2

Educational Psychology - Meaning,

Nature and Scope

WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?

As already discussed, Educational Psychology is one of the many branches of
Psychology dealing mainly with the problems, processes and products of education
It is an attempt to apply the knowledge of psychology in the field of education
Here we try to study human behaviour, particularly the behaviour of the learner
in relation to his educational environment. In other words, Educational Psychology
may be defined as that branch of psychology which studies the behaviour of the
learner in relation to his educational needs and his environment. Educational
Psychology has been defined by various psychologists and scholars. For the sake
of understanding what educational psychology is, let us analyze a few important
definitions.
Skinner (1958): Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals
with teaching and learning.
Crow and Crow (1973): Educational psychology describes and explains the learning
experiences of an individual from birth through old age.
Peel (1956): Educational psychology is the science of education.
The definition given by Skinner considers Educational Psychology to be the
psychology of teaching and learming, i.e. psychology applied in the field of education
for improving the methods and products of the teaching-learning process. Education
in its applied form is centred around the process of teaching and learming and it
is this which helps the teacher in better teaching and the learner in better learning.
The definition given by L.D. Crow and Alice Crow describes Educational
Psychology as that subject area of the curriculum through which one can study the
development of an individual in terms óf his learning achievement during his life
span. How he goes on learning as a result of interaction with his environment and
how he can learn effectively is covered by Educational Psychology.
Learning, however, on account of its close association with experience,
oI ten said to be a great teacher, is never independent of teaching. Therefore, what
we find in the process of development is nothing but a planned spontaneOUs
scheme of teaching and learning. All our efforts and energies in the field of
education are directed to planning and devising the appropriate means of betier
teaching and effective learning. Educational Psychology is mainly meant for solving
the practical problems related to the field of education, especially the process of
teaching and learning.
10
EDUCATONAL PSYCHOLOGY-MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE 11

It is these considerations which led .A. Peel to

define and describe
Psychology as the science of cducation, i.e., a discipline which can Educational
be used to
improve the processes and products of education in a scientific way. Let us now
briefly analyse the definition given by Peel.
IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION?
Science and technology have made it possible for us to carry out all our
taskS
efficiently, effectively and specdily. With the help of minimum input in terms of
labour, energy and time, science helps us to derive maximum output in terms of
the quality and quantity of the finished products or outcomes. Science and technology
have thus made our life quite comfortable.
Let us try to evaluate cducational psychology against this criterion. What
role can it play in the field of cducation? Does it help the persons
connected with
the task of arranging and providing education or getting the fruits of education in
the same way as science and technology help those connected with other tasks in
our day-to-day life? Surely it does. It helps in realizing the objectives of education
in a better way. Education aims at shaping the behaviour of the students in a
desirable way and bringing about all-round development in their personality. The
task is carried out through the process of formal or informal teaching and learning.
Educational psychology comes in here for planning the process of teaching and
learning by adopting the scientific principle of minimum input for maximum
output. As a result, with the help of Educational Psychology, a teacher can teach
effectively by making minimum use of his energy in terms of time and labour;
similarly, the students can learn effectively be spending less of their time and
effort.
Educational Psychology thus helps to carry out the processes and produce
the results of education. It supplies the necessary knowledge and skills, especially
for the teacher, to realize the objectives of education. It equips the teacher by
supplying the essential scientific skills, technological expertise and advice in
moulding and shaping the behaviour of his students for the desirable all-round
development of their personality much in the same way as the persons connected
with the actual construction of a bridge are helped by an engineer or mechanic
equipped with the es_ential civil, mechanical or electrical technology. Educational
Psychology thus plays the same role as other sciences or technology in helping
the teachers. and other persons connected with the building of the future of the
youngsters in their charge. Thus we are justified in describing Educational Psychology
as the science and technology of education.

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

In the foregoing discussion, we have substantiated Peel's definition of Educational
Psychology as the science of education, and established beyond doubt that the
nature of Educational Psychology is nothing but scientific.
Moreover, in discussing the nature of Psychology, we have clearly shown
that the basic nature of the subject is scientific. Since Educational Psychology is
12 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAI. PSYCHOLOy

an offshoot and part and parcel of Psychology, its nature cannot be different from
the main subject. The following points further confirm the nature of Educational
Psychology as scientific.
1. Educational Psychology possesses a well-organized, systcmatic and
universally accepted body of facts supported by the relevant psychological lawg
and principles.
2. It is constantly in search of the truth, i.e. studying the behaviour of the
learmer in relation to his educational environment. Moreover, the findings of such
Study are never taken as absolute and permanent. The results of any study in
Educational Psychology can be challenged and are modified or altered in terms
of the latest explanations and findings.
3. It employs scientific methods and adopts a scientific approach for studving
the learner's behaviour. Setting of hypotheses, objective observation, controlled
experimentation,clinical investigation, and generalization based on adequate similar
evidences provide enough reasons for its studies to be termed scientific.
4. The processes and products of these studies are sufficiently scientific as
a high degree of logical viability, objectivity, reliability and validity is maintained
in carrying out the study and research in the field of Educational Psychology
5. Educational Psychology does not accept hearsay and does not take anything
for granted. It emphasizes that essentially there is some definite cause linked with
a behaviour and the causes of this behaviour are not related to supernatural
phenomena.
6. Educational Psychology is mostly concerned with the 'what' and the
"why'of happenings in the present instead of caring for the past. Therefore, in its
study, it focuses attention on problems like the present behaviour of the learmer,
the causes of such behaviour, and the repercussions if it were to continue unchanged.
7. It is a positive science rather than a normative science and like the
sciences, it does not concern itself with values and ideals. Therefore, instead of
answering questions like "what ought to be", e.g., why education should be provided
and what type of education is to be provided to the children, youth or adults, it
focuses attention on providing the key to the how', 'when' and 'where` of education
for proving its worth as a science and technology.
8. The generalizations arrived at and conclusions reached through the study
of Educational Psychology are sufficiently reliable and thus like the sciences,
these can be used for predictions of behaviour in similar situations. R.B. Cattell,
the modern psychologist, believed so much in the predictable quality of these
studies that he persisted in defining personality as the attribute which permits a
prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.
This discussion shows that Educational Psychology is sufficiently scientific.
As compared to the natural sciences like physics, chemistry and
biology, and
applied sciences like engineering and medicine, it is not so perfect and developed
a science. In fact, it is an applied behavioural science, which
deals with the
behaviour of the leamer in the educational environment. Since the leamer's
is dynamic and unpredictable, and the methods of its study are behaviour
also not absolute
and objective, educational psychology cannot claim the status of a
developed
 FDUCATIONAL PSYCKLCOY ANINo, KATURE AND SCOPE 13

positive scicnce like other natural or applied sciences. Although we accept is

nature as quite scicntific, yet we cannot term itas a developed positive science
and have to satisfy ourselves with saying that it is a developing positive science
of the lcarner's behaviour.

scoPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Educational Psychology is the science of education which mainly deals with the
problems of teaching and ieaming and heips the teacher in his task of modifying
the learner's behaviour and bringing about an all-round development of his
personality. Therefore, while in psychology the scope of study and the field of
operation are extended to cover the behaviour of all living organisms related to
all their life activities, in Educational Psychology, the scope of such behavioural
study has to be limited within the confines of the teaching-learning process, i.c.
studying the behaviour of the learners in relation to their educational environment,
snecifically for the satisfaction of their educational needs and the all-round
development of their personality. Specifically, thus, the subject matter of Educational
Psychology must be centred around the process of teaching and learning for
enabling the teacher and learners to do their jobs as satisfactorily as possible.
Let us first see the different issues that may be involved in an ongoing
tcaching-Iearning process. For improving the processes and products of the system
related to teaching and learming, we will have to improve all the ingredients of
this phenomenon. For this purpose, the basic questions involved in the teaching
learning process must be satisfactorily attended to:
Who is being taught or educated?
By whom is he to be taught or educated?
Why is education to be provided to the child or what are the values or
objectives that are to be aimed at through the teaching-learning process?
What is to be taught or what learning experience is to be imparted to the
learner for achieving the desired educational objectives?
How, when and where should these leaming experiences be satisfactorily
provided to the learner for achieving the desired educational objectives?
Educational Psychology seeks to provide satisfactory solutions and answers
to all the questions raised above except the why of education as this is purely the
concern of Educational Philosophy, a matter to be decided by society or the
government. Therefore, alltexts of Educational Psychology, are loaded with material
related to the other six basic questions. Let us try to clarify and answer them.
Who is being Educated?
The individuality and personality of the learner must be known before he is taught
or subjected to behaviour modification. Therefore, topics and contents like the
following which are helpful in exploring the individuality of the learner are to be
included in the study of Educational Psychology:
The process and pattern of growth and development during different stages
of an individual's life, his instincts and other innate abilities, the learned and
acquired abilities, individual differences in terms of abilities and capacities and
14 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
their measure such as the extent of interests, aptitudes, attitudes, intelligence
creativity are also important for personality appraisal.
By Whom is the Learner to be Taught
In order to achieve the desired success in any teaching-lcarming process, the role
of the teacher can never be minimized. Infact,much depends on the competency
and capability of the teacher for carrying out the desired task. Not everybody can
be entrusted with the crucial task of behaviour modification and personality
development of a number of children studying in a class or school. One has to
make oneself capable by equipping oneself for it. For this purpose, the teacher
himself must be acquainted with his own self, the expectations from him in terms
of personality, characteristics, role playing and work habits. Consequently, he is
required to pay attention to the following aspects which have been included ina
text of educational psychology:
1. Personality traits and characteristics of good teachers
2. Duties and responsibilities of a teacher
3. Measures for knowing and doing away with his own conflicts, anxiety
and tension
4. Teacher's motivation, level of aspiration, adjustment and mental health.

What is to be Taught?
Whereas the aims and objectives of providing education to the children at one or
the other developmental stage are decided by Educational Philosophy depending
on the needs and wishes of the society or government, Educational Psychology
plays its role in deciding the type of learning experiences suitable for the children
at each developmental stage by keeping in view the differences in their potentialities.
The subject matter of Educational Psychology thus definitely covers the topics
helpful in suggesting principles, methods and techniques for the selection of the
learning experiences appropriate to each developmental stage of the children. It
enunciates how to organize the contents or topics gradewise for giving them the
shape of a syllabus or curriculum. How to cater for the individual differences and
individuality of the children in framing the syllabi or curricula is also taken care
of by educational psychology. The subject tries to encompass the essential knowledge
and skills for equipping the teachers to plan, select and arrange leaming experiences
to the children suitable for their age, grade and also meeting their specific individual
potentialities.

How are the Learning Experiences to be Provided?

Who is being taught, and what is to be taught and for what purpose? After
answering these questions another question which arises is, how should the child
be given the learning experiences planned for different stages of his growth? In
other words, what is to be done for the proper and effective communication
between the teacher and the taught? What should be the appropriate methods and
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYMEANTNG, NATURE AND SCOPE 15

techniques of imparting education tothe children? How can children be helped in

the acquisition of useful learning experiences for the desirable modification in
their behaviour and appropriate development of their personality? Educational
Psychology tries to provide satisfactory solutions for all these questions by including
relevant topics such as the following:
1. Nature, laws and theories of learning
2. Remembering and forgetting
3. Means of effective learning and memorization
4. Transfer of learning or training
5. Sensation and perception
6. Concept formation
7. Interest and attitude formation thinking, reasoning and problem solving
behaviour etc.

When and Where are the Learning Experiences to be Provided?

Every time and place or environmental situation is not suitable for a particular
piece of instruction or the sharing of a learning experience. The effectiveness of
a teaching-learning programme depends largely on the suitability of the teaching
learming situations in terms of time, place and other environmental factors.
Educational psychology helps the teacher and the leamers to understand the suitability
and appropriateness of a teaching-learning situation for the effective realization
of the teaching-learming objectives. It also helps them to modify the teaching
learning situation to achieve the desired results by giving place in its study to
topics such as the following:
1. Classroom climate
2. Institutional/organizational climate
3. Individual, self, supervised and group study
4. Factors affecting attention
5. Role of rewards and punishment
6. Group behaviour and group dynamics
7. Guidance and counselling.
In the discussion so far, we have tried to outline the general scope of
Educational Psychology. However, the scope of a fast growing subject like
Educational Psychology cannot be limited in sucha way. Educational Psychology
being a science of education has to supply the necessary knowledge and skills for
carrying out all the tasks of education. Education cannot be static and fixed or
unchanging as it has to be planned according to the changing circumstances and
needs of a particular society or nation. To meet the emerging problems and
demands in the field of education, Educational Psychology has to work hard to
keep evolving new concepts, principles and techniques. The subject matter of
Educational Psychology as also its ficld of operation is, therefore, expanding day
by day and in view of this, it is not possible to limit the scope of this subject. It
would, in fact, be unwise to do so. Such a step would not only hamper the
progress of this fast growing and developing science of behaviour but would also
 16 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

hinder the realization of the objectives of education. Hence, it is only right not to
stricly define the scope of Educational Psychology so as to leave the way open
for is further expansion and declare it as having no limits to effectively fulfil the
aims and objectives of education.

SUMMARY
Educational psychology as one of the branches of psychology tries to study the
behaviour of the learmer in relation to his educational environment. It has been
variously defined. Most of the definiions centre around the fact that eucational
psychology as a specialized branch of psychology concerns itself with suggesting
ways and means of improving the processes and products of education, enabling
the teachers to teach effectively and the learners to learn effectively by puting in
the minimum effort. It is thus designated as the science of education. It has
simplificd the tasks and improved the efficiency of the teacher or all those connected
with the processes and products of education by supplying them with the essential
knowledge and skills in much the same way as science and technology has helped
in making possible maximum output thrbugh minimum input in terms of time and
labour in our day to day activities.
The nature of educational psychology is regarded as scientific because like
the sciences, it possesses a well organized, systematic and universally accepted
body of facts; remains constantly in search of truth through research and
experimentation; employs scientific methods in its study, and the results of its
study are subject to further verification and modification.
However, as it is not so perfect a science as the natural and applied sciences,
it is defined as a developing positive science of the learners' behaviour.
The scope of Educational Psychology is both limited and extensive. It is
limited in the sense that Educational Psychology must concern itself only with the
study of the behaviour of the learner in the educational environment. It must
include the topics and contents which are specifically meant for improving the
processes and products of education mainly centred around the teáching-learning
process. As a result, its study has to include only those topics and subject material
which help in
1. knowing the learner;
2. enabling the teacher to know his self, his strengths and limitations and
to acquire essential teacher-like traits;
3. selection and organization of proper learning experiences suited to the
individuality and developmental stages of the learner;
4. suggesting suitable methods and techniques for providing the desired
learning experiences; and
5. in arranging proper learning situations.
However, its scope may be considered extensive in the sense that all that is
needed for providing solutions to the problems and demands of our educational
system must find place in the study of Educational Psychology. Since the problems
and demands are unending and the process of education is dynamic, we cannot
 3

Methods of Educational Psychology

INTRODUCTION
Educational Psychology is the scientific study of the behaviour of the learner in
relation to his educational environment. Behaviour in all its aspects can be studied
scientifically through a single technique or approach known as observation. This
leads us to the simple conclusion that observation may be regarded as the only
method or technique for conducting studies of behaviour. This single echnique or
approach, however, gives rise to several methods or approaches, depending upon
the conditions in which observations have to be recorded, the procedure adopted
and tools used. We shall discuss this aspect now.
1. Observation of one'sown behaviour by looking within or looking inward
may be adopted as one of the approaches. Such an approach is known as the
method of introspection.
2. Sometimes behavioural events are observed and recorded under natural
conditions by some person or persons. Such observation approach is termed as
naturalistic observation or simply as observation.
3. Observation and recording of behavioural events under controlled conditions
is known as experimentation.
4. When these are conducted outside the laboratories in real-life settings by
adopting the survey technique, the method is named as the normative survey method
or the field survey method.
5. In case the observation is made through recording a case history, i.e.,
reconstruction of an individual's biography, the approach may be termed as the
case study or case history method, and if we use psychoanalysis for interpreting
the behaviour of a person through the expression of his unconscious behaviour
then the method may be termed as the psychoanalytic method.
6. If the case history material and process of psychoanalysis is used for the
diagnosis and treatment of the behavioural problems,the method is termed as the
clinical method.
7. In the situation where physical devices are used to observe and measure
psychological experiences, the approach may be termed as the psycho-physical
method.
The various modes of observations may thus give rise to a number of methods
and approaches like introspecion, naturalistic observation, experimentation, normative
survey or field survey, psychoanalytic, clinical and psycho-physical methods. Let us
discuss all these approaches that help us to investigate the behaviour of a learner.
18
 METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOG? 19

INTROSPECTION METHOD
This is the oldest known method for the study of behaviour. In the early
of the evolution of Psychology, behaviour was studied days
only through a kind of
self-examination of inner observation called introspection.
The word'introspection' is made up of two Latin
or "inward", and spiere, meaning to "look". Hence, words, intro meaning "within"
within or looking inward. In introspection, then, one isintrospection
required to
means looking
get inside one's
own mind. It is a sort of self-observation in which one
perceives, analyses
reports one's own feelings and, in fact, everything that takes place in one's mind and
during the course of a mental act. For example, when in a state of
anger, one may be asked to dctermine by one's own observation what anxiety, fear or
one sensed,
thought or felt at the time of experiencing that emotion.
Merits
Introspection--the observation and reporting of one's own mental
considered important on account of its unique nature. It is a simpleprocesses-is
and readily
available method. One's mental processes are always present and can be introspected
at any time. Introspection is, therefore, able to give us a direct and immediate
insight into one's own mental processes without involving any extra
expenditure
of material or apparatus. Moreover, introspection provides adequate knowledge of
the inner or covert experiences and thus the inner behaviour of an individual in
the form of thought or feeling can be revealed through
introspection.
Drawbacks and Limitations
Introspection as a method of studying behaviour, however, suffers from some
serious drawbacks and limitations:
1. In introspection one needs to observe or examine one's
mental processes
carefully in the form of thoughts, feelings and sensations. The state of one's
mental processes is continuously changing. Therefore, when one concentrates on
introspecting a particular phase of one's mental activity that phase passes off. For
example, when one gets angry at something and afterwards sits down to introspect
calmly or to self-examine, the state of anger is sure to have passed off and so what
one tries to observe is not what is happening at that time with oneself but what
had happened some time before.
2. Introspection as a method of serious study lacks in reliability, validity
and objectivity for the following reasons:
(a) The results lack reliable communicability and repeatability because any
one investigator can never be sure that what he feels or senses is the same as is
experienced by other investigators. If we invite introspection reports on the nature
of the sensation of green for example, these reports are bound to differ. Some will
insist that green is a unitary sensation, whereas others may say that green is a
mixed sensation involving yellow and blue. We have no means for the objective
observation of the introspection phenomenon. Moreover, in introspection one studies
one's own behaviour or mental process. It is not possible, to verify self-observation
as one's own mind cannot be studied by others in introspection.
20 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

(b) It is next to impossible to acquire validity and exactness in self-observation

or examination of one's own mental process. The mind in perceiving its own
functions tries to divide itself into two halves-the subject and the object. The
object of observation and the instrument of observation are of course one and the
same. This automatically affects the validity and exactness of the observation
process and the perceived results. A man who is angry or afraid cannot observe
exactly what is going on in his mind and remain unchanged in his emotional state
of anger or fear. The consciousness on his part is sure to affect his mental or
emotional state which is the objcct of observation.
3. The scopc of introspection as a method of studying behaviour is rather
limited. It can only be applied satisfactorily in the case of adult normal human
beings. The behaviour of children, abnormal human beings, animals etc., cannot
be studied by this method.
Conclusion
Thus, if we try to evaluate the introspection method, we find that it is based on
self-speculaion, lacks reliable communicability, replicability and reasonable
exactness or precision. It is neither sufficiently scientific, practicable nor simple
enough to handle. It cannot therefore be taken as an adequate or sufficient single
method for psychological studies. The conclusions arrived at by this method need
to be supported by specific scientific findings through some other objective and
reliable method.

OBSERVATION METHOD

Observation as a method of studying behaviour consists of the perception of an

individual's behaviour under natural conditions by other individuals and the
interpretation and analysis of this perceived behaviour by them. It is thus essentially
a way of 'perceiving the behaviour as it is'. By this method we can infer the
mental processes of others through observation of their external behaviour, In
fact, it is an indirect approach to the study of the mental process. If some one
frowns, howls, grinds his teeth, closes his fists,by observing the external signs
of his behaviour, we can say that he is angry. But to study this behaviour conceming
anger in natural conditions, one has to wait for the cvent to occur. Similarly, to
study the behaviour of students in a crowd or during a strike, and the behaviour
of a delinquent or problem child, the psychologist has to wait till the particular
behaviour occurs and then use all his resources to observe, record, analyse and
interpret the behaviour from what he has perceived under natural conditions.

Merits
The observation method occupies a prominent place in the study of human behaviour.
It is natural, flexible and economical. Its results are reliable and can be verified.
The natural observation method is particularly suitable for studying the developmental
characteristics of individual children's habits, interests and other personality traits.
For example, the effects of the absence of one or both parents on a child's
METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 21

development can be determined properly through observation of his development.

Similarly, aclinical peychologist may be able to collect the required data about
the abnomal behaviour of an individual by observing him under natural conditions
of his day to day life.

Drawbacks and Limitations

The observation method cannot be termed as sufficiently objective, reliable and
valid for the following reasons:
1. It can prove useful only for collecing data on the observable behaviour
of an individual. It is impossible, to observe what is happening in the mind of
others, and so reasoning can only be through external behaviour. It is possible that
a person may be expert at hiding his feelings and emotions and disguising his evil
nature under the cover of artificial sobriety. In such cases the method of observation
fails to judge the true nature of the individual concerned.
2. Subjectivity factors on the part of the investigator as well as in the
process of observation also affect the results of observation, There may be distortions
of observable factors depending upon the observer's degree of care in observation.
His interests, values, and prejudices may also distort the contents and results of
the observation. He may lay extra emphasis on one part of one's behaviour and
may altogether neglect some other very important aspect. The interpretations of
the recorded events may also be similarly coloured. One may read one's own
thoughts, feelings and tendencies into others' minds. The lacunae resulting from
such subjectivity may, however, be corrected to a certain extent by having as
many observers as possible for observing the same phenomenon and employing
scientific instruments such as a tape rcorder, or a video camera etC., for recording
the events.
3. Another serious limitation of the observation method is that the behaviour
observed is dependent on the time and place and on the individual or group of
people involved. It lacks replicability as each natural situation can occur only
once.
4. Another important limitation of the observation method lies in its inability
to establish a proper cause and effect relationship. If two phenomena, say poverty
and delinquent behaviour, invariably occur together, it cannot be established that
poverty is the sufficient and necessary cause of delinquent behaviour or vice
versa.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The experimental method is considered the most scientific and objective method
of studying behaviour. It lays emphasis on performing experiments. The word
'experiment' comes from a Latin word experimentum meaning 'a trial' or 'test'.
Therefore, in experimentation we try or put to the test the material or phenomenon
whose characteristics or consequences which we wish to ascertain. In the sciences,
while conducting such experiments in the laboratory or outside in a natural
environment we may want to learn the effect of friction on motion, the effect of
22
ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
sunlight on growth of plants, etc. In educational psychology also, we perform
such experiments in the psychological laboratory, class-rooms or outside the class
rooms in physical or social setings to study the cause and effect relationshin
regarding the nature of human bchaviour, i.., the effect of anxiety, drugs or
stresses on human behaviour, the effect of intelligence, or participation in co
curricular activities, on the academic performance of students, etc. Inperforming
all such experiments we try to establish certain cause and effect relationships
through objective observations of the actions performed and the subsequent changes
produced under pre-arranged or rigidly controlled conditions. From these observations
certain conclusions are drawn and theories or principles are formulated. The essential
features of the experimental method are:
1. Experiments performed in this method essentially require two persons,
the experimenter and the subject or the person whose behaviour is to be observed.
2. These experiments are always conducted on living organisms in contrast
to experiments in the physical sciences which are generally conducted on inorganic
or dcad subjects.
3. The key factor in this method is the control of the conditions or variables.
By this control we can eliminate irrelevant conditions or variables and isolate the
rclevant ones.We thus become able to observe the causal relationship between two
phenomena, keepingall other conditions almost constant. For example, if we try to
study the effect of intelligence on academic achievement by the
mehod, we will need to determine the causative relation between the twoexperimental
phenomena
(variables)intelligence, and academic achievement. One of these variables, the
cffect of which we want to study, will be called the independent variable and the
the dependent variable. Thus the independent variable stands for other
the cause, and the
dependent variable is the effect of that cause. Other conditions like study
sex, socio-economic conditions, parental habits.
education,
past learming, memory,etc., which exercise a good home environment, health,
besides one's intelligence are termed intervening impact upon one's achievement
variables. In
controlled, i.e., they are to experimentation,
such intervening variables are to be all
be made constant or
equalized and the effect of only one independent variable, e.g.,
present case, on one or more dependent intelligence in the
variables
change and vary the independent variable. This brings
is studied. For this we try to
in the dependent variable or about concomitant changes
variables. These changes are
measured on the basis of which certain conclusions are objectively observed and
reached.
As already emphasized, in the
performed in the psychological laboratory experimental method experiments can be
class-roomsunder rigidly controllcd conditions.orLetin usthediscuss
class-rOoms or outside the
how these experiments
are performed.

Experiments in the Laboratory Set-up

Just like other physical or natural
Psychology or Educational Psychology sciences, experiments can be performed in
laboratory set-up. Thorndike's experimentsforonstudying the behaviour in the actual
Skinner's experiments on rats and pigeons andcats, Pavlov's experiments on dogs,
similar other experiments to study
METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 23

the behaviour related to learning, transfer of learning, memory,

etc., arc all examples of such laboratory experiments. Let us attention, perception
of Conducting these experiments with an illustrate the process
example.
Tile: Efect of knowledge of results on performance.
Name of the subject: Sex and Age: Education:
Date and Time: Name of the experimenter:
Hypothesis: The knowledge of results acts as an incentive or motivating force for
improvement in performance.
Apparatus and material: A shect of white paper, a ruler and a pencil.
Plan of the study: The study involves the task of drawing a straight line of a
certain lcngth, say 12 cm, on a sheet of white paper with the following details:
1. Telling the subject about the measurement of the line he draws after
trial.
each
2. Not informing or letting him know the results of his
performance.
Instructions: The subject will be provided with detailed instructions for conducting
the experiment.
Table 3.1 Observation Record
Length of line drawn in centimetres without and with the knowledge of results.
Tial Nos. 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
Without knowledge of
results (WKR) 10.1 9.8 10.4 11.3 11.8 12.5 10.4 10.8 114 12.7

With knowledge of
results (WR) 10.2 11.5 11.8 12.8 12,6 11.9 12.2 12.0 12.2 12.1

Table 3.2 Interpretation of Results

Eror or difference from actual length in centimetres under two conditions
Trial Nos. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Difference from
actual length
(under WKR) 1.9 2.2 1.6 0.9 0.2 0.5 1.6 1.2 0.6 0.7 114
Difference from
actual length
(under WR) 1.8 0.5 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.1 4.5

It may be seen that the total difference from actual length estimated by the
subject under the first condition (without knowledge of results) during the first ten
trials is much higher than that estimated under the second condition (with know
ledge of results). Where as it is 114 cm in the former case, it is only 4.5 cm in
the latter. It can casily be inferred from the above findings that there is a definite
improvement in the performance of the subject through feed-back i.e., the knowledge
of results.
24 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Experiments Outside the Laboratory Set-up
In Educational Psychology,
experiments can also be conducted without involving
the usual psychological laboratory set However, for such studies, there is need
of some specific experimental designs up. for controlling the variables and measuring
their effects. A few of such designs are:
1 The control test or
to have two different single-group design. In these designs it is not necessary
individuals
asingle individual or group of or groups of subjects for the experiment. Here
individuals can work as the subject for the experiment.
The subject, whether an individual
observed under nomal conditions andorthena group of individuals, is first
Conclusions are then drawn by comparingunder different sets of changedobjectively
conditions.
study the effect of the fear stimulus. In the the differences. Suppose we wish to
arrangements of instruments and materialpsychological
necessary
laboratory, all necessary
for the study of the fear
responscs of the subject in the form of changes in
beat, blood pressure, functioning of the respiration, pulse and heart
digestive and
expression etc., will be made. The initial readings other intemal systems, facial
under normal conditions when there is no regarding all these functions
fear stimulus present will be taken from
the related instruments. The
subject will
like a snake, a loud noise, darkness etc., then be exposed to sudden fear stimuli
a result of the intensity of fear and then the changes in the readings as
instruments. The difference in the responses
second
will be recorded from the various
and initial readings will then indicate
the different degrees of intensity of the
fear
of the different types of fear stimuli in a which could be aroused on account
As another illustration, we may particular individual.
a group of students can do better in an conduct an experiment to ascertain whether
intelligence test under the influence of a
specific drug like benzedrine sulphate, caffeine
For this investigation, we will take only one or brahmi.
of the same age, sex and state of group of some students, preferably
health. The procedure of the experiment will
comprise the following steps:
(a) These students can be given sugar
through some intelligence test. This will provide capsules after which they can be put
conditions. the initial testing under normal
(b) Some time later, they can be given drug
intelligence test. This will make a test under changedcapsules and tested on the same
(c) The IQ. scores under these two conditions.
situations are
difference is calculated. If any significant difference is found,noted
it
down and the
will be attributed
to the influence of the drug.

2. Control-group design. The control test or the

has a serious drawback known as the positive practice single group design method
subjected to a certain kind of fear stimulus, it will surelyefect.
If an individual is
affect
his further exposure to fear stimuli. If a group is subjected to a the responses on
certain drug, then
it willautomatically carry its effect or influence at the time of the
introduction of
some other drugs at the later stage. Control group designs help in minimising
a practice effect. such
 METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
25
In the control group design two
separate groups, known as the experimental
group, and the control group, participate in the experiment. They are
matched on various traits like age, sex, equated or
characteristics. There is a intelligence and other personality
Now the control grOup is one-to-one correspondence in the two equated groupS.
test. At the same time, the given sugar capsules andtested on some intelligence
experimental
on the same intelligence test. The group is given the drug capsule and tested
differences the intelligence scores of the
groups are then calculated. In case some in
are attributed to the effect of the drug. significant differences are found, they
3. Multiple-group design.
two groups for arriving at the Sometimes, we have to experiment with more than
study the effect of knowledge ofappropriate
English on
conclusion. For example, if we want to
the
leam French, we decide to teach speed with which people subsequently
English to a group of students and
whether they learn French more easily. But more easily then see
will need another group, or groups for than whom? Certainly we
who have learnt the English languagecomparison. Group A, consisting of students
is called the experimental
may function as a control group for group. Group B
comparison, since
earlier. If group A learns French faster th¡n Group B, can we it did not learn English
in specd to the earlier study of attribute the difference
English? Certainly not. It
account of learming any subject or language may have themay be that practice on
effect. To rule out these possibilities it is same positive transfer
groups like C and D. Now if group A essential to add some more control
other three groups, then and only then may demonstrates clear superiority over the
a
we
learning French. For illustration, the working infer of a
that learming English facilitates
collection in the present case may be tabulated asmultiple shown.
group design for data

Group Subject for test held Test held in the

in the month of August month of February
A
English French
No test
C French
Any subject French
D
(say Mathematics)
Russian French
4. Designs involving rotation. This
stimulating situations to the experimentalexperiment
subjects in
involves presenting two or more
as many sequences as necessary
to control the serial effects of
fatigue or practice. For example,
determine the relative influence of two specified conditions A andifBwe want to
and blame) on a group of subjects, we will (say praise
not measure all the subjects under
condition A and then under condition B.
train the subjects that the measures under Condition B might cause fatigue or so
A
of the fatigue or training effects. Here twocondition would not be independent
alternatives be adopted:
can
(a) We may obtain half the measures for
condition A, all the measures for
condition B, and then the other half of the measures
is sometimes called the A BB A for condition A. This technique
order.
 26 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOtOGY
(b) Another alternative is to separate the subjects into
one of which receives treatment A and then B, whereas the othertwo equated groups,
group receivea
treatment B and then A. Both sets ofA results and both sets of B results may then
be combined and the difference between them calculated.

Limitations of the Experimental Method

1. The Experimental Mcthod
completely controlled rigid conditions.advocates
These
the study of behaviour under
conditions demand the creation of
artificial situations or environment and the
may be or is usually different from the behaviour studied under these conditions
the experimental mcthod fails to spontaneous natural behaviour. Therefore.
or
study behaviour in natural conditions as may be
possible through natural observation.
2. The second limitation or
handling of the independent variable difficulty lies in exercising actual control or
difficult to know and control all of the and the intervening variables. It is very
always control the independent variable. intervening variables. Similarly we cannot
create the desired conditions in the Therefore, it is not always possible to
of these controlled laboratory and consequently, in the absence
conditions, the success of this method
becomes quite
3. In the experimental
method we often make use of animals oruncertain. birds as
subjects for experimentation. It is also debatable
obtained from such sources are applicable to human whether experimental results
4. Th¹ scope of the beings at all.
psychology cannot by studiedexperimental method is limited. All
by this method as we cannot perform problems of
the diverse subject matter of experiments
for all the problems that may come up in
5. The dynamic nature and
unpredictability psychology.
of human behaviour does not
always allow the independent variable to
Human behaviour is not a mechanical lead to change in the dependent variable.
stimuli or variables may or may not yieldbehaviour. The anger or fear producing
the required responses as desired
experiment and hence it is not possible to get uniform under
responses
dependent variables on account of the concomitant changes in the or changes in the
variable. independent
6. The experimental method is a
the conduct of experiments under this
costly and time consuming method. Moreover,
skills. In the absence of such specializedmethod requires specialized knowledge and
method. abilities, it is not possible to use this

DIFFERENTIAL METHOD
The differential method is based on
individual differences. Therefore, all the
measures applied to the calculation of individual differences are included in this
method. The differential method is also named as the
or the field survey method as the normative survey method
investigator has to go to the field to make his
investigations. It is sometimes callcd the statistical method for the reason that
statistical techniques becomc the major devices for the study of the
differences. Now, the question that arises is, how do differential individual
from experimental methods? It may be felt that the methods differ
difference between the
METHODS OF EDÙCATIONAL PSYCHOLOOY 27

experimental and differential methods is only arbitrary and artificial, since the
procedure of finding the effects on dependent variables by the application of the
independent variables is the same. This, however, is not true as T.G. Andrews
(1958) comments:
Diferentiation between experiments and differential methods may appear quite
artificial, and it is true that all psychologists will not agree to such an apparently
artificial classification scheme. Nevertheless, it should always be made clear that
the independent variables resulting from individual differences are never under
the investigator's control to the same degree that experimental variables are.
Thus, differential methods differ from the experimental approach in that the
investigator cannot intentionally manipulate the variables and each of these is
studied as an independent variable. For instance, in studying the relationship of
achievement with intelligence, it is not possible to manipulate inelligence. Therefore,
we have to take each individual and study his achievement in relation to his
intelligence. After that, we can try to arrive at certain conclusions with the help
of statistical techniques.
The key concept in using the differential methods is their technique of
studying differences within the same individual or between individuals in different
groups. Usually for this purpose four types of main approaches or designs are
used. These are:

1. Correlation Approach
2. Field Survey Approach
3. Longitudinal Approach
4. Cross-sectional Approach.
In the Correlation Approach, the psychologist takes people as they are and
studies what they usually do, without changing the conditions under which they
respond to the tests or perfom- the desired tasks. For example, in the above case
as
of finding the relationship of achievement with intelligence, the intelligence be
can
well as the achievement, say academic achievement of each individual
found with the help of intelligence as well as achievement tests. The subjects will
correlation,
naturally differ from one another and by using the statistical technique of
the desired relationship can be ascertained.
to a particular
In the Field Survey Approach, the differences with regard
discovered by conducting
trait pattern or characteristics among the individuals are population. For
the studied
the field survey and taking adequate samples, from regard
example, in 'studying the individual differences with to adjustment patterns
working ingovernment and non
or job satisfaction among high school teachers method would require (a) the
government schools', the use of the differential
of teachers, (b) finding out the
taking of adequate samples of both categories included in these groups,and
adjustment or job satisfaction scores of the teachers
pattern of adjustment or job satisfaction.
(c) analysing the differences, if any, in thedifferences in an individual or group of
In the Longitudinal Approach, the span of time. For example, by learning
Some individuals are studied over a long
lhe pattern of growth and development with regard to physical, mental, emotional,
or moral dimensions of personality, we can study a particular infant or a
Social
 28 ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

number of infants as they normally grow and develop through successive ages.
However, this type of study would require quite a long span as the researcher has
to wait for the normal course of development to occur.
The cross-sectional Approach is the alternative for studying or discovering
the normal trend where insteadof studying one or more infants at their successive
ages we can take different infants of varying ages for studying them simultaneously
to determine the pattern of growth and development at different ages.
In all the above approaches meant to iscover differences, the researcher is
required to take the help of the statistical methods for analysing his data and
interpreting his research findings with regard to the differences among individuals,
groups and methods of treatment.

CLINICAL METHÌD

Whereas experimental and differential methods are generally used to investigate

general behavioural facts, the clinical method is directed towards the study of
individual behaviour. The clinical set-up or environment is associated with health
care and treatment of the individuals who come for advice and treatment of their
physical and mental disorders. Clinical methods also remind us of all those methods
which deal with the task of investigating the root causes of a problem or exceptional
behaviour and suggesting as well as providing proper environment and possible
treatment.
The concept of a clinical method is included in the concept of clinical.
psychology which is the art and technology of dealing with the adjustment problems
of the individual for purposes of his optimum social adjustment and welfare. The
analysis of this definition may help us to observe some of the characteristics of
the nature and working of the clinical method:
1. The clinical method is applicable to an individual.
2. The individual has some problems.
3. Methods of both diagnosis and treatment are involved in dealing with
these problems.
4. The clinical method is aimed at seeking the, maximum adjustment and
welfare for the disturbed person.
5. The clinical method is an art as well as a science and
technology which
means that everybody cannot treat every patient and it takes pleasure in making
mankind healthier and better.
Thus, the basic elements in this method of psychological
the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or mental illness ofinvestigation
are
an individual.

Method of Diagnosis
Diagnosis by the clinical mehod requires a symptomatic account of the overall
situation in order to ascertain the root cause of an illness or
For such diagnosis, one has to look into the past events orbehavioural problem.
individuals, their impact and reactions, the present environmentexperiences of the
and adjustment
 METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
29
problems, and the total personality make-up,etc. For ascertaining allabout
aspects the following techniques are generally these
employed.
1. Adequate physical check-up. The
problem must be made to go through aindividual
detailed
suffering from a behavioural
physical check-up to ascertain
whether the behaviour exhibitcd is of a functional or
there are no physical causes for the behaviour in of an organic nature. In case
question, then and only then
should it be diagnosed as a subject for psychological
treatment.
2. Making ou the case history. For
finding the clues or delving into the events
from the earlier experiences of the individual which
Dresent behaviour, the psychologist then tries to use may
the
be responsible for the
case
In this technique, information is collected from the history technique.
his parents, the members of his family, his relatives, memory of the individual,
tcachers, doctors and from the available recordsguardians, neighbours, friends,
and reports concerming the
individual's past. For collecing the relevant information the following sources
may be used:
(i) ldentifying data: This may contain the name of the
individual, his
name, his residential address, date of birth, caste, religion, nature of father's
or abnormal behaviour, etc. exceptional
(iü) Environmental background. This may contain information about the
members of the individual's family, his parents, their relationship with each other,
and behaviour with the subject (individual) of the study, the educational and
socio-economic status of the family, the accidents and incidents which may have
occurred in the family, the types of neighbourhood, friends and socio-cultural
environment, the type of school education and schoól or job situation environment
etc., he may have passed through.
(iüi) Developmental history. This may contain the history of the growth
and developmentalprocess of the individual in relation to the treatment, behaviour
and environmental facilities available from birth onwards, history of his mental
and physical health, education and occupation, social and emotional adjustment,
sex-life etc.
(iv) History of exceptionallabnormal behaviour. This may contain all the
relevant information regarding the development of the behaviour inquestion up
to the present stage.

3. The Clinical interview. Additional but very important information may be

obtained by the investigator by arranging a clinical interview with the individual.
For this purpose, he may carefully plan appropriate questions and persuade the
individual to give free and frank responses by establishing the necessary rappor.
For understanding the inner working of the individual's mind, he may be given
the opportunity to talk about himself in this interview session. From these responses,
the investigator may draw conclusions for the diagnosis of the root cause of the
behaviour.

4. Direct observation of behaviour. Direct observation of the behaviour of the

30
ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGy
individual by the investigator in the natural set-up, living and working conditione
may prove quite useful in knowing the nature and causes of the
case of children, direct observation of the subject at play
may provide a
behaviour.
In the
useful
means of understanding him, his behaviour and his problem.
5. Using tests and measuring devices.
may also be used to ascertain the interests,Certain testing and measuring devices
abilities,
totalpersonality of the individual and relevant attitudes, aptitudes and the
information may thus be obtained
for understanding the individual and his behaviour.
Method of Treatment
In order to serve the welfare of the
individual, diagnosis should be followed by
treatment. For the treatment of a behavioural problem,
bring about a change in the behaviour of the efforts are to be made to
himself and with his environment and thus individual by his adjustment with
health. This can be ultimately restore his normal mental
usually accomplished in two ways:
1. Modifying the environmental forces
2. Modifying the individual's attitude.
The physical and socio-cultural
modified in such a way that he may not environment of the individual needs to be
be
maladjustment. Rather, he should be able subjected
to further disharmony and
to get a pleasant and
environment characterized by wholesome and harmonious relationshipsencouraging
with other
social beings and he should get enough
opportunity
needs. For this purpose the following measures may be for the fulfilment of his basic
adopted:
1. He may be physically removed from one
like a boarding house, foster home or with situation and placed in another,
guardians and adopted parents.
2. The atitude of the parents, teachers and
3. More adequate recreational others toward him may be changed.
facilities, better living conditions, work
placement and working conditions may be provided or some suitable
the sublimation and catharsis of measures for
repressed desires and wishes may be taken.
A complete modification of the
individual'sphilosophy of life is required
for bringing about a change in his behaviour. He must be made to harmonise his
thinking, feeling and doing. For this purpose, the following
adopted: measures may be
1, Guidance and counselling
2. Psychoanalysis
3. Techniques like auto-suggestion hypnosis,
psychodrama and role-playing
4. Therapies like psychotherapy, group therapy, play therapy, occupation
therapy, atitude therapy etc.
Conclusion
The above discussion regarding the nature and working of the
may lead us to conclude that clinical methods in all their shapesclinical methods
and forms are
 METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 31
always concermed with the diagnoses and treatment of adjustment
mental and psychological illness of the individual. It is, however, notproblems or
that clinical methods should always be used to study or treat necessary
the mental
abnormal behaviour of an individual. The real purpose of clinical findings illness or
help in conducting an intensive and thorough study of the behaviour of the is to
Therefore, it does not matter whether we carry out the study of a normal individual.
abnomal behaviour with the help of a clinical set-up. There is no bar to studying or
the behaviour of normal persons or even exceptional
individuals like high
creative geniuses, saints, social workers and leaders by employing clinicalachievers,
of collecting relevant information through various means. Whether an methods
individual
requires treatment or follow-up depends upon the case under clinical study. A
clinical study thus does not necessarily require resort to methods of
The treatment can be affected only when the individual under studytreatment. needs it.
Therefore, broadly speaking, clinical methods may be taken as the methods of
studving the behaviour of an individual in all possible detail relevant to the
purpose
of the study.

Merits and Demerits of Clinical Methods

The chief merit of the clinical methods is that they can be safely employed to
study the particular or specific behaviour of an individual. No two individuals are
alike in their behaviour patterms and a real study of human behaviour can, therefore,
only be made through a personal and individual study of every human being.
Clinical methods provide an intensive study involving all possible details regarding
individual behaviour. Therefore, as far as true investigation of individual behaviour
is concermed, no method can match the efficiency and usefulness of the clinical
methods. Their usefulness is further enhanced when they provide valuable
information regarding he adjustment or behavioural problem of the individual
and subsequent suggestions and measures for the treatment and solution of these
problems. Clinical methods,thus render signal service to mankind.
Their main limitation or drawback is that their proper use demands a lot
from the clinical researcher. He should be mature and technically proficient in
handling such studies. He cannot involve his own self and personality make-up
while diagnosing and treating the individual in his charge. The other limitation is
related to the very restricted scope of such studies as the effort put into, and the
findings of, these studies cannot be generalized. These are meant only for individual
cases and end with the diagnosis and treatment of the individual cases under
study.

PSYCHO-PHYSICAL METHODS
The branch of psychology which is concerned with the study of the relationship
between physical and psychological phenomenon is called psycho-physics. In this
sense, the term 'psycho-physical methods' may be used to refer to all those
methods in which attempts are made to employ physical devices for the scientific
measurement of some psychological experiences like the sensations of weight,
brightness, loudness and other such dimensions. Other Complicated psychological
32
ADVANCED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

phenomena like sleep or span of memory etc. can also be studied by psycho
physical methods.
Three classical psycho-physical methods devised by the German physiologist
and physicist Gustav Fechner (1801-1887),the father of psycho-physics are stil
in vogue. They are:
1. The method of minimal changes or the method of limits.
2. The method of constant stimulior the method of right and wrong responses.
3. The method of average or mean error.

These methods are primarily employed to measure the absolute threshold

and the difference threshold. Both the absolute threshold and the difference threshold
are statistical concepts and are measured in much the same way.
The absolute threshold may be defined as the minimum value of a physical
stimulus that reliably produces sensation. Absolute threshold, thus, separates the
sounds we can hear from those we cannot, the odours we can smell from those
we cannot, the brightness of the light we can see from that we cannot, and so on.
The difference threshold may be defined as the minimum difference in
value between two stimuli which can be perceived by the subject. For example,
when one experiences a particular weight put in one's hand, how much minimum
weight has to be added to it so that the total becomes just distinguishable as
different from the first. Let us now give a brief idea of the three psycho-physical
methods mentioned above.

The Method of Minimal Changes or the Methods of Limits

This method may be used for finding out the absolute threshold and difference
threshold. The procedure may be outlined as below:
1. The subject is exposed to a particular sensation. For example, he may be
asked to report whether he can see the object lying at a particular distance (say
80 cm) or not.
2. If he cannot see the object, the distance is gradually decreased until the
subject reports that he is able to see the object. Suppose at the distance of 77 cm
he says no but at the distance of 76 cm he says yes then both these values at
which the subject's response changed from no to yes about the visibility of the
object will be noted down by the experimenter.
3. In the next round, the object may be placed at a distance much nearer
than the absolute threshold, say 70 cm in the present case. Thisdistance may then
be gradually increased till the subjcct reports that he does not see the object. The
successive values at which lhe subject's response changes from yes to no is noted
down. Let these values be 75 and 76 cm in the present case.
4. Allthese values pertaining to minimal changes in the value of the absolute
threshold or difference threshold in both descending and ascending series of trials
are then noted down. The process is repeated many times. After the completion
of several ascending and descending series, the exxperimenter, may compute the
average of all these minimal values. (The limis of the intensity of the sensory
stimuliwhich produce achange from 0o 100 per cent in terms of the feeling or
 METIODS ÞF RDUCATIONAL. PSYCOLOOY 33

sensation). In the present example, we may compute the average of the values, 77,
6, 75 and 76 etc., yielding the value 77 +76+75+ 76, i.e. 76 cm, as a minimal
Value of the istance at which the subject may4 be able to see the
object. experimental
The absolute threshold concerning auditory intensity may also be
similarly
determined. In an ascending series of trials, the experimenter, while beginning
with a clearly sub-theshold value, may progressively raise the intensity of the
sound until the subject reports that he hears it. In the descending series of
he may gradually decrease the intensity of sound till the subject reports trials,
does not hear the sound. The average of all these values, in the several that he
and descending series, at which the subject's response changed about hisascending
hearing
of the sound is then calculated to be designated as the absolute
threshold.
The Method of Constant Stimuli (The Method of Right and
Wrong Responses)
In this method the value of the intensity of the sensory stimulus is not gradually
incrcased or decreased as in the case of the mcthod of limits but the sensory
stimuliof varying intensity arc presented to the subject at random. The stimuli
include at lcast onc sample which is well above the probable threshold value and
another sample which is well below it. The subjcct is then asked to indicate
whether or not he deiccts cach of these rarndomly presented stimuli. The responses
of the subject in the form of yes or no are then notcd down by the experimenter
and ultimatcly the probability öf the yes response is relaied to intensity of the
stimuli. All he values related to the yes responses are then averaged out to give
the required threshold.

The Method of Average Erròr

This method is also called the method of mean error or the adjustment mcthod.
In performing experiments by this method, the subject is presented with some
stimulus of a standard intensiy. He may then be asked to adjust a variable stimulus
to this standard by making a number of attempts. In doing so he willprobably
miss the standard by a certain margin, This is referred to as the error. The average
of these errors is noted down. It is subtracted or added to the standard value
(depcnding upon the positive or negative sign of the value of the computed average
error) for giving the subject's absolute threshold of sensitivity to the stimulus.
Conclusion Regarding Methods
Which of the foregoing mothods is the most suitable in studying the problems of
educational psychology is a difficult question to answer. All these methods have
their own strengths and weaknesses and have some unique characteristics which
make them highly specific in particular situations. However, a wise investigator
must keep in mind the factors of objectivity, reliability and validity for the
solution of the problem in hand. He should possess akeen insight into the nature of
his subjects, their problems, environmental surroundings and the resources at his