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PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Unit Structure :

1.0 Objective
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and Definition of Educational psychology
1.3 Nature Of Educational Psychology
1.4 Scope of Educational Psychology

1.0 OBJECTIVE

After going through this unit carefully you should be able to

• Define Educational Psychology.

• Explain the nature of Educational Psychology.
• List out the functions of Educational Psychology.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This is the first unit of the second paper of Psychology of

Learning. This course deals with the importance and contribution of
educational psychology on the theory and practice of education.
every teacher is confronted with the problem of individuals
difference in the classroom. The purpose of this unit is to define the
concept of educational Psychology. It describes meaning and
nature of Educational Psychology. An attempt has also been made
to describe the characteristics and meaning of learning.

1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

Educational Psychology and consists of two words

Psychology and Education. While Genral Psychology is a pure
science. Educational Psychology is its application in the field of
education with the aim of socializing man and modifying his
behaviour. According to Crow and Crow Educational Psychology
describes and explains the learning experiences of an individual
from birth through old age. Skinner defines Educational Psychology
as “that branch of Psychology which deals with teaching and
learning”
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Stephen – “Educational Psychology is the systematic study

of the educational growth and development of a child.”

Judd – “Educational Psychology is the Science which

explains the changes that take place in the individuals as they pass
through the various stages of development.” Peel- “Educational
Psychology is the science of Education.”

Educational psychology is one of the branches of applies

psychology concerned with the application of the principles,
techniques and other resourse of psychology to the solution of the
problems confronting the teacher attempting to direct the growth of
children toward defined objectives. More specifically, we can say
educational psychology is concerned with an understanding of:
• The child, his development, his need and his potentialities.
• The learning situation including group dynamics as the affect
learning.
• The learning process its nature and the ways to make it
effective. Stated differently, the Central theme of Educational
Psychology is Psychology of learning.

PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

This area is concerned with such problems as : How do

children acquire skills? When is learning more effective? What are
the factors that help the learning Process? How do we measure the
amount of learning? Are there any economic methods of
memorizing? Why do we forget? Can memory be improved? Dose
the study of Sanskrit helps than study of Hindi?

Psychology helps the teacher to get answers to these

questions. It tells us that learning becomes more effective if factors
like motivation and interest are taken into consideration by every
teacher. The knowledge of psychology has helped the teacher in
modifying her approach to the teaching learning process.

The study of educational Psychology has brought about

change in the approach and therefore we have child centred
education. Psychological principles are used in formulation
curriculum for different stage. Attempts are made to provide
subjects and activities in the curriculum which are in conformity with
the needs of the students, their developmental characteristics,
learning patterns and also needs of the society.

1.3 NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Following are the important characteristics of the nature of

educational psychology:
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• It is an applied branch of fundamental Psychology.

• It combines two fields i.e. education and psychology.
• It is the scientific study of human behaviour in educational
situation.
• It is concerned with these factors, principles and techniques
which relate to the various aspects of child’s growth and
development.
• It is concerned with learning situation and process by which
learning can be more efficient and effective.
• Educational Psychology, draws heavily from various
branches of psychology, biology sociology and anthropology
• Educational Psychology is not as exact as natural sciences
since the human behavior cannot be predicated exactly,
because it is dynamic.
• Educational Psychology is a science of education dealing
primarily with how, when and what of education.
• It is not a normative a science as it is not concerned with the
value of educational and doesn’t concern itself with and
‘What ought to be.” It only describes what it is, it is an
applied positive science.
• While psychology deals with the behaviour of all individuals
in all walks of life. Educational Psychology limits its dealing
with the behaviour of the pupil in relation to Educational
environment.
• It does not concern with what and why of education it gives
the necessary knowledge and skill (Technical Guidance) for
giving education the pupil in a satisfactory way.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Leaner Teacher

Learning Process Learning content

(curriculum)

Teaching Evaluation of
Strategies Learning outcome
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1.4 SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Five major areas covered by Educational Psychology are:

• The Learner
• The learning Process
• The learning Situation
• The Teaching Situation
• Evaluation of Learning Performance
• The Teacher

The Learner

Educational Psychology aquaints us with need of knowing

the leaves and deals with the techniques of knowing him well.
Following are the topics studied included in it: the innate abilities
and capabilities of the individual differences and their
measurements, the overt, convert, conscious as well as
unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his
growth and development at each stage beginning from childhood to
adulthood.

The Learning Process

After knowing the learner and deciding what learning

experiences are to be provided, the emerging problem is to help
learner in acquiring these learning experiences with ease and
confidence.

Hence, it deals with the nature of learning and how it take

place and contains the topics such as laws, principles and theories
of learning; remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept
formation, thinking, reasoning process, problem solving, transfer of
training, ways and means of effective learning etc.

Learning Situation

It also deals with the environment factors and learning

situation which come midway between the learner and the teacher.
Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics techniques and
aids which facilitate learning, evaluation techniques, and practices,
guidance and counseling etc. which help in the smooth functioning
of the teaching learning process.

Teaching Situation

It suggests the techniques of teaching. It also helps in

deciding what learning situation should be provided by teacher to
learner according to his mental and physical age, his previous
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knowledge and interest level. By describing the learner’s

characteristics, what teaching aids are appropriate for the particular
subject

Evaluation of Learning Performance

Main objective of education is allround development of the

learner. It includes cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects of
personality. Educational Psychology suggests various tool and
techniques for assessment and evaluation such as performance
test, oral test and written test. It does not stop at measurement
only, after the testing results of the test are anyslysed causes for
poor performance, backwardness in any aspect of development is
corrected by maladjustment are helped by guidance and
counselling study habit, examination techniques and learning styles
are analysed and helped the learner so that he can overcome the
difficulties.

The Teacher

Educational Psychology emphasizes the need of knowing

the self for a teacher to play his fole properly in the process of
education. it throws light on the essential personality traits,
interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc., so
as to inspire, help teacher handle the stress, conflict and anxicty by
giving insight in their own personality.

Unit End Exercises :

1) Knowledge of Educational Psychology helps teacher in ….

A) Obtaining the B.Ed. degree

B) It is ethical to have the knowledge of Educational
Psychology.
C) Improving the socio-emotional climate of the class.
D) Teaching the special type of children.

2) Educational Psychology aims to ……

A) To decide the future of the learner

B) To forecast the future behaviour of the learner.
C) Improve learning situation by desending learning’s needs
and interest.
D) To control the Educational Programme.
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METHODS OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY
OF LEARNING
A] INTROSPECTION B] OBSERVATION
C] EXPREMINENTAL

Unit Structure :

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Introspection Method
2.3 Observation Method
2.4 Experimental Method

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, you will be able to:

• Describe the Introspection method
• State the merits and demerits on Introspection method
• Describe the observation method
• State the merits and demerits of observation method
• Explain the steps and demerits of observation method
• Explain the steps of experimental method
• State the merits and demerits of experimental method
• Describe the clinical method
• State the merits and demerits of clinical method

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Dear students in the preceding section, you have analysed

the nature, definition, scope and function of psychology of learning.
We have also discussed the psychological concept of learing.

In this unit, we will describe the important methods of

studying psychology of learning. Students all the method to study
psychology of learning are basically methods of general
psychology.
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A brief review of the development of methods will be helpful

for you to understand the important of the subject in greater
perspective.

The first effort of conducting systematic experimental studies

in psychology was stared in 1879 in Germany with the
establishment of first laboratory of psychology by William Wundt.

The next important method of collecting data was evolved

with the development of psychoanalysis an independent system of
psychology by Sigmund Freud who emphasized importance of
unconscious in understanding the behaviour. In the second decade
of 20th century, psychology developed as an objective science of
behaviour by the efforts of Pavlov Watson and Guthrie.
Experimental and observation methods were developed to collect
data to study behaviour. Simultaneously testing movement started
with the introduction of statistics in psychology.

Students here we will study only the following methods of

studying psychology of learning. They are:
A] Introspection method
B] Observation method
C] Experimental method

2.2 INTROSPECTION METHOD

Students at many times, when you have experienced an

emotion like anger or fear you begin to think reasons for the state of
yours.

You say, “Why have I been annoyed over this or that? Why
been afraid of such things” The analysis of your emotional state
may take place simultaneously with the emotion or it may be done
after the emotional state is over. In whatever manner it is done, it
gives you an understanding, though rudimentary of your mind. This
method of probing into your mental processes is a method of
introduction utilized by psychologists in a much-refined manner.

Let us see in detail what do we mean by Introduction and its

merits and demerits.

What we mean by introspection

Introduction is a method of self-observation. The word

‘Introspection is made up of two Latin words. “Intro” meaning within
and “Aspection” meaning looking. Hence it is a method where an
individual is looking within one self.
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Angel considered it as “looking inward”. In Introduction the

individual peeps into his own mental state and observes his own
mental processes.

Stout considers that ‘to introspect is to attend to the working

of one’s own mind in a systematic way’.

Introspection method is one of the oldest methods to collect

data about the conscious experiences of the subject. It is a process
of self – examination where one perceives, analyses and reports
one’s own feelings. Let us learn this process with the help of an
example, suppose you are happy and in the state of happiness you
look within yourself. It is said you are introspecting your own mental
feelings and examining what is going on in your mental process in
the state of happiness. Similarly, you may introspect in state of
anger or fear; etc Introspection is also defined as the notice, which
the mind takes of itself.

Let us see the stages distinguished in introspection.

Students there are three clear stages in introspection.
1. During the observation of external object, the person beings to
ponder over his own mental states. For example While listening
to the music, which is to him pleasant or unpleasant he starts
thinking about his own mental state.
2. The person begins to question the working of the his own mind.
He thinks and analyses: Why has he said such and such thing?
Why as he talked in a particular manner? And so on.
3. he tries to frame the laws and conditions of mental processes:
He thinks in terms of improvement of his reasoning or the
control of his emotional stages. This stage of that of the
scientific methods for the advancement of our scientific
knowledge.

Characteristics of Introspection:

Introspection being self- observation has the following

characteristics:

1. The subject gets direct, immediate and intuitive knowledge

about the mind.
2. The subject has actually to observe his own mental processes.
He cannot speculate about them.

Students, Introduction Method was widely used in the past.

Its use in modern time is being questioned. It is considered
unscientific and not in keeping with psychology which has recently
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emerged out as a positive science however we may say that it is

still being used by psychologists and though its supremacy is
undetermined, yet it is not totally discarded.

Merits of Introspection Method:

• It is the cheapest and most economical method. We do not
need any apparatus or laboratory for its use.
• This method can be used any time and anywhere you can
introspect while walking, traveling, sitting on a bed & so on.
• It is the easiest method and is readily available to the
individual.
• The introspection data are first hand as the person himself
examines his own activities.
• Introspection has generated research which gradually led to
the development of more objective methods.
• It is still used in all experimental investigation.
• It is the only method with the help of which and individual
can know his emotions and feelings.

William James has pointed out the importance of this

method in these words. “Introspective observation is what we have
to rely on first and foremost and always. The word introspection can
hardly be defined-it means, of course, looking into our own minds
and reporting what we there discover. Everyone agrees that we
there discover states of consciousness. So far as I know, the
existence of such states has never been doubled by my critic,
however skeptical in other respects we may have been.”

Limitations of Introspection Methods:

• In introspection, one needs to observe or examine one’s mental
processes carefully in the form of thoughts, feeling and
sensation. The state of one’s mental processes is continuously
changing therefore when one concentrates on introspecting a
particular phase of one’s mental activity that phase passes off.
For example when you get angry at something and afterwards
sit down to introspect calmly the state of anger is sure to have
passed off and so what you try to observe is not what is
happening at that time with yourself but what had happened
sometime before.
• The data collected by introspection cannot be verified. An
individual may not pass through the same mental state again.
There is no independent way of checking the data.
• The data collected by introspection lacks validity and reliability.
It is impossible to acquire validity and exactness in self-
observation of one’s own mental processes.
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• The data collected by introspection in highly subjective. It has

danger of being biased and influenced by preconceptions of the
individual.
• The observer and the observed are the same. Hence there is
ample scope fro the individual to lie deliberately and hide the
facts to mislead.
• Introspection cannot be applied to children, animal and
abnormal people. It requires highly trained and skilled workers
to introspect.
• Introspection us logically defective because one and the same
person is the experiencer and observer. It is not possible for the
same individual to act as an experiencer as well as an observer.

There introspection is logically defective.

Conclusion:

The limitations of introspection can be overcome by practice

and training, by remaining alter during introspection and by
comparing results obtained by experts.

Check Your Progress:

Note a] Write your answers in the space given below.
b] Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
unit.

1] Fill in the blanks:

A] Introspection is a method of -------------
B] The word introspection is made up of two Latin words ---------
- and

2.3 OBSERVATION METHOD

Student we observe so many things in nature. We also

observe the action and behaviour of others and form our own
notions about these person. We look at other persons, listen to their
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talks and try to infer what they mean. We try to infer the
characteristics, motivations, feelings and intentions of others on the
basis of these observations. So let us study about Observation
method employed by psychologists in detail.

With the development of psychology as an objective science

of learning behaviour, the method of introspection was replaced by
careful observation of human and animal behaviour to collect data
by research workers.

In introspection we can observe the mental process of

ourselves only, but in observation, we observe the mental
processes of others. Hence Observation is the most commonly
used for the study of human behaviour.

Meaning of Observation

Observation literally means looking outside oneself. Facts

are collected by observing overt behaviour of the individual in order
to locate underlying problem and to study developmental trends of
different types.

The overt behaviour is the manifestation of court conditions

within the individual. The study of overt behaviour gives indirectly
the clue to the mental condition of the individual. Observation
means ‘perceiving the behaviour as it is”

In the words of Goods, “ Observation deals with the overt

behaviour of persons in appropriate situations.”

Observation has been defined as “Measurements without

instruments.”

For example students in classroom have been labeled as

good, fair or poor in achievement and lazy or diligent in study etc.
on the basis of observation, observation is indirect approach to
study the mental processes of others through observing their
external behaviour. For example if someone frowns, howls, grinds
his teeth, closes his fists, you would say that the person is angry by
only observing these external signs of his behaviour.

Students in the process of observation, following four steps

are generally required:

1. Observation of behaviour:
The first step involved in the method of observation is directly
perceiving or observing the behaviour of individuals under
study. For example, if we want to observe the social behaviour
of children we can observe it when they assemble and play.
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2. Recording the behaviour observed:

The observation should be carefully and immediately noted and
recorded. Minimum time should be allowed to pass between
happening and recording. It will make the observation more
objective.

3. Analysis and Interpretation of behaviour:

When the notes of behaviour observed are completed, they are
analysed objectively and scientifically in order to interpret the
behaviour patterns.

4. Generalisation:
On the basis of analysis and interpretation of the data collected
with the help of observation method, it is possible to make
certain generalization. Social –development and behaviour of
children have been described by child Psychologists on the
basis of generalization based upon analysis and interpretation
of the data gathered through the observation method.

Types of Observation :

Students you have just seen what is observation and how it

is conducted.

Do you know there are different ways in which observation

can be done, so let us see the different types of observation?

1. Natural Observation:
In natural observation we observe the specific behavioural
characteristics of children in natural setting. Subject do not become
conscious of the fact that their behaviour is being observed by
someone.

2. Participant – Observation:
Here the observer becomes the part of the group, which he
wants to observe. It discloses the minute and hidden facts.

3. Non-Participant Observation:
Here the observer observes in such a position, which is least
disturbing to the subject under study, the specific behaviour is
observed in natural setting without subjects geting conscious that
they are observed by some one. Non-participant observation
permits the use of recording instruments.
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4. Structure Observation:
Here the observer in relevance sets up a form and
categories in terms of which he wishes to analyse the problem. The
observer always keeps in view
a] A frame of reference
b] Time units.
c] Limits of an act

5. Unstructured Observation:
This is also called as uncontrolled or free observation. It is
mainly associated with participant observation in which the
observer assumes the role of a member of the group to be
observed. Here the individual is observed when he is in his class,
playground or when he is moving about with his friends and class
follows without knowing that he is being observed.

Observation is very useful method to study child and his

behaviour. Student’s observation method, being commonly used
method psychology has following merits:

Merits of Observation Method

1. Being a record of actual behaviour of the child, it is more reliable
and objective.
2. It is an excellent source of information about what actually
happens in classroom.
3. It is a study of an individual in a natural situation and is therefore
more useful than the restricted study in a test situation.
4. The method can be used with children of all ages. Younger the
child, the easiest it is to observe him. This method has been
found very useful with shy children.
5. it can be used in every situation, physical- activities, workshop
and classroom situations as well.
6. It is adaptable both to the individuals and the groups.

Although observation is regarded as an efficient method for

psychological studies, students yet it suffers from the following
drawbacks limitations:

Limitations:
1. There is great scope for personal prejudices and bias of the
observer. The observers interest, values can distort observation.
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2. Records may not be written with hundred percent accuracy as

the observations are recorded after the actions are observed.
There is some time lag.
3. The observer may get only a small sample of study behaviour. It
is very difficult to observe everything that the student does or
says. As far as possible observation should be made from
several events.
4. It reveals the overt behaviour only- behaviour that is expressed
and not that is within.
5. It lacks replicability as each natural situation can occur only
once.

Students looking at the drawbacks an observation method

has psychologists have suggested various guidelines to be followed
for making good observation. So let us find out which are these
essential guidelines for making good observation.

Essential guidelines for making good observation

1. Observe one individual at a time. It is desirable to focus
attention on just one individual at a time in order to collect
comprehensive data.
2. Have a specific criteria for making observations. The purpose of
making observation should be clear to the observe before he or
she begins to observe so that the essential characteristics or the
behaviour of the person fulfilling the purpose can be noted.
3. Observations should be made over a period of time. To have a
real estimate of the true behaviour of a person it should be
observed as frequently as possible. A single observation will not
be sufficient to tell us that this is the characteristic of the
individual.
4. The observations should be made in differing and natural
situations in natural settings to increase its validity. For
example, a pupil’s behaviour in the classroom may not be
typical of him; therefore he should be observed in variety of
settings to know the behaviour most typical of the person.
5. Observe the pupil in the context of the total situation.
6. The observed facts must be recorded instantly, that is just at the
time of their occurrence otherwise the observer may forget
some of the facts and the recording may not be accurate.
7. It is better to have two or more observers.
8. Observations should be made under favourable conditions. The
observer should be in position to clearly observe what he or she
is observing. There should not be any undue distraction or
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disturbances. One should also have an attitude free from any

biases or prejudices against the individual being observed.
9. Data from observations should be integrated with other data.
While arriving at the final conclusion about the individual, one
should put together all that we know about the individual from
the other sources then we can give an integrated and
comprehensive picture of the individual.
These precautions must be borne in mind in order to have
reliable observations.

Check Your Progress:

Note: a] Write your answer in the space given below:
b] Compare your answer with those given at the end:
2] A] Fill in the blanks:
1] Observation has been defined as ‘_________ without
______”
B] Mention four types of observation :
1] __________ 2] __________
3] __________ 4] __________
C] List the steps involved in observation method:
1] __________ 2] ___________
3] __________ 4] ___________

2.4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Students till now, we saw introspection method and

observation method used in psychology of learning. But these
methods lack scientific objectivity and validity. Experimental method
is the most scientific and objective method of studying behaviour. It
is the method, which is responsible for assigning the status of
Science to psychology. So let us learn more about this
Experimental method.

In 1879, William Wundt established the first psychological

laboratory at Leipzing in Germany. Since then experimental method
in psychology has become popular, Experimental method consists
of actions of actions performed under prearranged or rigidly
controlled conditions.

Here the emphasis is on experimentation. Experimentation is

where the investigator controls the educative factors to which a
group of children are subjected during the period of inquiry and
observes the resulting achievement.
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J. W. Best describes, “Experimental research is the

description and analysis of what will be, or what will occur under
carefully controlled conditions.”

Basic concepts /essentials of experimental method

a. Experiments are always conducted in laboratory. Hence the
laboratory is essential.
b. Psychological experiments performed in this method essentially
require two people; the experiment or group of experimenters
who perform experiment and the other is the subject or subjects
on whom the experiment is performed.
c. The key factor in this method is the controlling of conditions or
variables. The term ’Variable’ means that which can be varied or
changed. By controlling. The variables we can eliminate the
irrelevant conditions and isolate the relevant ones. We thus
become able to observe the causal relationship between the
phenomena keeping all other conditions almost constant. Let us
understand this by and example. If we try to study the effect of
intelligence on academic by the experimental method, we will
need to determine the causative relation between the two
phenomena (variables)- i.e. intelligence and academic
achievement. One of these variables, the effect of which we
want to study will be called the independent Variable and the
other the dependent variable. Thus the independent variable
stands for cause and the dependent variable is the effect of the
cause. Other conditions like study-habits, sex, socio-eco
conditions, parental education, home environment, health past
learning, memory etc. which exercise a good impact upon one’s
achievement besides one’s intelligence are termed “interviewing
variables”. In Experimentation, all such interviewing variables
are to be controlled, i.e. they are to be made constant or
equalized and the effect of only one independent variable e.g.
intelligence in present case, on one or more dependent variable
is studied. The interviewing variables made constant, are hence
called as controlled variables.

Steps in the experimental method

Students we have describe above, the basic concepts of

experimental method. Here we will describe different steps, which
are to be followed in conducting a typical experiment. These steps
are as follows.
1. Raising a problem:
In any experiment the first steps is to identify a problem. For
example it has been observed that the students cheat in the
examinations. To stop it many recommend strict supervision.
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But it has also been seen that even when there is strict
supervision there is cheating, hence there crops up the problem
of cheating under strict supervision or relaxed supervision. This
problem may lead to experimentation.

2. Formulation of a hypothesis:
The next step in experimental method is the formulation of a
hypothesis that “Strict supervision may lead to less copying in
the examination as compared to the relaxed supervision. “This
hypothesis is now to be tested by experiment.

3. Making a distinction between Independent and dependent

variables:
In the example given above the cheating behaviour of the
students will be dependent variable while the nature of
supervision will be the independent variable. It is because by
changing the supervision the cheating behaviour is expected
change. In the present experiment we manipulate the conditions
of supervision in order to discover the ways in which they
determine the dependent variable that is the cheating
behaviour. We may observe the effect of supervision in the
experimental situation and also the effect of relaxed supervision
under similar conditions and with the same group of students.

4. Controlling the situational variables:

The experiment will not give valid results unless the situational
variables are controlled. If the experiment is conducted with
different set of students who have been trained in a different
manner of have a different value system then the results will be
different in comparison to those who have been subjected to
experiment earlier. Similarly the other conditions like the person
who is supervising the place of supervision etc. have to be
controlled. This means that all those conditions, which might
affect the dependent variable, are to e controlled. Since in any
experiment there are numerous conditions which are needed to
be controlled it is many a time difficult to do so. Hence we take
recourse to various types of experimental designs, which we
have described earlier.

5. Analysis of the Results:

Once the experiment is concluded the results are analysed. In
our example we may apply simple percentages to find out in
which type of supervision a higher percentage of students have
copied. Many a times we apply more sophisticated statistics to
analyse the results.
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6. Verification of Hypothesis:
The last step in the experimental method is the verification of
the hypothesis, which we have earlier framed. The result of the
experiment exhibits whether the hypothesis which we have
earlier framed. The result of the experiment exhibits whether the
hypothesis is accepted of refuted. We may find that strict
supervision leads to less copying. In that case we may conclude
that our hypothesis is accepted. If the results are otherwise then
our conclusion will be that the hypothesis is refuted.

Experimental Designs:

Students Experimental method is the most precise, planed,

systematic and controlled method. It uses a systematic procedure
called as experimental design. The term experimental design has
tow different meanings one is the experimental design which
represents the six basic steps we have referred above? Followed in
an experiment. The second meaning of experimental design and
selecting an appropriate statistical procedure. Experimental design
provides important guidelines to the researcher to carry out his
research study. Experimental design ensures adequate controls by
avoiding irrelevant causes of variability. The layout of a design
depends on the type of the problem the investigator wants to
investigate. Students you should know that, no one design solves
all the problems of a research study.

A variety of experimental designs have been developed by

researchers in recent years. These designs differ as these are
dependent upon:
a) the nature of problem
b) the situation
c) the subjects and their availability.
Let us study some of the experimental designs used while
employing Experiment method.

Following are the samples of experimental designs.

(A) One Group Design

1. One group posttest design: This type of design is the simplest
ones. It is commonly called pre-experimental design. Students
in such type of experiment no formal comparison is possible for
there is no second group with comparison can be made. Let us
illustrate with an example: suppose a teacher treats 10 students
who are addicted to smoking in a period of three months. At the
end of the period six students give up smoking. Such type of
designs do not control any of the sources of invalidity.
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2. One group pretest-posttest design: This is also simple design

and is considered to be a rather poor design though better than
one group posttest design. In this design the experimenter first
tests a group on some aspects of behhaviour and then gives
special treatment. He statistically analyses the data and
calculates the difference between the pretest and posttest
scores of the group.

The paradigm of the design is as follows:

Pretest Independent variable Posttest

T1 X T2

Example, Suppose in the beginning of the semester, we

administer test of educational psychology to students of MA
education and then we teach them the subject through out the
semester. At the end of the semester we administer posttest (T2),
and find out the difference between the scores on the initial and
final tests.

(B) Two Group Designs

Researches in education and psychology have often been
criticized of being loosely controlled. In recent year more rigorous
designs have been evolved by using statistics to make researches
more scientific more scientific and objective.

Generally researchers use two parallel group techniques to

see the effects of an independent variable on some dependent
variable. Two group are equated on the basis of significant variable.
One group called experimental and the other is called control
group. The experimental group is subjected to a certain experience
or to a specific treatment whereas the control group is not given
any type of special treatment. After providing special treatment to
the experimental group, both the groups are administered the same
final test. The scores are statistically compared and conclusions are
drawn as regards the effect of special treatment on the
experimental group.

1. Randomized Control Group Pretest Posttest Design: The

researcher in this design follows the procedure as given below.
i. He selects subject by random method.
ii. Assigns subjects to groups and X (Treatment) to groups by
random method.
iii. Tests the Ss on the dependent variable.
iv. Keep all conditions the same for both the groups except for
exposing the experimental S but not the control group to the
independent variable for a specific time.
v. Test the ‘Ss’ on the dependent variable.
 20

vi. Finds the difference between the two.

vii. Compares the results to see whether the application of ‘X’
(treatment) caused a change in the experimental group.
viii. Applies an appropriate statistical procedure.

2. Matched two group design. A matched two group design is a

modification of the totally randomized two group design
described above. In this design, both groups are matched in
terms of some variable, the experimenter feels he would
influence the dependent variable. Suppose we want to test the
retention of two types of words closely associated and
disassociated. We believe that I. Q. Will influence how well a
person can retain words so we match the two groups on I. Q.
Let us be more concrete to understand this point. Suppose
there are ten subjects with I. Q. as follows:

(C) Multi group Design with one Independent Variable

(ANOVAR)

Two group paradigms are most common in education and

psychology but events in nature do not always conveniently order
into two groups. Some times the investigator has to compare the
effect of different values of some variable or has to see the effect of
several alternative variables on more than two groups. The
procedure for carrying out one way analysis of variance (ANOVAR)
is the same as for two group design. The distinguishing feature
between the two types of investigation is the type of statistical
analysis used.

(D) Factorial Design

Factorial design is employed where more than one
independent variables are involved in the investigation. Factorial
designs may involves several factors.

(E) Small N Design

We have briefly mentioned various experimental designs
which are termed as large N group designs. In all large N group
designs, the number of subject in classroom situation. In many
instances, the psychologist or teacher is faced with situations in
which large N is not possible, for example delinquency, problem of
indiscipline etc. with the introduction of statistics in psychology, it is
possible to conduct scientific research on small N group.

Merits of experimental method

Experimental method being most precise and scientific has
following merits:
 21

1. Experimental method is the most systematic method or getting

reliable data.
2. Experimental method enables accurate observations due to
controlled conditions.
3. It allows us to establish cause effect relationship between
different phenomena.
4. The results obtained are valid and reliable.
5. The findings of the experimental method are verifiable by other
experiments under identical conditions.
6. It helps to protect from the subjective opinions. Hence it
provides objective information about the problem.
7. it provides adequate information about the problem.
8. In experimental method experiments are conducted under
vigorously controlled conditions. The experimenter can control
the application and withdrawal of independent variables.
9. Experimental method increases ones knowledge or
psychological facts in child psychology, social and abnormal
psychology.
It is rightly said the experimental method has made psychology
a science.

Demerits of the method

Experimental method suffers from various following
demerits:
1. Experimental method is costly and time consuming method as it
requires a laboratory and apparatus to conduct it properly.
2. Experiments are conducted in artificially determined pattern of
behaviour. In real life situation it is quite different.
3. It needs specialized knowledge and therefore every teacher
cannot be expected to conduct the experiment.
4. The scope is limited. All problems of psychology cannot be
studied by this method as we cannot perform experiments for all
the problems that may come up in the diverse subject matter of
psychology.
5. Accurate measurements in case of human beings are never
possible.
6. It is difficult to always control the independent variable therefore
it is not possible to create desired conditions in laboratory.
7. It is not possible to reach certainty in matters of social science s
including educational psychology.
 22

Check Your Progress – 3

Note a) Write your answer in the space given below
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end.
3 A) Fill in the blanks:
1) _________ established at the first psychological
laboratory at Leipzig in Germany.
2) Psychological experiments require two people.
They are a) ___________ b) ____________
3) The key factor in the experimental method is the
controlling of _____________
4) Experimental method has three following variables
i) __________ ii) ________ iii) _________
B) List the steps involved in experimental method:
a) __________ b) ________ c) ________
d) __________ e) ________ f) _________
C) List the different experimental designs employed in
experimental Method:
a) _________ b) ________ c) _________
d) _________ e) ________

Conclusion:
Students we have learnt in the above unit the four methods
of studying psychology of learning. But which of the above
discussed methods is the best among other four is a difficult
questions to be answered. All the four methods have their strengths
and weakness and possess some unique characteristics, which
make them highly specific for use in a particular situation. A wise
psychologist should have a keen insight into the nature of his
subjects as well as the conditions affecting his work and
accordingly select a proper method or methods for the objectives.
Study of the behaviour of his subjects much depends upon the
sincerity, honesty, ability and experience of the investigator, who
should always try to keep himself as scientific and objective as
possible and leave no stone unturned for the overall analysis for the
behaviour of the subject or nature of the phenomena of the study.

Unit End Exercises :

1. Fill in the blanks:
a) Introspection is method of self-observation.
b) The word introspection is made up to two Latin Words
“Intro” & “Aspection”.
 23

2. A) Fill the blanks

1) Observation has been defined as “Measurements”
without “ Instruments”.
2) Observation deals with the overt bahaviour of persons in
appropriate situation.
B) The five types of observation
1) Natural observation 2) Participant observation
3) Non-participant observation 4) Structured observation
5) Unstructured observation.
C) The steps involved in observation methods are:
1) Observation of behaviour
2) Recording the behaviour observed
3) Analysis and interpretation of behaviour
4) Generalization
3. A) Fill in the blanks:
1) William Wundt established the first psychological at
Leipzig in Germany.
2) Psychological experiments required two people.
They are a) Experimenter b) Observer
3) The key factor in the experimental method is the
controlling of variables.
4) Experimental method has three following variable
i) Independent variable
ii) Dependent variable
iii) Controlled variable
B) The steps involved in experimental method are:
a) Raising ;a problem
b) Formulation of hypothesis
c) Making a distinction between independent and
dependent variable
d) controlling the situational variables
e) Analysis of result
f) Verification of hypothesis
 24

C) The different experimental design employed in

experimental Method.
a) One group design
b) Two group design
c) Multi group with one –Independent variable (ANOVA)
d) Factorial design
e) Small N design
4. A) Fill in the blanks
i) Clinical method includes clinical-study where in-depth
study of an individual is done.
ii) Clinical method employs both method of diagnosis and
treatment in dealing with an individual case.
B) The different sources used for collecting information
about the individual are:
i) Identifying data
ii) Environmental background
iii) developmental history
iv) History of exceptional behaviour
C) The different ways in which the problem of an
individual is diagnosed
i) Adequate physical checkup
ii) Making out the case history
iii) The clinical interview
iv) Direct observation of behaviour
v) Using tests and measuring devices.
D) The two ways in which the changes are brought
about in their behaviour of the individual for
treatment of his/her problem.
a) Modifying the environmental forces
b) Modifying the individuals attitude

Textual Questions :
1. Describe introspection method along with its merits and
demerits?
2. How will you use the observation method to study child’s
behaviour?
3. Discuss the essential guidelines for making good observations?
 25

4. Discuss the merits and limitations of experimental method?

5. Why is experimental method considered excellent method of
collecting data?
6. Describe fully the clinical method and bring out in detail the
merits and limitations of this method?

Reference:

1. Aggarwal J. C. : Essentials of Educational Psychology,

Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
1996, New Delhi.
2. Mangal S. K. : Advanced Educational Psychology
Prentice –Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 1993.
3. Dr. Mathur S. S. : Educational Psychology, Vinod Pustar
Mandir, Agra, 2001.
4. Dr. Walia J. S. : Foundations of Education Psychology,
Paul Publishers Jalaudhar, 1996.