his own tribe. They elected quaestors
and curule aediles. Voted on non-capital trials.
• Concilium plebis – creation of a new assembly by the plebs (circa.
494). Only the plebs was allowed to the concilium plebis. They voted
by tribes. They elected the Tribunes and plebeian Aediles (2) (took
care of the temple of Ceres)
 • The Senate
• At the beginning comprised 300 members. Its members
were all former magistrates (censors, consuls, and
praetors).
• Historically the function of the Senate was to provide
advice to the chief executives of Rome. The consuls
introduce to the Senate proposals for legislation and the
The Senate senators discussed the proposals, and if they approved
of it, advised the consuls to present the legislation to
one of the popular assemblies for a vote (senatus
consultum). The Senate thus had tight control over
what legislation actually reached the assemblies.
• The Senate would usually controlled foreign policy
(including the appointment of military commanders and
later, provincial governors)
Catiline
The Conspiracy of Catiline
 Catiline
108Catiline was born from a patrician family.
80 He first appeared in public life as a devoted partisan of Sulla in the Sullan proscriptions of 80 BC.
68 –praetorship
67-- governor in N. Africa
66—attempt to consulship of 65. He was not accepted as a candidate. With two other rejected nominee, C. formed the
scheme

The of murdering the incoming consuls. Plan failed.

65 C. had to stand trial for misgovernment in N. Africa. Acquitted.
64-- second attempt to the consulship of 63. Cicero is elected consul

Conspiracy of The conspiracy

Catiline
63—attempt to the consulship of 62. He based his candidature on a program of novae tabulae, or cancellation of debts
and made strong appeal to
Sullan veterans and bankrupt aristocrats.
Cicero reports to the Senate that Catiline persuaded the Senate to put off the elections for a few days and that he

Synopsis of
appeared at the elections armed
with his own cuirass and a body guard. Catiline failed to be elected.

Catiline plans to arouse the Sullan veterans and other discontented elements in Etruria under the leadership of

Events
Manlius. The force of Manlius was
to advance on Rome on the 27th October.
On October 21st, Cicero summons the Senate with news that Manlius was marching against Rome. . A state of
emergency is proclaimed.
Unrestricted power is given to the consuls.
November 6th –7th. Catiline meets in Rome several of the conspirators. Allots the various roles each conspirator had
to play. Gave to Roman knights
the task of assassinating Cicero.
November 8th. Cicero delivers the FIRST CATILINARIAN
November 9th. Catiline leaves Rome. Cicero hailed his departure in the Second Catilinarian.
Catiline continues to carry on a vigourous recruiting campaign
Dec. 3rd. Cicero gets news of these moves and gets written evidence of the conspiracy. Third Catilinarian
Dec 5. Senate debates the punishment of the conspirators. Cicero delivers the Fourth Catilinarian Caesar speaks
against death penalty, Cato in favor.
Synopsis of the History of Rome
Foundation
The Monarchy
Rome and Greece
Great Old
Times
 The Start
of the Decline
• At first, however, it was ambition, rather than avarice,1 that influenced the minds of men; a vice which approaches nearer to
virtue than the other. For of glory, honor, and power, the worthy is as desirous as the worthless; but the one pursues them by
just methods; the other, being destitute of honorable qualities, works with fraud and deceit. But avarice has merely money
for its object, which no wise man has ever immoderately desired. It is a vice which, as if imbued with deadly poison,
enervates whatever is manly in body or mind.2 It is always unbounded and insatiable, and is abated neither by abundance
nor by want.But after Lucius Sylla, having recovered the government3 by force of arms, proceeded, after a fair
commencement, to a pernicious termination, all became robbers and plunderers;4 some set their affections on houses, others
on lands; his victorious troops knew neither restraint nor moderation, but inflicted on the citizens disgraceful and inhuman
outrages. Their rapacity was increased by the circumstance that Sylla, in order to secure the attachment of the forces which
he had commanded in Asia,5 had treated them, contrary to the practice of our ancestors, with extraordinary indulgence, and
exemption from discipline; and pleasant and luxurious quarters had easily, during seasons of idleness, enervated the minds
of the soldiery. Then the armies of the Roman people first became habituated to licentiousness and intemperance, and began
to admire statues, pictures, and sculptured vases; to seize such objects alike in public edifices and private dwellings;6 to
spoil temples; and to cast off respect for every thing, sacred and profane. Such troops, accordingly, when once they obtained
the mastery, left nothing to be vanquished. Success unsettles the principles even of the wise, and scarcely would those of
debauched habits use victory with moderation.
Portrait of Catiline
• What are fo Sallust the causes of Rome’s political Crisis?
 Sallust, Conspiracy of Catiline (Caesar’s
speech, ch. 51)
• "I am indeed of opinion, Conscript Fathers, that the utmost degree of
torture is inadequate to punish their crime; but the generality of
mankind dwell on that which happens last, and, in the case of
malefactors, forget their guilt, and talk only of their punishment,
should that punishment have been inordinately severe. I feel assured,
too, that Decimus Silanus, a man of spirit and resolution, made the
suggestions which he offered, from zeal for the state, and that he had
no view, in so important a matter, to favor or to enmity; such I know to
be his character, and such his discretion.5 Yet his proposal appears to
me, I will not say cruel (for what can be cruel that is directed against
such characters?), but foreign to our policy. For assuredly, Silanus,
either your fears, or their treason, must have induced you, a consul
elect, to propose this new kind of punishment. Of fear it is
 unnecessary to speak, when by the prompt activity of that

• Why is it that Caesar advocates for sparing the life of the conspirators?
Cicero Catilinarians
 The Conspiracy of Catiline
Chronology of events
The conspiracy
63—attempt to the consulship of 62. He based his candidature on a program of novae tabulae, or cancellation of debts and made strong
appeal to Sullan veterans and bankrupt aristocrats.
Cicero reports to the Senate that Catiline persuaded the Senate to put off the elections for a few days and tha he appeared at the elections armed with his own cuirass and a body guard.
Catiline failed to be elected.

Catiline plans to arouse the Sullan veterans and other discontented elements in Etruria under the leadership of Manlius. The force of Manlius was to advance on Rome on the 27th
October.
On October 21st, Cicero summons the Senate with news that Manlius was marching against Rome. . A state of emergency is proclaimed. Unrestricted power is given to the consuls.
November 6th –7th. Catiline meets in Rome several of the conspirators. Allots the various roles each conspirator had to play. Gave to Roman knights the task of assassinating Cicero.
November 8th. Cicero delivers the FIRST CATILINARIAN
November 9th. Catiline leaves Rome. Cicero hailed his departure in the Second Catilinarian.
Catiline continues to carry on a vigourous recruiting campaign
Dec. 3rd. Cicero gets news of these moves and gets written evidence of the conspiracy. Third Catilinarian
Dec 5. Senate debates the punishment of the conspirators. Cicero delivers the Fourth Catilinarian Caesar speaks against death penalty, Cato in favor.
Dec 10. five of the leading conspirators executed
Early Jan. Catiline and his army are annihilated
• By… [the] power of eloquence the deceitful among mankind are brought to
destruction, and the righteous to deliverance. Who more passionately than the orator
can encourage virtuous conduct… can more austerely censure the wicked… whose
invective can more forcibly subdue the power of lawless desire?
• Cicero. De Orat. 2.35.
 Rapresentation of Civil Wars
Cicero and Antony
Goals of oratory

• logos
• Pathos
• ethos
 Some rhetorical devices (Schemata)

Schemata 1 Schemata 2
• Well, my friend Sweet Jay took • Now is the time to act, to show
me to the video arcade in town, what we can do and take what is
right, and they do not speak wrong and set it right.
English there so Jay got into a
fight and he’s all : “ hey, qui
hassling me cuz I don’t speak • Compare
French” or whatever! And then
the guy said something in Paris • Now is the time to act. Now is
talk, and I am like, : “Just back the time to show what we can
off!” And they are all, :”Get do. Now is the time to take what
out!” And we are like, “Make is wrong and set it right.
 me!” it was cool. (Austin

Schemata 3
• Announcer: Labombier takes the puck, gets it past two defenders,
shoots, misses, shoots again, goal!
 Schemata 4
• Instead of seeking help from government, you should volunteer for it.

• Compare

• Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for
your country (J.F. Kennedy)
 Schemata 5 Schemata 6
• They call for you: The general
who became a slave. The slave
who became a gladiator. The
•they do not seem the happiest couple around. gladiator who defied an emperor.
•The ice cream was not too bad. (Gladiator)
•New York is not an ordinary city.
•Your comments on politics are not useless.
•You are not as young as you used to be.
Schemata 7 Schemata 8
• At midnight I went on deck, and
to my mate’s great surprise put
the ship round on the other tack.
•1)He drowned in a sea of grief. His terrible whiskers flitted
round me in silent criticism.”
•Compare
(Conrad, the Secret Sharer)
•He became very sad.
 Schemata 9
• "Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears . . .“ (Julius
Caesar, Shakespeare)

• He became an alcoholic

• Compare

• He took to the bottle

Catilinarian 1
• WHEN, O Catiline, do you mean to cease abusing our patience?
How long is that madness of yours still to mock us? When is there
to be an end of that unbridled audacity of yours, swaggering about
as it does now? Do not the nightly guards placed on the Palatine Hill
—do not the watches posted throughout the city—does not the alarm
of the people, and the union of all good men—does not the precaution
taken of assembling the senate in this most defensible place—do not
the looks and countenances of this venerable body here present, have
any effect upon you? Do you not feel that your plans are detected? Do
you not see that your conspiracy is already arrested and rendered
powerless by the knowledge which every one here possesses of it?
What is there that you did last night, what the night before—where is
it that you were—who was there that you summoned to meet you—
 what design was there which was adopted by you, with which you

Praeteritio
• What? when lately by the death of your former wife you had made
your house empty and ready for a new bridal, did you not even add
another incredible wickedness to this wickedness? But I pass that over,
and willingly allow it to be buried in silence, that so horrible a crime
may not be seen to have existed in this city, and not to have been
chastised. I pass over the ruin of your fortune, which you know is
hanging over you against the ides of the very next month; I come to
those things which relate not to the infamy of your private vices, not to
your domestic difficulties and baseness, but to the welfare of the
republic and to the lives and safety of us all.
Catilinarian 1 (section3)
• There was—there was once such virtue in this republic that brave men would
repress mischievous citizens with severer chastisement than the most bitter enemy.
For we have a resolution of the senate, a formidable and authoritative decree
against you, O Catiline; the wisdom of the republic is not at fault, nor the dignity
of this senatorial body. We, we alone—I say it openly,—we, the consuls, are
wanting in our duty.
• A camp is pitched in Italy, at the entrance of Etruria, in hostility to the republic; the
number of the enemy increases every day; and yet the general of that camp, the
leader of those enemies, we see within our walls.
• Wherefore, O conscript fathers, let the worthless be gone,—let them separate
themselves from the good,—let them collect in one place,—let them, as I have
often said before, be separated from us by a wall; let them cease to plot against the
consul in his own house,—to surround the tribunal of the city pretor,—to besiege
the senate-house with swords,—to prepare brands and torches to burn the city
walls
• With these omens, O Catiline, be gone to your impious and nefarious war, to the
great safety of the republic, to your own misfortune and injury, and to the
destruction of those who have joined themselves to you in every wickedness and
atrocity. Then do you, O Jupiter, who were consecrated by Romulus with the same
auspices as this city, whom we rightly call the stay of this city and empire, repel
this man and his companions from your altars and from the other temples,—from
the houses and walls of the city,—from the lives and fortunes of all the citizens;
and overwhelm all the enemies of good men, the foes of the republic, the robbers
of Italy, men bound together by a treaty and infamous alliance of crimes, dead and
alive, with eternal punishments.
Livy 1.12
• Romulus was driven by the crowd of fleeing men to the ancient gate of Palatine.
Raising his arms to heaven he said“Jupiter, ordered by your birds I threw up the
first foundations of the city on the Palatine. Already the Sabines have the empty
citadel by a deceit; then armed, they hold the middle part of the valley and hold
their course to here. But you father of gods and men, fromhere at least ward off
the enemy, drive off the terror of the Romans, check this shameful flight. Here I
vow to you a temple Jupiter Stator, which will be a monument for posterity that
this city was kept by your immediate effort.” Praying these things as if he sensed
his prayers were heard, he said, “Romans, Jupiter ‘Best and Greatest’ orders you
here to resist and renew the fight.” The Romans resisted as if ordered by the voice
of heaven.Romulus himself rushed forth to the foremost ranks.
• How does Cicero present himself in Catilinarian 1?
• How does he present Catiline?
 Lecture 7

The Crisis of the Second and First

Century BCE
 Magistrates
• After a series of secessions of the plebs new magistracies, new laws. and new assemblies were created.
• Structure of the Roman state by the end of the 4th century BC

• Magistrates-Elected Offices (all male Roman citizens could be

elected)
• Senior Magistrates:
• Censorship: 2 censors were elected for 18 months every 5 years . They were former consuls. they 1) took a census of citizens
2) established an album senatorium 3) they rented out the ager publicus
• Consulship: 2 consuls were elected each year. They held imperium domi militiae.
• Praetorship: elected each year.
• Praetor urbanus—in charge of administration of justice within the city
• Praetor peregrinus—his duty probably involved maintaining Roman authority among the foreign people.
• Later more praetors were added as the administrative needs of the State increased
• Minor magistracies:
• Curule Aedilship (2): The function of the aedile was to look after the provisioning of Rome and to take
care for markets, public orders, and the public games.
• Quaestorship (4): had chiefly financial power, in particular concerning the administration of the public
treasury.
 Magistrates
• Non-elected offices:
• Dictatorship: the dictator was appointed by the consuls on the decision of
the consuls. The dictator was appointed for the accomplishment of a precise
mission and on no account he was allowed to last longer than six months.
• interrex: was appointed by the Senate in the event of the death of the two
consuls. His power lasted only five days.
• The Tribuni Plebis (originally 2, later 10)
• The origin of the tribuni plebis is obscure. Their person was sacrosanct.
They represented the people and only plebeians could be elected to that
office.
• The had various powers:
• Power of veto – the veto power could be exercised against any decision by
any other magistrates (except dictators)
• Power of auxilium -- they could safeguard any citizen who placed himself
under their protection
• They could summon citizens to vote
 Assemblies
Assemblies
• Open to all Roman citizens (male only)
• Centuriate assembly. It represented all the populus divided into 5 classes and 193
centuriae. The first class that of the richest citizens had 98 centuriae and enjoy
absolute majority.
• Comitia centuriata
Elected senior magistrates, military leaders, and censors.
• Voted on constitutional laws
• Had the right to declare war
• Judged capital cases
• Comitia tributa —divided in 35 tribes (4 urban tribes and 31 rural tribes).Each
man voted within his own tribe. They elected quaestors and curule aediles. Voted
on non-capital trials.
• Concilium plebis – creation of a new assembly by the plebs (circa. 494). Only the
plebs was allowed to the concilium plebis. They voted by tribes. They elected the
Tribunes and plebeian Aediles (2) (took care of the temple of Ceres)
 The Senate

• The Senate
• At the beginning comprised 300 members. Its members were all
former magistrates (censors, consuls, and praetors).
• Historically the function of the Senate was to provide advice to the
chief executives of Rome. The consuls introduce to the Senate
proposals for legislation and the senators discussed the proposals,
and if they approved of it, advised the consuls to present the
legislation to one of the popular assemblies for a vote (senatus
consultum). The Senate thus had tight control over what legislation
actually reached the assemblies.
• The Senate would usually controlled foreign policy (including the
appointment of military commanders and later, provincial
governors)
Rising Social Discontent in the
Second Century
 • Small landowners-Because of the war and the
constant military service a great number of
small landowners lost their land or sold it to
wealthy landowners. This created a lack of
military recruit.
• The Urban Poor –The rapid influx of people to the
cities created unemployment and underemployment.

Losers The situation became especially acute at Rome

(400,000 people by 133 BCE). Rome’s great growth
during the first 50 years of the century had depended
upon the profits of overseas expansion. After the
destruction of Carthage and Corinth in 146 BC there
were however no more profitable wars for some time.
 Rising Social Discontent in the Second Century
Losers Continued

• Non Roman Citizens

• The Italian Allies—Italian allies found their status more and more burdensome as
Rome expanded overseas. They had experienced enormous losses of manpower
during the Second Punic War and the allies received only a minor share of the profits
of those wars.
• The Provincials—Many provincials resented their loss of independence, the payment
of taxes and tribute to Rome
 Winners

• The Equites – Roman merchants profit from

Roman expansion
• Big Landowners- become even wealthier as they
buy land from small landowners.
 From the Gracchi to the Caesar
(synopsis of events)
133—Tiberius proposes the following agrarian reform
• A limit on individual possession of the ager publicus (land belonging to the
Roman State )
• A college of 3 members given the task of applying the law. This meant a reduction
of the powers of the Senate which until then had sole management of the ager
publicus.
123 -Gaius Gracchus is elected tribune of the plebs
• He renews the rogatio Sempronia on the distribution of the ager publicus
• Foundation of new colonies
• Lex Sempronia frumentaria—a corn law benefiting the proletariat of Rome (every
citizen living in Rome would receive a bushel of corn every month at a price
reduced by state subsidy
• Lex de Asia- granted the knights the exploitation of the province of Asia
• Lex Calpurnia- It excluded senators from the juries of the standing courts to try
provincial governors for extorsion.
• What are the reasons for these laws?
 The Social War
• 91-88--- Social War—
• socii nominis Latini (Latins). As independent states the Latins were
not subject to tax or tribute, but they had to supply a quota of troops
to fight alongside the Roman legions. Latins who happened to be in
Rome could vote in a tribe which was chosen by lot
• civitates foederatae— independent allies bound to Rome by treaties
(foedera). They supplied troops
• During the first half of the second century Rome’s relations
with allies deteriorated for Roman control gradually
overshadowed the local authorities, leading to the social war.
The Latin allies did not join. Rome granted Roman
citizenship to the Italians (south of the river Po) at the end of
the war.
 The Beginning of Civil War
Marius and Sulla
• 107—Marius’ military reform
• 106—Marius’ victory over Jugurtha
• 102-01- Marius’ victories at Aquae Sextiae et Vercellae
• 100-- Marius consul for the sixth time
• 86 – Marius, consul for the last time, dies
• 82 Sulla returns to Rome after the war against Mithridates
• 81 Sulla becomes dictator. Reorganizes constitution
• 79 Sulla retires to private life
• 78 Sulla dies
 The Civil war between Pompey
and Caesar
• Pompey’s career
• 106 -birth
• 82-72 revolt of Sertorius in Spain. Pompey brings the war to an end in 71
• 73-71 revolt of Spartacus—Pompey together with Crassus puts an end to the
revolt
• 70 --- Pompey elected consul
• 67-62 Pompey victoriously campaigns against pirates and Mithridates.
Campaigns in the East. Pompey’s settlement of the East.
• Caesar’s career
• 100 – birth of Caesar from a patrician family
• 65 – aedile— he stages magnificent games
• 63- Pontifex maximus
• 63 -Catiline’s conspiracy. Caesar’s speech in favor of imprisonment for life
(see Sallust’s BC).
Portrait of Pompey
Portrait of Alexander
 The years of the triumvirate
60 --- First triumvirate – Its formation was a turning point in the history of
the Republic, and it was, as both Cicero and Cato recognized , the
ultimate origin of the Civil War in 49. Three men backed by armed force,
by the urban populace , formed a private and at first a secret agreement
to work together for their mutual political advantage.. This compact is
called First Triumvirate, but it was described by the ancients in less
flattering terms “potentiae societas, and “coniuratio”
59 Caesar is elected consul, assigned to take command in Gaul
58-50 – Caesar’s campaign in Gaul
56—Renewal of the triumvirate
55—Crassus and Pompey consuls
54---One of the chief bonds between Pompey and Caesar snapped when
Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter) died. When Caesar offered to
renew the marriage alliance, Pompey declined and married Cornelia
53 -Death of Crassus. The year ends without consular election. Riots in the
city. The Senate gives Pompey as proconsul charge of a special levy
 Caesar- coins
• Portrait of a Gaul on a coin of 48
celebrating Caesar’s victories
 Civil Wars Chronology
• The triumvirate and the civil wars
• 60 --- First triumvirate – Its formation was a turning point in the history of the Republic, and it was, as both Cicero and
Cato recognized , the ultimate origin of the Civil War in 49. Three men backed by armed force, by the urban populace ,
formed a private and at first a secret agreement to work together for their mutual political advantage.. This compact is
called First triumvirate, but it was described by the ancients in less flattering terms “potentiae societas, and “coniuratio”
•
• 59 Caesar is elected consul, assigned to to take command in Gaul

• 58-50 – Caesar’s campaign in Gaul

• 56—renewal of the triumvirate

• 55—Crassus and Pompey consuls

• 54---One of the chief bonds between Pompey and Caesar snapped when Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter) died.
When Caesar offered to renew the marriage alliance, Pompey declined and married Cornelia
•
• 53 death of Crassus. The year ends without consular election having been held. Riots in the city. The Senate declared
martial law and gave Pompey as proconsul charge of a special levy

• 51 The consul Marcellus secures the rejection of a request by Caesar that his command should be extended to the end of 49.
Marcellus proposes to discuss the possibility of a successor to Caesar on 1 March 50.
 Civil Wars
• 49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon bringing his army to Italy (January 15).
Pompey and part of the Senate abandon Rome and flee to Greece
• 48 Caesar consul. Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus (9 August);
Pompey escapes in Egypt and is killed by agents of Ptolemy XII. Caesar
occupies Alexandria. Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII installed as rulers
• 47 Caesar dictator; Mark Antony in charge of Italy
• 46 Caesar defeats Pompeians at Thapsus. Suicide of Cato. Caesar
celebrates multiple triumphs, reforms calendar, starts building program
• 45 Caesar defeats last Pompeians at Munda
• 44 Caesar is killed, assassinated by senatorial conspiracy led by Brutus
and Cassius.
•
Coins of Brutus
 Life of Caesar
• Life:

• 100 – born in Rome to a patrician family of ancient nobility.

• 78--- returns to Rome after a journey to Asia

• 68 ----quaestor

• 65---- aedile

• 63--- pontifex maximus

• 62--- praetor

• 61--- pro-praetor in further Spain

• 60--- first triumvirate

• 59--- consulship (I)

• 58--- proconsul of Illyria and Gaul

• 58-49--- Gallic Wars

• 49--- crosses the Rubicon

• 48--- defeat of the Pompeians at Pharsalus

• 46---battle of Thapsus against Pompeians

• 45--- battle of Munda against the Pompeians

• 44--- Caesar is killed by a group of aristocrats led by Brutus and Cassius

 Imagery of Civil Wars
• And whilst. From these, men wish to scape afar,

• Driven by false terror, and afar remove,

• With civic blood a fortune they amass,

• They double their riches, greedy, heapers-up

• Of corpse on corpse they have a cruel laugh

• For the sad burial of a brother-born,

• And hatred and fear of tables of their kin (Luc. 3)

•
• Of wars across Emathian plains, worse than civil wars,

• And of legality conferred on crime we sing, and of a mighty people

• Attacking its own guts with victorious sword –hand,

• Of kin facing kin, and, once the pact of tyranny was broken,

• Of conflict waged with all the forces of the shaken world

• For universal guilt, and of standards ranged in enmity against

• standards, of eagles matched and javelins threatening javelins

• (Luc.1.1-7, Transl. Braund)

•
 Caesar Representation of himself
Though all this tended little to redress the injuries of which Caesar complained, yet considering these as proper
persons by whom to transmit his thoughts, he begged of them, that as they had not scrupled to bring Pompey's
demands to him, they would likewise carry back his proposals to Pompey; that, if possible, so small a labour might put an end to
mighty differences, and deliver all Italy from the fear of a civil war. He told them "That the interest of the commonwealth had always
been dearer to him than life; but he could not help grieving at the malice of his enemies, who had frustrated the good intentions of the
Roman people in his favour, by cutting off six months from his command, and obliging him to return to Rome to sue for the
consulship, though a law had been made dispensing with his personal attendance; that he had yet, for the sake of the commonwealth,
patiently submitted to this assault upon his honour; that even his proposal of disbanding the armies on both sides, which he had made
by a letter to the senate, had been rejected: that new levies were making over all Italy: that two legions, which had been taken from him,
under pretence of the Parthian
war, were still retained in the service of his enemies: that the whole state was in arms. What could all this aim at but his destruction ?
That, nevertheless, he was ready to agree to any proposal, and expose himself to any danger, for the sake of his country. Let Pompey go
to his government: let all the armies be disbanded: let every body throughout Italy lay down their arms: let every thing that participates
of terror and force be removed: let the elections of magistrates he made with perfect freedom; and let the republic be administered by
the authority of the senate and people. And the better to settle all these articles, and corroborate them with the sanction of an oath, let
either Pompey himself draw nearer; or suffer Ceesar to approach him; as
all their differences may be most easily terminated by a conference." (Caesar BC 1.9)
• In Pompey’s camp could be viewed artificial bowers, great quantities
of silver laid out, tents floored with freshly cut turf, the tents of
Lucius Lentulus and some others wreathed with ivy, and much else
to indicate excessive luxury and confidence of victory. It was easy to
deduce from their pursuit of inessential pleasures that they had no
misgivings about the outcome of the day. Yet these were men who
accused Caesar’s wretched and long-suffering army of luxury, when
it had never enjoyed sufficiency in its everyday needs. (Caesar, BC
3.96.1-2)
 The Alexander Subtext
• Nothing was wanting to complete this victory, in which Alexander overthrew above a 110,000 of his
enemies, but the taking the person of Darius, who escaped very narrowly by flight. However, having
taken his chariot and his bow,note he returned from pursuing him,
• [20.11] and found his own men busy in pillaging the barbarians' camp, which [...] was exceedingly
rich. But Darius' tent, which was full of splendid furniture and quantities of gold and silver, they
reserved for Alexander himself,
• [20.12] who, after he had put off his arms, went to bathe himself saying, "Let us now cleanse ourselves
from the toils of war in the bath of Darius."
• "Not so," replied one of his followers, "but in Alexander's rather; for the property of the conquered is
and should be called the conqueror's."
• [20.13] Here, when he beheld the bathing vessels, the water-pots, the pans, and the ointment boxes, all
of gold curiously wrought, and smelt the fragrant odors with which the whole place was exquisitely
perfumed, and from thence passed into a pavilion of great size and height, where the couches and tables
and preparations for an entertainment were perfectly magnificent, he turned to those about him and
said, "This, it seems, is royalty.“
• Plutarch, Life of Alexander
. ... and 7,000 cavalry. Of the latter, Deiotarus had brought 600 Gauls, and Ariobarzanes
3

500 from Cappadocia; Cotys had supplied the same number from Thrace and had sent his son
Sadales ; from Macedonia there were 200 \under Rhascypolis, excellent men; from Alexandria
Pompey’s son had brought 500 Gauls and Germans of the Gabinians, the troops Aulus
Gabinius
had left there as a garrison with King Ptolemy; he himself had conscripted 800 from his
slaves and his body of shepherds; 300 had been given by Tarcondarius Castor and Domnilaus
from Galatia- of whom the one had come in person, the other had sent his son-; 200, most of
them mounted archers, had been sent from Syria by Antiochus of Commagene, whom
Pompey rewarded generously. To these he had added Dardani and Bessi, who were partly
mercenaries, and partly ordered and cajoled into service, likewise Macedonians, Thessalians
and men belonging to other tribes and states, and so he had
reached the number mentioned above. (Caesar BC 3. 4.3-6)
• How Does Caesar represent himself?
• How does Caesar represent his enemy?
Caesar’s Civil
War

49 BCE — 45 BCE
Prelude
The Fracturing Republic
 Prelude
● Growing tension between the Populares and the Optimates.
● The Populares seek political power via the populace; they typically champion
land reforms, grain subsidies, and debt relief.
● A series of prominent Populares is suppressed by the Optimates in the
Senate, often by violence.
○ Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, murdered 133 BCE
○ Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, murdered 121 BCE
○ Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, murdered 100 BCE
○ Marcus Livius Drusus, murdered 91 BCE
○ Gaius Marius, died 86 BCE
○ Lucius Cornelius Cinna, killed 84 BCE
○ Lucius Sergius Catilina, killed 62 BCE
 Prelude
● The murder of Marcus Livius Drusus instigated the Social War (91—88 BCE)
in which Italian cities rebelled, seeking the rights of full Roman citizens.
● After the Social War was concluded, the tensions between the Populares and
the Optimates culminated in Sulla’s Civil War (88—87 BCE, 83—81 BCE).
● This is the first time in Roman history that a Roman army marched on Rome.
● Both sides consider themselves to be violating the Roman constitution in
order to save it.
● The war is accompanied by unprecedented mob violence, destruction, and
bloody political purges (proscriptions); Sulla claims an extralegal Dictatorship
in order to enact conservative reforms before retiring from public life.
 Prelude
● More wars; The Sertorian War (83—70 BCE) and Lepidus’ Revolt (78 BCE),
both attempts by former Marian partisans to revive the Populares in Rome.
● This is the environment in which the major political figures of the next period
are raised.
 Dramatis Personae

Gnaeus Pompeius Marcus Tullius Cicero

Gaius Iulius Caesar Marcus Porcius Cato

Marcus Licinius Crassus Publius Clodius Pulcher

 Gnaeus Pompey (106BCE—48BCE)
● “Pompey the Great” due to his military victories; Pompey is the most
accomplished military commander at this point in Roman history.
● Distinguished himself fighting in Sulla’s Civil War, the Sertorian War, and the
Third Servile War (against Spartacus), and cleared Roman waters of pirates
(no small feat). “Adulescens Carnifex,” the Teenage Butcher
● Undertook massive campaigns in the East; Pompey re-drew the map of the
Eastern Mediterranean, establishing several new Roman provinces and
several client states.
● Consul in 70 BCE, 55 BCE, and assumes sole consular powers in 52 BCE.
● Has sympathies with both the Populares and Optimates
 Gaius Iulius Caesar (100BCE—44BCE)
● Related by marriage to the Populares (his first wife is the daughter of Cinna
and his aunt is the wife of Marius). After nearly being killed by Sulla as a
teenager, he is pardoned. Caesar is a lifelong member of the Populares, but
enters onto the scene in 60 BCE as a relatively junior partner among the
influential members of the Populares.
● He is noted for being an incredibly skilled speaker, a capable commander,
and a shrewd political actor. He is incredibly ambitious, taking huge risks and
incurring huge debt in order to advance up the political ladder.
60 BCE
Shifting Alliances
The First Triumvirate

Gnaeus Pompeius Gaius Iulius Caesar Marcus Licinius Crassus

 Shifting Alliances
● As Caesar returns from administering Spain, he makes a political alliance
with Crassus and Pompey — the First Triumvirate. Cicero is asked to join, but
refuses.
● Caesar is awarded a triumph for his military achievements in Spain. His
political enemies attempt to block him from the consulship by scheduling his
triumph for after the deadline to announce one’s candidacy for consul, thus
forcing him to choose between the most powerful office and the highest honor
in Rome. Caesar unexpectedly chooses to renounce his generalship early, thus
missing out on the triumph and allowing him to run for consul.
● Caesar is elected consul with the aid of Crassus and Pompey for the year of
59.
 59 BCE
The Consulship of Julius and Caesar
 The Consulship of Julius and Caesar
● The other Consul elected for the year 59 is Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, a
hardline conservative (Cato’s son-in-law) and a personal enemy to Caesar.
The Optimates know that Caesar is in the Populares camp and is determined
to undermine him.
● Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, however, are all equally determined to see
their respective agendas completed.
 The Consulship of Julius and Caesar
● Caesar proposes ambitious land reform legislation.
○ Establishes a commission to buy up land and redistribute it to the urban poor via lottery.
○ New landowners forbidden from selling land for 20 years, to keep the land out of the hands of
the wealthy.
● Caesar only has a few days to get the bill passed in the Senate if he wants
control over its implementation. Knowing this, Cato filibusters the bill.
● Caesar orders Cato arrested for impeding Senate business. The Senate walks
out en masse in protest. Caesar realizes that he doesn’t have the power to pass
legislation through the Senate and orders Cato released.
 The Consulship of Julius and Caesar
● Caesar instead decides to bypass the Senate entirely, bringing his legislation
directly to the Popular Assembly, with the support of Crassus and Pompey.
○ Cato and Bibulus arrive so that Bibulus, as Consul, can veto the bill; the crowd attacks him,
but instead of killing him dumps a bucket a feces on his head. The conservatives flee and the
bill passes overwhelmingly.
○ Caesar claims he could not hear Bibulus attempting to veto the bill over the roar of the crowd.
○ Pompey and Crassus are both appointed land commissioners.
 The Consulship of Julius and Caesar
● Bibulus calls for a formal condemnation of Caesar’s methods in the Senate,
for the Land Reform vote to be overturned, and for Caesar to be stripped of
his office.
○ With Crassus and Pompey speaking in defense of Caesar, the Senate is cowed and Bibulus’
proposal fails.
○ Bibulus hides in his home for the rest of his term. He tries to sabotage Caesar’s future
legislation by manipulating religious holidays in the Roman calendar, but Caesar simply
ignores him.
 The Consulship of Julius and Caesar
● With a more powerful position, and with part of his own agenda
accomplished, Caesar supports his new allies in the Triumvirate.
○ Pompey’s conquests in the east are ratified and his veterans are provided with land.
○ Crassus’ allies, the tax collectors, are given government bailouts.
● The Triumvirate procures a powerful political ally when Caesar sponsors
Publius Clodius Pulcher to become Tribune of the Plebs.
● Thanks to Bibulus’ calendar manipulation, all of this legislation is
technically illegal.
● The Triumvirate procures for Caesar a Proconsulship over three provinces —
Illyricum, Cisalpine Gaul, and Transalpine Gaul. He is also allowed four
legions of Roman soldiers. After his term as Consul is over, Caesar goes to
Gaul.
58—49 BCE
Polarization, Part 1: Caesar in Gaul
 Caesar in Gaul
● Caesar carries out a series of campaigns against entities in modern-day
France, Belgium, and Germany. He leads the first Roman military expedition
into Britain.
● The political entities in Gaul are divided, and Caesar uses political promises
and Roman goods to exploit their division and impose Roman influence.
● The Gauls unite against Rome at last under Vercingetorix. Caesar decisively
defeats the united Gauls at the Siege of Alesia (52 BCE).
● When Caesar leaves Gaul, around 2 million Gauls are dead or sold into
slavery (⅔ of the population).
58—49 BCE
Polarization, Part 2: Meanwhile in Rome
 Meanwhile in Rome
● Clodius reaches the zenith of his influence, using mob violence to accomplish
his political ends. He goes after both the conservatives and Pompey, probably
funded by Pompey’s old rival Crassus.
● Clodius engineers exile for Cicero and a de facto exile for Cato by having him
given the responsibility of annexing Cyprus (58 BCE).
● Pompey pushes back against Clodius, forming his own networks of street
gangs through his political ally Titus Annius Milo. Pompey and Milo engineer
Cicero’s return from exile within the year.
 Meanwhile in Rome
● The Lucca Conference (56 BCE)
○ The Triumvirate is renewed just as Crassus and Pompey are at each other’s throats. Caesar
ensures that Pompey and Crassus will become consuls for the year of 55 BCE.
■ Pompey is to receive a proconsulship in Spain
■ Crassus is to receive a proconsulship in Syria
■ Caesar is to receive an extension of his proconsulship in Gaul, so that he may legally
stand for consular election upon his return
■ Clodius is, at least temporarily, convinced to help the Triumvirate again.
● After the Consulship of Crassus and Pompey
○ Pompey administers Spain through his agents while staying in Rome.
○ Crassus’ campaign in Syria against the Parthians proceeds disastrously and he is killed. Only
¼ of his army returns and the standards are lost (53 BCE).
 Meanwhile in Rome
● Pompey’s wife/Caesar’s daughter, Julia, dies in childbirth. Pompey will later
remarry into the conservative faction. (54 BCE)
● Clodius is murdered by Milo after being wounded in a street brawl. Clodius’
supporters send the city into chaos, taking control of the Senate House and
burning it to the ground as Clodius’ funeral pyre. (52 BCE)
● The Senate grants Pompey the powers of emergency consul so that he may
return Rome to order. Pompey succeeds, becoming the most powerful man in
Rome, but is entirely absorbed into the Senatorial faction and alienated from
his former political ally, Caesar.
● Milo is sent into exile after being convicted of Clodius’ murder.
49—45 BCE
Caesar’s Civil War
 Caesar’s Civil War
● In 49 BCE, Caesar begins his journey back to Rome to end his military
command and run for his second consulship. The Senate insists that he must
put down his command in order to run for consul (as one must be in Rome to
run and he may not enter the city while having a military command).
○ If Caesar puts down his military command, he can be prosecuted by the Senate for things of
which he is entirely guilty. Putting down his command would mean the end of his military
career, but hardliners like Cato remain intransigent and are determined to bring him down.
● The river Rubicon represents the boundary into Italy; Caesar’s crossing of the
Rubicon means violating the law and triggering Civil War. There’s no going
back.
 Caesar’s Civil War
● Caesar’s rapid advance on Rome, though with only a single understrength
legion, catches Pompey unprepared. Pompey wisely elects to abandon Rome
and fall back to the East where his power base is strongest. Pompey has more
resources at his disposal than Caesar, but they are slower to mobilize; the
longer the war drags on, the stronger Pompey’s position becomes.
● Caesar easily occupies Rome before attempting to cross the Adriatic to pursue
Pompey into Greece. Bibulus dies of illness while patrolling the Adriatic in an
attempt to stop Caesar’s crossing.
● Caesar consistently shows mercy towards his defeated enemies; thus, he casts
himself as the good guy, and makes enemies more likely to surrender. The
Senatorial forces act with no such mercy. Public opinion swings drastically in
Caesar’s favor.
 Caesar’s Civil War
● Pompey consistently demonstrates that, while he is unwilling to give up the
war, his heart isn’t really in it. He is consistently pushed by the hardline
Optimates. In 48, Caesar retreats from the hard-fought Battle of
Dyrrhachium, but Pompey does not give chase.
● Despite Pompey’s recommendations to wait until the build up more strength,
the Senate insists on prompting a decisive battle. Pompey meets Caesar at the
Battle of Pharsalus, and is soundly defeated. Pompey had never left his tent.
● Pompey withdraws to Egypt, in the hopes that he can rebuild his forces under
the son of his now-dead ally, Ptolemy XII. Ptolemy XIII decides instead to
have him assassinated in an attempt to ingratiate himself to Caesar.
Postlude
 Postlude
● Caesar goes on to fight in the Egyptian Civil War on the side of Cleopatra, and
then against Cato, Metellus Scipio, and Juba in North Africa and Pompey’s
sons in Spain. Cato commits suicide by tearing out his own intestines with his
bare hands rather than allow Caesar to grant him a pardon.
● Caesar goes on to implement a series of ambitious reforms, but angers the
remaining political elite more and more by acting tyrannically and claiming
more powers. He is stabbed to death by a cabal of Senators just before he
would have embarked on the most ambitious military campaign in Roman
history.