Information technology

Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields that encompass computer systems, software,
programming languages and data and information processing and storage.[1] IT forms part of information
and communications technology (ICT).[2] An information technology system (IT system) is generally an
information system, a communications system, or, more specifically speaking, a computer system —
including all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment — operated by a limited group of IT users, and
an IT project usually refers to the commissioning and implementation of an IT system.[3]

Although humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating information since the
earliest writing systems were developed,[4] the term information technology in its modern sense first
appeared in a 1958 article published in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas
L. Whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call
it information technology (IT)."[5] Their definition consists of three categories: techniques for processing,
the application of statistical and mathematical methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-
order thinking through computer programs.[5]

The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses
other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several products or services
within an economy are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software,
electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.[6][a]

Based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases
of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC — 1450 AD), mechanical (1450 — 1840), electromechanical
(1840 — 1940), and electronic (1940 to present).[4]

Information technology is also a branch of computer science, which can be defined as the overall study of
procedure, structure, and the processing of various types of data. As this field continues to evolve across the
world, its overall priority and importance has also grown, which is where we begin to see the introduction
of computer science-related courses in K-12 education.

History
Ideas of computer science were first mentioned before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had discussed and began thinking of computer
circuits and numerical calculations. As time went on, the field of information technology and computer
science became more complex and was able to handle the processing of more data. Scholarly articles began
to be published from different organizations.[8]

Looking at early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were considered some of
the major pioneers of computer technology in the mid-1900s. Giving them such credit for their
developments, most of their efforts were focused on designing the first digital computer. Along with that,
topics such as artificial intelligence began to be brought up as Turing was beginning to question such
technology of the time period.[9]
Devices have been used to aid computation for
thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a
tally stick.[10] The Antikythera mechanism, dating
from about the beginning of the first century BC, is
generally considered the earliest known mechanical
analog computer, and the earliest known geared
mechanism.[11] Comparable geared devices did not
emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not
until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable
of performing the four basic arithmetical operations
was developed.[12]

Electronic computers, using either relays or valves,

Zuse Z3 replica on display at Deutsches Museum
began to appear in the early 1940s. The in Munich. The Zuse Z3 is the first programmable
electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was computer.
the world's first programmable computer, and by
modern standards one of the first machines that could
be considered a complete computing machine. During the Second
World War, Colossus developed the first electronic digital computer
to decrypt German messages. Although it was programmable, it
was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single
task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory;
programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the
internal wiring.[13] The first recognizably modern electronic digital
stored-program computer was the Manchester Baby, which ran its
first program on 21 June 1948.[14]

The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell

Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed This is the Antikythera mechanism,
with greatly reduced power consumption. The first commercially which is considered the first
available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, contained mechanical analog computer, dating
4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By back to the first century BC.
comparison, the first transistorized computer developed at the
University of Manchester and operational by November 1953,
consumed only 150 watts in its final version.[15]

Several other breakthroughs in semiconductor technology include the integrated circuit (IC) invented by
Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, the metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell
Laboratories in 1959, and the microprocessor invented by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima,
and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These important inventions led to the development of the personal
computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the emergence of information and communications technology (ICT).[16]

By the year of 1984, according to the National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term information
technology had been redefined as "The development of cable television was made possible by the
convergence of telecommunications and computing technology (…generally known in Britain as
information technology)." We then begin to see the appearance of the term in 1990 contained within
documents for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).[17]

Innovations in technology have already revolutionized the world by the twenty-first century as people were
able to access different online services. This has changed the workforce drastically as thirty percent of U.S.
workers were already in careers in this profession. 136.9 million people were personally connected to the
Internet, which was equivalent to 51 million households.[18] Along with the Internet, new types of
technology were also being introduced across the globe, which has improved efficiency and made things
easier across the globe.

Along with technology revolutionizing society, millions of processes could be done in seconds. Innovations
in communication were also crucial as people began to rely on the computer to communicate through
telephone lines and cable. The introduction of the email was considered revolutionary as "companies in one
part of the world could communicate by e-mail with suppliers and buyers in another part of the world..."[19]

Not only personally, computers and technology have also revolutionized the marketing industry, resulting in
more buyers of their products. During the year of 2002, Americans exceeded $28 billion in goods just over
the Internet alone while e-commerce a decade later resulted in $289 billion in sales.[19] And as computers
are rapidly becoming more sophisticated by the day, they are becoming more used as people are becoming
more reliant on them during the twenty-first century.

Data processing

Storage

Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched

tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series
of holes, a technology now obsolete.[20] Electronic data storage,
which is used in modern computers, dates from World War II, when
a form of delay-line memory was developed to remove the clutter
from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the
mercury delay line.[21] The first random-access digital storage Ferranti Mark I computer logic board
device was the Williams tube, which was based on a standard
cathode ray tube.[22] However, the information stored
in it and delay-line memory was volatile in the fact that
it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost
once power was removed. The earliest form of non-
volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum,
invented in 1932[23] and used in the Ferranti Mark 1,
the world's first commercially available general-
purpose electronic computer.[24]

IBM introduced the first hard disk drive in 1956, as a

component of their 305 RAMAC computer
system.[25]: 6 Most digital data today is still stored
Punched tapes were used in early computers to
magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such store and represent data.
as CD-ROMs.[26]: 4–5 Until 2002 most information
was stored on analog devices, but that year digital
storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007, almost 94% of the data stored worldwide
was held digitally:[27] 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has
been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than
3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007,[28] doubling roughly every 3 years.[29]

Databases
Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and
retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly. An early such system was IBM's Information
Management System (IMS),[30] which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later.[31] IMS stores data
hierarchically,[30] but in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set
theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the first
commercially available relational database management system (RDBMS) was released by Oracle.[32]

All DMS consist of components, they allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many
users while maintaining its integrity.[33] All databases are common in one point that the structure of the data
they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a database schema.[30]

In recent years, the extensible markup language (XML) has become a popular format for data
representation. Although XML data can be stored in normal file systems, it is commonly held in relational
databases to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and
practical effort."[34] As an evolution of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML's text-
based structure offers the advantage of being both machine- and human-readable.[35]

Transmission

Data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and

reception.[36] It can be broadly categorized as broadcasting, in
which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or
telecommunications, with bidirectional upstream and downstream
channels.[28]

XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data

interchange since the early 2000s,[37] particularly for machine-
oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented IBM card storage warehouse located
protocols such as SOAP,[35] describing "data-in-transit rather than... in Alexandria, Virginia in 1959. This
data-at-rest".[37] is where the government kept
storage of punched cards.

Manipulation

Hilbert and Lopez identify the exponential pace of technological change (a kind of Moore's law): machines'
application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between
1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world's general-purpose computers doubled every 18 months
during the same two decades; the global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months;
the world's storage capacity per capita required roughly 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita
broadcast information has doubled every 12.3 years.[28]
Massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analyzed and presented
effectively it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs: "data archives that are seldom
visited".[38] To address that issue, the field of data mining — "the process of discovering interesting patterns
and knowledge from large amounts of data"[39] — emerged in the late 1980s.[40]

Services

Email

The technology and services it provides for sending and receiving electronic messages (called "letters" or
"electronic letters") over a distributed (including global) computer network. In terms of the composition of
elements and the principle of operation, electronic mail practically repeats the system of regular (paper)
mail, borrowing both terms (mail, letter, envelope, attachment, box, delivery, and others) and characteristic
features — ease of use, message transmission delays, sufficient reliability and at the same time no guarantee
of delivery. The advantages of e-mail are: easily perceived and remembered by a person addresses of the
form user_name@domain_name (for example, somebody@example.com); the ability to transfer both plain
text and formatted, as well as arbitrary files; independence of servers (in the general case, they address each
other directly); sufficiently high reliability of message delivery; ease of use by humans and programs.

Disadvantages of e-mail: the presence of such a phenomenon as spam (massive advertising and viral
mailings); the theoretical impossibility of guaranteed delivery of a particular letter; possible delays in
message delivery (up to several days); limits on the size of one message and on the total size of messages in
the mailbox (personal for users).

Search system

A software and hardware complex with a web interface that provides the ability to search for information on
the Internet. A search engine usually means a site that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The
software part of a search engine is a search engine (search engine) — a set of programs that provides the
functionality of a search engine and is usually a trade secret of the search engine developer company. Most
search engines look for information on World Wide Web sites, but there are also systems that can look for
files on FTP servers, items in online stores, and information on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is
one of the priorities of the modern Internet (see the Deep Web article about the main problems in the work
of search engines).

Commercial effects
Companies in the information technology field are often discussed as a group as the "tech sector" or the
"tech industry."[41][42][43] These titles can be misleading at times and should not be mistaken for "tech
companies;" which are generally large scale, for-profit corporations that sell consumer technology and
software. It is also worth noting that from a business perspective, Information technology departments are a
"cost center" the majority of the time. A cost center is a department or staff which incurs expenses, or
"costs", within a company rather than generating profits or revenue streams. Modern businesses rely heavily
on technology for their day-to-day operations, so the expenses delegated to cover technology that facilitates
business in a more efficient manner are usually seen as "just the cost of doing business." IT departments are
allocated funds by senior leadership and must attempt to achieve the desired deliverables while staying
within that budget. Government and the private sector might have different funding mechanisms, but the
principles are more-or-less the same. This is an often overlooked reason for the rapid interest in automation
and Artificial Intelligence, but the constant pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation
to take control of at least some minor operations in large companies.

Many companies now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical
areas of their businesses. Companies have also sought to integrate IT with business outcomes and decision-
making through a BizOps or business operations department.[44]

In a business context, the Information Technology Association of America has defined information
technology as "the study, design, development, application, implementation, support, or management of
computer-based information systems".[45] The responsibilities of those working in the field include network
administration, software development and installation, and the planning and management of an
organization's technology life cycle, by which hardware and software are maintained, upgraded, and
replaced.

Information services

Information services is a term somewhat loosely applied to a variety of IT-related services offered by
commercial companies,[46][47][48] as well as data brokers.
 U.S. Employment U.S. Employment in U.S. Occupational U.S. projected percent
distribution of the computer systems growth and wages in change in
computer systems and design related computer systems employment in
design and related services industry, in design and related selected occupations
services, 2011[49] thousands, 1990– services, 2010– in computer systems
2011[49] 2020[49] design and related
services, 2010–
2020[49]

U.S. projected
average annual
percent change in
output and
employment in
selected industries,
2010–2020[49]

Ethics

The field of information ethics was established by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s.[50]: 9 Some
of the ethical issues associated with the use of information technology include:[51]: 20–21

Breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the permission of the
copyright holders
Employers monitoring their employees' emails and other Internet usage
Unsolicited emails
Hackers accessing online databases
Web sites installing cookies or spyware to monitor a user's online activities, which may be
used by data brokers

IT projects
Research suggests that IT projects in business and public administration can easily become significant in
scale. Work conducted by McKinsey in collaboration with the University of Oxford suggested that half of
all large-scale IT projects (those with initial cost estimates of $15 million or more) often failed to maintain
costs within their initial budgets or to complete on time.[52]

See also
Information and communications technology (ICT)
Outline of information technology
Knowledge society

Notes
a. On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: "In its original
application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of
technologies with application in the vast field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and
dissemination. This useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be
of great use, but without the reinforcement of definition ... the term IT lacks substance when
applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position."[7]

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Further reading
Allen, T.; Morton, M. S. Morton, eds. (1994), Information Technology and the Corporation of
the 1990s, Oxford University Press.
 Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011). Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile
Phones and Information Technology (https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1O54YSE2BgC):
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Gleick, James (2011).The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York: Pantheon
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Price, Wilson T. (1981), Introduction to Computer Data Processing, Holt-Saunders
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Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999). Discovering
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External links
Learning materials related to Information technology at Wikiversity
Media related to Information technology at Wikimedia Commons
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