Dance Production

Dance Production: Design and Technology introduces This book also features:
you to the skills you need to plan, design, and execute
●● Hundreds of full-color illustrations and stunning
the technical aspects of a dance production. While it
photos of dance productions.
may not seem that staging a dance production is that
●● Interviews with international working professionals
different from a play or musical, in reality a dance
in the dance industry, including choreographers,
performance offers up unique intricacies and challenges
dancers, designers, and stage managers from
all on its own, from scenery that accommodates
companies such as Paul Taylor Dance Company,
choreography, to lighting design that sculpts the
Martha Graham Dance Company, David Dorfman
body, and costumes that complement movement. This
Dance, Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company, and
unique book approaches the process of staging a dance
more.
production from a balanced perspective, making it an
essential resource for dancers and designers alike. ●● Chapter-by-chapter projects and exercises for
students.
Covering a broad range of topics, author Jeromy
●● Companion website with chapter reviews, hand-outs,
Hopgood takes the reader through the process of
videos, bonus chapters, and additional projects.
producing dance from start to finish, including pre-
production planning (collaboration, production process, Jeromy Hopgood is a tenured Associate Professor at
personnel, performance spaces), design disciplines Eastern Michigan University, where he created the
(lighting, sound, scenery, costumes, projections), stage Entertainment Design & Technology program—one
management, and more. Bridging the gap between of the only of its kind in the country. In addition to his
theatrical and dance design, the book includes a quick teaching, Jeromy has designed more than 100 plays,
reference guide for theatrical and dance terminology, musicals, dance, and opera productions over the last
useful in giving dancers and designers a common decade. Jeromy worked at the Williamstown Theatre
working vocabulary that will ensure productive Festival in its Tony Award-winning season alongside
communication across the different fields. numerous Broadway designers, and he is an Artistic
Associate for the Michigan Shakespeare Festival.
Jeromy is also the author of QLab 3 Show Control:
Projects for Live Performances and Installations by Focal
Press.
 Bound to Create
Y are a creator.
You

Whatever your form of expression — photography, y filmmaking,

y,
animation, games, audio, media communication, web design, or
theatre — you simply want to create without limitation. Bound
by nothing except your own creativity and determination.

Focal Press can help.

For over 75 years Focal has published books that support your
creative goals. Our founder,
r Andor Kraszna-Krausz, established
r,
Focal in 1938 so you could have access to leading-edge expert
knowledge, techniques, and tools that allow you to create
without constraint. We strive to create exceptional, engaging, and
practical content that helps you master your passion.

Focal Press and you.

Bound to create.

We’d love to hear how we’ve helped

you create. Share your experience:
www.focalpress.com/boundtocreate
Dance Production
Design and Technology

Jeromy Hopgood
First published 2016
by Focal Press
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Focal Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Focal Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2016 Taylor & Francis

The right of Jeromy Hopgood to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections
77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Hopgood, Jeromy.
Dance production : design and technology / Jeromy Hopgood.
pages cm
Includes index.
1. Dance–Production and direction. I. Title.
GV1782.H66 2016
792.8’4–dc23
2015014133

ISBN: 978-1-138-79589-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-79591-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-75818-3 (ebk)

Typeset in DIN by
Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire
Additional materials are available on the companion website at www.focalpress.com/cw/hopgood
Contents
Acknowledgments ........................................................ viii Part II: Production Areas
Introduction...................................................................... 1
4 Lighting 53
Part I: Thinking Ahead 4.1 The Lighting Designer .................................. 54
4.2 Functions of Dance Lighting (What
1 Collaboration 7 Lighting can Accomplish) ............................. 54
1.1 Team Members and Responsibilities ............. 8 4.3 Properties of Dance Lighting
1.2 The Choreographer....................................... 12 (Controllable Qualities of Dance
1.3 The Production Process ............................... 13 Lighting) ........................................................ 57
1.4 Collaborative Models—How we Work 4.4 Lighting Systems .......................................... 60
Together? ...................................................... 15 4.5 Lighting Positions and Angles ...................... 62
1.5 Chapter Review ............................................. 18 4.6 Lighting Instruments .................................... 69
Interview The Choreographer’s Perspective: 4.7 Atmospherics ................................................ 73
An Interview with Julia Gleich ...................... 19 4.8 Color in Lighting ........................................... 73
4.9 Chapter Review ............................................. 76
2 Pre-production Planning 23
2.1 Purpose ......................................................... 24 5 Creating the Lighting Design 79
2.2 Program Concerns ....................................... 24 5.1 Working with the Choreographer ................. 80
2.3 Performance Space Concerns...................... 27 5.2 Communicating the Design .......................... 81
2.4 Production Calendar ..................................... 27 5.3 Hang and Focus ............................................ 87
2.5 Production Budget ........................................ 31 5.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals ............ 88
2.6 Personnel ...................................................... 32 5.5 Technical Rehearsals ................................... 91
2.7 Chapter Review ............................................. 32 5.6 Chapter Review ............................................. 91
Interview The Production Manager’s Perspective: Interview The Lighting Designer’s Perspective:
An Interview with Stacey-Jo Marine ............. 32 An Interview with Seth Reiser ...................... 92

3 Performance Spaces 35 6 Sound 95

3.1 Proscenium Theatres ................................... 36 6.1 Thinking About Sound ................................... 96
3.2 Non-proscenium Theatres ........................... 47 6.2 Sound Design for Dance ............................... 97
3.3 Non-traditional Spaces................................. 49 6.3 Functions of Sound Design ........................... 98
3.4 Chapter Review ............................................. 50 6.4 Properties of Sound Design.......................... 99

v Contents
 6.5 Audio Equipment......................................... 100 10.5 Hair and Wigs .............................................. 183
6.6 Sound Systems ........................................... 104 10.6 Make-up Considerations ............................ 184
6.7 Legal Concerns ........................................... 105 10.7 Chapter Review ........................................... 186
6.8 Chapter Review ........................................... 107
11 Creating the Costume Design 189
7 Creating the Sound Design 109 11.1 Working with the Choreographer ............... 190
7.1 Working with the Choreographer ............... 110 11.2 Communicating the Design ........................ 192
7.2 Communicating the Design ........................ 111 11.3 Executing the Design .................................. 196
7.3 Sound Editing and Composition Tools........ 113 11.4 Preparing for Dress Rehearsals ................ 199
7.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals .......... 114 11.5 Dress Rehearsals and Beyond ................... 200
7.5 Chapter Review ........................................... 118 11.6 Chapter Review ........................................... 201
Interview The Sound Designer’s Perspective: Interview The Costume Designer’s Perspective:
An Interview with Sam Crawford ................ 119 An Interview with Liz Prince ....................... 202

8 Scenery and Props 125 12 Projections and Video 207

8.1 Scenic Design.............................................. 126 12.1 The Projection Designer ............................. 208
8.2 Functions of Dance Scenery ....................... 127 12.2 Assessing Projection Needs ....................... 210
8.3 Scenic Elements ......................................... 132 12.3 Functions of Dance Projection Design
8.4 Dance Props................................................ 139 (What Projection Design can
8.5 Chapter Review ........................................... 140 Accomplish) ................................................ 214
12.4 Projection Systems ..................................... 218
9 Creating the Scenic Design 143 12.5 Projection Equipment ................................. 219
9.1 Working with the Choreographer ............... 144 12.6 Software Solutions...................................... 222
9.2 Communicating the Design ........................ 145 12.6 A Word About Interactive Dance................. 226
9.3 Design Specifications.................................. 151 12.7 Chapter Review ........................................... 226
9.4 Scenic Construction and Painting .............. 155
9.5 Props Design............................................... 157 13 Creating the Projection Design 229
9.6 Chapter Review ........................................... 159 13.1 Working with the Choreographer ............... 230
Interview The Scenic Designer’s Perspective: 13.2 Communicating the Design ........................ 231
An Interview with Campbell Baird .............. 160 13.3 Content........................................................ 234
13.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals .......... 236
10 Costumes, Hair, and Make-up 165 13.5 Technical Rehearsals ................................. 238
10.1 The Costume Designer ............................... 166 13.6 Chapter Review ........................................... 238
10.2 Functions of Dance Costumes Interview The Projection Designer’s Perspective:
(What Costumes can Accomplish) .............. 166 An Interview with João Beira ...................... 239
10.3 Properties of Dance Costumes
(Controllable Qualities of Dance 14 Stage Management 243
Costumes) ................................................... 170 14.1 The Stage Manager ..................................... 244
10.4 Dance Costume Components ..................... 173 14.2 Pre-production ........................................... 248

vi Contents
 14.3 Rehearsals .................................................. 250 Part III: Quick Reference
14.4 Technical Rehearsals ................................. 253
14.5 During the Run ............................................ 255 15 Dance Terminology 261
14.6 Chapter Review ........................................... 256
Interview The Stage Manager’s Perspective: 16 Theatre/Stagecraft Terminology 273
An Interview with Julie Ballard .................. 257
Index 283

vii Contents
Acknowledgments
The idea for this book as you see it today started in me to see the work of my students and colleagues
the winter of 2013 while designing lights for a dance represented in this book alongside the work of some of
concert at Eastern Michigan University, where I teach. the giants in the dance world.
The roots of this project began many years ago, though.
I couldn’t have created this book without all of
I imagined writing a book like this when working
the wonderful photographers who so generously
with my first student choreographer over a decade
contributed their work. Special thanks to Richard
ago, and the idea has resurfaced with every student
Calmes for the use of his amazing dance photography
choreographer or designer I have worked with since.
on the cover of the book, as well as a number of the
Like every other teacher, I owe my biggest thanks to
photos inside. He is an amazing guy and a very talented
my students, who always ask the best questions. Keep
photographer whose work you should definitely check
it up!
out (www.pbase.com/rcalmes). Thanks also to Randy
As I began the task of researching, writing, and Mascharka, the talented university photographer for
compiling illustrations and photos for the text, I had Eastern Michigan University, who has documented
the distinct pleasure of making some new friends so much of my work over the years. Zac Whittenberg
and standing on the shoulders of some amazing and the wonderful folks at Hubbard Street Dance
colleagues. My heartfelt thanks to Campbell Baird of Chicago truly delivered a treasure trove of production
NYU-Tisch School of the Arts, a true gentleman and a and behind-the-scenes photos. Thanks, as well, to
scholar (and to Diane D. Fairchild for introducing us). Lynn Wichern and the Merce Cunningham Trust for
My fondest appreciation also to Julie Ballard, João assistance in including some of Merce’s amazing work
Biera, Sam Crawford, Julia Gleich, Stacey-Jo Marine, in photo form.
Liz Prince, and Seth Reiser for being so gracious with
None of this would have been possible without the help
their time and providing some insight into the world of
of Stacey Walker and Meagan White from Focal Press.
professional dance.
Thanks for your support on both this and my first book.
Thanks to the Appalachian State University Department It has been a pleasure.
of Theatre and Dance for giving me my first job that
Finally, thanks to the people who truly support me every
introduced me to a whole other world of design outside
day: my family. Katie and Kira have given up so much
of theatre. To John Marty, in particular, thanks for being
time from their weekends, summers, and Christmas
long-suffering as I delved into rep light plots. Thanks
break for this project. Thanks for being so supportive of
to Eastern Michigan University and the Entertainment
me through everything and always believing in me. To
Design & Technology program for creating such a
the newest member of the family, Isabella, your timing
wonderful workplace. I can’t say how proud it makes

viii ACknowledgments
was perfect. You arrived a month before the manuscript
was due and missed out on all the drama. Here’s to
making up all those lost days along the way, ladies.

ix ACknowledgments
 INTRODUCTION

Coming together is a beginning; keeping together is progress;

working together is success.

Henry Ford

The Solitude. Choreography and Direction:

Source line
Julia
to K.
goGleich.
here Photography by Lucas Chilczuk.
● You have to love dancing to stick to it. It gives you “I can’t talk about lights. I just know what I like when I
nothing back, no manuscripts to store away, no see it.” Likewise, there is the case of the designer who
paintings to show on walls and maybe hang in simply puts together a design without understanding
museums, no poems to be printed and sold, nothing the intent of the dance or moments of significance. In
but that single fleeting moment when you feel alive. both of these cases, the collaborative process has been
Merce Cunningham short-changed because of the inability of one or more of
the collaborators to relate to the creative process on the
Some years ago, I began my foray into dance by
other side of the fence.
taking a few theatrical dance courses as a part of my
undergraduate theatre training. I had always been As an educator, I have noticed that those of my students
involved in music since my childhood, so I found dance who study both theatre and dance seem to have a much
to be a somewhat natural extension of that side of my easier go of things when staging a production than some
brain. As anyone who had the misfortune of watching of their peers. That is not to say that they are necessarily
my dance attempts can attest, though, my musical more gifted students, but they have much less difficulty
ability certainly had no direct correlation with an in navigating the collaborative process when working
ability to successfully move my body with the music. as a choreographer or as a designer. This realization
After graduation, I went on to get my MFA in Scenic brought home for me the importance of establishing a
and Lighting Design and spent very little time thinking common language for communicating across the two
about dance, unless it was related to a musical theatre disciplines.
production. My first tenure-track professor position was
In educational productions, I frequently work with
in the Department of Theatre & Dance at Appalachian
student choreographers who may not always have a
State University in North Carolina. As a faculty scenic
grasp of the technical side of the production process. I
and lighting designer, my workload was divided across
always try to have one or two meetings with them early
both theatre and dance productions. In many of my
in their process to discuss how their choices affect
interactions with choreographers, I was told that my
the design/tech side of things and vice versa. In some
approach to dance design and the way that I spoke
cases, I try to give a bit of a primer to areas like lighting,
with the choreographers made the collaboration an
sound, scenery/props, costumes, and projections to
easy one. Apparently, my background in music and
explain how we achieve storytelling through their use.
dance went a long way towards making me a better
I also ask for an explanation of the intent of the dance
collaborator.
piece, what it should communicate, and any special
This experience taught me an important lesson: technical needs.
though theatre and dance share many similarities as
This open collaborative process is so very important
art forms, the artists from these fields tend to come
to establishing a relationship of trust between the
from widely different backgrounds and rarely share
choreographer, dancers, and design team. Sometimes
a common vocabulary. As a result, collaboration on
this process can be a difficult one. The collaborative
dance productions have a potential for confusion at
process is always complex. Collaborating with team
a basic level if the collaborators can’t find a way to
members across multiple disciplines can be downright
get past these differences. Frequently, I have heard
intimidating. It is for this reason that I decided to
choreographers say to a designer for their production,

2 I ntRodUCtIon
write a book that addresses the specific needs of a the world of the professional artist and his/her
multidisciplinary production and allows the reader to own unique process.
see different perspectives on the process. Part III: Quick Reference is the one aspect of the book
that generated the most interest across the
Format of This Book
board in early peer responses. This section
My goal in writing this textbook is to bridge the offers up a collection of terms, photos, and
gap between theatrical and dance production by illustrations to communicate commonly used
establishing a common vocabulary that will ensure terms or ideas from both dance and theatre.
productive communication across the two disciplines. This goes a long way towards bridging that gap
The text covers a wide range of design and technology between the theatre and dance practitioners
components necessary to staging a dance production. In by establishing a common lexicon. The better
researching the text, I spoke to a number of academics acquainted we become with the terminology
and professionals to identify the specific needs in used in a different field, the better prepared
teaching the process of dance production. I contacted we are to understand and communicate our
individuals from both the dance world and the theatre needs though collaboration.
world, since it is most often these two disciplines that
I hope that this book should serve the needs of educator
converge to create a dance production. It is my hope
and student alike. If you are a teacher, I hope that my
that the text will find a home in both dance and theatre
end of chapter reviews, hand-outs, and supplemental
bookshelves, studied by both designers and dancers
materials on the companion website (www.focalpress.
alike.
com/cw/hopgood) are useful in structuring your
The book is structured to provide an introduction to a semester. I wrote the book to follow the syllabus that I
number of production areas as well as provide valuable have crafted over the years to guide students through
insight from professionals in the field. There are three an introduction to production design and technology.
different sections to the book. For the student, I have tried very hard to keep the
writing approachable and conversational. I discovered
Part I: Thinking Ahead addresses the early stages
early in my career that this is the best approach
of the production process, covering basic
to any classroom. For those outside of academia, I
concepts such as the collaborative process,
believe you will find the text useful as well. With the
production planning, and performance spaces.
addition of hands-on projects, interviews with working
Part II: Production Areas is the largest section of the
professionals, and multimedia materials on the
book. This section covers all of the different
companion website, this book can serve as an excellent
design/tech areas of dance production.
handbook to learning more about the world of dance
Typically, the first chapter will introduce you
design and technology.
to the production area while the subsequent
chapter delves into the specifics of the creative Finally, I think it is worth stating that the content of this
process for that area. Scattered throughout book is based on my personal experiences as a teacher
the book are interviews with professionals and designer. I have worked with a number of different
from each of these areas, giving insight into choreographers and artists over the years. This has

3 IntRodUCtIon
helped form my approach to dance production. It is the conflicts, communication breakdowns, and more.
nature of a textbook to take a stand on certain issues Ultimately, though, in each of these interactions lies
as preferred practice. For all of that, it is important to the potential for something wondrous—a dynamic and
recognize that the artistic process is one that depends unique creation that tells a story more powerfully and
on personal trial and error. Just because something is a evocatively than any individual could alone. It is that
preferred practice doesn’t necessarily mean that it will potential that makes the risk worthwhile and drives us
work in every given situation. Artists should always be onwards.
willing to take chances and experiment. If this book has
I hope that this book will help you in your personal
given you enough information to spark your imagination
journey as a collaborative artist and lead you to some
towards trying out new and different approaches to
new discoveries. I have learned so many interesting
dance production, then I have done my job well.
things in the course of writing this book. Hopefully,
In Conclusion you will find its contents informative, insightful, and
expiring.
The process of creating any work of art through
All the best,
collaboration is a risky endeavor. There is always
Jeromy
the possibility for misunderstandings, personality

4 I ntRodUCtIon
 PART I
THINKING AHEAD
 CHAPTER 1
COLLABORATION

In the long history of humankind (and animal kind, too) those

who learned to collaborate and improvise most effectively
have prevailed.

Charles Darwin

Hubbard Street Dance Chicago + Alonzo King LINES Ballet take a curtain call following their
performance of AZIMUTH by Alonzo King. Costumes by Robert Rosenwasser, Joan Raymond, and
Rebecca M. Shouse. Lighting Design
Source
by line
AxeltoMorgenthaler.
go here Photo by Quinn B Wharton.
Dance and theatre are both collaborative art forms. organization runs smoothly. Listed below are a number
In order to create a dance production, even a solo of these individuals and a brief description of their jobs.
exhibition, a number of people are typically engaged
●● Artistic Director: The Artistic Director, or AD,
in the process of staging the event: the choreographer
establishes the overarching artistic vision for the
and dancers; a production manager who schedules,
dance company. The AD is frequently the bridge
budgets, and keeps things running smoothly; the design
between artistic and administrative personnel
team who create the visual and auditory world which
(for this reason, I have listed the AD in both
the dancers inhabit; the technicians and stagehands
administrative and artistic personnel below). The AD
who facilitate the designs and run the show backstage;
hires all artistic staff and is in charge of planning
the theatre personnel who control the day-to-day
the season(s) based on his/her vision for the dance
operations of the space; the marketing personnel who
organization.
get the word out about your performance; box office/
●● Board of Directors: The Board of Directors is the
front-of-house personnel who interact with the public
governing group of the dance company, whose
who come to see the show; there might even be a
primary interest lies in supervising the funding
producer/artistic director/board of directors for your
and business practices of the organization. As the
dance company who create the vision for the entire
board assumes the ultimate legal and financial
organization. In any given scenario, one might work
responsibility for the company, it is frequently
with some or all of these positions in order to produce
composed of professionals from the finance,
a dance concert. It is for this reason that artists in the
legal, and business sector as well as individuals
theatre and dance industries must be keenly aware of
well positioned in the community to generate and
the nature of collaboration and the process of working
maintain a donor base.
with others to create a work of art built on a common
artistic vision. ●● General Manager: The General Manager (or
Executive Director, in some organizations) is an
1.1 Team Members and Responsibilities individual with experience in arts management who
Though later chapters focus on many of these works closely with the AD to realize the vision for
production areas in detail, a quick look at the production the dance company. The General Manager hires and
team members and their responsibilities is useful in manages administrative personnel and reports to
understanding the production process. The list below the Board of Directors regarding the general state of
includes a wide array of production personnel and their organizational stability and operations.
job descriptions. Though by no means exhaustive, this ●● Business Manager: The Business Manager is
list includes a number of people who are frequently in charge of bookkeeping and payroll for the
engaged in the process of producing dance. organization. The Business Manager meticulously
tracks all incoming and outgoing funds. If the
Administration organization is not-for-profit, this individual is
Though the audience tends to focus on the dancers instrumental in working with an auditor to ensure
onstage, there are a number of people behind the the financials are properly reported each year.
scenes who work tirelessly to ensure the dance ●● Company Manager: The job description for Company
Manager varies, based on the organizational

8 thInkIngAheAd
 structure and mission of the dance company in Theatre Staff
question. The Company Manager oversees activities It is important to recognize that many dance companies
in booking performances, communication with do not own a home theatre of their own used exclusively
performance venues, the logistics of company for presenting their dance works. Although this is a
touring, and outreach opportunities. possibility, a much more common model is a dance
●● Development Director: Development Directors company that presents their works in rental spaces
oversee fundraising for the dance company—working or in various different spaces. In this case, there are
to establish a donor base, organizing fundraising personnel that work with the dance company, but are
events, and spearheading grant writing. employees of the theatre space. Some of these positions
●● Marketing Director: The Marketing Director is are listed below.
responsible for promoting the dance company in the
●● Box Office Manager: A Box Office Manager manages
community. Marketing involves a number of areas:
the employees working in the theatre’s box office
print media, broadcast media, Internet mailings,
and tracks ticket sales and box office earnings. Since
the company website, and more. Increasingly, social
the box office is the first face your patrons see, this
media plays an important role in the process of
position is instrumental in setting the tone for a good
branding a dance organization.
audience experience and return patrons.
●● Production Manager: The Production Manager
●● House Manager: The House Manager works closely
oversees all of the production elements of the
with the performance venue to ensure positive
dance company from the production schedule, to
audience experience and safety. The House Manager
production budget tracking, and hiring technicians
typically trains and supervises ushers and helps in
to run the performance. In short, the Production
seating patrons and facilitating the entry of those on
Manager is the person who keeps the production on
the waiting list. In addition, the House Manager has
schedule and on budget.
the important responsibility of ensuring compliance
●● Presenter: In dance, the Presenter is an individual with fire codes and dealing with emergency
who represents a performance venue, festival, situations that arise before, during, or following a
or presenting group. He/she invites artists or performance.
companies to present their work as part of the
●● House Tech: Many performance spaces have their
presenting group’s season or festival. The Presenter
own technicians assigned to the space to supervise
might sometimes be referred to as a Producer or
guests in the space. This position is typically
Curator as well.
referred to as the House Tech, an individual hired
●● Tour Manager: The Tour Manager’s sole job is the by the space but not necessarily affiliated with
planning and organization of a tour. This individual the dance company. In a union setting, there are
books travel and lodging, coordinates with the certain jobs that can only be performed by the house
presenter or performance venue, ensures the technicians.
signing of performance contracts and technical
riders, and coordinates a tour itinerary. Dance Artists
Within the dance company, there are a number of artists
who collaborate to produce a dance performance.

9 CollAboRAtIon
Though perhaps never seen onstage, these individuals ●● Resident Choreographer: A Resident Choreographer
work to ensure a product of high artistic quality. Listed is an individual serving in residence with a specific
below are these artists and their job descriptions. dance company for a predetermined period of time,
during which he/she will set new dance works to
●● Artistic Director: As listed in the administrative
be premiered through the dance company. In some
group, the Artistic Director is the bridge between
cases, the Artistic Director may serve as a Resident
the artistic and administrative personnel. He/she
Director.
creates the vision for the dance company, planning
●● Choreologist: A Choreologist is the person
for the entire season and, in many cases, for many
responsible for documenting and preserving
years ahead. As such, the AD must be firmly rooted
a Choreographer’s vision and intention. The
in all aspects of production.
Choreologist is trained in special forms of notation to
●● Choreographer: The Choreographer works with
document the dance for future remounts or archival
dancers to set movement for the stage. This
purposes.
collective set of movements is referred to as
choreography. These dances are sometimes based Musical Staff
on an idea, story, poem, visual image, or piece of
Dance and music have been interconnected throughout
music, though many modern choreographers create
history. It is common to find one or more musicians
dances meant to function independently of external
associated with the production of a dance performance.
constructs. Choreographers tend to be dancers
These roles are listed below.
themselves.
●● Dancer: The Dancer is anyone who interprets and ●● Composer: The Composer writes the music for
performs the choreography. The Dancer may also the dance. Some Composers collaborate with
be involved in the development of choreography in Choreographers to craft the music specifically
conjunction with the Choreographer. for a dance piece, whereas some modern
●● Principal Dancer: Many companies feature a collaborations feature dance and music creation

Principal Dancer, one who has reached a high level as separate entities that only come together for

of technical proficiency and artistic interpretation. the performance. Sometimes a Choreographer

The Principal Dancer performs starring roles in the may simply select music previously written by a

dance company’s repertoire and might receive billing Composer.

(having one’s name listed prominently) in marketing ●● Accompanist: The Accompanist is a musician
for the dance. who plays music for classes or rehearsal. Most
●● Rehearsal Director: The Rehearsal Director frequently Accompanists play piano or percussion

schedules and runs rehearsals on behalf of instruments. This individual should be aware of

the choreographer, to ensure the dancers the specific needs and protocols for the dance

interpret the choreography once set by the class or rehearsal process. When playing piano,

Choreographer. This individual is frequently the Accompanist is sometimes referred to as a

someone intimately familiar with either the Rehearsal Pianist.

dance company or the choreographer, though not ●● Conductor: The Conductor is responsible for
necessarily both. directing the orchestra and arranging music as

10 thInkIngAheAd
 necessary for performance. In some cases, the might interact. Sometimes, the Scenic Designer
Conductor also hires musicians to play in the manages properties, as well.
orchestra. ●● Projection/Media Designer: Projection Design is
a catchall phrase for the use of imagery, either
Design Staff
projected or displayed on monitors or display panels.
The designers are the production team members This field, while relatively young, is one of the fastest
responsible for creating the visual and auditory aspects growing design areas in dance. The Projection
of a dance performance. Frequently, these individuals Designer generates content to be displayed and
have training in the theatre or live performance assembles or specifies the necessary equipment for
industries. The list below includes a wide range of the design.
personnel and job descriptions. Designers are hired ●● Sound Designer: The Sound Designer is the individual
as needed by the dance company and not part of the responsible for facilitating the sound needs of the
permanent staff. production. These needs can vary depending on the
●● Costume Designer: The Costume Designer works production, from audio reinforcement for dancers
closely with the Choreographer to determine the and musicians, to recording and editing of original
clothing needs of the dancers and the specific music, and setting up a sound system for audio
requirements of costume as it relates to fabric and playback and mixing. In some instances, a Sound
movement. The duties of the costume designer may Designer might function as the Composer and write
include hair and make-up as well, or there might be original music for a dance. It is more rare, though, to
a specific wigs or make-up designer hired for the see the Composer serving as Sound Designer.
production.
Technical Staff
●● Scenic Designer: The Scenic Designer (or Set
Technicians are the group of artists who execute the
Designer) designs the visual world of the scenery
designs and facilitate the designer’s vision for the
based on the storyline, theme, or setting of the
production. Some of these roles are staff positions
dance. The Scenic Designer must work closely
with the dance company, though others are frequently
with the Choreographer, as movement paths can
freelance positions that are hired in for a specific
be either created or inhibited by the placement of
production.
scenic elements.
●● Lighting Designer: The Lighting Designer (or LD) ●● Stage Manager: The Stage Manager’s biggest
chooses an inventory of lighting instruments and responsibility is “calling the show.” This phrase
determines their placement, colors, and intensity refers to the act of calling cues for the show over
to accentuate the dancers’ movement on stage. As the intercom system during the performance. The
dance programs frequently feature a number of Stage Manager controls every aspect of the timing
differing dances, the LD must often create a light for the show (lighting, sound, scenery movement,
plot that works for more than one type of dance as projections, and dancer entrances) through calling
well. the cues or triggering of cue lights. In addition, the
●● Props Designer: A Props Designer is responsible for Stage Manager is responsible for the safety of the
creating any type of props with which the dancers performers and crew while in the theatre. In some

11 CollAboRAtIon
 settings, the Stage Manager works closely with the ●● Light Board Operator: The Light Board Operator
choreographer during the rehearsal period, while controls the lighting board, typically pressing the GO
in others he/she only comes in for the technical button to proceed through the lighting cues.
rehearsals and production run. ●● Spotlight Operator: The Spotlight Operator
●● Assistant Stage Manager: The Assistant Stage (sometimes referred to as the Followspot Operator)
Manager (or ASM) assists the Stage Manager in their operates a special lighting instrument called the
rehearsal duties and in the running of the show from follow spot—a light mounted on a swivel turret that
backstage. can follow a dancer across the stage, assuring that
●● Technical Director: The Technical Director (or TD) he/she will always be lit.
is the individual responsible for overseeing all of ●● Sound Board Operator: A Sound Board Operator
the technical elements of the production. The TD controls the sound system—typically comprised of a
typically has experience in a number of different sound mixer and/or audio control system. The Sound
production areas that enable him/her to supervise Board Operator may control a number of different
the setup, facilities, equipment, and technical components from audio playback to headsets and
concerns related to touring. For many dance microphones for the orchestra and dancers.
companies the TD is responsible for the Technical ●● Stagehand: A Stagehand is a technician responsible
Rider for the show (a contract that stipulates what for moving scenery or properties for a production.
facilities and equipment are required for staging ●● Flyman: A Flyman is a specific type of Stagehand
a show at a touring venue). The TD is typically a who moves scenery attached to the theatre’s
permanent staff member of the dance company. counterweight system. Such items are said to be
●● Master Electrician: The Master Electrician (or “flown,” meaning that they can be stored overhead,
ME) coordinates the lighting for the dance space— out of the audience’s line of sight, until they are
interpreting the Lighting Designer’s light plot; needed for the show. At this time, the Flyman pulls
wiring, hanging, circuiting, and focusing lighting on a rope that brings the scenery in.
instruments; and also purchasing, maintaining, and ●● Wardrobe: The Wardrobe Crew is responsible for
upgrading the lighting inventory. In some instances, the maintenance and placing of costumes. A Dresser
the ME might serve as a Lighting Designer for some is a member of the Wardrobe Crew specifically
dances, as well. responsible for assisting the dancers to get into and
out of costume during the show.
Running Crew
●● Wigs/Make-up: Wigs and Make-up Crew Members
The term Running Crew refers to those people working
are responsible for the application or assisting in
backstage who run the various components of a
the application of make-up, face, and/or body paints,
production during the performance. All of the Running
wigs, hairpieces, or prosthetics.
Crew take direction from the Stage Manager during the
run of the show. Common Running Crew positions are 1.2 The Choreographer
listed below. Some of these positions might be provided
Since so much of the dance process revolves around
by the performance space, but it is most likely that each
the choreographer and his/her vision, it is important
person will need to be hired as needed by the dance
to examine the role of the choreographer within the
company for the duration of the performances.

12 thInkIngAheAd
context of dance production. The roots of the word and shares some of the responsibility for training
choreographer can be traced back to a combination dancers.
of two Greek words, khoreia (meaning dance) and
One additional area to consider for the choreographer
graphein (meaning to write). Therefore, the literal
is educational dance. Dance education can begin at
meaning of choreographer is “dance writer.” This
a very young age and is present in many educational
phrase aptly describes the role of the choreographer.
environments from preschool to K–12 and higher
In basic terms, the choreographer composes a dance
education. Choreographers might function as dance
piece, working with dancers to assemble a series of
educators in a private studio scenario or as part of a
movements and patterns into a cohesive performance.
physical education program through public schools.
Beyond this, though, the choreographer must consider
Likewise, there are a number of university professors
the overall artistic vision and message and collaborate
who specialize in dance. Since the purpose of
with designers and technicians to facilitate the
educational dance is to train, most often the dance and
visual world of the dance outside of the choreography
design/tech roles are filled from a group of students and
alone.
faculty/staff.
In the professional context, there are a number of
Though there are a number of ways in which a
different ways in which choreographers work. The
choreographer can work, the consistent truth is that
choreographer could work solely on a given project,
all dance centers on the choreographer and his or her
hiring dancers and designers to create the dance.
vision for storytelling. As such, the creative process of
Similarly, the choreographer could be brought in as a
the choreographer affects all of the production team
guest artist by a dance company to compose a piece
members involved in staging a dance.
as a premiere, or dance work seen for the first time.
Some choreographers create their own dance company 1.3 The Production Process
to support their artistic vision. Notable examples are
The creative process that goes into creating dance
companies like the Alvin Ailey Dance Theater, the
tends to be unique to the choreographer and his or
Martha Graham Dance Company, or the Bill T. Jones/
her collaborative team. While it is true that each
Arnie Zane Dance Company. Frequently these are
choreographer and production team have a unique
repertory companies, a dance company that has a
approach, there are also some common themes that
number of dances in their repertoire that are presented
appear in the process of taking a dance from idea to
multiple times (rather than a single event). These
public presentation. The steps below describe one such
companies present multiple dances in one season,
approach to the production process. Obviously, there
remounting pieces from their repertoire. In this case,
are a number of artists who do not fit so neatly into
a choreographer may be brought in to remount the
this box, but it is a good place to start our exploration
original work as the original choreographer conceived it
of the dance production process. The following list is
for the premiere. Frequently a choreographer functions
created from the perspective of a choreographer self-
as the artistic director for a dance company—the
producing a dance, so as to see the full spectrum of
individual who sets the overarching artistic vision of
considerations. Keep in mind that even though these
the dance organization. In many ballet companies, the
are presented in a specific order, the arrangement of
position of artistic director is frequently a retired dancer
these individual steps may change based on the needs
who choreographs some of the company’s productions

13 CollAboRAtIon
of a particular project. Always remain flexible in your performance style. Theatrical styles, on the other
creative process! hand, tend to be associated with literary or artistic
movements such as classicism, realism, naturalism,
●● Inspiration/theme: Like any work of art, the
absurdism, epic theatre, or more.
effective dance piece will have a central idea at
●● Setting a schedule: Planning and deadlines are the
its core that inspired the artist to create the work.
backbone of any successful live performance. There
Since dance is most frequently paired with music,
are many components that must be considered when
it only makes sense that music or sound often
producing a dance: budget; contracts; rehearsal
sparks the creative impulse for a dance. This is far
space; securing a performance space; design/
from the only element that might inspire a dance,
technical aspects; marketing and promotion;
though. Visual elements like sculpture, natural
technical rehearsals and performance dates. Each
landscapes, or other physical objects often serve
of these elements should be combined into one
as artistic stimuli. Likewise, the impulse could be
master schedule that creates deadlines for all
more kinesthetic—a desire to explore a movement
elements of the production. Depending on the role of
style or action. One of the most common forms of
the choreographer in the dance company, he or she
inspiration for a dance, particularly in the context of
may be responsible for some or all of these details.
modern and contemporary dance, is the exploration
Additionally, there might be an Artistic Director,
of thought, emotion, or philosophical concepts.
Production Manager, or Technical Director involved
Ultimately, this inspiration might be unknown to
in this step. Whether the choreographer dictates the
the audience, but it is invaluable information for the
schedule or not, the creative process must fit within
choreographer, dancers, and design team. Any or
the confines of the production schedule.
multiple of these elements will combine to create a
thematic approach to the dance—what are we trying ●● Assembling a team: The process of assembling
to communicate? a team varies wildly depending on the specifics
of your dance project. When I say “team,” I am
●● Style: The choice of style is an important
referring to the entire group of performers,
consideration. Style can be defined as a method or
designers, and technicians necessary to staging the
approach to presenting a work of art. Style is typically
dance. In an academic environment, chances are
tied to the historical period in which it was first
good that you will have a pool of student dancers
created and, as such, one sees similarities between
auditioning for your dance piece. It is common in this
styles across the differing art forms. In music,
situation to be one of a number of choreographers
style is frequently substituted with the word genre.
combining to mount a dance concert featuring
Jazz, blues, dubstep, and folk are all examples
multiple pieces. In these situations, it is not
of musical styles. Dance includes styles like jazz,
uncommon to have a design team assigned to your
hip-hop, ballet, and Latin/rhythm. One important
project.
consideration to working in a multidisciplinary
art form such as dance is that one style can have Depending on your specific project, you may find
different connotations across the differing art yourself needing to secure a number of artists for
forms. In music and dance, style tends to be linked the job. If hiring production members, the contract or
to the historical period and/or cultural origin of the Letter of Agreement (LOA) is an essential element.

14 thInkIngAheAd
The LOA should include the specific responsibilities, which the dances are run at full speed with technical
deadlines, rates of pay, and guidelines specific to elements. Frequently, cue-to-cue and tech runs are
working for this unique production. This contract combined into the same tech rehearsal. The dress
ensures that all participants have been made aware of rehearsal is the last step of technical rehearsals, in
their duties before the project begins and agree to the which costumes are incorporated.
predetermined conditions. ●● Performance: Once the technical rehearsals have
●● Studio time: At some point after the dancers are ended, we reach the final stage of the creative
selected, the rehearsal process begins in full. process—bringing an audience in to watch the
Depending on the choreographer’s approach, this performance. This is the step for which everyone has
process can vary greatly. It might involve arriving been working so hard.
in the studio with the movement ready to teach ●● Self-examination: In many dance companies, a
the dancers; working from a rough idea; asking period of self-examination is included. Many theatre
dancers to create their own individual stories and and dance companies refer to this as a postmortem,
accompanying movement; or working from props a meeting in which the entire production team comes
to determine the material for the dance piece. together to discuss the process, what worked, what
One should never assume that this process will be did not, and what could be learned from the process
similar from choreographer to choreographer. At to improve for subsequent productions.
some point after the choreography is complete, it is
beneficial to invite the designers in to see a run of 1.4 Collaborative Models—How we
the dance piece. In these instances, I tend to create Work Together?
a video recording for future reference. This simple As we have seen above, there are dozens of different
step can make the tech process run much more individuals who collaborate to produce a dance
smoothly. performance. There are a number of different models
●● Technical rehearsals: Once the dance pieces are for how these people work together to accomplish
fully choreographed, it is time to move from the their goals. These approaches are as unique as the
studio into the performance space. This time period differing types of organizations presenting the dance.
of rehearsing dance pieces with the technical Once you get a job, it is important to understand how
aspects is referred to as a technical rehearsal. the organization typically works in order to anticipate
Depending on the time and budget allowed, technical what your expectations will be. Listed below are some
rehearsals can last anywhere from a week to a few common collaborative models that you might find in any
hours before opening. Each dance company follows dance organization.
different rules for the process, but it is common
for the dancers to space through the dance piece The Company Model
at a reduced tempo while the choreographer and The dance company model is a common approach
designers look at the piece under stage lighting with to producing dance. The idea is to bring together
props and other technical elements. This rehearsal a group of like-minded artists to create a dance
is often referred to as a cue-to-cue, since the tech performance. Companies tend to function as groups
process is to gradually proceed from cue to cue and of artists, centered on the artistic vision of a specific
watch the progression. A tech run is a rehearsal in choreographer or artistic director. An important

15 CollAboRAtIon
concept to understand is that the dance company model within the company model listed above on a project and
is often distinctly tied to the genre of dance being not be a member of the dance company.
produced. Ballet companies are wildly different in their
The nature of the freelance business is that the
management and operation than hip-hop companies.
freelancer tends to work for a number of different
No matter the style, though, some aspects remain the
companies. Since there is no assurance of a next job,
same.
the freelance artist must always be looking down
Unlike a single dance concert, the dance company the road for the next opportunity. As such, it is not
model tends to produce works as part of an over- uncommon to find freelance artists engaged to multiple
arching season of performances in one or more productions at the same time. This is particularly true of
different performance venues. The company model designers, who might be in various stages of the design
can be a more rigidly structured, business-minded process on different shows simultaneously. This setup
approach to collaboration than some others. Producing makes for a different sort of collaboration than that of
an entire season of dances requires a great amount of the dance company model. Since freelance artists might
planning. Planning for individual productions occur in frequently come in from out of town, they tend to not be
a production meeting. These meetings are where all of involved in as many of the production meetings or be
the production and administrative staff come together involved by telephone or video conferencing. This type
to plan for the dance performance. Since the company of relationship means that there is less time for concept
has the responsibility of producing more than one development and more of a focus on the tech process
singular concert, the decision-making for one show for the production.
might be affected by the concerns for a previous or
Choreographers can also be freelancers. Depending
future production within the season. It is not uncommon
on the nature of the contract, the choreographer might
to find many of the same artists working on multiple
be in town for an extended time or only long enough
shows within the dance company season. In addition,
to set the dance. In these shorter engagements, the
the creative process likely involves the artistic director
choreographer will frequently set the dance and have
(and other key administrative personnel) in addition to
a rehearsal director for subsequent rehearsals with
the choreographer and designers. Given the number of
the dancers. Most often, the choreographer is required
collaborators, the company model requires perhaps a
to return for the tech process of the dance to give final
greater amount of collaborative flexibility than some of
notes and communicate with the designers, though
the other models listed below.
this is not always the case. In this type of situation, it is
The Freelance Model important for the designers and choreographer to be in
communication about the choreographer’s concepts and
The freelance model is a common approach to creating
design preferences for his/her dance piece, since the
a production team for dance. This term freelance refers
tech rehearsals will be too late to make any substantive
to a worker who is not attached to any one specific
changes to the designs.
employer and, instead, is brought in by different
companies to work on a project for a fixed period of The Collective Method
time. It is important to note that a freelancer might work
Another collaborative method is working in a
collective, a group of like-minded artists with common

16 thInkIngAheAd
artistic goals who choose to work together. Like the Warhol; filmmakers Charles Atlas and Elliot Caplan; and
dance company, a collective tends to be of a less architect Benedetta Tagliabue (Figure 1.1). One of the
temporary arrangement, and might feature a group most radical notions introduced in these collaborations
of artists working together again and again to create concerned the relationship between music and dance.
performances. One of the interesting aspects of how Cage and Cunningham embraced the notion that music
a collective can work is the tendency of blurring the and dance may well exist in the same time and space for
lines between the creative roles. The dance tends the performance, but should always be created separate
to be created in a more communal sense, with of one another. Because of this, the music and dance
choreographers, dancers, musicians, and designers in their collaborations stood alone as independent
contributing to the artistic creation. In this sense, there components of the performance. This unique process
is a greater sense of collective artistic ownership of the
dance. Though this model may be hard to achieve in
practical terms, many artists find this to be a rewarding
creative method in which to work.

The Independent Model

Though collaboration is one of the benchmarks of dance
production, some modern dance artists have blurred
the lines between traditional collaboration and chance
artistic creation. The father of this modern dance
philosophy was Merce Cunningham, who created the
Merce Cunningham Dance Company (MCDC) in 1953.
One of his defining qualities as a choreographer was a
belief in the use of chance as a choreographic device.
He would collaborate with the dancers to develop
movement sequences focused on time, space, and
weight. Once developing a basic movement vocabulary,
the dancers would roll a dice or use instruction manuals
to determine which moves would be used, in what order
and combination. This method created an element of
surprise and lacked traditional compositional principles
such as a clear beginning, middle, and end.

In addition to chance in his own choreography, though,

Cunningham often combined his dance with other
works of art to create multidisciplinary collaborations.
This multidisciplinary method combined the work of F IG UR E 1. 1
composers like John Cage and David Tudor; visual Fabrications (2004). Merce Cunningham Dance Company.
artists Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, and Andy Photo © Tony Dougherty. Décor and costumes by Dove Bradshaw. Photo courtesy of The Merce
Cunningham Trust.

17 CollAboRAtIon
occurred in the visual elements of the dance production Review Questions
as well, featuring artists creating different aspects of 1. What are the key responsibilities of the Artistic
the production separate from one another, only bringing Director?
their work together for the production.
2. What is the difference (if any) between a Composer
Though Cunningham is the most famous practitioner and a Sound Designer?
of this method, his process had a profound impact 3. What is the Stage Manager’s main responsibility?
on modern dance and the avant-garde art world in 4. Describe some common sources of inspiration for
general. Many modern dancers and choreographers creating a dance piece.
have embraced this method and collaborate in this
5. What type of collaborative model appeals to you the
fashion.
most as an artist, and why?

1.5 Chapter Review

Chapter 1 Project: Communicating an Idea
There are a number of people who collaborate to
produce a dance performance. For most productions, People communicate in so many different ways.
artists from a number of different disciplines unite Sometimes the best method for communicating
to bring their unique skills to the project. A true an artistic concept is through combining
collaborator appreciates the contributions of each differing methods into one presentation. For this
member of the production team and has a basic project, you will be asked to put yourself into the
understanding of everyone’s responsibilities. It choreographer’s shoes and create a multimedia
is common to find administration, dance artists, presentation to discuss your vision for a new dance
musical staff, design/tech personnel, and running piece.
crew collaborating on a dance performance. The Using your preferred type of presentation software
successful dance piece will center on the vision of (PowerPoint, Keynote, Prezi, Google Presentation,
the choreographer with all of the team members etc.) create a presentation that showcases your
contributing to the storytelling through their individual vision for a new dance piece. It should include:
craft. There are many different approaches to the
1. The title of your dance piece.
ways in which all of these people work together—as a
2. Visual inspiration for the concept. This could
dance company, freelance model, dance collective, or
be photography, video, poetry, or anything that
independent model—or various approaches that might
moves you.
be an amalgam of multiple methods. Understanding all
3. Your concept: a brief (one paragraph) description
of the information presented in this chapter gives you
of what your dance should communicate.
the tools necessary to begin an earnest examination of
4. Three adjectives that best describe how you want
the process of dance production. Subsequent chapters
your dance to feel.
will elaborate on these concepts and break down the
5. A brief statement on how/if music will be
production process in greater detail.
integrated with your dance.
6. A brief statement on your thoughts related to
design and how you envision it integrating with
the dance.

18 thInkIngAheAd
 I still have those impulses today. But my serious training
This project should be a fun opportunity for you
commenced in NY at the age of 11.
to start thinking about different methods of
communication. Be bold in your choices and have How did you transition into choreography?
fun with it, especially if you are a non-dancer doing In the 1970s my family would go to Lake Placid Club
this project. One of the most useful tools we have in NY (which no longer exists). There were ballroom
as artists is the ability to look at the world through dancing lessons offered and the teacher found out I did
someone else’s eyes, even for a moment. You might ballet. He suggested I make a small dance every week
find that you learn something about yourself along and perform it for the Champagne Dance on Wednesday
the way. nights. I remember one of the dances was to the Coppélia
mazurka. After that I didn’t really choreograph again for
The Choreographer’s Perspective: An Interview many years. I assisted many choreographers and danced in
with Julia Gleich companies, but it wasn’t until I went to grad school (for Arts
Administration) that I finally began to consider myself a
Julia K. Gleich is a choreographer, teacher, scholar, and
choreographer. I made my first work in a performance with
mathematics aficionado. She is on the faculty at Trinity
artistic explorer Dara Paprock. But I wouldn’t call myself
LABAN Conservatoire of Music and Dance (London, UK) and
a choreographer until I was produced by the Joyce SoHo in
Head of Choreography at London Studio Centre. In addition,
NYC several years later.
she is founding choreographer and director of Gleich
Dances, a company seen throughout the United States and How do you begin the process of envisioning a dance?
in the UK. In 2004, Ms. Gleich and Jason Andrew founded
Every dance I make is different. But my favorite way to
Norte Maar for Collaborative Projects in the Arts, with a
create is in collaboration. Dance ideas are everywhere.
mission to renew and refresh the exchange between the
I have made pieces about memory, perception, and the
interdisciplinary arts. She is also a founder and director of
brain; I made an interactive piece in London called speak
Aegis Live Arts, creating unique locational dance works that
easysecrets. I have developed narrative ballets and
enliven history and architecture in London. Her practice-
abstract contemporary dances. Sometimes I begin by
based research on vectors and dance has been presented
working on movement material or processes that interest
at the Laban International Conference in London, at the
me. Like Vectors, which is my own mathematical system for
CORPS de Ballet International Conference, and published
generating movement. Other times I might be working with
through the Dynamic Body in Space.
a theme or developing movement for a site. Sometimes I’ll
When did you first start dancing? take a classical idea and recontextualize it.

I lived in MN [Minnesota] when I first started taking classes. Do you normally enter a dance with clear-cut ideas
My sister took class and I peered under the barre to watch. for the design aspects or does that tend to come out of
I used to copy some of the exercises at home while my discussion with the production team?
mom played the piano. Initially, I used to make up dances
I love working with other artists. There are so many creative
in the living room from the age of about seven to music
ideas that can go into a work of art and I welcome other
like Deep Purple, swanlake, Emerson Lake and Palmer,
views, contributions, and artistic motivations. The visual
Led Zeppelin and Coppélia. Rather an eclectic mix. I think
aspects of the work are developed over time in a similar

19 CollAboRAtIon
way to making dance. There is a lot of risk and uncertainty your observations on some of the key differences you
in this process and it requires trust in not only your notice in academic vs. professional dance work?
collaborators but also your own artistic ability to embrace Professionals who have the luxury of long periods of
uncertainty. On occasions I have had a brief for designers, experimentation with designers will be able to create
like speakeasysecrets in 2013. Sometimes the design is amazing theatrical works of art. But that is a rare privilege.
the brief and I generate ideas from it. I think government-funded institutions with their own
Can you describe your ideal process for working with theatre (think Europe) have an advantage. But risk-taking
designers? and imagination are paramount; anything is possible
anywhere.
I don’t have one. I am very free in my approach and don’t
like to overly plan all the aspects of a work. I suppose that In student work I find that darkness is overused as a
might be a problem for some designers, but it also might lighting technique to create drama. Perhaps as I get older
be an opportunity. I can create structure or can work with I just want to be able to see the dancers. But darkness
a designer’s structure. Each project is different. Some of has become a bit cliché for me now. In set design I always
the best were simply opportunistic. That is, we knew each remember the Noguchi sculptures that were featured in
other and each other’s work and we had some related ideas Martha Graham pieces; many of them small and simple
that we had developed and noticed that they came together and yet iconic. I think she had a great relationship with
beautifully. There are different stages of each creation. visual art, like Diaghilev and the Ballet Russes. Both the
Some designs are made specifically for a dance; some are professional and the student should embrace visual art a
artistic creations in themselves and when brought to the bit more.
dance magnify into a new artistic vision. One interesting aspect of your professional work is
Do you have any training in design and/or technical your international experience in dance. What are some
theatre? of the differences you notice in American dance as
compared to your work in other countries?
I was an electrician at Dance Theater Workshop in NYC for
several years. I studied lighting design for a term. I have Ah, this is a difficult question. American dance can tend
been a stage manager many times and this taught me a to be more virtuosic and yet America is the home of post-
lot of what I know. Lighting design is incredibly elusive modern dance. There are so many different approaches.
as an art to me. I have ideas that occasionally work but Perhaps what I like about American dance is that there
I rely on a lighting designer’s expertise to make them is a better sense of risk-taking and a willingness to cross
reality. In London, I oversee a design collaboration with over into different forms. I think Europe/the UK is more
my choreography students at London Studio Centre and isolating. The forms of dance are aligned in defined
design students from Central St. Martin’s College of Art camps and there is less opportunity to produce your work
and Design. Lighting is always the most difficult component independently and get an audience. NYC is the home of
of the design. Experience is probably the best teacher for a gigging (project-based work) in dance. There are lots of
choreographer. The set designs and costumes seem to be dancers who have had successful careers in NYC working
less mysterious. with several different companies. I wish there was more of
that in London. Dancers tend to share information in NYC
I know you have experience in both academic and and support each other. It’s just a little more fun there.
professional environments. Could you share some of

20 thInkIngAheAd
What training or life experience outside of dance As a choreographer, is there a particular member of
have you found to have the most impact on your the production team on whom you depend heavily for
choreography? assistance?
I have had so many different experiences in dance. I I think costume is where I need the most support. Recently,
didn’t think I was a choreographer until I choreographed I had Tamara Gonzales design costumes and she was
my first full evening’s work. My collaborator and friend, nominated for a Bessie (a NY Dance Award). I worry so
Jason Andrew, has been a strong influence in my work. much about costume and often feel I leave it until the
He has a great eye, is a big risk-taker, and supports end. I don’t always see costumes in my choreography, so
collaboration. The work that I think epitomizes my ideas I can’t present my vision easily. It is such a relief when I
in dance, involving collaboration, lots of research and have a confident designer. One of the best collaborations
experimentation and also pure dance was thebrodmann I had was with Bernard Johnson in 1995 at the University
Areas (2012). It reflected all of the facets of my work. of California—Irvine. His designs worked so well for the
Jason was the producer of this work, which utilized chance dance, both in terms of the dancers’ movements and the
operations, poetry, projection, and ballet. vision for the work. His use of color and fabric created
contrasting sections of my dance with subtlety and
simplicity.

21 CollAboRAtIon
 CHAPTER 2
PRE-PRODUCTION
PLANNING

A goal without a plan is just a wish.

Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

Akua Noni Parker and Anthony Bell of Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre.
Photography by Richard Calmes.
Most artists want their work to be seen by the public. All of these scenarios listed above could affect the
This is true of dance, as in other art forms. With any choices you make about the nature of your presentation
public performance comes an added responsibility and what production elements are necessary for a
to the audience. Unless there is the understanding successful performance. For better or worse, the
of your performance being a work in progress or an expectations of an audience will dictate the success of a
informal event, patrons will have an expectation of production and this should be considered as part of your
professional production elements to accompany their planning.
dance concert (especially if your audience is paying to
see the performance). No matter the size or scope of What are You Trying to Accomplish?
the concert, you can be assured that the presentation Not every concert should have the same outcomes
will be the result of many people collaborating to create in mind. The nature of the performance should be
the performance. Planning is essential to the ultimate dictated by the goals, though. This means that it is very
success of a live performance. This chapter touches important to consider the desired outcomes from the
on some of the important questions that must be beginning of the planning process in order to stay on
addressed in order to successfully produce a dance. track. There are a number of different types of concerts
that one could produce, each with different goals in
2.1 Purpose mind. The formal concert is a presentation of dance
One of the most important questions that is too often with accompanying production elements of costumes,
overlooked is, why are you producing a show in the lighting, scenery, and sound. Audiences are sometimes
first place? Far too many artists get caught up in the invited to see a work in progress or an invited showcase.
desire to present their work to the public before asking Perhaps your concert is meant to be part of a larger
the hard question—why should someone come see my artistic offering, like a dance festival or a summer
show? Like anything else, a dance concert should serve arts program? Likewise, it could be a special event
a purpose. In determining your purpose, there are some celebrating a specific occasion or theme. In academic
questions that you should ask of yourself to help clarify circles, it is not uncommon to see an audience educated
your goals. through (and even participate in) the presentation of
a lecture-demonstration-style performance. All of
Who is My Audience? these goals are legitimate reasons for producing a
This may seem like a simple question, but the answer dance concert and each one presents its own unique
to this one question will shape your approach to all of challenges to address.
the other concerns to follow. What type of people are
coming to see your show? Is it primarily the family 2.2 Program Concerns
and friends of your dance company? Perhaps you are Once the decision has been made to produce a dance
presenting in an educational venue, so the majority of concert, there are a number of questions to address
your audience are students. Maybe your dance piece will regarding the nature of the program itself. Many of
be presented at a dance conference and the audience these questions will be directly related to the purpose of
will be comprised of professional dance colleagues. the dance concert addressed earlier.

24 thInkIngAheAd
F I G UR E 2. 1
The lecture-demonstration is performance
that is part presentation, part workshop,
often seen in academic circles.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

What Type of Program? Length of Concert?

One of the important questions to address is the While there are no firm rules as to how long
nature of your dance presentation. Is it a single dance a concert should be, there are some obvious
or multiple dances presented as a collage concert? Is factors to consider related to the length of the
there a unifying theme behind the works presented? presentation. The number of individual pieces in the
Once you know this, it will affect all of the following concert will affect the overall length and structure. If
program concerns listed below. there are multiple dances, then there must be sufficient
time between each number to allow for things like
Number of Dance Pieces? costume changes, manually changing the color of the
If you go with a collage concert, how many different gels for side lighting, and adjusting scenery and props.
dances are to be included? Is there a time limit on One cannot simply add up the length of each dance
the individual dances? Should there be a certain piece and get an accurate representation of the length
predetermined composition (i.e. half of the pieces by of concert.
professional choreographers and the other half from
student work)?

25 PRe-PRodUCtIonPlAnnIng
Intermission? With that in mind, consider these basic rules of thumb
Another important consideration is the inclusion of an for programming:
intermission in your dance concert. Most audiences 1. Start with a light, enjoyable opener that engages
expect an intermission for anything longer than an the audience’s attention. This both serves as
hour and fifteen minutes. Though it makes the overall a “warm up” for the audience and allows for
time of the concert longer, there are a number of latecomers to be seated within a relatively short
benefits to adding an intermission such as giving your period of time (should your theatre allow for late
audience a break to talk about what they have seen seating).
and allowing for more pieces to be included in the 2. Whenever possible, try not to place dances back to
offering. One important consideration that should not back that feature the same dancers. This will make
be overlooked is the revenue potential of concessions. for a longer transition.
Most theatres make a sizable amount of their earnings 3. Longer, esoteric dances should be placed early in
from concessions. Particularly if your dance company the show order, so the audience is not mentally
owns a performance space, offering concessions at and/or physically tired.
intermission is an excellent way to increase earnings
4. Try to include something upbeat and exciting
without higher ticket prices.
directly before intermission to encourage your
audience to come back for your second half.
Arrangement of Concert?
5. Always consider the technical requirements of a
One of the most important considerations for
dance piece and how they affect the subsequent
assembling a dance concert is the variety and
dance. Dances with water require a cleaning/drying
arrangement of programming for the evening. There are
of the floor before another dance can safely occur.
a number of considerations, both artistic and practical,
In this case, placing it at the end of the concert is
that go into deciding the concert arrangement. Ideally,
wise. Fog and haze tend to fill up the space and
your audience will be in attendance for the entirety of
linger. Make sure that the following dance will
the concert. It is your responsibility to create for them
not be adversely affected by lingering fog effects
an evening that takes them on a satisfying artistic
before finalizing the show order. Dances with
journey. The selection and arrangement of pieces for
elaborate scenic changes might do well directly
the concert requires a familiarity with all of the dances
before or after intermission, or as the final piece of
presented and some thought about where each dance
the concert.
would best fit. One common approach to arranging a
6. If you have one intermission, your second half
concert is to think of it like a story or an album, creating
should be shorter in length. Likewise, try to
a presentation with a logical beginning, middle, and end.
program the second act of your concert in keeping
On the practical side, one must make sure to check cast
with the rules discussed above.
lists and the technical requirements for each dance.
The goal should be facilitating a quick and effective 7. Consider that the final dance of the concert is in
transition between each dance, eliminating long waits a position most likely to hold onto the audience’s
between each dance number and organizing the dances memory and, as such, you want it to be one of the
in such a way as to best keep the audience’s interest. most memorable. Fast-paced, high-energy, visually

26 thInkIngAheAd
 stimulating dances are a good choice for the final 7. What type of equipment is included and/or
dance. available with use of the space?
8. Are house technicians included with the rental fee
2.3 Performance Space Concerns
and, if not, are your company members allowed to
The choice of a performance space affects many use the equipment in the space?
aspects of the dance performance. Depending on the 9. Is the theatre a union house (stagehands and/or
type of space, certain varieties of staging might be musicians)? If so, how does this affect your choices:
required or limited. In addition, there are a number of staffing, schedules, union contracts, live vs. pre-
practical concerns related to your choice of space that recorded music, etc.
will affect other areas (i.e. budget, schedule, personnel,
10. Is there any information the space needs from the
etc.). Included below is a list of questions that should
dance company regarding the performance?
be addressed in order to make sure you are making an
informed decision regarding your performance space. Once you have addressed these questions, undoubtedly
other information will arise from these conversations.
For those working in academic settings, your
Never be afraid to ask questions. It is always best to go
performance space may be a given. Even if you have
into a project with answers, rather than assume that
a space assigned to you, though, it is important to
your expectations are the norm.
consider the same types of questions. Unless you are
lucky enough to have a dedicated dance theatre, a 2.4 Production Calendar
dance program will often find itself performing in a
One of the most important considerations for any
space primarily used by and for the theatre program.
type of show is the production calendar. The calendar
In these instances, misunderstandings frequently arise
will affect every other aspect of the production from
regarding the appropriate use of a space—sometimes
personnel to budget and even casting. In all likelihood,
produced by rules about which the visiting dance
the production calendar and performance space will
company is completely unaware. One way to address
be determined concurrently as the selection of one
this is to make sure to ask the right questions regarding
affects the other. You should have a good idea of your
space usage before going into the performance space.
ideal performance dates in mind when negotiating
1. How do you secure permission to use the space? with a performance space. Once you have secured the
2. What is the fee for using the space? actual dates, though, creating a production calendar is
a relatively simple process of counting back from the
3. What amenities are included with the space (and is
date and establishing important deadlines. Listed below
this for an additional fee)?
are some basic guidelines for a production timetable,
4. What are the front-of-house arrangements (box
though you may find that some components need to be
office, house management, ushers, ticket profits,
tweaked in order to match your expectations.
publicity support, etc.)?
5. Is there a green room and/or dressing rooms in the Six Months to One Year Prior to Opening
space?
●● Create production budget and begin securing funds.
6. What type of staging is possible in the performance
●● Determine the choreographer(s) and number of
space?
pieces in your performance.

27 PRe-PRodUCtIonPlAnnIng
●● Secure the performance space and rehearsal space. it will appear in the performance. Should designers
●● Determine needs for publicity, ticket sales, and not get the opportunity to personally attend a
house staff (this may change for each different designer run, it is a good idea for choreographers
performance space, based on what resources are to video the performance for the designer to watch.
available to you). For that matter, the savvy designer may well want
●● Hire designers and agree on a timetable of mutually to video the design run as a personal reference.

agreed upon benchmarks (date for designer runs, This ensures that he/she will have an opportunity to

date for design drawings, design presentations, etc.). observe the dance multiple times before going into
tech.
Three to Four Months Prior to Opening
One Week Prior to Opening
●● Begin production meetings with designers,
The period leading up to opening is frequently referred
choreographers, and other production staff. A
to as Tech Week, even if it is not necessarily a full week
production meeting is an opportunity for all of the
in duration. During this period, a number of events
production team to meet and discuss pertinent
occur in preparation for the opening night of your dance
elements to the production. Ideally everyone
performance.
should participate in these meetings (artistic
director, choreographer, designers, stage manager, ●● Load-in: At some point before opening, you will need
production manager), since decisions made in to move all of your equipment and supplies into the
one area might affect another production area. In performance space to prepare for the show. Your
professional settings, it is not uncommon to find schedule will vary from company to company, but it
production members “calling in” via a computer is fairly common to load-in a week prior to opening.
videoconference application such as Skype, Apple’s This process typically involves laying the dance
FaceTime, or Google Hangouts. The frequency of floor, hanging and focusing lights, assembling any
production meetings is determined by the needs of scenery, setting up sound, and bringing in costumes.
the dance company. ●● Cueing sessions: Designers must have sufficient
●● Schedule auditions and rehearsals. time alone in the space to write and test their cues.
●● Determine the number of technicians needed for Sound designers need to hear the music in the
technical aspects of the performance and hire, as space in order to set the appropriate levels for a
necessary. performance. Lighting designers will also benefit
●● Determine the tech schedule for the production, from cueing in the performance space. This is when
including all pertinent information, such as load-in; a video from the designer run comes in handy. By
lighting hang and focus; laying the dance floor; using the video, a lighting designer can write cues
cueing sessions; sound checks; tech runs for each that match the specific timing of the dance piece
dance piece, etc. before the tech period. This process may involve only
the designers or choreographers might be invited as
Two Weeks to One Month Prior to Opening well. There are benefits and disadvantages to both
methods.
●● Schedule designer runs. These are rehearsals for
designers to attend and watch a run of the dance, as

28 thInkIngAheAd
F I G UR E 2. 2
Technicians laying a dance floor.

●● Paper tech: Some dance companies incorporate a

time for the designers and stage manager to meet
before going into tech and discuss the placement
of cues within the context of the individual dances.
This process, called a paper tech, is a luxury that
many companies cannot afford, but it is useful to
help familiarize the stage manager with the process
of calling the cues. If a paper tech is not possible
it is always advantageous to set some time apart
at the beginning of the first technical rehearsal
for the designers and stage manager to meet and
discuss cues.

F IG UR E 2. 3
A lighting designer writing cues.

29 PRe-PRodUCtIonPlAnnIng
 familiarize themselves with the stage at a slower
FYI: To the Dancer in Tech
pace or with less energy than a full-out run. In
For many dancers, tech week will be the only time theatre, these first rehearsals are referred to as
in which they will be involved with the designers and a cue-to-cue (sometimes abbreviated at Q2Q).
technicians of the production. While the rehearsal This type of rehearsal moves from one cue to
and performance process is essential to the ultimate the next, allowing the director and designers to
success of the show, it is important to recognize the see and hear how the individual cues work with a
crucial role played by the designers and technicians moment onstage. Once the cue has been worked
and to respect their process. During tech week, it out, the stage manager calls “hold” and everyone
is helpful to understand that there will be a lot of moves forward in the script to the next location of
“hurry up and wait.” Dancers should arrive at least a cue.
15 minutes before their call time and be ready to ● For dance, this process is difficult to reproduce,
go at the start of the time slot, but understand since it is harder to hold dancers and have them
that there may be a lot of start and stop during move forward to a point in the dance with all of the
the initial technical rehearsals. Keep conversation music and movement aligning seamlessly. Dance
with other dancers onstage to a bare minimum and frequently employs a spacing rehearsal in which
always be aware of what’s happening onstage while the dancers “mark” the performance. Marking is a
waiting in the wings. Likewise, this is the first time dance term that refers to running through the dance
designers and choreographer will see the dance at the appropriate timing, but with less energy than
in show conditions, so dancers should try to keep running “full-out.” When marking, it is common to
conversation and questions with the choreographer avoid complicated lifts or certain movement sections
limited to things that strictly affect the performance. that may be physically taxing on the dancers. During
This is not a rehearsal slot, but a very small window the spacing run, the designers and choreographers
of time in which numerous production elements have get the opportunity to watch how the dancers
to come together. interact with the design elements and to make
Many young dancers may not understand the adjustments, as necessary. It is also common in the
importance of this process and inadvertently bog spacing rehearsal for designers to work closely with
down the tech rehearsal period. Keep in mind to the stage manager so he/she better understands
always listen to the stage manager, as he/she is in when to call cues.
control of the stage and when things should occur. ●● Technical rehearsal: The subsequent rehearsals
The role of the dancer in tech is to perform the following spacing are typically referred to as
role and choreography as accurately as possible. technical rehearsals. These rehearsals have the
If everyone respects these rules of thumb, tech dancers running full-out with all of the technical
rehearsals can be an enjoyable process. elements incorporated. It is not uncommon during
these rehearsals to stop in order to tweak a moment,
●● Spacing rehearsal/cue-to-cue: Once the dancers but the goal is to give the stage manager and
arrive in the space, it is a good idea to start off with dancers ample time to run the show with the dance
a rehearsal that allows them the opportunity to and technical elements combined.

30 thInkIngAheAd
●● Dress rehearsal: Dress rehearsals are the rehearsals performance space to guarantee you are leaving the
in which everything is run under show conditions, space in the expected condition.
with all technical elements in place. In addition, it is ●● Postmortem (assessment): As mentioned
useful to consider the impact of all elements such as previously, assessment is an important aspect of
costume changes, pre-show music, changing over any production process. Many dance companies and
gels on the lights between dance pieces, etc. Only academic programs include a meeting following
when considering all of these elements can you truly the completion of the production referred to as a
know the running time of your show. postmortem in which the production team members
● It is also common to find that dress rehearsals are and staff discuss the entire process and honestly
used for documenting the dance, either through comment on what things were successful and how it
photography or video. In the theatre world, it is could be improved for future productions. While this
common to have a photo call, a separate time is a luxury for many professional organizations, it is
assigned specifically for getting posed photographs an important aspect for improvement.
(where the actors freeze in place for the photo).
This process is less common for dance, since the 2.5 Production Budget
nature of dance is movement and frozen poses tend Another important element of pre-production planning
to eliminate the kinetic nature desired in dance is determining your budget. No matter the complexity
photography. Whether there is a separate photo call of your performance, there will always be some level
or not, it is important to schedule a time specifically of expenses incurred. It is essential to plan for these
for documenting the dance. For designers and up front and create a realistic budget that accounts
choreographers alike, the documentation of the work for both sources of revenue and expenses. If you are a
is an essential component for portfolios. Likewise, professional dance company, everyone who contributes
the dance company will often use photos and video to your production will need some sort of compensation.
for marketing/publicity purposes. In addition, there are many other areas to consider,
●● Opening night: Opening night is the first performance such as accompaniment costs, equipment rental fees,
of your dance. Frequently, there might be a reception expendables (i.e. gels, lamps for lighting instruments,
to accompany the opening in which the dancers etc.), space rental, transportation costs, publicity,
mingle with the patrons or sponsors. Events such as printing costs, and more.
this are particularly useful in establishing a donor
Before you can contract designers or dancers, you need
base.
to have a good idea of the amount of funds available for
●● Strike: The final performance of the dance is your performance. Consider anticipated ticket sales,
typically followed by strike, sometimes referred funding reserves, external grants, funds provided
to as load-out. Though this event is often reserved by student activity fees (if you are in an academic
for the design/tech production members, it is not environment), or donations provided by patrons. All of
uncommon to have dancers assisting (especially in these funds make up your available revenue for the
an academic environment). Strike is when all of the performance or season. While it should go without
design elements are returned to their original state saying, there is a danger in estimating funds before they
before load-in. Always make sure to check with the actually are in hand. Just because you have traditionally

31 PRe-PRodUCtIonPlAnnIng
sold tickets doesn’t mean you won’t have a bad year. 2.7 Chapter Review
Just because you have applied for a grant does not No matter the scope of a dance performance, it is
mean you will receive it. Many an arts organization has obvious that there is a great deal of planning that must
had the nasty realization that they have incurred more go into any successful endeavor. A successful dance
debt than available funds. Always try to be realistic in company understands its own mission in the context of
creating your budget. its target audience. Once the decision has been made
After you have a good idea of your available to produce a dance performance, the task of planning
production funds, you can determine how best deals with both the artistic side and the management
to allocate the funds to various expenses. If you aspects. One must consider the performance space in
have produced dance performances in the past, you addition to budgeting, schedule, and hiring personnel.
are likely to have a good idea of resources and artists Though the prospect of taking on so many details may
in your area and their typical costs. If this is your first seem daunting at first, the rewards far outweigh the
time, try to make contact with arts organizations of initial frustrations.
a similar size and mission to see how they approach
2.8 The production manager’s perspective:
the task.
An interview with Stacey-Jo Marine.
2.6 Personnel stacey-Jomarineisaproductionmanager/stage
As mentioned in Chapter 1, there are a number of managerwithexperienceinsomeofthetopcompanies
different people involved in the process of bringing andacademicprogramsintheentertainmentindustry.
a dance to the stage. One of the important pre- shehasworkedinover30countriesandall50states
production considerations is securing all of the touringwithdanceandtheatrecompaniesincluding
individuals necessary for accomplishing your project. PaultaylordanceCompany,stomP,dar-A-luz(tight,
Depending on the scope of your performance, you may Right,white),Richardmove’smartha@series,lisa
find that the list is small or incredibly large. Whether giobbimovementtheatreandballetnY.InnYCshe
you are a professional dance company, independent hasbeentheproductionstagemanagerformaureen
contractor, or an educational entity it is important Fleming,theodoraskipitares,engardeArts(stonewall
to have all personnel sign an agreement that makes 25andJ.P.morgansavestheday),Cortez&Co.,
clear the expectations of their position and what will AmericanballettheatrestudioCompany,dancebyneil
be provided to them as compensation for their hard greenbergandYouthAmericagrandPrix.ms.marine
work. These letters of agreement should always cover istheproductioncoordinatorfortheConservatoryof
the essential information, such as the individual’s danceatPurchaseCollegeanddirectorofproduction
name and job title, the dance organization, the duties/ formarthagrahamdanceCompany.shehasbeenat
expectations, compensation (if provided), specific PurchasesinceAugust2,whereshealsoteachesdance
dates of employment, and specific employee policies/ production,stagemanagementandlightingfordance.
workplace procedures, as necessary. It is a good Do you have any background in dance beyond the
idea to provide the contract to a lawyer for review to design/tech aspects?
ensure you are complying with labor laws in your state
No. My interest in dance began when I saw the Martha
and that you are not accidentally making yourself
Graham Dance Company performing for Ms. Graham’s
legally liable.

32 thInkIngAheAd
memorial service in 1991 at City Center Theater in New supervisor for Martha Graham Center of Contemporary
York City. I was already working as a stage manager Off- Dance?
Broadway. I had a very little experience (watching dance I am a commodity—all of my skills are available to my
in musical theatre) but that is all. The Graham memorial employer. If not first hand (creating a new prop), then as a
service was such an inspiration to me that I immediately supervisor (hiring someone to get the work done).
wanted to start working in the field.
One of the fascinating things about your career is the
Can you explain to the readers the “typical” job balance between professional and academic roles.
description of a production manager for a dance What are some of the key differences you notice in
company? academic vs. professional dance work?
The production manager is usually the liaison between the In academia, it is typical to have an entire crew of dance
venue and the company. The PM produces the technical students. It is very important to prepare the students and
schedule and the hanging schedule. The PM is also the teach them the value of this work to make them better
liaison to the other company production staff—these duties DANCERS. In a professional situation, I do not expect to
include forwarding tech specs to the staff and pointing have to coax the crew or coach them. Donuts help break the
out anything out of the ordinary. The PM calls production ice in all situations.
meetings—company administrators and production staff
get together for these meetings. Lastly the PM often also I know you have worked internationally on a number
serves as the production stage manager. of dance productions. Tell us a bit about that and if
there were differences you noticed in American vs.
I know you served as the production stage manager for international work?
Paul Taylor Dance Company for a number of years. How
Each country has its own work rituals, customs, and
does the role of a production manager differ from that
personalities. One commonality usually occurs when a crew
of production stage manager?
is union (American, Greek, German, et al.). Union crews
A production stage manager calls the shows. are generally more professional, experienced, and well
How does the nature of the job change for a touring organized. One interesting thing is that many stages are
production vs. a more residential production? still raked in Europe. Summer festivals are difficult all over
the world (including the States) because the company must
I treat all performances like they are touring productions.
fit into a house repertory plot and lighting has to be done
I always make sure costumes, scenery/props, music, and
after sunset.
lighting will be taken care of and ready for the load-in and
then performance.

I know you have a lot of experience in stage

management, props, and lighting. How does that
experience factor into your job as production

33 PRe-PRodUCtIonPlAnnIng
 CHAPTER 3
PERFORMANCE
SPACES

The stage is a concrete physical place which asks to be filled,

and to be given its own concrete language to speak.

Antonin Artaud

Student dancers from Eastern Michigan University’s production of Hope that Lines Don’t Cross.
Choreography by Erik Abbott-Main. Lighting Design by Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.
 Just as the painter uses a canvas to bring a work of art designer alike have a working understanding of a wide
to life, so too the performer utilizes an empty space to variety of performance spaces and their features. The
tell a story. To borrow a bit more from the metaphor of following chapter introduces a number of different
the painter, different types of paper affect the style of types of performance spaces and discusses some of the
painting that can be created on them. The same is true inherent strengths and challenges of each type.
of performance spaces. The performance space and, in
particular, the relationship of the audience to the stage 3.1 Proscenium Theatres
drastically affect how the audience can participate in The most popular type of theatre for dance
the performance. The same dance seen in two different performances is the proscenium stage. The proscenium
theatres (especially when seen from different vantage is a theatre in which the audience sits in front of
points) can feel completely different to your audience. the stage and watches the show through a picture
Likewise, each theatre is different and comes with its frame opening, referred to as the proscenium arch
own unique variety of equipment and features. Some (Figure 3.1). Though the proscenium arch is typically
performances might work quite well in a proscenium rectangular in shape, it can be square as well. One
theatre, but not function at all in the round. For these reason for the popularity of this type of theatre space
reasons, it is essential that both choreographer and is that it places the audience in a good position to

F I G UR E 3. 1
The proscenium arch is the “picture
frame” through which the audience
watches the action.

36 thInkIngAheAd
 watch the dancers’ bodies in a silhouette form, to understanding how dancers must interact with their
highlighted against the theatre’s backdrop. In addition, space is called stage directions.
the proscenium staging allows the audience to enjoy
the performance without having to see the backstage Stage Directions
trappings, such as the lighting instruments. When referring to one’s position on the stage,
giving movement directions can get confusing. A
The Stage dancer onstage is facing the opposite direction to
No matter the type of theatre, one element remains the choreographer in the auditorium, meaning their
constant—there is an area of the theatre separated directions are all reversed. To address this problem,
from the audience upon which the performance takes those in the theatre refer to movements in terms of
place. This is referred to as the stage. Though stages stage directions. In stage directions, all directions are
come in a variety of sizes and shapes, they share a relative to the person standing on stage. When looking
number of similar attributes. One important concept at the stage from a bird’s eye view, the stage is split
into nine separate areas (Figure 3.2). Everything to the
right third of the stage (from the dancer’s perspective)
is referred to as stage right. Everything to the left third
of the stage is referred to as stage left, and the center
third of the stage is called center stage. Adding to basic
right and left, the stage is also divided into three areas
that describe the dancer’s proximity to the audience. The
third of the stage closest to the audience is referred to
as downstage. The center third is once more called center

-
UP.51A6f UP.51A6f UP.51A6f
RlbHI Cfr..JifR Lff=l stage, while the area furthest away from the audience is
referred to as upstage. Looking at Figure 3.2, you can see
how the combination of these terms create the division
Cfr-.JifR cr:r,rrr:R C£:1\JiE::R of the stage into nine areas commonly referred to as:

-
.5-rMf .5-rA!:£ .51A6.£: downstage right, downstage center, downstage left,
RlbHI C£:1\JiE::R L£:~1 center stage right, center stage center, center stage left,
upstage right, upstage center, upstage left.

POWr-,J.51A6f POWI\I.51A6.f POWI\I .51A6.f In addition to these basic directions, there are a
RlbHI Ctl\lltR Lf~l few other terms that are handy in communicating
movement on the stage. When the dancer moves from
the perimeter towards the center of the stage, this is
referred to as moving onstage. Likewise, moving from

F IG UR E 3. 2
The breakdown of stage directions, as seen from above.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

37 PeRFoRmAnCesPACes
 an area away from the center of the stage is referred to an imaginary line that runs from right to left, aligned
as moving offstage. with the upstage edge of the proscenium arch. This
reference line is indicated as a consistent dashed line
Stage Coordinate System on a ground plan. The point at which the centerline is
When looking at a proscenium stage, we use two bisected by the proscenium line is the 0,0 coordinate for
imaginary lines known as the centerline (or CL) and the measuring object placement on the stage.
proscenium line to establish a system of coordinates
When looking at proscenium stages, the stage might
used for measuring the placement of objects on the
protrude out far past the proscenium line towards the
stage (see Figure 3.3).
audience, or it might end close to the proscenium arch.
The centerline is an imaginary line that runs upstage If there is an area of the stage that extends downstage
to downstage from the back wall of the stage through of the proscenium line, this is referred to as the apron.
the back wall of the auditorium, bisecting the space in Sometimes, the apron is also built on an elevator or
half. In a ground plan (a drafting of the theatre from has a removable stage deck to reveal an area beneath
a bird’s eye view), this reference line is indicated by a the stage level. This area of the stage is frequently
specific dashed line: long, short, long. The proscenium reserved for the orchestra, when a musical ensemble
line (sometimes referred to as the Plaster Line) is accompanies the dance (Figure 3.4). In this situation,

PRo.5C(I\JIUM ARCH

PRo.5C(I\JIUM
PRo.5C(I\JIUM
PRo.5C(I\JIUM

F I G UR E 3. 3
The proscenium line and centerline
are imaginary points used to establish
stage coordinates. AUI/IIORIUM
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

38 thInkIngAheAd
F I G UR E 3. 4
The former New York State Theater
(now the David H. Koch Theater) at
Lincoln Center. The orchestra pit is located
between the stage and auditorium.
Photo courtesy of David Shankbone.

this area of the stage is referred to as the orchestra pit the majority of the audience and which locations are
or sometimes just “the pit.” ideal for staging pivotal moments of the performance.
In order to determine just how much of the stage can
Traps be seen from the audience, designers use the audience
One of the many ways in which scenery or even dancers seats located on the outside aisles and closest to the
can make a “magical” appearance on the stage is stage. These positions are referred to as the extreme
through the use of trap doors in the stage floor. Many sightlines, because they are the audience seats that
stages are equipped with panels in the stage floor that see into the backstage area more than any other and
can be removed to create a trap door for special entry of are looking at the stage from an extreme side angle.
effects. The area beneath the stage into which the trap When staging a dance, it is important to walk through
doors open is referred to as the trap room. the audience and watch the performance from these
locations to ensure your audience is not missing out on
Sightlines an important aspect of the dance.
The term sightline refers to the unobstructed view of
Figure 3.5 shows a ground-plan view of a theatre that
the stage from an audience member’s perspective.
indicates the stage and audience placement. In addition,
The sightline for each seat in the audience is slightly
it includes the symbol for extreme sightlines (the circle
different from those around them. It is important for
with a cross bisecting it). In looking at this illustration,
the choreographer and designer alike to have a good
the dotted lines extending from the extreme sightlines
understanding of how much of the stage is visible to

39 PeRFoRmAnCesPACes
 indicate the amount of the stage and backstage that the area to either side of the stage, called the wings,
can be seen from the vantage point of that theatre seat. is where lighting instruments are placed on tall poles
Since the back wall of the theatre is in the sightlines for called booms in order to get side lighting for the
all audience members, many theatres utilize a backdrop dancers’ bodies. While it can create an interesting visual
curtain called a cyclorama. This is described in detail effect to see into the stage trappings, the audience
later in the chapter (see Figure 3.9). should not always have to see what is located in these
areas. For this reason, it is common to use curtains to
Masking hide the areas of the stage you do not want the audience
When creating a space for performance, there are to see. This process (as well as the curtains themselves)
undoubtedly aspects of the location that are best is referred to as masking. When masking off the stage,
hidden away from the audience’s view. For instance, there are some specific types of draperies used for the
the backstage area of a theatre is frequently a location stage.
for scenic storage or lighting instruments. In dance,
The Grand Drape
The grand drape, sometimes referred to as the main
rag, is the main curtain that masks off the stage from
the audience (Figure 3.6). This curtain runs the entire
cYcLoRAMA space of the proscenium and far enough into the wings
so that even the extreme sightlines cannot see around
it. There are a number of different types of grand
drapes, but they all have some elements in common.
The grand drape is typically made of a heavyweight
cYcLoRAMA

cYcLoRAMA

plush fabric called velour. In addition, the curtain

typically has fullness sewn into it—meaning the fabric
has pleats sewn into it, giving the curtain a rippled look
cYcLoRAMA

cYcLoRAMA

which gives it more surface area and visual depth to

catch light and create shadows.

Since the grand drape fills the entire proscenium

opening, it must move in some way for the audience to
see the show. There are a number of different methods
of rigging a curtain to open, but the two most common
methods are for the curtain to move up or to open from
the center. A curtain that raises or closes in the vertical
plane is called a guillotine, whereas a traveller is a
curtain with a split down the center in which the two

F IG UR E 3. 5
Extreme sightlines.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

40 thInkIngAheAd
F I G UR E 3. 6 sides slide horizontally away from one another. For
The grand drape is a common drapery
dance concerts, it is a common practice to close the
element used for dance productions.
Photo courtesy of Dilly Boase. grand drape between each separate dance piece in the
show.

Legs
As you move upstage of the grand drape, there are a
series of curtains used to mask off the audience’s view
into the wings. These curtains, called legs, are tall and
typically made of a black or neutral dark-colored fabric
(Figure 3.7).

Borders
A border is a fabric curtain hung overhead of the stage
to mask off the audience’s view of lighting instruments
or scenery that might be flown overhead. Typically, a
border and set of two legs will be used in conjunction
with the border slightly downstage of the two legs
(Figure 3.7).

Blackout Curtain
Sometimes, a dance calls for a black backdrop to
create a stark contrast to the dancers on stage. In
these instances, a blackout curtain is an ideal choice.
A blackout curtain is typically a full-stage black masking

PROSCENIUM
PROSCENIUM

CYCLORAMA

AUDITORIUM
F I G UR E 3. 7
A view of the theatre from the side. PROSCENIUM
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

41 PeRFoRmAnCesPACes
 curtain with no fullness made of black velour. Since it is
black and a smooth surface, there is nothing to bounce
light off and the background is a smooth neutral black.

Scrim
Scrim is a type of gauze-like fabric with an open weave
(Figure 3.8). Many theatres have a full-stage scrim
curtain as part of their inventory. The scrim is used to
create interesting visual effects. Because of its screen-
like nature, when a light is shone on the front of a
scrim, it looks solid. When the lights on the front side
of a scrim are lowered, though, and it is lit from behind,
the material becomes semi-transparent, giving a hazy,
ghost-like appearance to anything seen through it. This
means that a scrim could be used in a dance to create a
special effect in which dancers behind the scrim could
“magically” appear.

Cyclorama/Sky Drop
The last element of masking for a stage is a covering
of the upstage wall of the theatre. Most theatres use a
large, light blue or light grey fabric drop called a sky
drop. In older theatres, the back wall of the theatre was
F IG UR E 3. 9
a concave, wrap-around wall with a plaster covering The blue background for this image is a cyclorama illuminated with blue lighting.
called a cyclorama. Over the years, most people began Photography by Richard Calmes.

referring to the sky drop as a cyclorama, or “cyc” for

short. The cyclorama is used as a neutral backdrop that
F I G UR E 3. 8 can be lit by lighting fixtures to create a colored wash of
The open weave of the scrim allows for
invariant lighting effects. a background. These lighting fixtures are typically hung
above the cyc and positioned on the floor pointing up as
well. This gives the opportunity for the lighting designer
to mix multiple colors of light on the cyc (Figure 3.9).

Ground Row
The ground row is an additional element of masking
used for covering up the lighting fixtures positioned on
the floor for lighting the cyc (Figure 3.7). Typically, the
ground row is a simple series of small boards (around
1´ in height) attached to the floor, just downstage of the

42 thInkIngAheAd
 F IG UR E 3. 10
A plan view of the stage showing in-betweens.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

cYcLoRAMA
lighting instruments. These boards are painted black
or another neutral color matching the floor to hide
the lighting instruments and cabling at the base of the
cyclorama.
SL lt\1-?

-
Dependable

Dependable
In-betweens
Dependable

Dependable
One important concept related to the dance stage is
SR lt\1-l SL lt\1-l the “in” or “in-between.” An in-between is the location
between the theatre’s legs. When looking at the stage in

-
SR lt\1-1 a plan view, in-betweens are labeled as either stage right
SL lt\1-1
or stage left and numbered from downstage to upstage
(Figure 3.10). Sometimes, in-betweens are referred to
simply as “ins” (as in Stage Right In-1, Stage Right In-2).
In dance design, the in-betweens are also the location of
lighting booms, used for side lighting the dancers.

Counterweight Systems
Many theatres are equipped with a method for handling
scenery in the air, “flying” it overhead to be hidden out
of sight until it needs to be seen. This counterweight
system utilizes a steel grid placed over the stage upon
which is placed a system of pulleys. Beneath the grid
is a collection of overhead pipes hung parallel to the
proscenium. These pipes are suspended from wire
cables that go up through the pulleys on the grid,
allowing for scenic elements (or sometimes even
people) to be “flown” overhead of the stage. Every
theatre does not have a counterweight system, but
it is such a common element that it is important to
familiarize yourself with their function. Figure 3.11
illustrates a counterweight system in the theatre.

F IG UR E 3. 11
The primary components of a theatrical fly system: A) batten, B) aircraft cables, C) loft
blocks, D) head block, E) arbor and stage weights, F) tension block, G) rope lock,
H) purchase line.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

43 PeRFoRmAnCesPACes
The Fly Loft to balance out the load of scenery added to the batten
Flying scenery requires a large amount of space (Figure 3.12). The purpose of the arbor is to allow for
above the stage. This area, referred to as the fly loft, “counterweighting” with an identical weight to balance
should typically be two and a half times taller than out the load, thereby making the task of lifting hundreds
the proscenium opening in order to fly the scenery above of pounds of scenery a simple matter of pulling on one
the vertical sightlines of the first row of the audience. rope. The lift line is tied to the top of the arbor, with
another rope tied to the bottom called the purchase
Grid line. The purchase line loops down through a block
A grid is a series of steel pipes suspended in the upper at the bottom of the system called a tension block
portion of the fly loft, used for securing pulleys for the (sometimes called the foot block) and is redirected back
counterweight system. The grid includes a series of up through the head block to once more attach to the
I-beams running parallel to the proscenium. These top of the arbor. In this way, the purchase line is one big
I-beams are used to support another series of steel loop attached to the arbor so that pulling down on the
bars running perpendicular to the proscenium, thus
creating the grid. At key locations across the grid, there
are a collection of pulleys called the loft blocks, used to
guide the cables that help in flying scenery.

Batten
The batten is a steel pipe that is hung horizontally and
used to lift the load of scenery. Attached to the batten
are sections of wire cables called lift lines that travel
vertically up through the wells and into a loft block to
be redirected to a head block on one side of the stage.
As seen in Figure 3.11, the blocks in a counterweight
system are used to change the direction of the lift line
from vertical to horizontal, and then back to vertical.

Linesets
The collection of lift lines attached to a batten is
referred to as a lineset. The number of lift lines on a
lineset is related to the size of a proscenium opening.
Wider stages might have five to six lift lines, whereas
smaller ones might only have three to four.

Arbor
The component of the counterweight system for which
it gets its name is the arbor. An arbor is a specially FIG UR E 3.12
designed rack upon which stage weights can be added Arbors with stage weights.

44 thInkIngAheAd
 rope makes the arbor go up (and the batten go down) level, the arbor will be positioned at the top of the fly
and vice versa. loft, just below the head blocks. Because of this, most
counterweight systems have a balcony level positioned
Lock Rail near the top of the fly loft, called the loading gallery
The lock rail is a level of the counterweight system that (Figure 3.14). This area is used for loading stage weights
features a line lock, a simple lever for locking down onto the arbors to counterweight the amount added to a
movement of the purchase line and, in conjunction, batten. As a result, stage weights are also stored at this
the batten (Figure 3.13). These locks might be located level for easy access.
at the floor level or at a position above floor level.
This is the location from which the flymen operate the Audience Seating
counterweight system, unlocking the line lock, flying the There are a number of different components that affect
scenery, and then locking it back into place for safety. the audience’s performance experience, but one of the
most significant is seating. This directly relates to how
Loading Gallery
One final point of interest for the counterweight
system is how stage weights are added to the arbor,
or more to the point where the weight is added. Since
scenery is always added when the batten is at stage

F I G UR E 3. 1 3 F IG UR E 3. 14
A lock rail located at the floor level of the stage. A loading gallery, with weights stored along the walkway.

45 PeRFoRmAnCesPACes
 much of the stage an audience member can see and level is often at a steep incline, so as to allow the
from what angle, in addition to their proximity to other audience members to look down on the stage. While
audience members around them. When discussing a the audience can get relatively close to the action
theatre space, there are some common terms with from a balcony, keep in mind this will mean looking
which one should be familiar. down on a production that was meant to be seen at
eye-level.
In basic terms, the area of a theatre where the audience
●● Mezzanine: Mezzanine is a term derived from the
sits is referred to as the auditorium. In a proscenium
Italian mezzano meaning “middle.” In theatrical
theatre, the auditorium is placed directly in front of the
terminology, this refers to the lowest balcony of the
proscenium arch. Some theatres may have only one
theatre (if there are more than one) or sometimes
large seating area of the auditorium, while others may
the front rows of the theatre’s balcony.
have different sections of the auditorium with audience
seating. The following list indicates some common ●● Box seats: In some theatres, particularly those built
divisions of the auditorium, while Figure 3.15 includes before the twentieth century, balconies may wrap
visual examples: around the sides of the auditorium and extend all
the way to the sides of the proscenium. These seats
●● Orchestra: The part of the auditorium on the main are referred to as box seats (also known as loge).
floor and closest to the stage. Sitting roughly halfway While they may seem glamorous seats to some,
back in the middle of the orchestra guarantees an the box seats are often the worst vantage point for
excellent view of the stage and dancers. a dance show, as it gives a direct line of sight into
●● Balcony: A balcony is an upper floor of seating in a the backstage and makes for a distorted view of the
theatre that protrudes out above the main floor. This action.

ORC\-lESTRA

STAGE
STAGE
ORC\-lESTRA

ORC\-lESTRA STAGE

F I G UR E 3. 1 5
Divisions of the auditorium.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood. ORC\-lESTRA
ORC\-lESTRA

46 thInkIngAheAd
 Typically, it is those seats closest to the stage and on There are a number of different theatre types that make
the main level that cost the most, whereas those further for interesting dance spaces, though each one presents
away or in the balcony areas of the auditorium are less its own unique set of challenges for dance.
expensive. This is why some theatres feature an area
of the orchestra referred to as premium seats, the first Thrust Theatres
few rows of the orchestra closest to the stage, for a The thrust is another type of stage configuration. A
higher ticket cost. Interestingly enough, though, most thrust stage (sometimes called ¾ round, or theatre in
avid theatregoers prefer to sit a bit further back, as the the round) is primarily defined by its relationship to the
front seats mean looking up at the stage and possibly audience. In a thrust space, the stage is thrust forth into
missing some of the action as dancers move upstage. the audience, with seating positioned on three sides
of the stage (Figure 3.16). While the thrust stage can
3.2 Non-proscenium Theatres have many different shapes, one of the most common
While the proscenium theatre is one of the most popular resembles an octagon cut in half. Since the audience is
types of theatre space for dance, it is by no means the incredibly close to the stage, this type of theatre makes
only type of theatre in which a dance can be staged. for an intimate dance environment.

F I G UR E 3. 1 6
A thrust stage, with seating on three sides
of the stage.
Photo courtesy of Wharton Center for
Performing Arts.

47 PeRFoRmAnCesPACes
 One of the other identifying features of a thrust space is Another important consideration when staging a dance
that the audience seating is frequently raked, meaning in a thrust space is the lighting. When lighting dance
that each row of seating is raised higher than the row productions, it is a common practice to use side lighting
in front of it, thereby guaranteeing a better view of the on booms positioned in the wings. While these booms
stage. In most thrust spaces, the rake is extremely high, remain hidden away from the audience’s line of sight
meaning that more than half of the audience will be in a proscenium space, this is not always the case for
looking down on dancers onstage. As a choreographer, lighting dance in a thrust space. Booms, if used, might
this is a challenge to keep in mind while setting the have to be placed in the audience. If so, this process
dance. Thrust spaces typically have tunnels that lead must carefully be executed in order to avoid blinding
beneath the raked seating called vomitories, or “voms” some of your audience. The normal rules of dance
for short (Figure 3.17). These voms make for interesting lighting do not necessarily apply when lighting for the
points of entrance for dancers, adding a unique staging thrust. Talk early with the lighting designer and make
opportunity over the proscenium space. sure to let them know it will be staged for a thrust
space.

F I G UR E 3. 1 7
A view from the thrust stage, looking
out towards the audience. Note the
raked audience seating and vomitories
(indicated by the arrows).
Photo courtesy of Wharton Center for
Performing Arts.

48 thInkIngAheAd
Arena Theatres booms for side lighting would be visible and shining into
Like the thrust, the arena stage (sometimes called some of the audience’s eyes.
theatre in the round) features seating at a raked angle
Black Box/Studio Theatre Spaces
looking down onto the stage, but instead of seating
on three sides, the audience is located on all sides of The term black box or studio theatre refers to a
the stage (Figure 3.18). The main challenge of staging small theatre space with flexible seating that can be
dance in the round is sightlines. Since the entirety of the configured in multiple arrangements. This type of
stage is exposed to the audience, there is no opportunity space is ideal for student performances, showcases,
to hide dancers, props, etc. Likewise, traditional dance and master classes, as the audience is in close
lighting is problematic for an arena stage, since any proximity to the action. The black box space does
not lend itself to complex production elements, but
there is an inherent value to working in a space that
can be adjusted to meet the needs of the particular
performance.

3.3 Non-traditional Spaces

These days, it is not uncommon to see dance
pieces performed in spaces outside of the
traditional theatre (Figure 3.19). From warehouses
to churches, gymnasiums, swimming pools, or even
rock quarries, there are a number of locations that
can make for an interesting dance performance
space. One of the key benefits of using a non-
traditional space is that your imagination is the limit
Available
for the production. There are no predetermined
ways in which the space is best suited for a dance
performance. Though there are a number of technical
challenges to be met, such as power supply, dance
flooring, seating, and public amenities, the performance
experience in a non-traditional space can be particularly
rewarding.

F IG UR E 3. 18
The arena stage, viewed from above, with seating surrounding the stage. Often, there
will be vomitories in the four corners of the stage for entrances.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

49 PeRFoRmAnCesPACes
 F IG UR E 3. 19
This photo, taken in a sky bridge over downtown Atlanta, represents the unique
opportunity of a dancer performing in a non-traditional space.
Photography by Richard Calmes.

proximity to the stage can impact a great number of the

artistic decisions that go into producing a dance. The
dancer or choreographer who enters into the process
of creating a dance with a working understanding
of theatre spaces and terminology is at a decided
advantage when collaborating with designers and
technicians.

Review Questions
1. What is the name of the “picture frame” through
which the audience watches the performance?
2. What is the area of the stage that extends
downstage of the proscenium line?
3. In regards to stage directions, what is the area
called furthest away from the audience?
4. What is the name of the imaginary line that extends
from one edge of the proscenium arch to another?
5. What is the name of audience seats located in the
outside aisles and closest to the stage?
6. What are the vertical masking curtains called that
are placed to mask the wings?
7. This type of system is used to fly scenery overhead
in the theatre.
3.4 Chapter Review
8. What is the steel pipe called that is used to lift the
The type of performance space can greatly affect the
load of scenery?
type of dance performance that can be staged in its
halls. All too frequently, choreographers and designers 9. This type of stage features audience sitting on
do not consider the ways in which the theatre space three sides of the stage.
affects the dance until far too late in the process. In 10. This type of stage is sometimes referred to as
particular, the placement of the audience and their theatre in the round.

50 thInkIngAheAd
 PART II
PRODUCTION AREAS
 CHAPTER 4
LIGHTING

Lighting affects everything light falls upon. How you see what
you see, how you feel about it, and how you hear what you
are hearing.

Jean Rosenthal

Hubbard Street Dancers Alice Klock, above, and Kevin J. Shannon in AZIMUTH by Alonzo King.
Costumes by Robert Rosenwasser, Joan Raymond and Rebecca M. Shouse.
Lighting Design by Axel
Source
Morgenthaler.
line to goPhoto
here by Quinn B Wharton.
Lighting is one of the most essential production developing the ability to assess a visual moment and
elements to any live performance. Since most shows understand all of the component parts that made up
are performed indoors or outdoors at night, some level the feeling of that moment—the angle of the light, its
of lighting is required for both seeing the performers brightness, quality, colors, shadows, and texture. When
and to provide for their safety. More than just these collaborating with a lighting designer, it is useful to
basic concerns, though, lighting is a design element that have a common language for discussing light. To those
contributes to the storytelling of the performance and ends, the following sections cover some basic lighting
enhances the audience’s experience. The successful concepts, discussing why we use light and how it can be
lighting design considers elements such as visibility, manipulated for the stage.
color, lighting direction and angle, brightness, and
movement. Lighting is a tool for displaying what needs to 4.2 Functions of Dance Lighting (What Lighting
be seen while hiding away those elements that distract can Accomplish)
from the storytelling. Though the tools and process for In any work of art, all of the elements should be chosen
a dance lighting design are similar to that of theatrical carefully to fulfill a specific purpose within the overall
lighting, the technique employed for creating dance composition. Lighting is one of the most important
lighting varies considerably from theatre. Likewise, you elements within a dance production, and it performs
may find that some of the terminology differs slightly some very specific functions. Listed below are ways
between the two genres. This chapter details many of of looking at the functions of dance lighting, or the
the considerations for dance lighting and examines the purposes of lighting design within the context of a dance
role of the lighting designer in dance. production.

4.1 The Lighting Designer Visibility

The lighting designer must have a command of both The first and most fundamental function of dance
design aesthetics and technological know-how—an lighting is visibility. The audience cannot see
impeccable artistic eye with the understanding of something that is in the dark. This basic concept is one
the equipment necessary to execute the desired of the greatest tools of the dance lighting designer.
look onstage. In addition, lighting designers must Sometimes what is not seen is much more useful
be excellent collaborators, since their work affects to the storytelling of the dance than what is seen.
every other visual aspect of the production. Perhaps Consider the possibility of dancers emerging from the
most importantly, the lighting designer should be darkness onto lit areas of the stage only to disappear
skilled at describing the use of lighting and how it will once more into the darkness. For dance, visibility is
emotionally, psychologically, and artistically affect the more of a relative term than in theatre. For theatrical
production and given moments of the show. While this performances, the old adage “you can’t hear what
may seem like a simple task, consider for a moment you can’t see” is a time-tested mantra for explaining
the ephemeral nature of light and the way in which light how audiences have a difficult time understanding
interacts with the world around us on a daily basis. actor dialogue if they cannot see the actor’s face. In
Try to describe a sunset or the glow of light after a dance, the spoken word is secondary to the dancer’s
thunderstorm. Most people take the lighting around movement. Likewise, dance tends to be less of a
them for granted. Lighting designers have spent years realistic art form than theatre, at times. For these

54 production areas
 reasons, dance lighting is sometimes dimmer than by the dancers (Figure 4.1). Sculpting is directly tied to
stage lighting, with a higher contrast between lights the placement of lighting instruments and the direction
and darks. and angle of light illuminating the stage.

Sculpting Composition
When discussing dance lighting, the term sculpting Composition is a descriptive term used in a number
refers to the combination of light and shadow on a of different art forms. For the purposes of most visual
person or object to reveal or obscure its true form. art forms, it refers to the combination of multiple
Also sometimes referred to as modeling, this function elements and their placement or arrangement to create
is important to the overall purpose of dance—to a cohesive work of art. Lighting, more so than any of
communicate a story or feeling through the movement the other design areas, influences what the audience’s
of a dancer. This is why side lighting is so common for eye falls on and what elements are seen or hidden.
dance lighting. The intense lighting coming from the Since lighting has the ability to change in a matter of
sides emphasizes the human form and allows for the seconds, lighting can also change the composition of
audience to see even the subtlest of motions performed a piece numerous times throughout the performance.

F I G UR E 4. 1
The use of side lighting in this photo
accentuates the dancer’s physical features
and is an excellent example of sculpting
with light. Lighting design by Jared
Sayeg.

55 Lighting
F I G UR E 4. 2
Lighting can be used to affect the overall
stage composition. Lighting design by
Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

The primary use of composition in dance is to create Mood

a sense of relationship between the dancers and their Mood is often one of the easiest functions for
background. Figure 4.2 illustrates how the composition choreographers to identify about a dance. Mood
of a moment can be changed drastically through (sometimes referred to as atmosphere) is the feeling
changes in lighting. In the first image, the entire stage associated with a certain visual moment, often invoked
is darkened, save the small pool of light isolating the through the use of color, texture, and direction.
dancer. The second image shows more of a full-stage It is important to discuss what type of feeling the
illumination, with a much more open stage composition. choreographer wants the dance piece to evoke
before determining the mood of the lighting design.
Rhythm
Figure 4.3 illustrates how lighting can affect mood
While rhythm is an obvious component of any dance, within a dance.
many do not consider the way in which lighting
contributes to the overall rhythm of a dance piece. Reinforcement/Punctuation
Many people use the term rhythm in dance to discuss The final function of dance lighting is related to how
how a person or a piece of music moves. The same is lighting reinforces or comments on what is being done
true in lighting terms, with rhythm used to describe onstage by the dancers. Lighting should reinforce the
both how lighting moves within a given moment and storytelling of the choreography and support other
in the overarching structure of the entire dance. design elements such as scenery, projections, and
Obviously, music is an important aspect of many dances costumes. Likewise, lighting frequently functions as
(though certainly not all). Like the dancer, lighting punctuation of a dance or moment within a dance. This
can work in harmony with or in contrast to the music, can be something as basic as the length of time it takes
or combinations of both within one dance piece. As for the lights to fade to black, or a drastic shift in the
the lighting “looks” change throughout the dance, it color scheme or lighting texture at a key moment within
creates a definite sense of rhythm that either works in the choreography or musical accompaniment.
conjunction with or against the choreography and music.

56 production areas
F I G UR E 4. 3
The lighting for this dance utilizes warm
tones on the dancers with a cooler wash
of colors in the perimeter, portraying
a calm and serene mood. Lighting design
by Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

4.3 Properties of Dance Lighting (Controllable stage is dimly lit with one dancer standing in a pool
Qualities of Dance Lighting) of light (Figure 4.4). Even if this pool of light was only
moderately bright, it would appear much more intense
The properties of dance lighting refer to the definable
compared to the dim areas of lighting surrounding it.
attributes of lighting, or the aspects of lighting that can
be changed. Each of these properties affects one or
Color
more of the functions of dance lighting listed above.
Of all of the properties of light, color is arguably the
Brightness most powerful tool used to communicate with your
audience. Long after seeing a show, the strongest
Brightness is the property of lighting that refers to
visual memories tend to be of the color used in a
the amount of light present (sometimes referred to as
dramatic moment (Figure 4.5). In stage lighting, color
intensity). This aspect of lighting can be both relative
was traditionally created through the use of color
and absolute. Typically, brightness is a relative term
filters (often called gels). A gel is a thin sheet of plastic
referring to the overall stage picture. Perhaps the whole

57 Lighting
F I G UR E 4. 4
Brightness is most often relative when
compared to the entire stage picture.
Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

impregnated with pigment. Due to the nature of the

particular gel, only certain wavelengths of light are
allowed to pass through, leaving the resulting light
colored. In recent years, though, the use of LED (Light
Emitting Diode) lighting instruments enables lighting
designers to create and mix color through the lighting
instrument itself without using gels.

Direction
Direction in lighting refers to the placement of the
light source in relation to the object being lit. The main
directions of lighting are front, back, and side. Each of
these directions has a distinctly different feel to them
and evokes different responses. Looking at Figure 4.6,
the dancer is lit from multiple directions. Front lighting
illuminates the form well, but “flattens” out the dancer
a bit. Side lighting accentuates the three-dimensional
form of the dancer, but tends to decrease some of
the specificity of the facial features. Back lighting
F I G UR E 4. 5
eliminates the frontal details altogether, while adding
Dramatic lighting created through strong
contrasting colors. Lighting design by a halo glow around the figure, making her stand out
Jared Sayeg. from the background. When considering the placement

58 production areas
F I G UR E 4. 6
The three common directions of light.
Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

FRONT LIGHT SIDE LIGHT BACK LIGHT

HIGH ANGLE DOWN HIGH ANGLE of a lighting instrument, the lighting designer should
always examine the available lighting positions in

/
relation to the desired stage locations and understand
how this choice affects the appearance of lighting.

Angle
Like direction, angle is a property of light that relates
to the placement of the light source. In fact, direction
is rarely discussed without a discussion of the light’s
angle. The key difference lies in the fact that direction
is related to the object in the horizontal plane, whereas
angle is concerned with the vertical placement of the
light. In general, lighting angles are referred to as
up, low, or high angle, with a few specific terms like
up-light or down lighting. The names are related to the
placement of the instrument and mostly self-descriptive
(i.e. shins, mids, head-highs, etc.). Similar to our
LOW ANGLE LOW ANGLE

LUP
F IG UR E 4. 7
Some common angles of lighting.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

59 Lighting
discussion of direction, angle of light greatly affects the the gobo, it is blocked by the steel and passes through
mood and is a powerful tool for the lighting designer. the openings thereby creating a pattern in the light.
Figure 4.7 shows examples of some common lighting Some gobos are made of glass and can contain complex
angles. colored images, so the gobo creates both texture and
color. Changing the focus of the lighting instrument will
Visual Quality affect how crisp or diffuse the resulting texture appears
onstage.
The visual quality of light is a term that describes how
an area of lighting looks. Two terms used frequently to Movement
discuss visual quality are focus and texture. These two
The final property of dance lighting is movement.
terms are interconnected in that focus will always affect
Movement can refer to the physical movement of a
texture. When referring to a given light, focus indicates
beam of light as seen in a follow spot or moving light, or
the relative sharpness or softness of the pool of light.
it can refer to the perceived sense of movement created
In most lighting instruments, the light source allows
by turning lights on or off within the overall design.
for adjusting the focus of the beam of light from soft to
For instance, a lighting designer might create special
sharp. Texture in lighting is the visual appearance of
areas of focus on the stage for one particular moment
the pool of light. Certain lighting fixtures may have an
of the dance and then move the pool of light to another
inherent texture to their output. Likewise, texture can
area of the stage as the dancers change their positions.
be created in stage lighting through the use of a special
Since movement is such a key component of dance, it
template called a gobo. A gobo is a thin sheet of steel
stands to reason that this is also an important property
with patterns cut into it (Figure 4.8). When light strikes
of dance lighting. When considering movement, tempo
(the speed or pace of a given movement) is an important
consideration, since the same movement can have
different interpretations when performed at different
tempos.

4.4 Lighting Systems

A lighting system refers to the collection of equipment
necessary to generate and control the lighting for a
production. When working in a theatre setting, most of
these elements will be included as part of the physical
plant. In the most basic terms, a lighting system must
include power, control, and lighting instruments.
The following section details common components
of a lighting system. Refer to Figure 4.9 for specific
details.

F IG UR E 4. 8
Steel and glass gobos with a gobo holder.

60 production areas
F I G UR E 4. 9
An illustrated view of a simple
lighting system.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.
DIMMER RACK

INSTRUMENT

POWER PLANT (HIGH VOLTAGE)

TRANSFORMER
(STEP DOWN VOLTAGE)

!IJJNt+l g I --==========~__J
0 0 1- LIGHTING

lmtft+l g
CONTROL SIGNAL
00 INSTRUMENT

LIGHTING CONSOLE

Power
For a theatre with a dedicated power system, high
voltage electrical service will be sent into the building
and through a transformer to step the power down
to 120-volt power service. This is then connected to a
dimmer rack. Dimmers are electrical devices used to
regulate the flow of electricity to a specific outlet. The
outlet that receives this power is referred to as a circuit.
Stage lighting equipment is typically connected to a F IG UR E 4. 10
circuit by means of a heavyweight electrical cable with a The stage pin connector, featuring both the male and female connector ends.
stage pin connector, a specialized connector plug that
is rectangular in shape with three cylindrical prongs
on the male end and three openings on the female
receptacle (Figure 4.10).

61 Lighting
 F IG UR E 4. 11
A lighting console in use. Hubbard Street production table and, foreground, magic sheet
in the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago’s Edlis Neeson Theater.
Photo courtesy of Hubbard Street Dance Chicago.

texture, beam quality, and special effects (such as

strobe, bouncing effects, prisms, and more). For
conventional lighting equipment, it need only be
connected to a dimmer to be controlled. For intelligent
lighting, the instrument must be connected to a dimmer
for power and have a specific control cable that provides
a control signal from the lighting console directly to the
lighting fixture.

Lighting System Summary

In summary, a lighting system contains a collection of
equipment necessary to illuminate the stage. A lighting
console is used to send control signals to the dimmer
Control rack and additional lighting equipment in the lighting
For every lighting system, there must be a controller system. The dimmers receive the control signal, telling
used to manipulate the dimmers and lighting them how much power (voltage) to provide to circuits.
equipment. This controller is called a lighting console, Lighting instruments are connected to these circuits
or sometimes simply referred to as the lighting board to receive their power supply from the dimmers.
(Figure 4.11). A lighting console is an electronic device Increasing the voltage increases the brightness of the
used to send control signals to the dimmer rack that tell lighting instrument.
it which dimmer should turn on and to what intensity.
This control signal is referred to as a channel. In 4.5 Lighting Positions and Angles
addition, the console can send signals to other lighting As seen in the earlier discussion of direction and
equipment such as intelligent lighting, color scrollers, angle, the placement of a light greatly affects the
gobo rotators, and environmental effects like fogger/ resulting lighting look. For this reason, it is useful
hazers. for choreographer and designer alike to understand
the possibilities for lighting placement within the
Lighting Instruments performance space and how each unique position
Lighting instruments are the final component of the can be utilized. The following section details common
lighting system. Conventional lighting instruments are lighting angles, their qualities, and how best to achieve
lights that remain in a fixed position and whose intensity them in a performance space.
can be changed by the amount of electrical power
supplied to them. Intelligent lighting instruments are Side Lighting
a variety of lights that have a number of controllable Side lighting is the principal lighting angle used in dance
properties such as focus position, intensity, color, lighting design. From an artistic perspective, it focuses

62 production areas
F I G UR E 4. 1 2 Side lighting can come from booms or lighting towers
Side lighting reveals the physical
placed in the wings, from the offstage ends of the
form of the dancer, while creating
interesting shadows. electrics, or even from the box boom positions. Since
Lighting design and photography by the boom/tower is the most common position used in
Jeromy Hopgood.
creating side lighting for dance, it is important to have a
good understanding of its attributes.

Booms
The primary position for side lighting is the boom, a
vertical lighting pipe with heavy weighted base, placed
in the wings (Figure 4.13). Booms are frequently bolted
to the floor or weighed down with sand/shot bags to
counterbalance the weight of the lighting instruments
hung on them. In addition, since many booms are

Loyal

Responsible

on the physical form of the dancer, giving high contrast Available

and allowing the audience to truly pay attention to the
subtleties of the dancer’s physicality. From a practical
standpoint, side lighting is relatively quick and easy to
set up. It also allows for a variety of looks with the least Responsible
Responsible
amount of lighting instruments. All of this makes it an
ideal choice for touring repertory in dance. By itself,
side lighting can create a somewhat mysterious look
F IG UR E 4. 13
that focuses on the edges of the dancer, while creating a A boom, featuring four side lighting positions.
heavily sculpted look (Figure 4.12). Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

63 Lighting
F I G UR E 4. 1 4 focused off of the stage floor. This angle of light
The four primary side lighting positions
creates an interesting effect of having the dancer
from a boom.
Photography by Jeromy Hopgood. suspended in space, magically hovering above the
floor (Figure 4.14A).
2. Mid-highs: Mid side lighting is hung approximately
waist-high on the boom and pointing directly
out towards the centerline of the theatre (Figure
4.14B). Some of the light will spill onto the stage
floor. This lighting illuminates the dancer’s body
and does an excellent job of revealing the three-
dimensional form. When dealing with dancers in
C. HEAD-HIGHS (2 SIDES) D. HIGH SIDES (2 SIDES) a row, though, this might not be the best choice
of instrument, as the dancer closest to the wings
is brightly illuminated and casts shadows on the
subsequent dancers.
3. Head-highs: Head-high side lighting is placed 6´
to 8´ off of the stage floor (Figure 4.14C). Heads
are not focused off the stage floor, so there is an
amount of light spilling onto the floor, but not so
much as to distract from the dancer. This position,
together with the shins, makes up the two essential
lighting angles for side lighting in dance.
4. Highs: High side lighting uses a lighting instrument
C. HEAD-HIGHS (2 SIDES) D. HIGH SIDES (2 SIDES)
hung 10´ to 14´ off of the stage floor pointed
diagonally down onto the stage (Figure 4.14D). This
10´ to 16´ in height, some have a safety line attached to
angle creates interesting shadows from the dancer
the top of the boom that extends to the theatre’s grid.
onto the stage floor and creates a great sense of
It is common to hang anywhere from three to six lighting space.
instruments from each boom, typically ellipsoidal
reflector spotlights with the ability to be tightly focused. Front Lighting
Listed below are the descriptions of dance boom Front lighting is any lighting source that points directly
lighting placement. Figure 4.14 illustrates the differing towards the stage. It can be positioned overhead in the
looks of the four common instrument positions on a auditorium or on stage. For theatrical lighting, front
boom. lighting is the primary source of illumination. In dance
lighting, however, the most important lighting direction
1. Shin busters: Low side lighting is a fundamental
will always be side lighting. As such, front lighting for
lighting angle for dance. These lights are hung
dance is mostly used as a “fill light” to wash across the
approximately shin high (12˝ to 18˝ from the stage
stage and help the audience see the dancers’ faces.
deck) and pointed up to head height, with the light

64 production areas
 Dance lighting tends to avoid an overuse of front light, Foot Lighting
since lighting from the front tends to flatten out an Footlights are a row of lights placed at floor level,
object, eliminate the sculptural look desired for dance, typically at the front edge or back edge of the stage.
and cast odd shadows from the costumes onto the Older theatres may even still have a “trough” at the
dancers’ bodies. The notable exception to this rule is front edge of the stage, sunken beneath the floor
in ballet, where the traditional approach is to use front surface so that they are out of the audience’s line of
lighting to eliminate the shadow in the center of the sight. Footlights point upstage at the dancers, casting
dancer’s body that results from side light alone. long shadows onto the upstage area and backdrop.
Front lighting is categorized by the different angles. It is a rather unnatural look, since low front lighting
Figure 4.15 includes examples of various angles of front rarely appears in nature. The effect makes the dancer
lighting. seem quite tall, but has a somewhat limited use, since
the projected shadow of the dancer on the backdrop
can prove to be distracting from the actual dancer
(Figure 4.15A).

Low-angle Front Lighting

Low-angle front lighting in most theatres comes from
the balcony level or from catwalk positions on the back
wall of the auditorium. These positions are ideal to get
light onto the dancers’ faces, but would “flatten out” the
dancers and cast shadows on the backdrop if used on
their own (see Figure 4.15B). As a result, they are often
used at lower intensities for fill light.

High-angle Front Lighting

In most theatres, the majority of front lighting comes
COVESCOVES COVES
COVES COVES
at a high angle from either lighting positions in the
auditorium (called ceiling slots) or from an overhead
electric onstage (see Figure 4.15C). A ceiling slot,
sometimes called a port, is a lighting position over the
audience’s head, hidden out of sight by the architecture
of the theatre. An electric is a batten from which
lighting instruments are intended to hang. If it is a
dedicated electric, the batten will have permanent
circuits attached to it and be clearly labeled. Electrics
can be used for a number of different lighting angles
F I G UR E 4. 1 5 from front to side, back, or down lighting. For naming
Four common front lighting positions. purposes, electrics are labeled numerically from
Photography by Jeromy Hopgood. C. CEILING SLOT D. COVES

65 Lighting
 downstage to upstage (i.e. first electric, second Back Lighting
electric, etc.). Back lighting also plays an important role in dance
lighting. The main benefit of back lighting on the dancer
Front Low-angle Side Lighting
is to separate the dancer from the background and
Coves are lighting positions in the side walls of the make the figure truly stand out. From the audience’s
auditorium. Like the ceiling slots, they are often perspective, back lighting reads most strongly on the
disguised by the building’s architecture so the audience stage floor (Figure 4.16). Since so much of the other
cannot see them. Not every theatre has coves, but lighting angles are focused off of the stage floor,
some come equipped with multiple cove positions in back lighting offers a unique opportunity to add color
the house. These positions make for good low-angle and textures to the stage floor. If back lighting is in
front side lighting across the downstage areas from the a complementary color to the front lighting, a halo
auditorium sides. Figure 4.15D includes an example of a effect will be seen surrounding the dancer, particularly
dancer lit from a cove position. around the head and shoulders. Back lighting is most
often achieved by hanging instruments on the overhead
electrics, pointed downstage.

F I G UR E 4. 1 6
This image combines high-angle blue back
lighting with a dim wash of front lighting.
The back lighting creates a blue wash on
the stage floor.
Lighting design and photography by
Jeromy Hopgood.

66 production areas
 Low-angle Back Lighting An electric is the obvious choice for down light
In addition to high-angle back lighting, low-angle back instruments, as it is placed directly above the stage.
lighting can create an interesting effect. Low-angle back Down lighting is very common in dance lighting,
lighting is achieved from lighting instruments placed particularly when used as a special. A special is a light
at the floor level and pointing downstage towards the that is hung for a specific purpose, like a particular
audience. These are typically in the form of footlights, moment within the dance where you want to highlight
or floor mounts, a lighting instrument attached to a a dancer or movement. Down light specials are
base on the floor. This lighting angle creates a strong commonly hung in each of the nine main areas of the
silhouette, but eliminates all sense of form for the stage, pointed down with a crisp focus. In this way, the
dancer. The body will be perceived as a dark silhouette designer can isolate a location on the stage and draw
surrounded by a bright background (Figure 4.17). One focus to that area. Keep in mind that the angle of down
thing to be wary of with this lighting is the danger of light makes for odd shadows on the dancer, though, so
blinding your audience. Though this can create an it is wise to use it sparingly. Figure 4.18 illustrates the
interesting effect, using this angle too frequently can creative use of down lighting in a dance production.
lead to fatiguing your audience’s eyes.
Lighting the Background
Down Lighting One final element to consider is the lighting of
Down lighting is the use of a lighting instrument background elements. For most dances staged in a
hung overhead to point straight down onto the stage. theatre the background is a cyclorama, a painted drop, a
scrim, or a combination of more than one.

Cyclorama
A cyclorama, called a cyc for short, is a large fabric
backdrop hung upstage (see Figure 3.9). Originally,
the term cyclorama referred specifically to a curved
backdrop, and flat drops were called a sky drop.
Today, most people simply refer to all sky drops as
a cyclorama. The cyc is typically gray or light blue in
color and used for lighting effects to create a large
colored backdrop. It is lit by special lighting instruments
referred to as cyc lights or strip lights. These lights are
specially designed to evenly spread their light across a
wide surface area. In addition, cyc lights tend to have
three to four lights in a cluster, each one having an
individual color, such as red, green, blue, and amber.
Through the use of these colors, the lighting designer
F I G UR E 4. 1 7
can mix colors and create a wide variety of colors for the
A dancer lit from behind, using a floor-
mounted instrument. backdrop.
Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

67 Lighting
F I G UR E 4. 1 8
Strong down lights create an interesting
high-contrast visual. Lighting design by
Jared Sayeg.

Cyc lights are typically hung overhead on a batten Drops are typically painted on muslin fabric. Lighting a
close to the cyclorama and sometimes placed on the drop requires the use of high front light from a batten
floor pointing up at the cyc. These lights on the floor downstage of the drop, similar to lighting a cyclorama.
are referred to as a lighting ground row. This type
of lighting from both above and below the cyclorama Scrim
makes for the ability to create a split lighting effect with A scrim is a type of fabric with an open weave, similar
color control for both top and bottom. When lighting the to gauze, used for creating a full-stage backdrop
cyclorama from below, it is important to use a scenic (see Figure 3.8). Scrim can either be a solid color
ground row, a short vertical row of flat scenery on the or have scenic elements painted on it. This fabric is
stage floor used for masking the lighting ground row. advantageous for theatrical applications because of the
nature of scrim to appear either opaque or translucent,
Painted Backdrops depending on the type of lighting cast upon it. When
A painted backdrop, sometimes simply called a drop, is lit from the front, the color or painting on the scrim is
a large fabric backdrop upon which scenery is painted. visible. When the front lighting is taken away and the

68 production areas
 lighting behind the scrim left up, the scrim becomes Instrument Types: Spotlight (Specific Lighting)
translucent, creating a magical “hazy” look to objects When discussing lighting instruments, the instrument
behind it. Scrim is frequently used in dance as a types are commonly grouped together based on their
backdrop near the cyclorama (Figure 4.19). When a lighting output attributes. The spotlight fixture is a type
black scrim is used downstage of the cyclorama, the of lighting instrument that can create a tight pool of
lighting effects on the cyc can still be viewed, or the lighting, has the ability for beam shaping, and can affect
black of the scrim can create a neutral black backdrop changes to the beam’s focus from crisp to soft. There
when cyc light is removed. This makes for a versatile are many different types of spotlight fixtures, though
dance background. In Figure 4.19, a black scrim was the most common type used in dance applications is
used as a backdrop, with the back wall of the theatre the Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight, or ERS for short.
space exposed upstage of the scrim. This made for an An ERS is a type of lighting instrument that uses an
interesting contrast when lighting the wall. ellipsoidal-shaped reflector in conjunction with its lamp
to create a high-intensity beam of light. Introduced in
4.6 Lighting Instruments
the 1930s, the first ERS was called a Leko, named for its
The selection of a lighting instrument is one of the most two developers, Joseph Levy and Edward Kook. Some
important duties of the lighting designer. The lighting people today may still use this term to refer to any ERS
designer must understand the technical specifications instrument. Though differing manufacturers offer a
of many different types of lighting instruments and slightly different approach to the ERS, there are some
how best to utilize them to achieve the desired artistic common features (Figure 4.20):
outcome. Though lighting equipment rapidly changes
with advances in design and engineering, there are ●● C-clamp and yoke: The lighting instrument is
some common types of instruments that consistently attached to a batten by means of a c-clamp. The
appear in dance lighting. It is useful for choreographers c-clamp is bolted to a u-shaped steel piece called
and designers alike to familiarize themselves with some the yoke. It is tightened down to the batten to secure
of these basic types of instruments and their attributes. the light. In addition, there is a set screw attached
to the c-clamp that can be loosened to allow the

F I G UR E 4. 1 9
In these images, a black scrim is used
as a backdrop. When unlit (left), the
background appears to be flat black.
When the back walls of the theatre
are lit (right), they magically appear
behind the scrim, creating an ethereal
look to the backdrop. Choreography by
Erik Abbott-Main. Lighting design by
Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

69 Lighting
 F IG UR E 4. 20
The ERS lighting fixture.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.
GOBO SLOT
GOBO
GOBO
COLOR BARREL ●● Barrel: The barrel is the component of the lighting
SLOT GOBO instrument that contains the lenses for adjusting the

~ focus of the beam of light. By adjusting the distance

of the barrel from the light source, the resulting pool
of light will be either crisp or fuzzy in focus. Modern
lighting instruments feature removable barrels that
are interchangeable. This allows for one lighting
fixture to be used in different situations. Barrels are
named for the beam spread of lighting they produce.
Common beam spreads are 5-, 10-, 19-, 26-, 36-, and
BARREL ADJUSTMENT KNOB SHUTTERS 50-degree. The smaller the beam spread, the further
away the light is intended to be hung from the focus
instrument to pan from side to side for focusing point and vice versa.
purposes. ●● Color slot (gel frame holder): At the end of the barrel
●● Shutters: One of the identifying features of the ERS is is a slot for a gel frame holder. Gels are placed in
the ability to shape its beam of light through the use a metal frame called a gel frame. The gel frame,
of shutters. A shutter is a moveable metal plate that complete with gel, is then inserted in the gel frame
blocks the beam of light in order to shape the output. holder at the end of the barrel. Most barrels also
There are four shutters than can be slid into different have a locking clip so as to secure the gel frame and
configurations. Due to the shutter placement and the keep it from falling out. In addition to the standard
nature of reflected light inside the ERS, the physical gel, a color scroller can be used in the color slot. A
action of shuttering the light will be reversed in the color scroller is a box-shaped lighting accessory with
resulting pool of light. This means that pushing in a string of gels fused together on a loop. This string
the top shutter will affect the bottom portion of the of gels is attached to a motor that can move the loop
pool of light, and the right shutter will affect the left along until the chosen color appears in the gate.
side of the light. Color scrollers have an external power supply and
●● Gobo slot: The ERS comes equipped with a gobo slot, are controlled by a control signal from the lighting
a slot in the top of the lighting body made for the use console.
of a gobo. This slot can accept either steel or glass
gobos. Similar to the shutter, gobo patterns will be The Follow Spot
reversed on the lighting surface. It is important to A follow spot is a particular type of spotlight lighting
remember this fact when working with templates fixture controlled by a human operator and designed to
that feature writing or recognizable symbols. In create an intensely bright pool of light with a long throw
order to be correctly projected, the gobo must be distance. It is typically located in the theatre’s control
placed upside down and reversed into the gobo slot. booth or in special positions in the balcony so as to be

70 production areas
F I G UR E 4. 2 1 that can create a large wash of evening lighting across a
A small follow spot unit.
wide area. Wash fixtures are best used for this purpose.
Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.
There are two conventional lighting instruments used
for wash lighting: the Fresnel and the PAR-type fixture.
The following section discusses these two instruments
and some of their attributes.

The Fresnel
The Fresnel is named for Augustin-Jean Fresnel, the
French scientist who invented its interesting lens.
Fresnel took the basic plano convex lens and cut away
sections of the glass in concentric rings, thereby making
a lens with the same refractive properties as the plano
convex but with much less material. The Fresnel is an
excellent choice for back lighting since it can create an
even wash of the stage for large color fills.

Unlike the ERS, a Fresnel has fewer internal tools for

adjusting the overall appearance of light output. Inside
the Fresnel are a spherical reflector and lamp mounted
on a moveable carriage (sometimes called a sled), and
a Fresnel lens (Figure 4.22). The quality of the light can

hidden away from the audience. Follow spots are often

used in ballet productions.

A typical follow spot (Figure 4.21) has a douser to “dim”

the beam of light and an iris to change the size of the
circular pool of light, a horizontal shutter control,
and a “color boomerang” at the end of the barrel to
change the color of light. The light is mounted on a
moveable base that can be locked down into place.
The follow spot’s yoke is attached to a central pedestal
that enables panning and tilting the instrument with
minimal effort.

Instrument Types: Wash Lighting (General Lighting)

F IG UR E 4. 22
Whereas the spotlight is used for specific lighting, A Fresnel lighting instrument.
sometimes the lighting designer needs an instrument Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

71 Lighting
 be changed from spot (sharper) to flood (diffused) by Instrument Types: Cyc Lights
moving the sled closer to or further away from the lens. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, there are a variety
Sliding further away achieves a spot focus, whereas of lighting instruments used for lighting the cyclorama
moving closer creates a flood focus. There are no or stage drops. These lights are intended to hang near
shutters in the Fresnel for beam shaping, though there the cyclorama from a batten above or placed as a
is a device called a barn door that can be attached to the ground row on the floor. Cyc lights tend to fall into three
end of the Fresnel to shape the light output. Though you main categories: strip lights, quartz “far-throw” cyc
can never achieve a crisp shutter cut like the ERS, the fixtures, or LED cyc fixtures.
barn door is an effective tool for basic beam shaping.
Strip lights are a variety of cyc lights that feature a long
The PAR-type Fixture rectangular lighting fixture with multiple paired cells
For years, the PAR fixture was the go-to lighting of lights in sequence. They tend to feature three or four
instrument for dance and concert lighting because of its different cells for maximum color mixing capabilities.
lightweight, cost-effective design and ability to create The far-throw cyc fixture is a type of cyc light made
wide colorful washes of light. The PAR is named for its up of one to four large rectangular quartz lamps per
unique lamp (the Parabolic Aluminized Reflector) that section and can be hung further away from the cyc
combines together light source, reflector, and lens into or drop than a typical strip light. They cover a large
one component (Figure 4.23). The PAR lighting fixture is area with a smooth, even wash of lighting but require
simply a metal housing to hold the PAR lamp with a gel around a 4´ distance from the cyclorama for effective
slot on the end of the barrel. The simple design of this coverage. LED cyc fixtures feature LED cells instead
lighting instrument led to the term “PAR-can” since it of conventional lamps. This allows for exceptionally
is essentially a PAR in a can. Like the Fresnel, the PAR bright light with color mixing capabilities without using
must use barn doors for beam shaping (though you can a gel.
change out the lamps for very narrow, narrow, medium,
Instrument Types: Intelligent Lighting
or wide flood).
Intelligent lighting is a blanket term referring
to a wide array of lighting instruments that have
controllable attributes to make them more versatile
than conventional fixtures. One of the most appealing
attributes of an intelligent light is the ability to remotely
adjust the light’s focus. This is why some people simply
refer to them as “moving lights.” Many intelligent
lighting fixtures have a wide array of controllable
features, such as color change, gobos, gobo rotation,
prism effects, strobe effects, and built-in effects
engines, to simply create interesting visual effects.
Intelligent lighting has become a mainstay of concert
F I G UR E 4. 2 3
lighting and audiences have come to expect this
A PAR64 lighting instrument.
Photo courtesy of Jonge Koning. dynamic look in concert settings.

72 production areas
Like conventional lighting fixtures, intelligent lighting Hazers
tends to be split into different varieties of wash and spot Another type of atmospheric effect is called haze.
fixtures. Though intelligent lighting has a high initial Haze is a long-lasting mist that hangs in the air for an
cost, a small number of intelligent lights in a dance extended period of time without dissipating. Haze is
light plot can help the designer limit the number of popular for concert lighting and outdoor events as it can
instruments necessary to create a versatile design. One easily fill a large area even in locations with inconsistent
important consideration in using intelligent lighting air circulation. It is the haze effect that creates the
is cabling. Unlike a conventional lighting instrument iconic rock and roll lighting appearance of visible shafts
that is controlled by the power supply only, intelligent of colored light in the air. Hazers use either water-
lighting needs both a power supply and a control signal. based hazer fluid or liquid nitrogen to create haze. Many
This means the use of DMX cable that runs from the models of smoke machines, foggers, and hazers are
lighting console to the intelligent lighting fixture for DMX-controllable and can be connected to a lighting
the control signal. Rather than run a separate cable for console for remote control.
each instrument, though, it is common to “daisy chain”
the instruments together and have cabling run from 4.8 Color in Lighting
instrument to instrument. Color is one of the most powerful tools of the lighting
designer. It can communicate mood and atmosphere
4.7 Atmospherics
more effectively than most any other attribute
In addition to selecting the appropriate lighting of lighting. There are entire books dedicated to
instrument, there are a number of decisions to be made color theory and how lighting affects color. For the
that affect how lighting is perceived onstage. One of purposes of this text, we will examine a few of the key
the most important factors to how lighting is perceived characteristics of color in lighting and how to implement
is atmospherics, typically in the form of haze and fog. color in a lighting design.
Since lighting is intangible, it can only be seen when it
touches an object. When a beam of light passes through Talking About Color
a darkened space, the beam itself is unperceivable It can be difficult to discuss something so technical as
unless the air contains particles (i.e. water, dust, fog, lighting and color without having a basic understanding
etc.) For this reason, there are a number of devices that of vocabulary. It is important to have a common
can be used to create atmospheric effects. vocabulary between designers and collaborators,
though, to ensure that everyone is on the same
Fog Machines
page. When discussing the name of the color, we
The use of fog is a time-tested effect for theatre and commonly use the word hue. In basic terms, this can
dance. There are different types of machines that can be interpreted as the color’s name or its placement in
produce both low-lying fog that clings to the stage the visible color spectrum. When discussing the purity
surface or a more smoke-like airborne variety. Most of the color, we tend to use the term saturation, which
types of fog machines use a water-based liquid called refers to the amount of a hue present in the colored
fog juice. Low-lying fog machines work through either lighting.
the use of dry ice, a chiller unit to cool smoke, or by
creating fog directly from liquid CO2.

73 Lighting
 Another word used in relation to a color’s saturation the resulting hue is closer towards white light. This
is value. In discussing pigment, value relates to the phenomenon is referred to as additive color mixing.
relative amount of black or white in a color. This value
scale can be illustrated as a chart with black on one Primary and Secondary Colors
end, white on the other, and the pure hue located in A primary color is a pure color that cannot be created
the center. Since there is no black lighting, a color’s by mixing together other colors. These primary colors,
value in lighting is relative to the amount of white light though, can be mixed to create interesting colors known
present. Therefore, the value scale for a hue in lighting as secondary colors. In pigment, we know that all
is illustrated with the saturated hue on one end of the colors are made up of three primary colors: red, yellow,
scale and pure white on the other end (Figure 4.24). We and blue. Many people are surprised to discover that
will discuss these terms a bit more as we address the the primary colors in lighting are different than those
use of color media later. in pigment. For lighting, the three primary colors are
red, green, and blue. By mixing pure versions of these
Color Mixing three colors together, one can create any color in the
Another fundamental aspect of lighting is color mixing. visible lighting spectrum. Figure 4.25 illustrates the
Color in lighting behaves in a unique fashion, quite colors of light and how color mixing works in lighting.
differently than colored pigment in paint or inks. In The three primary colors (red, green, and blue) are on
examining what we call “white light,” all of the visible the outside circles. Where these areas overlap, the
colors of the spectrum are present. The reason for result is secondary colors. The illustration shows that
this difference lies in the fact that, unlike paint, when red and green combine to create yellow, green, and
different hues of colored lighting are added together,

Loyal

Caring Caring
Caring

Caring Loyal
Loyal

F I G UR E 4. 2 4 F IGU RE 4. 25
This value scale shows the gradation of a Color mixing in lighting.
red hue from pure saturation to white. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

74 production areas
blue combine to create cyan; and blue and red combine Four main manufacturers (Rosco, Lee, GAM, and
together to create magenta. Apollo) make theatrical gels. In recent years, Rosco
purchased GAM, but left the GAM line of gels available
Another important concept in colored lighting is how
for purchase as a division of Rosco. Each manufacturer
colors interact with one another. Looking at Figure 4.25,
makes swatch books with a small sample of their gels.
you will notice the arrows connecting certain hues.
When working with gels from different manufacturers,
These hues, opposite to one another on the chart,
it is important to remember that some colors will
are referred to as complementary colors. In lighting,
have similar names, but produce a differing hue. For
complementary colors are those that produce white
example, most manufacturers create a color called
light when combined together. When looking at these
“bastard amber” but each one is slightly different in
colors side by side, the effect is making both colors
color. For this reason, manufacturers have a numbering
appear more bright and vibrant than seeing any one
system to differentiate the different colors between
by itself. This can create an interesting effect, but can
brands. Designers use the letters of the manufacturer
lead to visual overstimulation if used for too long on
to distinguish between makers. For instance, the color
the stage. Colors closer together on the chart, called
bastard amber could be listed as R02 (Rosco), L162
analogous colors, are more similar to one another and
(Lee), G325 (GAM), AP7050 (Apollo)—even though it
have less visual contrast (i.e. cyan and blue).
has a slightly different name for each manufacturer. It
Producing Color in Light is important that a lighting designer be familiar with
colors from all four manufacturers and maintains
There are a number of different ways to create colored
current swatch books. To obtain a swatch book, contact
lighting for the stage. For most dance applications,
your local theatrical supplier or the manufacturers
though, there are three main devices used to produce
directly.
color in lighting: color filters (gels), glass color filters,
and LED lighting instruments. It is important to There is some important information included in all
understand these different tools, how each of them swatch books related to gel selection. The first item to
is used, and the difference in the quality of colors look at is the gel’s transmission. Transmission refers
produced onstage. to the amount of light transmitted through the gel. A
low percentage of transmission means that a small
Color Filters percentage of the visible spectrum passes through
There are a number of ways to produce color in light. the gel, thus producing high color saturation. A high
One method is the use of a color filter, often referred transmission means the opposite. Since a greater
to as a gel. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, a gel amount of white light passes through the gel, the
is a thin polycarbonate or polyester sheet infused with resulting color will be unsaturated—closer to white
pigment and placed in the path of a beam of light to light.
produce a colored beam of light. In early days, they
In practical terms, it is important to remember that
were made of gelatin, leading to the use of the term gel,
those gels with the least transmission have a shorter
which has continued in use over the years. Gels work
lifespan than high transmission gels. Since saturated
by absorbing unwanted wavelengths of lights and only
colors convert a greater amount of light into heat
allowing the desired wavelength to pass though, thereby
energy, they often develop a hole burnt into the center
producing the resulting color.

75 Lighting
of the gel over time. Some manufacturers make long- it is wise to use LED lighting in conjunction with
life gels to counteract this effect, but for longer show conventional fixtures.
runs gels will have to be regularly replaced. All plastic
One thing to keep in mind with LED fixtures is that the
color media used in a conventional lighting fixture will
instruments themselves, not separate dimmers, control
eventually burn out.
the dimming of lights. As the LED lights dim, there are
Glass Color Filters rapid pulses of the LED that happen too quickly for the
human eye to take in under normal circumstances. This
Another possibility for producing colored lighting is a
pulsing can often be seen under the camera, especially
glass color filter. Strip lights can use special convex
if the shutter rate of the camera is set in sync with the
glass filters called roundels. In ERS fixtures and moving
refresh rate of the LED lighting instruments. Make sure
lights, glass color filters are used to create a vivid
to research the settings available on your LED lighting
colored beam of light. In addition to a plain glass filter,
if you intend to capture the dance on video. Likewise, in
there are also glass gobos with textures and color built
some instances a dance that is presented in low lighting
in and variegated glass filters that create interesting
with only LED lighting can create an effect similar to
color-blended textural effects, such as fire or water.
strobe lighting. Again, adjusting the refresh rate on
All of these glass color filters can be used in addition
the instruments can be useful in solving this problem.
to a conventional steel gobo for creating varied effects.
Finally, the quality of LED color can sometimes be
Glass filters will never lose their color or burn out. The
described as electric, vivid, or extreme. While this is
only danger in a glass filter is the possibility of dropping
appropriate for some dances, it may seem off-putting in
and breaking the filter. Though glass is much more
other situations. As we move forward with LED lighting,
expensive, the extended life may make it appealing for
it will be more important than ever to keep in mind the
longer productions.
old adage “you get what you pay for.” Often, low-cost
LED Lighting lighting instruments, though able to create interesting
lighting effects onstage, will not have the ability to
The final of the most common methods for producing
make the necessary adjustments for the challenges
colored lighting is LED lighting. As mentioned earlier,
mentioned above. High-quality fixtures (typically higher
one of the greatest benefits of LED lighting is its ability
in cost) will have a number of features built into their
to create vivid, brightly saturated colored lighting
control structure to address these issues.
without the heat present in conventional lighting
fixtures. LED lighting is still in many ways in its infancy. 4.9 Chapter Review
Initially, it was mostly in wash fixtures and strip lighting
Lighting design is a multifaceted component of dance
that LED fixtures appeared on the stage. Within the
production that requires both artistic and technical
last few years, we have seen a number of the larger
proficiency in a designer. In seeking to understand
theatrical lighting companies make huge advances
the basics of lighting, this chapter explored the
in their offerings, featuring LED moving lights, wash
functions and properties of lighting—both what we
fixtures, and even ERS fixtures. At this point, most
can accomplish through lighting and the controllable
theatres and designers have not made a move to LED-
aspects of the light itself. In addition, we examined
only lighting installations. For a number of reasons,
the physical theatre space and how where lighting
instruments are placed affects distribution. Finally, a

76 production areas
focus on lighting systems, equipment, and color gives 3. Describe the components of a lighting system and
insight into how the technical side of lighting design their individual functions.
truly affects the types of artistic decisions that the 4. What is the most common hanging position for
designer makes. achieving side lighting?

From the choreographer’s perspective, it is 5. What is the name of a batten from which lighting
advantageous to have a passing understanding of the instruments are hung?
basics of lighting design. Those who can enter the 6. What is a scrim?
collaborative process with this knowledge will find it 7. What does ERS stand for?
easier to communicate with the lighting designer and 8. What is uncommon about how shutters operate?
find the end product more closely matches their vision
9. What device is used to fill the air with a long-lasting
for the production.
mist?
Review Questions 10. The combination of complementary colors
produces which color of light?
1. What are the functions of dance lighting?
2. What are two terms commonly used to discuss the
quality of lighting?

77 Lighting
 CHAPTER 5
CREATING THE
LIGHTING DESIGN

The secret lies in our perception of light in the theatre as

something alive. Does this mean that we are to carry images
of poetry and vision and high passion in our minds while we
are shouting out orders to electricians on ladders? Yes, that
is what it means.

Robert Edmond Jones

The graceful lines of a dancer’s silhouette, captured through lighting.

Photography by Richard Calmes.
The job of the lighting designer is a delicate balancing Collaborative Models
act of artistry and technical details. The difficult part of The history of dance in the last century is a study of how
the lighting designer’s role in a production is that much the choreographer/designer paradigm visibly shifted.
of his/her work depends on the ability to successfully Before the early twentieth century, much of the larger
communicate the ephemeral. The lighting designer context of professional dance was ballet-driven: large
must communicate with the choreographer and other productions telling a story with elaborate scenery
members of the production team how a moment will and costumes. In this model, lighting designers were
look before ever having hung or focused the lights, cued generally expected to create a wash of light across the
the show, or sometimes even having stepped into the stage, with follow spots used to track principal dancers.
performance space. In order to make certain that these In short, the role of the lighting designer was to create
original concepts are successfully carried over to the visibility. George Balanchine, considered by most as
actual performance, the lighting designer must create the father of American Ballet, co-founded the New York
a vast amount of design drawings and paperwork, City Ballet and choreographed for both Broadway and
and work closely with the technicians who set up the Hollywood. His works from the 1940s onward introduced
lighting equipment. This chapter details the process of a new modernist take on ballet that was more abstract
creating the lighting design from concept discussions and stripped down. As works like these became more
to opening night. This information is useful not only prevalent in the classical repertoire and choreographers
to the designer, but also to the choreographer in the like Martha Graham popularized modern dance with the
collaborative process. general public, lighting design moved away from basic
illumination and became equal parts alternative scenery
5.1 Working with the Choreographer
and artistic expression. In the latter half of the twentieth
The process of working with a choreographer century Merce Cunningham, as mentioned in Chapter
is, to a great degree, a question of interpersonal 1, embraced the notion of “stand-alone” production
communication and individual personalities. Unlike elements in which the dancing, lighting, scenery, and
most theatrical productions, dance allows you to work music were created separately and then combined for
firsthand with the creator of the artistic work and not the performance. In looking at this brief history, one
have a director as a mediator to the creative process. can see three basic expectations for lighting designers
This would be akin to a playwright directing his/her that remain prevalent today. While individual cases
own play. If all parties approach the process with open vary, most often I see choreographers expecting one or
minds and flexibility, this unique relationship can lead more of these three approaches: Make sure I can see
to a rewarding collaborative process. Unfortunately, the dance; Support/comment on the dance’s narrative;
too many times someone comes to the table with a I trust you to do what you like. As a choreographer
preconceived notion of “how things must work.” If there and designer alike, it is important to identify the
is one firm rule for collaboration, it is this: there are collaborative goals before heading into the production.
no set rules for how we can successfully collaborate.
We must arrive at them together, if they are to be Setting Goals
successful. One challenge inherent in collaboration is that most
people don’t go into a project consciously thinking about
how they would like to work with their colleagues. For

80 production areas
this reason, I always find it useful as a designer to Practical Concerns
approach each project with a series of questions to help When working in a collaborative art form, the devil
define expectations. This is an approach I use in both is truly in the details. Communication is everyone’s
theatrical and dance design. I find it to be useful for both responsibility, to ensure that all production participants
parties, and have had many choreographers tell me that are on the same page. When going into collaboration
it helps them clarify their thoughts on the dance and with a choreographer (especially for the first time) I
consider it in a way they had not before. The following always try to send a message with a list of practical
list is tailored for lighting design, but can be used to concerns that will be important to the overall process.
think about a number of different production areas. Listed below is a checklist of information with which
the designers, choreographer, and dancers should
Talking About Your Dance
be familiar. Keep in mind that the answers to these
1. Describe in two to three sentences what you want questions will always vary. There is no set formula that
your dance to communicate. will always be followed. It is just useful for everyone to
2. Is your dance based on or influenced by any start from a common place. It is also possible that the
particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include choreographer will not have answers to all of these
images, links/references with this response). questions. Some of these questions might best be
3. Is your dance in one piece, or are there distinctly addressed to the production manager and/or technical
different “movements” or sections within the director.
dance? (Some choreographers like to create a brief
●● Is this a new piece or a remount?
“script” of the dance, describing important events
●● If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that
or changes in music within the dance. This can be
are important to reproduce?
particularly useful to designers who are used to
working from the written word. It can help both ●● What is the rehearsal schedule?
the designer and stage manager have a better ●● What is the tech schedule?
understanding of the choreographer’s intent.) ●● Will there be regularly scheduled production
4. If there are different sections of the dance, how do meetings?
they differ from one another? ●● At what point will the dance be fully choreographed?
5. Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases ●● Will you be at all rehearsals, or will a rehearsal
to describe how your dance (or individual sections) director run rehearsals?
should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain ●● Is there a point at which the dance can be video
your concept—it tends to be more effective to focus, recorded for cueing purposes?
instead, on what the dance or moments should feel ●● Can you share the music used in the dance?
like.
●● Will costumes be available to view before tech?
6. What is the color scheme of your costumes?
●● Will projection be involved as a design element?
7. Are there specific technical needs of your dance
related to lighting? 5.2 Communicating the Design
Creating a lighting design involves a number of
steps bringing together the artistic and technical

81 creating the Lighting design

elements into one elegant presentation. Though the cases, this software even allows the designer to pre-
designer creates the concept for the lighting design, program the show before ever entering the space. I
it is actually the stagehands that set up all of the personally prefer to use such software for presentation
lighting equipment for the production. For this reason, purposes and cueing in the theatre, but there are a
there is a series of design drawings and paperwork number of different approaches. Some such programs
necessary for communicating the design specifics to like WYSIWYG and ESP Vision work with a number of
a crew of electricians who implement the designer’s different configurations. Other programs, like grandMA
specifications. Though the choreographer should not 3D, are designed to work specifically with a certain line
be expected to understand all of the requirements of of lighting consoles.
creating these design drawings and paperwork, it is
important to have a passing familiarity with all of the Draftings: The Light Plot
elements. Such an understanding invariably leads to an The light plot is a type of drafting. A drafting is a
increased appreciation for the job of the designer and specialized drawing produced through mechanical
his/her role within the production. means for the purpose of communicating details. It
can be hand-drafted or created by CAD software, such
Visual Communication as Vectorworks® or AutoCAD®. Draftings are always
The lighting designer tends to produce considerably executed in scale, meaning that they include all details
fewer drawings or visual representations of his/her with accurate sizes, but proportionately shrunk down
finalized design than the scenic, costume, or projections by a certain amount. For instance, a ½˝ scale drafting
designers. Much of this is due to the fact that lighting means that every ½˝ measured on the drafting is equal
works atop the palette of and in conjunction with those to 1 foot in the real world.
other design elements. It is much more common to
The purpose of a light plot is to include all of the
find the lighting designer communicating ideas through
necessary technical information of the lighting design
visual research, storyboards, or verbal exchanges
needed by the electricians to hang, circuit, and focus
than through a traditional rendering medium. This
the design (Figure 5.1). Light plots are drafted atop a
seems to be even more prevalent in dance lighting
plan view of the theatre space and any included scenery.
than in theatrical lighting. For all that, though, there
This drafting is provided to the lighting designer by the
are a number of methods commonly used by lighting
theatre staff or scenic designer. A plan view is a drafting
designers to communicate the design idea.
done from a bird’s eye view of the theatre, looking down
Pre-visualization on the performance space.

As the prevalence of 3D rendering and CAD (Computer Light plots include hanging positions, lighting
Aided Drafting) technology has increased, more instruments, circuiting and dimmer information, focus
designers depend on pre-visualization programs to (where the light is pointed), color, and other information,
create a realistic representation of their design on the such as if the light uses a gobo or accessory. Another
computer. Such programs allow the lighting designer important aspect of the light plot is the instrument key.
to input a 3D model of the theatre, scenery, and An instrument key is an information box included on the
human figures into a program with the exact lighting drafting that shows all of the symbols used for lighting
fixtures included in their hanging positions. In some instruments and accessories. This key will include the

82 production areas
FIGURE 5.1
A repertory light plot used for a dance concert.

83 creating the Lighting design

F I G UR E 5. 2 instrument name, beam spread, and symbols for any
An instrument key, featuring a number of
different lighting instruments.
INSTQUMENT k:EY included gobos or accessories (Figure 5.2).

PRACTICAL FYI: Drafting Standards

Light plots for theatre and dance use a standardized

I I 50UQCE: 4 system of notation developed by USITT (the United
"J PAQNE:L States Institute for Theatre Technology) called
“Recommended Practices for Theatrical Lighting
soo Design Graphics.” There are specific symbols used
50UQCE: to represent certain types of lighting instruments,
4 SOOE:G accessories, and hanging positions. Following these
recommended practices helps stagehands across
the country clearly understand the intent of the
36] lighting designer. It is worth noting that international
50UQCE: 4
standards for preparing a light plot and lighting
3GOE:G
symbols tend to vary.
USITT publishes “Recommended Practices for
'
Theatrical Lighting Design Graphics” online at the
50UQCE: 4 website www.usitt.org. At the time of publication,
I ~GOE:G it is located on the Lighting Design & Technology
'c-----"
Commission page.

50UQCE: Draftings: The Lighting Section

~GOE:G
A lighting section is another drafting that depicts
the theatre in a side view, removing one half of the
LEGENO
theatre at the centerline (Figure 5.3). The purpose of
the lighting section is to help the designer visualize
PUQPOSe the theatre architecture, scenery, and masking in the
COLOQ context of lighting positions and equipment. The lighting

SeAJS~f2eAO section helps the designer consider where best to place

lighting instruments in the theatre space to accomplish
UNIT#
;
the desired visual effect. As with the light plot, a section
view of the theatre will be provided by the scenic
OIMMef2 designer or theatre staff.

CHANNeL Lighting Design Paperwork

A big part of the lighting designer’s job is the creation
of design paperwork to be used in conjunction with the

84 production areas
F I G UR E 5. 3
A lighting section, indicating lighting
positions, instruments, and masking.

light plot for executing the design. Most paperwork today to see it created in a drafting program or through
follows a standard spreadsheet layout, utilizing rows and specially designed paperwork software, like John
columns with outlined borders to keep the information McKernon’s LightWright. Included below is a list of
properly grouped. The order of information varies some of the common types of paperwork.
according to the type of paperwork, but the function
remains the same—a list of all information related to Channel Hookup
any lighting instrument in the light plot. In many cases, The channel hookup, or hookup for short, is a list
paperwork is more important to the electricians setting designed to show the channels on a lighting console
up the equipment than the plot itself. and the information about the lighting instruments
controlled by a given channel. It includes information
Paperwork was once done by the lighting designer or
such as channel, dimmer, hang position, instrument
assistant designer by hand, but it is more common

85 creating the Lighting design

F I G UR E 5. 4
A simple hookup sheet. • R&J 10-2-()8
2 •
3
4 •• _D_Un
__ m_e~dC~
b-an
_n_e
~i.--------------------------o-
lo_r ___________________
5 • 1 40 Source 4 19deg 575W X R12 PORT 2 20
6 • 2 34 Source 4 26deg 575W IV R12 PORT 2 19
7 • 4 33 Source 4 26deg 575W Ill R12 PO_fll_2 18
8 • 6 10 Source 4 19deg 575W XI R60 PORT 2 17
9 • 17 39 Sou·rce 4 1'9 deg 575W IX R12 PORT 2 16
0 • 18 38 Source 4 19deg 575W VIII R12 PORT 2 15

2
•• 111
10 9
37
Source 4 19deg
Source 4 19deg
575W
575W
X
VII
R60
R12
PORT 2
PORT 2
14
13
3 • 12 32 Source 4 26deg 575W II R12 PORT 2 12
4 • 14 31 Source 4 26deg 575W I R12 PORT 2 11
5 • 15 8 Source 4 19deg 575W IX R60 PORT 2 10
6 • 16 4 Source 4 '2•6deg 575W IV R60 PORT 2 9
7 • 17 3 Source 4 26deg 575W Ill R60 PORT 2 8
8 • 18 36 Source 4 19deg 575W VI R12 PORT2 7
9 • 19 35 Souroe 4 19deg 575W v R12 PORT 2 6
20 • 22 7 Source 4 19deg 575W VIII R60 PORT 2 5
2 • 24 6 Source 4 19deg 575W VII R60 PORT 2 4
22 • 26 2 Source 4 '2•6deg 575W II R60 PORT 2 3
23 • 27 1 Source 4 26deg 575W I R60 PORT 2 2
24 • 28 5 Source 4 19deg 575W VI R60 PORT2 1
25 • 29 46 Source 4 '2•6deg 575W XVII R12 PORT 1 12
26 • 30 45 Source 4 26deg 575W_ XVI R12 P0~ 1 11

number, type, wattage, and focus. A channel hookup is top to bottom in the case of vertical positions such as
shown in Figure 5.4. booms. This information allows technicians to quickly
identify lighting instruments when hanging, focusing, or
Instrument Schedule troubleshooting.
An instrument schedule is similar to the channel
hookup, but it sorts the information according to the Color Cut Lists
hang position of the theatre. This includes fixture Another type of paperwork useful to electricians is
information for every lighting instrument in a given the color cut list. Gel comes from the manufacturer in
position, sorted in fixture order. Fixtures are numbered a large sheet that must be cut down to fit in different
on a light plot from stage left to stage right and from lighting instruments. The color cut list includes the

86 production areas
 different types of gels organized by manufacturer, pictorial example of how the stage is divided into
including the color number, number of cuts, and size control and, at times, color. Figure 5.5 is a magic sheet
of gel cuts. This paperwork may sometimes include the created for Hubbard Street Dance Chicago, illustrating
necessary number of gel frames, as well. what channels are used for controlling different
lights. In this example, the magic sheet is divided into
Magic Sheets individual systems of lighting, such as back lighting,
A magic sheet, or cheat sheet, is a piece of paperwork side lighting, etc.
designed by the lighting designer to help in the
process of cueing the show. It is personalized to how
5.3 Hang and Focus
the lighting designer likes to work. As such, there is Once the lighting plot has been finalized and all
no right or wrong on how a magic sheet should be set the lighting equipment moved into the theatre, the
up. The goal of the magic sheet is to have a simple process of hanging and focusing the lights begins. The
lighting designer may not be involved with the process
of hanging the lights, though it is not uncommon
to see them participate. Lighting equipment will be
hung by stagehands called electricians, with the
master electrician heading up the work call. Typically
the process begins with hanging the lights in their
appropriate locations, followed by circuiting the lights
into the appropriate dimmers. It is essential at this point
to record all information and changes onto the updated
light plot.

Once the hanging and circuiting has occurred, the

lighting designer will run the light focus. This is
the process of instructing the electricians on the
appropriate focus, shutter cut, and diffusion of the light.
A common focus involves moving a lighting instrument
to the focus point onstage, adding any necessary gobos,
shuttering off of scenery or unwanted positions, and
adjusting the diffusion of the instrument to create the
desired visual quality of light.

In touring productions, it is common for the crew to

use something called a focus chart. The focus chart
F I G UR E 5. 5
Magic sheet for Hubbard Street’s Winter is a specific type of paperwork that includes focus
Series, Princess Grace Awards: New information for every lighting instrument in the lighting
Works at the Museum of Contemporary rig. It includes the focus position (in relation to the
Art Chicago’s Edlis Neeson Theater.
center and proscenium line), if the instrument is spot
Photo courtesy of Hubbard Street
Dance Chicago. or flood focused, shutter cut information, and any

87 creating the Lighting design

necessary information about color and gobos. Though cues, but if a dark time is not scheduled you can be
this is less common for resident companies, it is a way assured this will be the case.
of life for commercial dance tours.
Cueing the Show
5.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals Cueing the show is one of the most important steps in
Technical rehearsals are a time-consuming and creating lighting design. It is also one of the last steps in
laborious process devoted to getting all of the technical the design process. Like many other steps in the design
details of the production in place before opening. As the process, cueing is a personal approach arrived at by
lighting designer, there are a number of details to be years of experience on the part of the lighting designer.
addressed before heading into tech. The lighting designer should enter into this process
being fully familiar with the dance piece and with a plan
Preparing to Cue of attack for creating cues. The following section details
As the lighting designer prepares for the process of some thoughts on the cueing process.
writing cues, there are a few basic questions that must
be addressed in order to be prepared. Taking time to Cue Sheets
prepare for cueing sessions can save a lot of time and Just like the process of writing a paper, creating a
energy down the road. lighting design requires an organized plan, taking into
account the entire dance piece and the changes that
Is Everything Set Up? occur to the lighting during the performance. A cue
While this may seem like a basic question, it is one of sheet is a type of paperwork used to plan out all of the
the most important questions to ask. Before the lighting lighting cues for a performance. It is typically presented
designer begins the cueing process it is a good idea to in a spreadsheet format, featuring cues and cue
ask the master electrician if all of the lights have been information in chronological order (Figure 5.6). A cue
hung, focused, gelled, and tested for proper operation. sheet often contains the cue number, information about
A dimmer check (using the hookup paperwork to check when the cue is called, fade times, and a description
each dimmer in the system for proper function) should of the action of the cue. Like magic sheets, many
be done at the top of each day. designers customize their own cue sheets to include
information they find the most useful. The cue sheet
Dark Time will be used by the designer to write cues and then
In the period leading up to technical rehearsals a later given to the stage manager for use in calling cues
number of different departments will be vying for time during the dance.
in the theatre. Everyone has a lot to accomplish in
a short period of time. This is why it is so important FYI: The Paper Tech
for the lighting designer to schedule dark time in the
Some dance companies have a special meeting
theatre—a period of time in which all of the theatre’s
called the paper tech, before going into the tech
auditorium and work lights will be turned off so the
process. The paper tech is a meeting at which
lighting can be seen under show conditions. Nothing
all of the designers with cues meet with the
is so frustrating to the lighting designer as having to
stage manager and choreographer to discuss the
compete with an offstage work light while trying to write

88 production areas
FIGURE 5.6 Cue List : PHASES OF DARK Designer: J . HOPGOOD 1/5/13
A cue sheet, indicating all cues and
pertinent information.
Cue# Prompt: nme Description I Notes :
1 Preshow 4 Sets up pre-show look
2 Cued with curtain speech 4 Blackout for dancers to take places
3 Dancers in places 6 Lights up on scene - slow fade in
4 Music begins 9
5 Skye on pointe 4
6 Trio enters SR 4 Shift to warmer lighting
7 Upstage group exits 4
8 DSR lift 6 Group freezes
9 Upstage group enters 8
10 Trio exits 4
11 Abbie fl ies in on swing 9 Listen for cello
12 Pas de deux 12
13 All exit 3 Slow fade out

placement of cues. This can involve scenery, lighting, to the next cue. Depending on the nature of the dance,

sound, projections, and special effects. Paper tech the cues may build atop one another or be completely

is useful for getting all of the cues in the stage different looks having little to do with one another.

manager’s prompt book and giving an opportunity to The next consideration is fade time. Fade time means

talk through the entire dance. If your company does the amount of time it takes for the current cue to

not do paper techs, it is important to confer with the disappear while the subsequent cue comes up. Rapid

stage manager before heading into tech so he or she fade times create an abrupt shift, whereas longer fade

can be prepared for calling the show. times create a subtle shift from one cue to the next.
It is important for the designer to watch the design
in proper order to ensure the timing works for the
The Lighting Console dance piece.

As discussed in Chapter 4, the lighting console is a

The Cueing Process
specialized piece of equipment used for controlling
lighting equipment. Today’s consoles are computers As I mentioned before, the cueing process can vary
with unique control interfaces that vary between wildly from designer to designer. There are, however,
different manufacturers. It is important for the designer some considerations that will apply to most cue
to understand the individual console and its use. The sessions:
console is used to create a look onstage and then save 1. The tech table. One common convention seen
the parameters into its memory for playback at a later in most theatres is the use of tech tables for the
time. cueing and tech process. A tech table is a position
The process of writing cues in the lighting board begins set up in the auditorium from which the designers
by setting levels of brightness with individual lighting and choreographer can work. The tech table
instruments until a suitable look is achieved. Once allows the designers to see their work from the
this look is saved as a cue, the designer can proceed vantage point of the audience, rather than from

89 creating the Lighting design

 the control booth, which is typically far away from consideration. Without this, the lighting levels will
the stage and from an awkward vantage point. invariably have to be adjusted once the stage is
Typically, there will be multiple tech tables set filled with bodies. Another necessary consideration
up for different departments. The lighting tech is the costume color. Whenever possible, include
table should include sufficient space for a lighting some fabric or clothing that is a similar color to the
console, lighting paperwork, headsets, and dance costumes. This will give you the opportunity
typically room for the lighting designer’s laptop. to see how the lighting affects the costume color.
It is common that the stage manager and lighting 4. Working with the music. If your dance incorporates
console operator will sit at the tech table once in music, it can be useful to listen to the music while
tech. cueing. Especially in instances where fade times
2. What to bring? When moving into the theatre, it must sync with music, there is no better way to get
is important to consider what things you will want it right than working with the music.
on hand at the tech table. It is always wise to think 5. Working with a rehearsal video. As mentioned in
ahead so that you don’t find yourself having to leave previous chapters, a rehearsal video is invaluable
to get something from home. A well-equipped tech to the cueing process. By referencing the video,
table should include: you can determine the location of certain moments
●● pencils and scrap paper; on the stage and ensure the timing is correct.
●● all design paperwork and magic sheets; Likewise, if using a rehearsal video that includes
●● a flashlight; music this allows you to include both music and
movement in one package.
●● a stopwatch;
6. With or without the choreographer? The lighting
●● a crescent wrench (keep in mind some union
designer may create the cues alone or in the
theatres will not allow the designer to touch
presence of the choreographer, depending on the
equipment, but it is always good to be prepared);
customary practice of the choreographer and dance
●● a laptop;
company. It is best to ask about the usual process
●● a portable hard drive and thumb drives for back if you are working together for the first time. There
up and file transport; are benefits and drawbacks to both approaches.
●● surge-protected power strips. If cueing with the choreographer present, you go
3. Representing the figure. Since dance lighting into tech knowing that they have seen the cues and
focuses on the dancers, it is important to include know what to expect. Unfortunately, this can lead
some type of representation of the dancer during to a longer process than if the designer cues alone.
cueing. If you have volunteers to walk the stage Depending on the time constraints, it may simply
while cueing, this can be invaluable. Not every not be feasible. Personally, I like to create my
design has this luxury though. In many cases, I lighting cues alone in the theatre while watching
have used a costumer’s dress form as a stand-in the rehearsal video and making any necessary
for a dancer. In a pinch, I have used a rolling chair tweaks to the programming in the first mark-
or a music stand. Ultimately, having something through of the dance.
to focus your light on is the most important

90 production areas
7. The Paper Tech. Paper Tech is a meeting that 5.6 Chapter Review
brings the stage manager, designers, and The job of creating the lighting design is a long and
choreographer together for a discussion of the multifaceted process that combines both artistic and
dance and when cues are called. This happens technical expertise. The lighting designer must be a
more often in academic theatre environments, but master communicator, utilizing visual imagery, verbal
it can sometimes be useful for dance as well. More and written communication to convey a design idea. In
often, it is useful to have a combined final cueing creating a lighting design, the lighting designer must
session with the choreographer, stage manager, use draftings, drawings/renderings, and paperwork to
and designer in the darkened theatre to see how communicate his/her ideas. Planning and paperwork
the lighting looks. It is important to have some type are central skills of the lighting designer, used to
of stand-in for the dancers: actual people, dress ensure continuity from his/her initial concept through
forms with colored fabric similar to the costumes the final performance. Through a study of the lighting
draped over them, or even something simple like a design process, we gain an increased appreciation
music stand with fabric hung over it. The purpose for the job of the designer and his/her role within the
for this is that, since dance lighting is mostly from production.
the side, you cannot see the details of the design
without a figure on stage to be illuminated. This Review Questions
rehearsal is a good time for the stage manager to 1. What is pre-visualization?
get cues recorded into his/her notes.
2. What is the type of drafting executed in a plan
5.5 Technical Rehearsals view that is used to communicate the technical
information of the lighting design?
Technical rehearsals are the rehearsals dedicated
3. What is an instrument key?
to working through the dances with all technical
elements included. The idea of technical rehearsals 4. What information should be included in an
varies wildly from dance company to dance company. instrument key?
Some companies have a “tech week” that incorporates 5. Describe a lighting section.
many days of tech, followed by dress rehearsals, then 6. What type of paperwork sorts the information
opening. This method is most common in academic according to lighting hang positions?
environments. When looking at professional dance 7. What is a focus chart?
companies, however, the deciding factor for length and
8. What type of paperwork is used to plan out all of
number of technical rehearsals is the theatre space. If
the lighting cues for a performance?
the dance company owns its own space, it is common
9. What type of paperwork does the lighting designer
to see longer periods of tech. If the company is renting
use as a visual example of how the stage is divided
the space, the tech process might be limited to one day
into control and, at times, color?
or even a few hours before going into the performance.
10. What term describes the time it takes to move from
Refer to Chapter 2 to see a breakdown of spacing
one lighting cue to another?
rehearsals/cue-to-cue, technical rehearsals, and dress
rehearsals.

91 creating the Lighting design

 shaping our understanding of it in the un/natural world.
Chapter 5 Project: Thinking Like a Lighting
seth is interested in framing and telling stories. his
Designer
work is characterized by an elemental approach to light
As you have seen in this chapter, lighting can be through simplicity, constrained color palettes, and the
difficult to discuss. One tool that lighting designers use of space and scenery to create textures and focal
use to aid in the process of communicating their interest.
ideas is visual research. The old adage “a picture is
recent designs include: Matthew Passion, directed by
worth a thousand words” is particularly true when
peter sellars; Come, and Back Again, with david dorfman
describing light. This project will focus on the use
dance; King Lear, directed by Kevin Moriarty; The Agony
of visual research to communicate an idea through
and the Ecstasy of Steve Jobs, by Mike daisey, directed by
lighting.
Jean Michele gregory; Radio Play, directed by Kip Fagan;
Frequently, lighting designers are called on to The Whale, directed by hal Brooks; Black Snow, directed
communicate an emotion or mood through lighting. by Mikhael garver; The Lily’s Revenge, by taylor Mac; and
The properties of dance lighting (brightness, color, Middlemen, directed by Josie Whittlesey.
direction/angle, visual quality, and movement) can seth holds an MFa in design from nYu’s tisch school of
be used to successfully create a feeling through design for stage and Film, and a Ba from ohio Wesleyan
lighting. For this project, you will be given a list university, where he studied theatre, philosophy, and
of words for which you must find an image that the fine arts. he is the recipient of the nY international
communicates this idea through the use of lighting. Fringe Festival award for outstanding Lighting, and has
For each of the five examples below, choose a twice been nominated for the american theatre Wing
photo that illustrates how one of the properties of hewes design award, production design.
dance lighting could be used to communicate the
idea. Include a brief description of why you feel the What was your training in lighting design?
lighting communicates the word. I started designing lighting as a teenager for my high
school and at a local rock club in Houston. I have
1 Fear
a bachelor’s in theatre from Ohio Wesleyan University
2. Claustrophobia
and an MFA from NYU’s School of Design for Stage and
3. Excitement
Film.
4. Anger
5. Physical attraction Do you have a dance background/any formalized
training in dance?
I took a few dance classes in college, but I wouldn’t say I
The Lighting Designer’s Perspective: An
had any training.
Interview with Seth Reiser
seth reiser is a new York-based lighting designer How did you first start working in dance design?
working in theatre, dance, and music. his interest In high school we had a pretty great dance department
in light comes from the extraordinary effect that the and we got to light their performances twice a year.
environment surrounding an event or story has in Lighting dance at all levels of my education has played
a major role.

92 production areas
I know that you recently collaborated with David can be a much louder voice, whereas in theatre the lighting
Dorfman Dance on Come, and Back Again. Could you tell needs to play a subtler role, generally speaking. Practically
us a bit about the collaborative process for that piece? speaking, plays require more visibility when it comes to
c&Ba was one of the dreamiest processes I’ve ever been the actors, while dance is all about form and the air that
a part of. The piece took a long time to get together. David surrounds the piece. Dance lighting is fun because you get
had spent more than a year on the piece before I even to invest more emotionally speaking, the same way you
turned a single light on, and I had just over a year after that would with music. It’s more abstract, so the lighting can be
to create the lighting for the piece. At first there was no more abstract too.
set and we were working in the studio at UCONN. I made Can you describe your ideal process for working with
a crude set out of paper and cobbled together some lights choreographers?
in addition to the lights in the space and we made what
I think it’s really hard to nail down an ideal process. Some
I think of as the first version of the piece. We had three
projects need lots of time, others need 30 minutes; some
other stages of the piece before we premiered it at BAM in
need tons of space, another just a chair; some need strict
October of 2013.
limits, others need to be free of all limits. I think the most
Over the year we worked on the piece, it changed ideal process is a process you choose and becomes part of
dramatically but the ideas I came up with in that studio the piece. This happened during c&Ba without knowing it.
came through in every subsequent version. A big part of The process suited the piece and helped create the story.
that is David’s “yes, and” approach to the work; new ideas We had time and made mistakes that stuck. It’s like life
are always stacked on top of and combined with the old that way; life happens and it becomes part of you, you can’t
ideas so nothing is ever discarded until the end of the put it down.
process when we all start trimming and honing in on the
final product. This collecting of ideas became a major What advice would you give a young artist interested in
theme in the piece. It’s all about what we carry with us; it’s lighting for dance?
about everything we don’t leave behind. That stuff piles up See everything you can. Talk to everyone about their work.
and is a part of who we are. Find the people you love to work with and work with them
as much as possible. Email people you don’t know when
How do you find lighting differs for a dance and
you see their beautiful work and get a coffee with them. Be
a theatrical project?
part of a community and contribute.
I find lighting for both very satisfying, but in different ways.
Light for dance becomes another voice in the piece and it

93 creating the Lighting design

 CHAPTER 6
SOUND

Music begins where the possibilities of language end.

Jean Sibelius

Hubbard Street Dancer Emilie Leriche in Counterpoint by Kyle Abraham.

Costume by Reid Bartelme and Harriet Jung. Lighting Design by Dan Scully.
Photo
Source
by Todd
line toRosenberg.
go here
Sound is a fundamental concern in dance. All dances Pre-recorded Music
are performed with some type of sound, even if it’s only The easiest method for many choreographers is to
the sound of the dancers moving their bodies across the select a piece of pre-recorded music as accompaniment
stage, breathing and interacting with their environment. for a dance. The only requirement of pre-recorded
This is why I prefer the use of the word sound as sound is a sound system and a sound operator to run
opposed to accompaniment, as I believe it covers a the audio. This is one of the most common choices
wider array of possibilities for music, sound, or effects for dance companies as it eliminates the need for live
that accompany the dance performance. Whether the performers and will always be a precise reproduction of
dance is performed to music, with an accompanying the music. In addition, in touring companies very little
“soundscape” of sound effects, or performed in silence, setup is required. While this is an excellent choice in
sound creates a dramatic impact on how the audience terms of time and money, it can lead to the question of
perceives the dance piece. The following chapter copyright laws. Section 6.7 at the end of this chapter
examines the use of sound in dance performances and addresses the various legal concerns for using music in
begins the conversation about how sound is created, a dance performance.
reinforced, and reproduced for each performance.
The Composer
6.1 Thinking About Sound
If a dance requires original music, a composer must be
For most dancers, rhythm and music are a day- secured to work on the project. This process is unique
to-day part of their lives. That said, many dancers to the individual choreographer/composer relationship,
and choreographers might not be as familiar with but normally the composer would need to see the
the technique and craft that goes into creating and dance several times in order to understand concepts
reproducing sound and music for a live performance. like the choreographer’s intent, internal timing, and
There are a number of considerations that go into the dramatic arc of the dance piece. The composer
thinking about sound for the stage. may write the music for live performance, create a
recording of musicians performing the piece, or provide
Music, Sound, or Silence?
an electronic recording of the performance. The method
The process for how a choreographer chooses sound of delivering the music affects the number of additional
is as unique as each choreographer. Sometimes a personnel required for the performance.
choreographer picks a piece of music to which a
dance will be set. Other times the dance is completely The Musicians
choreographed before he or she can consider an Unless the composer alone will record the music,
appropriate piece of music or sound. In other situations, musicians will be required for some portion of the
the choreographer might work in conjunction with a process. It could be that the music will be recorded
composer to create a new piece of music specifically for live for playback during the dance. In this case, studio
a dance. Ultimately, the question that must be asked of musicians would be hired to work with the composer
each piece is, should there be music, sound, or silence and to perform for the recording, along with a sound
accompanying the dance (or a combination thereof)? engineer. If this is not the case, then musicians will
The answer to this question tells you what kind of have to be secured for live accompaniment of the
support your production will require.

96 production areas
dance. In this case, there are a number of concerns, technician would not have insight into the dances
such as placement of the musicians onstage, the themselves beyond the limited time of having seen them
use of microphones to reinforce their sound, what in the performance space.
the musicians will wear, securing music stands and
providing light suitable for reading, and, of course, Reality Check: What Resources are Available?
paying the musicians. While the process of planning for I have seen many dance performances suffer over
more performers can seem daunting, it is a rewarding the years due to a choreographer or designer taking
experience to perform in a live environment with it for granted that resources were available when, in
dancers and musicians working in sync. truth, they were not and simply did not fit within the
production budget. This is most often a case of making
The Sound Designer assumptions and not asking the right questions. Always
As mentioned in Chapter 1, the sound designer is approach a project by finding out what resources are
responsible for facilitating all of the sound needs for available to you: equipment, personnel, budget, and
the production. A sound designer might function as a space. These four resources will affect what choices
composer and create original music for a production, can be made and should allow you to proceed into
but he/she is also involved in the selection of audio the project with realistic expectations of what can be
equipment, recording and editing of sound, and creating accomplished. The practical person will keep these
the cues for sound playback—something a composer factors in mind while solving the artistic challenges of
would rarely, if ever, be involved with. It is a lucky dance the production.
company that has a resident sound designer who can
facilitate all of these needs. 6.2 Sound Design for Dance
Sound design, much like lighting, combines artistry with
The Technicians technical craft. Sound designers must be familiar with
In most instances, the sound designer will not actually composition, music history, sound recording/editing
run the sound for performances. This duty falls to the techniques, and remain up to date in the constantly
sound technician. The role of the sound technician is changing world of sound equipment. In addition to
to set up speakers, microphones, and communication creating sound and music, dance sound design requires
headsets in addition to running the sound system an understanding of dance practice and techniques and
during a performance. Depending on the size of the how varying performance styles are connected to sound.
performance space and its staff, there may be one or Considering all of these tasks, a competent sound
more sound technicians. designer is invaluable to the dance company. Since so
many aspects of dance are interconnected with sound,
In some cases, the dance company may not employ
the choreographer and sound designer will often work
a sound designer but depend on the work of the
together closely on a dance piece. For this reason, it
performance space’s sound technician. It is important to
is helpful for the choreographer to have a common
recognize that, while the position of a sound technician
understanding of some basic sound and music concepts
is essential to the overall production, a technician
when collaborating.
would normally be involved in only running sound—not
the creation of design elements. Likewise, a sound

97 sound
6.3 Functions of Sound Design Mood/Atmosphere
Like lighting design, I find it useful to discuss the In most art forms, mood is one of the easiest things to
purpose of sound within the overall dance production. identify, yet one of the hardest to put into words. Mood is
This can be addressed through the functions of sound an emotional response to something experienced. In the
design, or what sound design can accomplish for a case of sound, mood is evoked through what is heard,
dance production. Listed below are six functions of and often depends on the listener’s past experiences.
sound design for dance. Since sound is only one element of the production, it is
important to consult with the choreographer and other
Audibility members of the production team to make sure everyone
Audibility, or the ability to hear a sound, is the primary is aiming for the common response.
function of sound design. Pre-recorded music, sound
Atmosphere is a term commonly associated with sound.
effects, voiceovers, and live accompaniment must all
In sound, the atmosphere is a collection of the types of
be set to an audible level so that the audience can
sounds that make up a certain environment or moment.
appreciate the sound without struggling to hear. The
In this context, the term soundscape is commonly
challenge of having multiple sounds is that they can
used to indicate the combination of various sounds and
compete with one another, so this may lead to the
effects to create an immersive acoustical environment.
need to use microphones to reinforce sound of certain
aspects to be heard over others. Rhythm

Performance Rhythm is one of those terms that naturally applies to

both music and dance. In dance, it can be used to refer
Sometimes sound functions as a performance element
to a measured movement, typically with some sense of
within a dance. In tap dance, hip-hop, or modern music/
repetition. In music, rhythm refers to the combination
dance performance pieces, the dancer doubles as
of strong and weak pulses in the music to create a beat.
musical performer. As such, the sound designer must
This sense of pattern is what leads to a waltz being in
work closely with dancers to reinforce the sound of their
three, since the strong beat comes on the one, followed
movements. In a modern context, it is common to see
by two more weak beats (one two three, two two
dancers interact with props or musical instruments to
three ...). Since sound and music are frequently used
create sound. In such a performance, the lines between
as accompaniment, the rhythm directly reflects on the
musical and dance performance are blurred.
choreography. Movement can work in sync or against
Accompaniment the rhythm of the sound design, creating a sense of
harmony or conflict.
Accompaniment is the function of sound design that
refers to the use of music or sound to complement the When considering rhythm, it is important to look at
dance performance—supporting, or partnering with, the the entirety of the dance performance. While one
dancer. Though accompaniment is most often thought of section may have one type of rhythm it is possible
as live musicians playing onstage, it can come in many that others will have a different type. This can lead to
different forms (live music, pre-recorded music, sound an overall rhythmic arc within the piece that is worth
effects, etc.). acknowledging.

98 production areas
Reinforcement
The final function of sound design on my list is
reinforcement. Reinforcement simply means to
strengthen or increase something. Sound can reinforce
a number of different aspects of the production. It can
be a certain sound effect that works in conjunction
with a dancer’s movement. Likewise, it could refer to
how a piece of music reinforces the dramatic action
or overall theme of the dance. Finally, the term sound F IG UR E 6. 1
A low frequency pitch (top) and a higher frequency pitch (bottom).
reinforcement refers to the act of amplifying sound
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.
through the use of microphones and speakers. In dance
this could be used for musical instruments, the spoken the frequency, the higher the pitch, and vice versa
word, or used to amplify the physical sounds produced (Figure 6.1). Pitch is important in creating harmony or
by the dancers’ bodies. dissonance in sound. When hearing two or more tones
played together, the notes will either work together to
6.4 Properties of Sound Design create a harmonious or dissonant blend. Adjusting the
The properties of sound design can be described as pitch of a sound can go a long way towards creating a
the controllable qualities of sound, or things that soothing or discomforting sound design.
you can change about sound within the context of a
dance production. The following list details all of the Sound Quality
properties. Keep in mind that the properties of sound Sound quality is a term that has many synonyms. In
design also affect all of the functions listed above. musical terms, it is often referred to as timbre, or
tonal quality. Timbre (pronounced tam-bur) is the
Volume quality of a musical note or sound that distinguishes
Volume is a term that most of us use on a regular basis. it from others. In the simplest terms, it is what makes
Like brightness in lighting, volume is a relative term. one instrument sound different from another, even
For some people, certain volumes can seem very loud if they are both playing the same note. There are a
whereas they may not affect the person sitting next to number of different factors that affect sound quality
them. Volume is measured in decibels (dB). If a sound of a musical instrument, like the materials that make
is amplified through a sound system, you have the the instrument, the humidity or temperature of the
ability to increase or decrease the amount of output environment, or any imperfections to the instrument
through the speakers, thus manipulating how much the itself. When creating music or sound effects, sound
audience can hear. quality can be affected in a number of different ways.
The most common method is the use of sound-
Pitch processing equipment like an equalizer or other devices
Another property of sound is pitch, or how high or low to change the tonal quality of the audio signal. There is
a note sounds. Pitch is directly related to frequency, no doubt that sound quality can directly affect the mood
the speed at which a sound wave vibrates. The faster of a given moment in a performance.

99 sound
When discussing sound quality on an audio recording, so easily paired together since movement is such an
one of the biggest concerns is the file format of the essential component of music itself.
recording. Today, most theatres are equipped with
In audio terms, movement can have a more technical
computers for audio playback. This means that the
meaning. For a modern sound system, any amplified
sound files used will be in a digital format. When
sound has the ability to pan, or to be moved from
dealing with digital audio, there are a number of
one speaker to another within the system. Therefore,
different file types for different uses. Compressed audio
movement is the ability to mechanically manipulate
files like MP3 were designed to be smaller data packets
an audio signal to give it the appearance of a changing
so they could be downloaded quicker through the
direction.
Internet. There is always a trade-off between the size of
the file and the sound quality of the recording. Smaller Mix
files tend to include sounds that were not present in the
In audio terms, a mix is the combination of different
original recording and have a smaller dynamic range
audio signals into one cohesive output. For live
than the original, as well. Whenever possible, always
productions, this might be a combination of live music,
use the uncompressed audio formats such as WAV or
pre-recorded sound effects, and reinforcement of the
AIFF for playback and you will be much happier with the
dancers onstage. The mix is how all of these signals are
audio quality.
balanced to create the resulting sound that the audience
Direction hears through the speakers. If everything were heard
at equal levels, there is a potential for “muddiness” in
Direction refers to where a sound is perceived to
the mix, as one sound drowns out another. Instead, it is
originate. In lighting, direction was related to the
important to identify the sounds that are most essential
placement of the lighting instrument. For sound,
to the dance and make those prominent.
direction is directly influenced by the placement of
speakers in the sound system. When creating a sound 6.5 Audio Equipment
design, it is important to consider the direction from
When discussing sound with a designer or technician,
which sound should come in relation to the audience
the conversation can quickly move towards the realm
and the stage. The change of direction can assist in
of a foreign language for many. Though it may seem
creating immersive sound environments if done well or
intimidating, at first, it is important for dancers and
become disorienting if executed too quickly.
choreographers to have a basic understanding of audio
Movement equipment and terminology. There are entire books that
could be devoted to the discussion of audio equipment.
In musical terms, movement can have different
This section includes only the essential pieces of
meanings. A movement within a piece of music
equipment within a sound system and describes their
refers to different sections within the composition—
function.
each frequently written in a different key and with a
different mood. In another connotation, movement Input Source
can refer to the way that music rhythmically varies
When discussing sound systems, the term input source
within a composition, creating a sensation of physical
refers to any type of device that provides an audio signal
movement. It is easy to see how music and dance are

100 production areas

 to be distributed through the system. For a recording a belt-pack wireless transmitter that sends a radio
and/or reinforcement system, this is commonly the signal to a wireless receiver connected to the sound
microphone. For a playback system, the input source mixer. This audio signal is then sent through the
can be any of a variety of different devices: compact reinforcement system. For handheld wireless mics,
disc or mini disc players; a computer; a portable the microphone itself functions as the wireless
music player; even a television. Though these are all transmitter.
possibilities, computers are the input source of choice ●● Boundary microphones: A boundary microphone is
for most playback systems for their ability to run a special type of microphone that is designed to have
playback software, which far surpasses the function of a low profile and be placed on a hard, flat surface
other methods. (like the floor, walls, or a tabletop). The design of a
boundary mic places a microphone in a small metal
Microphones
housing mounted onto a flat plate. Though there are
A microphone (often called mic, for short) is a multiple types of boundary mics, two of the most
mechanical device that turns sound waves into an popular models come from Crown audio: the PZM
electrical signal. This electrical signal is not powerful and the PCC. Without going into too much detail,
enough to activate a speaker on its own, though, so it the PZM picks up sound in all directions around it.
must be sent through other hardware components to Since it sits on a plate, this is 180° of sound around
boost the signal. While there are many different types of the mic (called a hemispherical pickup pattern). The
microphone, the two most common for dance purposes PCC, on the other hand, has a half-unidirectional
are the wireless mic and the boundary mic. pickup pattern, picking up sound from the front
●● Wireless microphones: The obvious benefit of a while rejecting any sound from the rear. Figure 6.2
wireless microphone is the lack of a cable to get illustrates the pickup patterns of the two types of
in the way of movement. Wireless microphones boundary mics. One common reason to use these
are typically either handheld or headset models, mics in dance is to pick up the sound of dancers’
with a miniature microphone that is attached to feet on the stage. This is ideal for tap or stomp-style
the performer or attached to a headset. For the dances.
miniature variety, the microphone is connected to

/
I / \
PZM PCC
F I G UR E 6. 2
I
I
I
I
The PZM and PCC, viewed from the side.
Notice the difference in pickup patterns
for the two microphones.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood. PLATE PLATE

101 sound
 Mixer microphone-level signal from mics to what is called line
The mixer (sometimes called the sound board) receives level. This allows the signal to be powerful enough to
multiple audio signals, processes their individual travel through the system.
signals, and creates a “mix” of the different signals to
Equalizer
be outputted in different ways (Figure 6.3). It routes
signals, sets volume levels, and affects the qualities An equalizer, or EQ, is a device used to affect the
of the audio signal. Most mixers receive a variety of frequencies of a sound (Figure 6.4). This device can
different signals in a live performance: audio signals either boost or limit the types of sound frequencies in
from the playback computer; multiple channels of an audio signal. The control in your car that features
audio from different instruments in the band; boundary “bass” and “treble” is a form of equalizer, allowing you
microphones on the stage; and more. The mixer to adjust the sound to be either lower or brighter. The
also serves an important function of boosting the EQ in a sound system does the same thing, but breaks

F I G UR E 6. 3
A sound mixer with several different
channels of control.
Photo courtesy of Junior Libby.

102 production areas

F I G UR E 6. 4
A digital equalizer program, used on
a computer to manipulate frequencies
of sound.

down the audio signal on a much more complex level, audio signal is not powerful enough to power a speaker
allowing for adjustment of a wider range of frequencies. and produce sound.
In today’s sound systems, the EQ might be a physical
device or a computer program that digitally emulates Speaker
the process of a traditional EQ. A speaker works in the opposite fashion of a
microphone—taking an electrical signal and turning
Amplifier it into sound waves we can hear. Most modern
The amplifier is a type of equipment used to increase loudspeakers combine two different types of speakers
the audio signals from the input sources from line level (one suited for low frequencies and one better suited for
to speaker level, an electrical signal powerful enough high) into one speaker cabinet so that they can produce
to drive a speaker. It is the last stop before the speaker a wide range of frequencies. A specialized speaker
and a requirement for any speaker to work. Amplifiers known as a subwoofer, or sometimes just a sub, is
must be plugged into an external power source in order dedicated to only producing bass tones. As mentioned
to amplify the audio signal. Without an amplifier, the earlier, all speakers require some type of amplifier to
work. Some speakers, however, called self-powered

103 sound
 speakers, contain the amplifier and speaker in one software, and speakers or headphones for listening
cabinet, thereby eliminating the need for a separate to the recording (Figure 6.5). There are hundreds of
amplifier. variations on a recording system, but these are the basic
requirements to record audio.
6.6 Sound Systems
A playback system is a collection of audio equipment
Sound systems are a combination of different pieces
used to play back pre-recorded sound files during a live
of audio equipment into a system used for a specific
performance. In the past, these sound recordings were
purpose. When looking at sound systems, there are
saved on everything from reel-to-reel, compact discs,
three distinct categories of use: recording systems,
or minidiscs. Today, almost all live performance venues
playback systems, and reinforcement systems. One
use some type of computer running a software system
or more of these systems might be present in a
to play back audio files. The audio signal is sent out
performance space. For our purposes, we will focus
from the computer and sometimes through additional
on computerized systems, as most sound recording,
audio equipment before ultimately outputting through
editing, and playback are now done on computers.
the speakers. A common setup might have the audio
A recording system is set up for the purpose of going through the house mixer, into an EQ, and then out
recording audio for playback at a later time. The to the amplifiers and speakers (Figure 6.6). Of course,
main components of the system are a microphone, each setup has its own specific needs and rarely are any
a computer running some type of sound editing two systems exactly alike.

5=<:1 ~

~~®®
F I G UR E 6. 5 MIC COMPUTER DIGITAL MONITOR SPEAKERS I
A simple computer-driven
recording system.
INTERFACE HEADPHONES
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

104 production areas

F I G UR E 6. 6
A playback system outputting to
six speakers.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

COMPUTER DIGITAL INTERFACE

INTERFACE INTERFACE

INTERFACE

AMPLIFIERS SPEAKERS

A reinforcement system takes live sound and amplifies 6.7 Legal Concerns
it in real time. A microphone picks up live audio and Since dance is frequently set to music, one important
sends an audio signal to the mixer. This signal is area to consider is the legality of using music in your
combined with others into the mix, which is ultimately dance piece. Both compositions and recordings of
distributed to the house speakers. In addition to the music are generally covered by copyright, making
house speakers, most dance setups include a foldback it complicated to know if a piece of music is legal to
system, sometimes called a stage monitor system. use in your dance concert. Copyright law can be very
The foldback system is a collection of speakers pointed confusing and is, in some ways, purposefully vague.
onstage so that the dancers can hear the music and/or This section will cover some basic considerations, but
other aspects of the sound design. it is essential to always check on your own for copyright
It is important to recognize that in most theatres considerations. When in doubt, check with the publisher
the playback system and reinforcement system are of the music in question to determine if its use is legal.
interconnected so that both pre-recorded and live sound
The Public Domain and Copyright
can be played back from the same house speakers.
Works of art whose copyright is expired, forfeited,
or inapplicable are said to be in the public domain.

105 sound
Those works are generally free for use. The problem Live Performance
can be in determining if a work of art is indeed in the It is illegal to perform a piece of music in a dramatic
public domain. Adding to the confusion is the fact work without first obtaining permission from the
that copyright laws vary from country to country, so publisher who holds the rights to the song. The
a work might be considered in the public domain for publisher’s name should be listed on any sheet music. If
one country and not for another. Most music written you cannot determine who holds the publishing rights,
from the twentieth century forward is not in the each of the three PROs have searchable databases of
public domain and, therefore, must be licensed for all music in their repertory. These can be found online
performance. at ASCAP (www.ascap.com), BMI (www.bmi.com.), or
Music is intellectual property in the same way as SESAC (www.sesac.com).
choreography. As such, copyright law protects it for a
Use of Recordings
defined period of time. For a public performance of a
dance work that uses music under copyright, the dance The publisher only holds the rights to license a live
company will need to get a license from the publisher. performance of their work, not the use of an audio
To find out about licensing, you must contact the recording. To use a recording, you must receive
publisher and inquire about securing a contract to use permission from the recording company and, at times,
the music. The cost of using music varies depending the original artist. It is important to consider that, even
on the size of the theatre, the amount of the song though a particular song can be in the public domain,
used, the number of performances, and other special the recording of that song is still held under copyright
considerations. by the recording company. As with a live performance,
use of audio recordings in a dance production is
Blanket Licenses considered grand rights.
Over the years, I have encountered a number of groups
Arrangements of Music
who mistakenly believe they are covered by a blanket
license between their organization and one or more Musical arrangement is the re-working of a piece
of the three Performing Rights Organizations (also of music so it can be performed in a different
referred to as PROs): ASCAP (the American Society of orchestration than originally written. Sometimes a
Composers, Authors, and Publishers), BMI (Broadcast company might be tempted to hire a musician to simply
Music, Inc.), or SESAC. While it is true that all of these create a new arrangement and/or recording of a song,
organizations license public performances of music in believing this circumvents copyright issues. Legally,
places like restaurants, gyms, and coffee shops, none of the arrangement of a copyrighted song is considered
them covers dramatic or “grand rights” performances. duplication. As such, permission must be obtained
Grand rights performances are dramatic performances from the copyright owner for writing an arrangement
that involve the use of music to tell a story or as part of of the song. For works in the public domain, though,
the story plot. Regardless of a blanket license that your arrangements can be made and recorded, since the
producing theatre or school may hold, dramatic/grand original artists hold no copyright protection.
rights licenses can only be secured by the composer or
publisher of the work.

106 production areas

6.8 Chapter Review Review Questions
In my experience, sound is often remarked on as one 1. What is the role of the composer?
of the more mystifying areas of the entertainment 2. What is the role of the sound designer?
industry. In dance, perhaps more so than other fields, it 3. Describe the different meanings of the term
is essential that the participants have an awareness of reinforcement.
the process and technique that goes into creating sound
4. What term is used to describe the movement of
for the stage. The choreographer makes decisions that
sound from one speaker to another?
affect the selection of music, musicians, composers,
5. What types of microphones are commonly used in
and sound designers. In understanding how sound
dance?
contributes to the overall production and the use of
equipment to create an immersive sound environment, 6. What does an EQ do?
the collaborative process can be both refreshing and 7. Describe the setup of a playback system,
productive. describing components and their function.
8. What is a foldback system?
9. What are grand rights?
10. Describe some of the legal challenges in using
music with dance.

107 sound
 CHAPTER 7
CREATING THE
SOUND DESIGN

Each and every sound is nothing more than a collection

of frequencies that change over time. You can use these
frequencies like paint, combining them to make new colors.

Erik Aadahl

Student dancers from Eastern Michigan University’s 60th annual

Faculty and Guest Artist dance concert. Lighting Design by Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy RandySource
Mascharka,
line to Eastern
go here Michigan University.
For many years, sound was the domain of the and some specifically about sound. You will notice that
choreographer and technicians. Unless the dance some of these questions mirror those asked for lighting
was to be performed in a ballet setting with a resident design.
orchestra, it was (and, in many cases, still is) taken
for granted the choreographer would either make Talking About Your Dance
arrangements for live accompaniment or provide 1. Describe in two to three sentences what you want
the pre-recorded music at load-in. Typically, a house your dance to communicate.
technician would take this music and load it into 2. Is your dance in one piece, or are there distinctly
the playback system for the tech process. While different “movements” or sections within the
this method is certainly one possibility, one can see dance?
why it is less than ideal to relegate the entirety of a 3. If there are different sections in the dance, how do
production’s sound to the choreographer. Whenever they differ from one another?
possible, it makes sense to involve a sound designer in
4. Is music used in your dance? If so, is it pre-existing,
the process of designing and implementing sound for
or do you need original music composed for the
a dance production. This chapter details many of the
dance?
steps common to creating a sound design and should
5. Will the music be performed live or from a
serve as a useful primer for both those serving as or
recording?
collaborating with a sound designer.
6. In what way do you see sound used for this
7.1 Working with the Choreographer production (live sound made by dancers,
Sound designers must work closely with the soundscape, interactive sound effects, etc.)?
choreographer to ensure the sound integrates 7. Is there a need for microphones to reinforce the
seamlessly with the dance. Unlike some of the other sound?
production areas, it is likely that the choreographer 8. Are there specific technical needs of your dance
will not be used to working with a sound designer or, related to sound?
if they are, that their previous experience was a unique
one, developed through personal interaction with Practical Concerns
another sound designer. One of the most important This section includes a number of questions that
steps in a new collaborative partnership is to determine address practical concerns. Without asking the right
the nature of the working relationship and individual questions, an important issue can be overlooked during
expectations. the pre-production period. Most often it is a simple
case of assumptions leading to misunderstandings.
Setting Goals
These instances most often seem to arise in the theatre
As discussed in Chapter 5, it is useful to approach a during the tech period, and, by this point, it is often
new collaborative partnership with an open mind and an too late to accommodate adding technical aspects
expectation of determining the goals of the partnership. to the production. By thinking ahead and asking the
As such, there are some common questions that can right questions, you can save both time and money.
help in the discussion of goals and expectations. This In addition to the list of practical concerns raised in
list includes some questions related to the overall dance Chapter 5 (see p. 81), there are a number of items that

110 production areas

are related specifically to sound. As mentioned before, approaches to communicating the sound design idea for
the choreographer may not have the answers to these other members of the production team.
questions, but it is essential to start the discussion so
that nothing slips between the cracks. Music/Sound Samples
The best method for communicating the sound design
●● Is this a new piece or a remount?
is to provide samples for the choreographer. It is a
●● If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that
good idea to share these ideas with the choreographer
are important to reproduce?
as soon as possible. The process of creating a sample
●● Who will be providing the music? is a balancing act between providing enough quality
●● If the music is performed live, when will the recorded music/sound to be representative of the
musicians set up? design and creating so much of the final product that it
●● Will the musicians require sound reinforcement? becomes counterproductive to start over should it not
●● Do you need original music composed for the meet the needs of the production. These days, there
dance? If so, will it be written before or following are a number of different digital methods for sharing
choreography? the sound files without having to burn a CD. Email is
always an option, but keep in mind that sound files can
●● Do you have a composer to write the music or will
be quite large and certain forms of file compression will
the sound designer be composing?
decrease the audio quality. Online file storage platforms
●● Will there be a need for recording any audio?
like Dropbox or Google Drive are useful in that the
●● At what point will the dance be fully choreographed? file can remain private unless a link is shared with a
●● Will projection be involved as a design element? If so, collaborator. Another service, SoundCloud, is an online
do sound and moving images need to be synced? audio distribution service that allows sound creators to
●● Does the theatre have a dedicated headset system upload and share streaming sound files. This eliminates
for communications, or will one need to be provided? the need for download time and ensures that digital
●● How many people will require headsets and where files will never be taken without permission. Likewise,
will they be located? if the designer hosts a website, the file could simply be
placed on their personal website with a link shared to
7.2 Communicating the Design the choreographer.
One of the challenges in sound design is the difficulty
in describing sound. For most people, hearing is the FYI: Not all Sounds are Created Equal
best method for communicating ideas related to sound. One pitfall to be aware of is the use of smartphones
This can lead to a challenging collaborative model, as or laptops in listening to music. These types of
it is difficult to ever play the sound that will be heard devices have lower quality speakers with a small
in the performance space without actually going into dynamic range that will sound very flat and heavy on
the performance space. For this reason, it is essential the middle range. Always make sure to use external
that the sound designer employ methods to ensure that speakers or earmuff-style headphones for listening
the choreographer truly understands the intent of the to music. You will be amazed at the difference it
sound design. This section details some of the many makes!

111 creating the sound design

F I G UR E 7. 1 cue list: Soul Kinetic Designer: J. Hopgood Date:1/12/14
A preliminary sound plot.
Cue # Timecode Prompt: Source Routing Description / Notes:
1 0:00 Lights go up at top of dance QLab 1-8 Music begins
2 0:00 Autofollow QLab 2,4 Shattering Glass effect
3 0:45 Lift down Center QLab 1-8 Voices begin speaking
4 1:22 Door opens QLab 5 Siren begins upsstage
5 1:25 Autofollow with 3 second prewait QLab 7 Cross fade siren from upstage to stage left

Design Paperwork: The Sound Plot design. As the sound design gets closer to production,
When planning for a sound design it is helpful to create the designer will often add additional information to the
an outline of how the designer envisions the sound plot, such as cue length, audio device routing, speaker
design working. This outline gives the basic ideas, like assignment and levels, fades, notes, and any specialty
number of sound cues, description of individual sound programming information used in conjunction with the
cues, and placement within the context of the dance. playback software (Figure 7.1).
Though this approach is more common for theatrical
Design Paperwork: The Loudspeaker Plot
sound design, it does have its use in dance, particularly
for longer pieces. If the designer approaches the sound Another useful piece of paperwork is the loudspeaker
plot thoughtfully, it can serve as a communication plot, a ground-plan view of the theatre featuring
device as well as the roadmap for what is required of the speaker placement in relation to the theatre and
scenery. This is important information to share with the
entire production team, as the placement of speakers
QLAB can affect a number of elements, such as dance traffic
KEY MIC MIC MIC
FIREWIRE patterns, scenery and lighting placement, and more.

Design Paperwork: The Sound Diagram

The sound diagram (sometimes called a block diagram)
is an illustration designed to communicate how sound
1 2 3 4 AUDIOFIRE DIGITAL INTERFACE equipment is connected together. It does not indicate
the exact amount of cabling or placement of equipment,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 but instead is a simple-to-follow diagram that any
sound technician should be able to use when setting up
the sound system. Figure 7.2 is a sample sound diagram
A B A B A B A B for a simple sound system, featuring a microphone, CD
player, playback computer, mixer, and speakers.
CROWN AMP CROWN AMP CROWN AMP CROWN AMP

F IG UR E 7. 2
A simple sound diagram, featuring multiple inputs and outputs.
PRO L PRO R HL HR MID L MID R MON L MON R SUB Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

112 production areas

Cue Sheets A DAW is the combination of a computer with a sound
Once the process gets closer to technical rehearsals, card, an audio editing program, and some type of
the sound designer may create cue sheets for the external device (like a MIDI keyboard) for inputting
dance. Cue sheets are similar to the sound plot, but musical note data.
contain much less information. They are typically limited
to information like cue number, placement, calling FYI: MIDI
information, and fade times. This information is useful MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a
for the stage manager in preparing to call the show. digital language that allows musical instruments
to communicate with each other, thereby allowing
In addition to playback cue sheets, there are also mixing
one instrument to control another. Instead of being
cue sheets provided to the sound engineer running the
a musical recording, the MIDI signal is a numeric
sound mixer during the performance. These cue sheets
set of code arranged to send instructions from
are specially designed to include information about
one device to another. Within a short time of its
preset levels and effects on the audio mixer that change
introduction to the market in the 1980s, digital
during the live performance.
musicians quickly branched out to using MIDI
Rehearsal Music with other types of digital devices, like personal
computers. Today, the MIDI keyboard is a staple of
One final element to consider when communicating
any DAW.
the design is rehearsal music. If the dancers will be
using music created or arranged by the sound designer,
There are a number of different audio editing
it is important to get accurate rehearsal music early
programs on the market, each with its own strengths
in the rehearsal process. Since choreography can
and weaknesses. One of the great dividers of such
heavily depend on the music, it is vitally important
software is whether it can be used on a Mac or PC.
that this rehearsal music be as close as possible to
Many audio programs can only work on one particular
the accompaniment used for the dance performance.
operating system. In addition to operating systems,
Should the choreographer use an arrangement that
some software is better suited to recording and editing
differs, it can be difficult to adjust once in the space.
of sound, whereas others excel as digital recording
Check with the choreographer to see what type of
programs for use with MIDI instruments for creating
playback system is in the rehearsal studio so that the
music. Listed below are a few examples of programs
appropriate media can be provided, and always be
commonly used for each area.
certain to give sufficient lead time for the choreographer
to listen to the music before heading into rehearsals. Sound Recording/Editing

7.3 Sound Editing and Composition Tools There are many different choices for sound recording/
editing programs on the market. Sound Forge and
When creating a sound design, there are a number of
Audacity are two of the more popular examples.
different computer programs that aid in the process of
Sound Forge is produced by Sony, and it supports
creating and editing sound and music. Sound designers
multichannel recording and playback. This means that
work from a computer equipped with these programs,
the program can record or play back multiple audio files
called a Digital Audio Workstation or DAW, for short.

113 creating the sound design

simultaneously, each with separate effects applied to SFX is widely used as a PC-solution for live
it. Sound Forge is a PC-only program. Audacity, on the entertainment sound playback. It operates in a cue
other hand, is an open source program for both Mac and list fashion, similar to QLab. Within the cue list, the
PC. Both programs are useful for many of the common programmer can insert sound or MIDI cues, create
processes needed in producing sound for dance: groups, set volume of the audio, and more.
splitting audio, adding fade-in/fade-outs, speeding up or
One of the main benefits both these programs have
slowing down audio files, and adding audio effects.
over older systems is the ability to play multiple cues
Music Creation/Editing concurrently. With enough processing power on your
computer, there is the potential for playing back dozens
There are a few programs considered industry
of cues at the same time with the touch of a button. In
standards in digital music creation. Two of the most
addition, a computerized system can eliminate the need
popular are Avid’s Pro Tools and Macintosh’s Logic Pro.
for more costly analog audio equipment, making quality
Both programs have the ability to edit audio files in the
playback a possibility for even the smallest of dance
same way as the programs listed above, but also offer
companies.
extended functions for recording music through digital
audio devices like MIDI keyboards. Both programs 7.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals
contain a library of virtual instruments, allowing one
Since so many people depend on the sound design for
MIDI keyboard to play samples of hundreds of different
the tech process, it is essential that the sound designer
instruments. One of the advantages of working with
and anyone else involved in music and sound aspects
Logic and Pro Tools is the use of audio loops. Both
of the dance be prepared before going into tech. This
programs have pre-recorded audio samples that can
section details some of the many steps involved in
be looped and combined together to create music. This
planning for the tech period and preparing the design.
is also included in Apple’s Garage Band, an entry-level
program featuring many of the functions of Logic that Preparing to Cue
comes packaged free with all Mac computers.
Heading into tech, there should be time set aside
Sound Playback Software for the sound designer to write cues, set levels, and
experiment with the sound system. One of the mistakes
As mentioned earlier, most modern theatres use
made by many young designers is failing to properly
a computer for playback purposes. The majority of
prepare for this process. If you are not ready to work
these playback systems use one of two programs for
when coming into the theatre space, it is a waste of
playback: QLab or SFX.
time and money and can lead to many frustrations
QLab, made by Figure 53, is a complete show control along the way. Though each project has a different set
software package for Mac OS X that can be used for of parameters, there are some basic questions you can
sound, projections, and controlling other devices in your ask of yourself before heading into the theatre to make
system, like lighting or special effects. The software sure you are ready.
allows users to save media files into a cue list for
playback. Once the show is programmed, an operator
simply presses the GO button to progress from one cue
to another in the cue list.

114 production areas

Is Everything Set Up? others to keep it down. If a true quiet time cannot be
This may seem like a loaded question, but it is essential scheduled, then make sure to communicate with any
information as you prepare for working in the space. others in the space before your time slot that cueing will
Since the sound designer may not be the one to set be going on and there will be requests for “quiet in the
up all of the equipment, it is a good idea to make a house.” Likewise, this calls for understanding on your
check sheet listing all of the equipment required for part when others must make noise in order to achieve
the performance. This should include all speakers, their goals.
mixers, computers and playback equipment, and signal
Music Rehearsals
processing equipment (EQ, digital delay, etc.).
If the dance will have live musical accompaniment,
One of the things most frequently overlooked is scheduling a time slot for a music rehearsal is a good
the communication system. In many theatres idea. This is especially important if using microphones
these headsets are the responsibility of the sound for reinforcement. Once musicians are brought in,
department. Make sure of the correct number and they become a regular part of the company, including
placement for the system. In addition, make sure that the payroll. For this reason, many producers prefer
there are a few replacements available and quickly to hold off as long as possible before bringing in the
accessible should anything go wrong during the tech musicians. This often means waiting until the day
period of the run. before or even until dress rehearsals to incorporate
It seems that it should go without saying, but one of live accompaniment. The musicians will arrive having
the most common mistakes is in setting up equipment rehearsed the music on their own and ready to play.
without properly testing its use. Simply setting up the This means that music rehearsals must be meticulously
equipment to the designer’s specifications does not planned with every element in place for the musicians’
guarantee that it will work. Always take the time to test arrival.
the equipment before going into the theatre to cue. It is When preparing for a music rehearsal, always speak
a waste of valuable cueing time to have to troubleshoot with the conductor or musicians beforehand to
equipment malfunctions. determine their needs. Common requirements are a
conductor’s podium, music stands, clip lights for the
Quiet Time
stands, chairs, electrical supply for powered equipment,
Another consideration when going into the theatre is and enough cabling to meet any configuration of
the need for quiet time. Frequently this is overlooked players. This typically means working in conjunction
and leads to frustrations on the part of the sound with the electrics department to determine power
designer and others sharing the space. Often, lighting distribution and cabling. Another important
and sound will be in the space setting up at the same consideration is the placement of the musicians
time. This is fine for installing equipment and running for the performance. In an ideal configuration, the
tests. Once the process of cueing begins, however, the conductor will have a clear line of sight to the stage. If
theatre needs to be free of distracting sounds in order this is impossible, it is the responsibility of the sound
to properly set levels. If the sound designer has not department to set up a video monitor system with a
previously arranged for quiet time, it will lead to a day live feed of the stage sent to a video monitor for the
of frustrations as he/she will constantly be yelling for conductor. If the conductor will be giving cues to the

115 creating the sound design

dancers, a video monitor will be set up with a feed of
production operates within the bounds of the union
the conductor sent to a video monitor for the dancers.
agreement.
This type of system is much more common for musical
theatre or interactive dance in which the musicians
and dancers work in conjunction. For this type of Cueing the Show
performance, though, it is preferable to situate the
Once all of the preparation is done, the cueing process
orchestra onstage or in the theatre’s orchestra pit.
can begin. Listed below are a few considerations that
Another important consideration is the need for apply to most cue sessions.
scheduling a sound check before the performance if live 1. Pre-programming. Depending on the type of
musicians will be used. In many circumstances, this equipment available to the designer, much of the
means adding some time at the beginning of the call work can now be done outside of the theatre space.
to have the musicians playing in the quiet house while For instance, it is common to pre-program cues
the sound technicians adjust levels. Many things can into the playback software before heading into
change from day to day with audio equipment and live the theatre so that once in the space the designer
performance, so it is important to factor these checks has to only load up the cues and set levels for the
into your schedule. space. This process is strongly encouraged, as it
allows for time in the space to be dedicated to fine-
FYI: American Federation of Musicians tuning, rather than starting from scratch.
The American Federation of Musicians (AMF) is 2. Working with the choreographer. The sound
the largest organization in the world dedicated to designer should determine the choreographer’s
representing the interests of professional musicians. and/or dance company’s common practice as to
One of the AMF’s roles is collective bargaining, working with the choreographer present in the
creating contracts between performance spaces theatre. As with lighting, it might be useful to
and the union members. Some theatres, particularly spend time in the theatre programming without the
those in larger metropolitan areas, have contractual choreographer and then set up an additional time
agreements with the union that establish rules for him/her to listen to the sound and music once
regarding issues such as pay rates, workweek, programmed. However, time constraints often lead
number of musicians, and more. One of the most to the choreographer hearing the sound for the
common concerns is the use of pre-recorded music first time during tech.
for live performance. A theatre that has a contract 3. The tech table. As with lighting, it is common
with the AMF cannot use pre-recorded music, as practice for the sound department to have a tech
it eliminates the need for live musicians at the table in the house as well. The position of the
performance. Likewise, performances featuring table is important to the sound designer so that
AMF musicians cannot be recorded, reproduced, he/she can hear the sound from the audience’s
or transmitted in any way without specific written perspective. Unlike the lighting tech table,
agreement from the union. Special care should however, the sound tech table rarely includes the
be taken by all parties to ensure that the dance sound equipment since sound mixers and playback

116 production areas

 systems tend to require much more cabling mentioned earlier, most theatres use either QLab
to reposition. Commonly, the sound designer or SFX for playback control. When programming
will create a network connection between the the playback software, the designer will first add
sound designer’s laptop at the tech table and the audio files into the cue list. The audio file will then
computerized playback system. Once connected, be assigned to output to certain speakers within
the computer can screen share allowing the the sound system. For simple playback of an audio
designer to see and control the screen of the file, this will suffice. If playback control is needed
playback computer from the comfort of the tech (fading a file, stopping, pausing, etc.) a cue must be
table. This setup allows the designer to hear the added to effect that change. Because of the nature
show from the house while controlling the system, of this programming, a seemingly simple sound
as necessary. The tech table should be equipped design can still employ hundreds of cues. Keep this
with a headset for communication purposes, in mind when scheduling time in the space.
though it is common for the sound designer to 6. Setting levels. When setting volume levels for a
only wear the headset when they need to talk to dance production, always keep in mind that an
someone, as the headset inhibits their ability to audience will absorb some of the sound, so levels
hear the performance. should be set a little higher than what is intended
4. What to bring. When moving into the theatre, it is for the performance. In addition, it is important to
important to consider what things you will want set levels in conjunction with any live music that
on hand at the tech table. It is always wise to think will be playing during the dance. Some levels, like
ahead so that you don’t find yourself having to leave boundary mics for the stage, can only be roughly
to get something from home. A well-equipped tech set before tech rehearsals. It will be important
table should include: to take time to get a good mix once everything is
●● pencils and scrap paper; combined together for the first time.
●● all design paperwork;
Technical Rehearsals
●● a flashlight;
As mentioned in Chapter 5, the structure of technical
●● a stopwatch;
rehearsals varies from company to company. The
●● a laptop including your personal DAW and all purpose of the technical rehearsal is for all of the
sound files used in the show; technical elements to be combined together with the
●● headphones (should you need to create/edit dance. If the designer has done a good job of preparing
sound in the space); to this point and spent time in the space before tech
●● a portable hard drive and thumb drives for back rehearsals, the process should mostly involve working
up and file transport; with stage management to ensure proper calling of cues
●● surge-protected power strips. and making minor adjustments as necessary. Of course,
live performance is unpredictable and it is possible that
5. Programming the playback computer. Though
unexpected problems may arise during the tech period.
some of the programming will likely be done
It is essential to remain flexible and willing to make
outside of the theatre, there are certain elements
changes as necessary for the good of the production.
that will have to be done in the space. As

117 creating the sound design

All of the design elements must work together to create
Chapter 7 Project: Thinking Like a Sound Designer
a cohesive whole. The designer must be prepared to
cut elements that do not work within the context of the As a dancer or choreographer, the preferred method
production. With open communication throughout the of communication is the visual. For sound designers,
pre-production process, though, these surprises should the only communication method available is what
be kept to a minimum. is heard. In order to get into the mindset of a sound
designer, this project will ask you to tell a story
7.5 Chapter Review through the use of music and sound. Listed below
The role of the sound designer requires a diverse is a collection of storytelling elements. For your
skill set and an ability to collaborate well with a project, combine together three of the elements into
wide range of people. The job requires a person to one story sequence. For each of the three sequences
be part musician, part composer, part designer, and in your story, pick a sound or musical selection
technician. Since sound is such an essential part of the that communicates the feeling of the sequence
dance process, the sound designer’s role has a strong and reinforces the storytelling. Keep in mind the
influence on movement and choreography. Through properties of sound design (volume, pitch, sound
research, paperwork, planning, composing/editing, and quality, direction, movement, and mix) when making
reinforcement, the sound designer combines together your selection.
various auditory elements to create a cohesive sound
Storytelling Elements
design. Through a study of the sound design process,
we gain an increased appreciation for the job of the ●● Awaking in the morning
designer and his/her role within the production. ●● Meeting an old friend
●● Sleeping under the stars
Review Questions
●● Being caught out in a storm
1. How does a sound plot differ from a sound score? ●● Losing a loved one
2. What information is included on a sound diagram? ●● Remembering a childhood memory
3. What is a mixing cue sheet used for? ●● Getting lost
4. What does DAW stand for? ●● Laughing at yourself
5. What does MIDI stand for? ●● Being chased
6. What two playback programs are commonly used ●● Discovering a new place
for dance?
●● Taking a risk
7. Why is quiet time essential for writing cues?
●● Making a new friend
8. Why would the sound department need to set up a
●● Learning a secret
video monitor system?
●● Falling in love
9. What is AMF and why does it sometimes affect
music in dance?
●● Feeling trapped

10. What is normally at the sound tech table?

118 production areas

The Sound Designer’s Perspective: from Indiana University; I think both fields of study have
An Interview with Sam Crawford proven very helpful to me over the years in understanding
sam crawford is a professional sound designer and sound design. Having a strong background in literature
musician located in new York city who works in a has helped me find a lot of thematic reference points with
number of different areas of the entertainment industry. choreographers, and utilizing a solid technical foundation
he completed degrees in english and audio technology has saved me a lot of hours of problem solving in the use of
at indiana university in 2003. a move to new York city led different gear in various states of working order in a lot of
him to Looking glass studios, where he worked on film different venues and countries.
projects with philip glass and Björk. his recent sound Throughout college and my first years in New York, I also
designs and compositions have included works for the worked as a front-of-house engineer at several rock and
Bill t. Jones/arnie Zane dance company, Kyle abraham/ jazz clubs, which I think was invaluable in developing the
abraham.in.Motion, and david dorfman dance. he skills to work quickly with amplification in a live setting.
currently holds positions as both sound supervisor for Finally, I have played with a lot of different groups over
the Bill t. Jones/arnie Zane dance company and music the years in a wide variety of styles (punk, folk, klezmer,
director for david dorfman dance. in addition, he also experimental, etc.), which I think has really helped to give
plays lap steel and banjo in various groups, including me a wide breadth of direct musical experiences to draw
Bowery Boy Blue (Brooklyn) and corpus christi (rome). from in making different dance pieces in pretty wildly
i contacted sam to answer a few questions related to different styles.
designing sound for dance productions.
Do you have a dance background/any formalized
To a lot of people, the job of a sound designer is training in dance?
probably a bit enigmatic. Can you tell us your personal
No, I came to dance pretty late in the game, and the bulk of
job description of a dance sound designer?
my early training was much more heavily focused on music.
To me, a dance sound designer is an individual possessing But at this point, I’ve seen and worked on a lot of dance
the technical and artistic skill sets to help a choreographer pieces—a few shows a week for the past ten years—and
realize the sonic and/or musical vision they have in mind those hours pay off. By the time you see a few hundred or
for a piece. This can mean a lot of things in a wide variety few thousand hours of performances, you start to see a lot
of contexts. It’s a job that often involves creating or of patterns and develop an inner feel for pacing. It’s gotten
manipulating sounds and music to serve a dramaturgical to the point that I can be a fairly good objective eye as work
function. Other times, the work leans more heavily develops. I think putting in that time significantly increases
towards curation of pre-existing music, and placing music what you bring to the table as a collaborator.
for scenes. And in many other cases, the focus of the
I also think that for musicians, playing dance classes
sound designer leans more towards amplification and
on any instrument or computer rig is an invaluable
reinforcement—i.e. how to hear dancer text or footwork, or
way to learn how to watch dance. Learning how to read
how to best hear a classical quartet in a large venue.
choreography and understand how dancers are phrasing
What was your training in sound design? material helps a lot when creating musical material to

My undergraduate degrees are a B.A. in English and an pre-existing choreography and understanding how to cue

A.S. in Audio Technology (primarily focused on recording) sections live with dancers. I haven’t been as involved with
dance classes as a lot of my colleagues, but the handful of

119 creating the sound design

classes I have played have gone a long way towards helping Back again (which premiered at BAM’s Next Wave Festival
me understand the choreographic process as a whole. in 2014) is a pretty good example of what I take the music
director role to be, so I’ll use it as an example. Our initial
I know that you are a member of two exciting dance
concept was to use the music of Patti Smith as a backdrop
companies (music director for David Dorfman Dance
for a study on mortality. We talked about what songs we
and the sound supervisor for the Bill T. Jones/Arnie
enjoyed and what material we thought might be fun to
Zane Dance Company). Could you tell us a bit about
explore choreographically, and I wrote out some very basic
what those two positions entail and how sound
charts and put together a rock band to try the idea out.
supervisor differs from music director?
The combination of elements was pretty satisfying, but
The primary difference between the two positions is a when we could only get the rights to one Patti Smith tune
question of focus. for the evening, we had to shift our concept for the show
In my work with the Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance fairly dramatically. I proposed arranging an evening to the
Company, I’ve always felt my role as a sound supervisor is music of Smoke, a favorite band of mine from Atlanta in
to be ready for any challenge the piece at hand presents. the late 90s. They were a really wild and beautiful punk
Over the years, this has included reconstructing old chamber group, which meant that we needed a new band
works from scratchy VHS archive tapes, composing and with drums, guitar, cello, and trumpet. I made new charts,
mixing material very quickly during tech rehearsals, using swapped some musicians, and worked on developing a set
shotgun mics to sample sounds live, and getting the sound of songs into a score, as David worked with the dancers
of whispering dancers over a death metal band—a wide to create movement for the evening. I was able to work
range of skill sets! Oftentimes, my task has been to bridge with and to learn from a lot of really wonderful musicians
the gap between Bill and guest composers and sound in the process, including Liz de Lise, Zeb Gould, Timothy
designers, allowing him to work with a wide array of people Quigley, Aaron Diskin, Anthony Mascorro, and Neel Murgai.
without slowing down his own process and allowing the So, to me, being a music director has a lot more to do with
guest artists to be able to have the tools they need to create directly working on the live music needed for a piece, and
work that complements the dance. This associate design being able to organize both the right material and the right
work has had the secondary benefit of allowing me to work ensemble to bring a work to life.
with a lot of really wonderful composers and sound artists:
Is it more common for you to provide live
Ted Coffey, John Oswald, Darron West, Chris Lancaster,
accompaniment for dance or to create recordings?
and Jerome Begin, just to name a few. But primarily, the
focus of my role as sound supervisor has been to work both My preference is always for live music and live sound
individually and alongside others to realize and maintain elements for dance. I feel like it creates a beautiful dialogue
the integrity of the sound designs and musical ideas in a on stage between music and dance. Nobody can fall into old
wide array of venues. habits: musicians have to watch the dancers, and dancers
have to listen to the music. The slight variations and
In David Dorfman’s work, my role is a little different. As
tension of this dialogue create a feedback loop of actions
music director, my role has been both more performative
and reactions that never ceases to fascinate me.
and compositional than my role as a sound supervisor
with Bill’s company. Generally, David and I start with a lot That being said, it’s also important to recognize when live
of dinners and discussions as we try to figure out what music is not an option due to budget or touring limitations.
we’re interested in exploring in a new work. come, and There’s a phrase that I’ve always heard attributed to

120 production areas

lighting designer Jennifer Tipton that I think is pretty parachute. Due to my touring and scheduling for the venue,
essential for dance: “Design responsibly.” Designing large we had a fairly truncated creation schedule—just a couple
things is easy and fun, but if implementing the sound weeks to make a 15-minute piece. Part of the complication
design or compositional intent of a piece is going to ring in making the work was that we had a lot of theoretical
a financial death knell for a company or limit the work’s ideas about what would be interesting in the motion, but
touring potential dramatically, then it is the wrong idea for there are many variables to account for when working with
the piece and is doing the work more harm than good. a volume of air as one partner in a duet.
I think it’s important to assess what’s practical for a piece Luckily, Yara got a residency to work at Elizabeth Streb’s
early on, and find where your interest lies within the warehouse space after class hours ended there every
restrictions at hand. With QLab, MaxMSP, and Ableton, day. For a week, we set up the fans and parachutes every
the possibilities for playback pieces can be endlessly night at 10 p.m. and just played with the motion for a
interesting, and the possibility of live variation still couple hours. Though it was too late for me to make
exists. One of my favorite pieces I ever made was SHOW sound in a residential neighborhood, the experience was
STOPPERS, a duet for Paul Matteson and Raja Feather still completely elucidating in many ways, as we learned
Kelly that involved deconstructing an old pop song with together what really captivated us about the motion of the
computer processing to the point that the music seemed to parachute, and I was able to figure out over headphones
melt on stage. It was always satisfying to watch the motion what sounds could cut through an industrial fan in
and the way Paul and Raja reacted to the sounds as they interesting ways (turns out the answer is a lot of cluster
slowed to 60 times their original speed. tones and some variants on old Italian pop tunes!).
With all this in mind, considering the choreographer’s What advice would you have for a young artist
practical needs is essential. If someone’s working on a solo interested in sound/music for dance?
piece and you can’t be in attendance for many rehearsals
I would always recommend the ten rules for artists and
or performances, sometimes it just makes more sense to
students, which were originally written by Sister Corita
make a single timed track for the psychological well-being
Kent, and which were popularized by John Cage when he
of your collaborator!
posted them at the Cunningham studio. They’re all pretty
Can you describe your ideal process for working with solid points of advice, but the one I think is most applicable
choreographers? to the discussion at hand is: “The only rule is work. If you
My ideal process with any choreographer is always to be work it will lead to something. It’s the people who do all the
in residency with them and to be completely immersed work all of the time who eventually catch on to things.”
together in the piece as we make it. Even if some of I would encourage anyone interested in sound and music
the days are slower than others, I feel that being in an for dance to find choreographers and to start making work.
environment together and talking every day allows a It’s the only real way to understand and learn the process,
designer and choreographer to find a common language for and it’s a constant education.
a piece as it’s being created. I would say another thing to keep in mind as well is that
An ideal example was Your heart & Your Belly & Your you will make a lot of material that won’t be used, and
Whole insides Felt empty & Wanting & hollow, a the earlier you understand that and the less it bruises
2014 work with Yara Travieso. The piece is a duet in your ego, the healthier the process will be for you. For
counterbalance between Yara and a military-grade 30’ some choreographers, if I get 30 percent of the material

121 creating the sound design

I generate into a piece, it’s a banner day! And that’s music, journalistic pieces, documentaries...the list is
okay—making work should be objective, and sometimes endless. Working in dance is an exercise in thought, and
you need to try an idea just to know that it doesn’t work. you can delve a lot deeper with a plethora of reference
Choreographers tend to throw out a lot of their own points. Some of my go-to books for the creative process
movement ideas as well. It’s all part of what makes group have always been cinematic interviews—herzog on herzog
art challenging and ultimately very satisfying: the whole and Lynch on Lynch are two books I’ve always gone back
of the work is ultimately very different than the shape the to when I’m in need of inspiration. Even if a direct corollary
work might have taken on as a solo project. to the work at hand isn’t clear at the time, your brain will
I would also suggest, in keeping with Cage’s principles, make the connections it needs if you open yourself to the
that it’s important to see and read everything you can get information.
your hands on: films, art exhibitions, plays, graphic novels,

122 production areas

This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 8
SCENERY AND PROPS

You can’t act alone. Use the props, the setting, the crew
around you, and of course, your fellow actors.

Jon Polito

Hubbard Street Dance Chicago in Casi-Casa by Mats Ek.

Costumes and Set Design by Peder Freiij. Lighting Design by Erik Berglund.
Photo by Todd Rosenberg.
As design areas, scenery and props are utilized with less Assessing Scenic Needs
frequency in dance productions than some other areas The scenery needs for a dance production vary according
(such as lighting and sound, for instance). This does to the nature of each performance. The first question
not mean, by any stretch of the imagination, that they one should ask is regarding the number of dance
are unimportant or to be disregarded. In fact, few areas pieces in the show. Is the production a collage concert
have the potential to affect a greater change in a dance featuring multiple dances, an evening of pieces by one
than scenery and props. Scenically, the design creates choreographer, or a presentation of a single story (i.e.
a world in which the dancer lives onstage. Scenery has a ballet)? The type of performance will greatly affect
the potential to enhance or inhibit movement for the the type of choices one can make regarding staging the
dancer. Likewise, properties for dance, like costumes, dance. The following list includes a number of questions
are something with which the dancer physically to be addressed before making scenic decisions.
interacts. It must always work in conjunction with the
dancer, rather than pulling attention away from the ●● Does one set work for all?
choreography. For this reason, both scenery and props ● If there is more than one dance piece in the
are worth examining by anyone interested in dance performance, will one scenic design work for all of
production. the dances? Things to consider: number of dancers
in each piece, traffic patterns of the dancers, specific
8.1 Scenic Design needs of one dance. If there is more than one
As mentioned above, scenery is often not utilized in choreographer for the concert, make sure to consult
dance productions. There are many reasons for this, with each choreographer before designing and to
some of the most common being a desire to use provide the designs to each one before going into
maximum stage space, a desire not to distract from the rehearsals. If the scenery does need to change for
physical form of the dancer, and a lack of funds, time, multiple pieces, consider the next question.
and personnel. Ballet is the most common dance form to
●● If more than one set is required, how do changes
feature scenery. A major ballet company’s scenic design
occur?
might rival that of theatre or even opera. Consider
If the scenery needs to adjust for different dances
the perennial favorite, The Nutcracker, produced by
in the concert, it is important to consider how the
countless ballet companies across the world. The
changes will occur. Will scenery fly? Perhaps, there
requirements for this production are typically quite large,
are scenic units on wheels to move around? Each of
with numerous painted drops, dimensional scenery
these different options bring their own variables into
(platforms, stairs, doors), dancer props, and a Christmas
the production equation: the number of stagehands
tree that magically grows up from the stage floor. That is
required to change the scenery; the budget for
not to say that other dance styles don’t sometimes use
personnel and equipment; the amount of time
scenery. There are numerous instances in which the use
needed for changeover from one dance to another;
of scenery would enhance the dance production. Before
the safety mechanisms needed to keep dancers safe,
deciding on scenery, though, it is often best to start off
etc.
with a discussion regarding the production needs and
available resources. ●● What staging techniques can the performance
space support?

126 production areas

 One of the more important questions to consider is can be used in multiple applications) in the new
what the performance space can support in terms design?
of staging. Does the physical theatre include a ●● Is it the intention to use the design for remounted
counterweight system, stage traps, wing space for productions?
scenic storage, etc.? These variables greatly affect Another important question is if the scenic design
what decisions can be made for the scenic design. will be used as part of the company’s repertoire.
●● What is the seating arrangement? If being used multiple times over the years,
As seen in Chapter 3, there are a number of different this will affect certain design choices, such as
seating options for performance spaces. Many building materials and how scenery is assembled/
scenery approaches are best suited for proscenium disassembled.
style theatres, but do not work as well for thrust or ●● Is the dance going to tour?
stadium approaches. In these instances, it is best to With the prevalence of touring dance productions,
avoid vertical scenic elements altogether, since it it is always a good idea to explore if this dance will
can create obstructed views. become part of the company’s touring repertoire
●● Is there a preconceived expectation of production in the future. If so, efforts should be made up front
elements for the dance? to create a versatile scenic design that works for a
For some dance productions, the audience will have number of different spaces, rather than customizing
an expectation of certain production elements before it for one particular performance space.
even seeing the dance. Particularly for dances that
are part of the popular repertoire, there might be a Reality Check: What Resources are Available?
preconceived notion of how the dance is supposed Like the other production areas, scenery is dependent
to be presented. Likewise, the artistic director or on production resources. While most designers like
choreographer might have an idea of how they would to start off the discussion with artistic and thematic
like the production designed based on previous concerns, it is foolish to not take the equipment, budget,
productions. Particularly in ballet companies, it personnel, and performance space into account when
is common to present the same dance as part of making design decisions. By asking the right questions
the annual repertoire for numerous years. If this and keeping the answers in mind during pre-production
is the case, the next two questions are particularly planning, we reduce the potential for unwanted
important. surprises down the road.
●● Are there scenic elements to be re-used?
8.2 Functions of Dance Scenery
If this dance is part of the company’s repertoire, is
there a collection of scenery to be re-used? Often Like the other design areas we have examined thus far,
a company may have a collection of painted drops, scenic design functions in a particular way for dance.
stairs, platforms, and scenic flats that are used over When comparing dance to theatre, these functions differ
and over again for a particular production. If creating somewhat, since in dance the storytelling is primarily
a new design, are there elements of the old scenic accomplished through physical communication without
design that could be used as stock scenery (modular the benefit of a spoken script. Many choreographers,
set pieces like platforms, flats, and stair units that particularly outside of ballet, might ask themselves why

127 scenerY and props

 scenery is necessary for a dance production. In fact, spaces, like an outdoor venue, the use of scenery to
dance is often presented without the addition of scenery identify the playing space is a useful tool. Likewise,
as a design element. Listed below are some of the ways scenery could be used to divide the stage into multiple
in which scenery can be used for a dance production to spaces. Consider the use of platforms to create various
aid in the storytelling process. As always, discussion levels across the stage—each functioning as an
amongst the various production members dictates if, individual area, separated from the others onstage
and to what degree, scenery should be utilized. (Figure 8.1).

Defining Space Interactivity

More than any other design area (with the exception Though many people may assume that scenery is merely
of lighting), scenery serves to define the space for the a backdrop for the action, some of the most effective
dance. The use of scenery can tell the audience where uses of scenery for dance occur when the dancer can
to look. Particularly in non-traditional performance interact with the scenic elements. Platforms, stairs, and

F I G UR E 8. 1
This design for Antigone utilizes platforms
to divide the stage into multiple playing
spaces. Appalachian State University,
Department of Theatre and Dance.
Scenery by Amanda Sutt. Lighting and
projections by Jeromy Hopgood. Costumes
by Martha Marking.

128 production areas

F I G UR E 8. 2
In this production of Dr. Faustus, the
supernatural beings enter through trap
doors in the stage floor. Eastern Michigan
University Theatre. Scenery by Jeromy
Hopgood. Lighting by John Charles.
Projections by David Koltunchik. Costumes
by Melanie Schuessler.

ramps are obvious examples of scenic elements dancers help place a specific location for the audience. Consider
interact with. In many cases, though, the list might the difference in scenery between a rural mountain
include a dancer climbing a truss like a ladder, a rope town and Times Square. These elements can be quickly
that someone swings on, or a trap door through which and efficiently communicated through scenic elements.
someone enters or exits (Figure 8.2). Since this is such
an important function of dance scenery, it is essential to Mood
always ask, “how will the scenery be used?” In contrast to concrete ideas such as time and place,
mood is the emotional quality, feeling, or tone of a given
Time/Place moment on stage. Scenery can contribute to the sense
In addition to creating a physical area on the stage, of mood through a number of methods like the use of
scenery can be used to indicate a sense of time and color, line, texture, or shape (Figure 8.4). Since mood is
place for the audience (Figure 8.3). Time period can intrinsically tied to emotional or psychological aspects,
easily be communicated through the use of period it is important to recognize that the response will be
architectural motifs. In addition, the use of scenery can slightly different for each person viewing it.

129 scenerY and props

F I G UR E 8. 3
The combination of scenery and projections
creates a detailed time and place.
Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

Style Problem Solving

Another important consideration for the function of Another important function of scenic design is problem
scenery is style (Figure 8.5). There are a number of solving (Figure 8.6). As mentioned earlier, some dances
different dance styles and each has its own set of are written with certain scenic elements in mind. The
traditions and sometimes even specialized equipment famous example of this would be The Nutcracker, in
necessary for its execution. The style of a dance which a giant Christmas tree magically grows up from
may sometimes dictate what choices must be made the floor to fill the stage space. One simply cannot stage
scenically: classical ballet is frequently presented with this production without addressing this scenic challenge.
painted drops, flown elements, and three-dimensional While the end result is dictated, the method of execution
scenery; tap dance requires specialty flooring; jazz is the realm of the scenic designer. The same might
often utilizes dancer props, such as chairs. While there be true of magical appearances of dancers. Does the
is no ironclad rule dictating what scenic elements a dancer enter through a trap door, behind a scrim panel,
dance style must have, the choreographers, dancers, or perhaps he/she is flown in? All of these examples can
and audience may come with an expectation of seeing create a magical stage moment. It is up to the designer
certain elements.

130 production areas

F I G UR E 8. 4
The combination of visual elements in
this scene from Red as Blood, White
as Snow contributes to a dark mood.
Eastern Michigan University. Scenery and
projections by Jeromy Hopgood. Lighting
by John Charles. Costumes by Melanie
Schuessler.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University

F I G UR E 8. 5
Large, colorful backdrops are common
stylistic expectations for ballet.
Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird

131 scenerY and props

F I G UR E 8. 6
This production of Cymbeline utilized large
sections of fabric as scenic backdrops to
enable rapid scenic changes and a variety
of different organic looks. The Michigan
Shakespeare Festival. Scenery and
projections by Jeromy Hopgood. Lighting
by Diane D. Fairchild. Costumes by Aly
Renee Amidei.

and choreographer to determine which solution works to any dance performance space. Dance flooring is
best within the constraints of their production. the combination of floor and dance surface under the
dancers’ feet. The first consideration for a performance
8.3 Scenic Elements space is if it offers a sprung floor.
Unlike lighting and sound, scenery deals with more
tangible design elements to create the design. Sprung Flooring
When discussing scenery for a dance, it is important A sprung floor is a specially designed floor that absorbs
that the choreographer and dancer have a working the shock of dancers jumping on it. This is particularly
understanding of different scenic elements and their important in locations where the subfloor of the
purpose. This section covers a variety of these different performance space is concrete. There are a number of
scenic elements used for dance applications. companies on the market that make sprung flooring
solutions. Sprung flooring can either be temporary or
Dance Flooring permanent installations.
Though it rarely has a noticeable design aesthetic,
Temporary installations tend to be made up of modular
the flooring is one of the most important elements
blocks that can be locked together and reconfigured in

132 production areas

F I G UR E 8. 7
Harlequin LibertyTM Sprung Floor Panels
The Harlequin Liberty™ sprung floor
panel system.
Photo courtesy of Harlequin floors.
Harlequin vinyl performance
surface

Compressed hardwood
core

Dowel pivot joint

Dual-density
shock-dampening
elastomer blocks at
regular intervals Maple veneer surface

different ways to match varying performance spaces. of the battens at 90-degree angles on regular intervals,
This method is ideal for a touring production. There are the wood has a natural flex and spring-like recovery that
a number of different types of floor systems with both absorbs the shock of a dancer jumping on the surface.
vinyl and wooden dance surfaces. Harlequin floors, In addition to the battens, a series of rubber-like shock
one of the world’s largest dance floor suppliers, has a absorbent pads adds to the flexibility of the installation.
wide range of options. Harlequin Liberty™ sprung floor
panels are an easy-to-install floating dance floor system
featuring interlocking panels of wood with elastomer
foam pads affixed at regular intervals on the underside
of each panel. These panels lock together easily and
can be installed by the user to make a temporary or
permanent sprung subfloor surface.

For a permanent installation, there are also many

different methods. The classic sprung floor, dating from
the nineteenth century, uses a series of interlocking
wooden planks (called battens) layered atop one
another in a “basket weave” pattern (Figure 8.8).
Wooden sheet goods are attached atop the battens to F IG UR E 8. 8
complete the sprung floor deck. Due to the placement A basket weave sprung floor.

133 scenerY and props

This type of installation typically requires professional Laying a Dance Surface
installation.
Laying a dance surface is something that will be done
as part of almost every load-in. The process can be a
Dance Surface
time-consuming and frustrating one if you have not
The dance surface is the final layer of flooring applied done it before. If the process is rushed the floor can
over the sprung floor (or sometimes a finished part develop bumps or bubbles over time and create an
of modular stage floor systems). The most popular uneven and unsafe dance surface. Listed below are
varieties are PVC vinyl sheeting that comes on a large some basic steps to installing the dance floor and
roll, commonly called Marley. Many years back, the avoiding complications. This process assumes that you
original manufacturer of this type of flooring was Marley have already measured out the stage floor and pre-
Floors Ltd. This led to the use of the generic term cut the appropriate lengths of Marley to match your
Marley or Marley floor. Even though Marley Floors is performance space. This process works best with three
long out of business, the term stuck and most dancers to five people helping out.
still refer to this type of flooring as Marley. Every
manufacturer of dance flooring has a proprietary name 1. Examine the stage floor to make sure it is smooth
for their dance surface. Many dance theatres have and free of any loose flooring. Remove any debris
more than one type of dance surface in stock for use by thoroughly sweeping the floor and removing any
in different dance applications. Frequently, it can be staples, screws, nails, etc. from the floor.
purchased as double-sided with different colors on each 2. Sweep and mop the stage to remove any oil, debris,
side. Common colors are black and grey. or residue that might stick to the back of your
Marley floor. Be thorough on this step as anything
The process of laying the dance surface involves laying
left on the floor can create a hazardous condition
out the rolls and taping them together along their
for dancers!
seams using either Marley tape or Gaffer’s tape.
3. Use a chalk line to create a reference point for the
These two types of tape are commonly used for many
downstage edge of the Marley. In some theatres,
stagecraft applications. Marley tape, sometimes called
this is the proscenium line. The important thing
vinyl dance floor tape, is a variety of tape with a smooth
is to make sure it (the chalk line) is parallel to the
vinyl finish to match the surface of dance floors. It
theatre’s proscenium line so the Marley will all be
comes in black, white, and clear colors for matching
squarely placed.
the colors of various dance surfaces. Gaffer’s tape is a
type of fabric tape used for all types of electrical work 4. Roll out the flooring and lay it in place on the stage
in theatre and television/film. Most theatres have a floor in a stage right to stage left orientation (not
stock of gaffer’s tape on hand and may prefer to use upstage/downstage). The first section should be
this rather than Marley tape. Both types of tape work aligned to the chalk line. Leave 1/8˝ gaps between
well for securing the dance surface into place and it is the subsequent rolls of Marley (approximately the
largely a matter of personal preference as to which type width of a nickel). If you have the luxury of time, let
one uses. the Marley rest on the floor overnight. The longer it
can adjust to the temperature of the performance

134 production areas

 space the better, as the material will expand and Marley roll to the second one. Repeat this process
contract due to temperature changes. for each subsequent roll of Marley flooring.
5. Starting with the downstage roll of Marley, tape 10. Sweep and mop the Marley floor. Use a soft bristle
down the offstage corner to the floor. I prefer to use push broom and a water-based cleaner with the
Gaffer’s tape, rather than Marley tape. First apply mop. Most manufacturers also sell a cleaner
four pieces of tape equally spaced along the edge specially formulated for their dance surface.
going stage right/stage left. After this, run a strip Always allow the floor to completely dry before
of Gaffer’s tape along the entire edge of the Marley dancers arrive.
(upstage/downstage). This will guarantee the roll is
secured in place and prepare you for stretching. Scenic Drops

6. To eliminate bubbles and inconsistencies in the A scenic drop, or drop for short, is a large piece of fabric
Marley, you must stretch out the roll. Starting with scenic imagery painted onto it. The drop hangs
from the opposite end that was just taped, have vertically from a batten and is used as a backdrop for the
someone gently pull the Marley towards them. Get stage. Drops are commonly used in ballet performances
two other people to “jump out” the Marley. This in particular. They tend to be quite large and require a
is the process of two people jumping in unison, good amount of time, expertise, and money to create. A
moving from the taped side to the non-taped side scenic drop is typically made of heavyweight muslin, a
(one upstage and one downstage). The inertia of type of cotton fabric that works well for painting. The top
the jumps stretches the Marley out and helps it of the drop utilizes metal grommets and jute webbing for
lay flat. reinforcement, through which is strung a thin cord called
7. Once the two jumpers reach the end, repeat the tie line. The tie line is used to tie off the drop to the
taping process to secure the end in place. This batten. The bottom of the drop has a pocket sewn into
roll should now be stretched flat to the stage floor it called the pipe pocket. By inserting a thin-gauge pipe
without any bubbles. into the pipe pocket, the drop will be weighted down to
stretch out all of the wrinkles. Figure 8.9 illustrates the
8. Tape down the downstage edge of the roll with
make-up of a stage drop.
Gaffer’s tape or Marley tape. This process uses two
people. One person should pull off a small amount Flats
and affix it to the downstage edge (half on the
In theatrical terms, a flat is any type of two-dimensional
Marley, half on the stage floor). The second person
fabric- or wooden-covered panel, typically flown or
should pull out around 10´ of tape and allow the
resting vertically from the stage floor. Flats have
tape to relax for a moment. Do not overstretch the
been used in theatrical scenery since the fifteenth
tape, as this can lead to it pulling up later! Repeat
century. They are typically painted in such a way to
this process until the entire front edge has been
resemble three-dimensional scenery, or they might
taped down with one continuous strip of tape.
have three-dimensional elements applied to them.
9. Repeat the same process of taping and stretching
There are two basic types of flats: soft flats and
the next roll of Marley in the same direction as the
Hollywood flats.
first one. After the sides are taped down, tape down
the downstage edge, thereby attaching the first

135 scenerY and props

F I G UR E 8. 9
The common components of a stage drop.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

MUSLII\J MUSLII\J

------------------------------------------

HORIZor,rrAL Sr=AM (UI\Jlr=SS Sr=AMlr=SS)

------------------------------------------

MUSLII\J f=A!3RIC

PIPr= I CHAII\J POCKr=-r

Soft Flats a triangular piece of plywood used to connect the rails

A soft flat is the classic theatrical flat with thin wooden and stiles. The keystone is a trapezoidal shaped piece
framing and a muslin covering. The overall thickness of plywood used to connect the stiles to the toggle. After
of a soft flat is approximately 1˝. Because of this, the framing the flat, muslin fabric is stretched across the
soft flat is incredibly lightweight and easy to store, but face.
it can be a bit delicate because of the fabric covering.
Hollywood Flats
The soft flat has framing referred to as rails, stiles, and
toggles. The rail is the section of wood running from A Hollywood flat, sometimes called a hard flat, is a type
side to side along the top and bottom of the flat. The of flat framed with lumber on edge (with the wide edge
stile is located between the rails, placed vertically on of the lumber perpendicular to the facing) and ¼˝ luan
the outside edges. Finally, the toggle is placed in the plywood for the facing. Since it is covered in wood and
center of the span between the rails to keep the frame framed on edge, the flat is much more rigid and stable.
from bowing inwards in an hourglass shape. All of these Like the soft flat, the Hollywood flat uses the same
pieces are attached together by thin strips of wood naming convention for its framing (rails, stiles, and
called keystones and corner blocks. The corner block is toggles). Unlike the soft flat, however, there is no need
for corner blocks or keystones, since there is enough

136 production areas

F I G UR E 8. 1 0
Two types of flats: soft and Hollywood
construction.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.
BA.?Ic ~LA-r -rYP~6: .?o~-r ~LA-r ~ HOLLYwoov ~LA-r

1X F=RAfv'\11\16 01\1 F=AC~ 1X F=RAfv'\11\16 01\J ~V6~

RAIL
!=ACII\16

!=ACII\16 !=ACII\16
MU6LII\J
!=ACII\16 LUAI\J
!=ACII\16

!=ACII\16 !=ACII\16
0
!=ACII\16
!=ACII\16

RAIL
!=ACII\16 !=ACII\16 RAIL
A66e:'MI3LY: A66E:'MI3LY:
6CRE:'W6 WIIH KEN6101\JE:'6, 6LUE:' AI\JV 6CRE:'W6
CORI\JE:'R 13LOCK6 ! 61Ze:'V OR 6-rAPLE:'6 WIIH
MU6LII\J 6KII\J 1;"1" PLYwoov 6\<:::11\J

room on the framing to simply use screws or staples be 4´ wide x 8´ long, since this is the size of a sheet
to attach the frames together. Figure 8.10 illustrates of plywood. A traditional stock platform is typically
the common layout of a soft flat and Hollywood flat for constructed with 2x4 lumber framing. The naming
comparison. system of the platform is similar to the stock flat,
with rails running the full length of the 4´ sides, stiles
Platforms between the rails, and toggles placed between the
Any area of the scenery that is raised off of stage level stiles (Figure 8.11). The top, or lid, of the platform is a
is accomplished by using platforms. A platform is a ¾˝ plywood sheet. Unlike a flat, toggles on a platform
structure framed from wood or steel that is intended to must be placed a minimum of 2´-0˝ apart for maximum
be a raised playing surface on the stage. In traditional stability. Without this spacing, a dancer could jump on
stock scenery, it is common that a single platform

137 scenerY and props

 -rH~ :S-rocK PLA-r~oRM:
F I G UR E 8. 1 1
The components of a stock platform.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

6\Af\JVARV 612£:' - "1'-0" X E>l-0''

lX~ ~RAMIJ\J6
l) RAIL6 I@ lOP Af\JV BOIIOM
l) 6\ILE:'6 ON £:'ACH 611/E:'
?) I066Le:'6 6PACE:'V l~ APARI
?;~ .. PLYwoov uv
HOMA6o-re:' ~OR 60UJ\JV-1/AMPE:'f\Jif\J6
MA60f\JIIe:' ~lf\JI6H ~OR PAIJ\JIIf\J6

Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting Accepting
Accepting
Accepting Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting
Accepting

138 production areas

the platform and damage it or, worse still, have their is 1´, but for dance applications it is wise to go with a
foot break through the plywood. deeper tread of 16˝ to 18˝. This allows plenty of room
for the dancer’s foot when quickly going up or down the
Typically, platforms will have a layer of Homasote, a
stairs.
sheet good made from compressed recycled paper
bits held together with glue. The Homasote dampens Traps
the sound of foot traffic on the platforming and offers
One common device for theatrical performances is the
an added layer of softness over the wooden lid of the
trap door. As mentioned is Chapter 3, many theatres
platform. For theatrical purposes, most platforms will
are equipped with a trapped floor that allows for the
be covered in hardboard (sometimes called Masonite) as
inclusion of special trap doors for scenic elements or
a paintable surface. Masonite can be a particularly slick
even dancers to enter from below the stage floor. Trap
surface for dance, though, so platforms will sometimes
doors are less common in dance applications than
be covered in a layer of Marley for dance applications,
theatre, since there is the added complication of sprung
though this is much more expensive.
floors and Marley used on the dance stage, but they are
Sometimes a platform will be used to create an still a definite possibility.
angled surface on the stage, like a ramp. In theatrical
terminology, any platform that is not level to the stage 8.4 Dance Props
floor is called a rake or raked platform. While raked What is a prop and who is responsible for providing
platforms are common for theatrical applications and it? The answer to this simple question seems
musical theatre, they are much less common for dance to change from company to company. Larger
due to the increased stress placed on the dancer’s body companies may have a props department with a
and an increased potential for injury. If using a raked designer and props artists to build the properties. For
platform, the incline should be no greater than a ¾˝ most smaller dance companies, props seem to be
rise per foot. the domain of the choreographer or, in some cases,
the dancers themselves. This is understandable
Stairs considering how intimate the relationship between
One common element in many scenic designs is the dancer and prop must be. Understanding the nature
use of stairs. Stairs are obviously used to get from of props for the given dance company and who is
one level of the stage to another. One important thing responsible for their design is an important step to the
to consider with stairs for dance are the rise and run process.
of the stairs. Rise is the height difference between
each step and the stage floor. Stairs for dance should Props Considerations
always have a consistent rise, since any variation in Props design is a production element that must live
rise could easily lead to a dancer falling and being in harmony with the scenery and costumes while
injured. The most common rises are 6˝ and 8˝. One remaining functional for the dancers. This is why
should never exceed a 10˝ rise for dance as it can be props design frequently falls into the domain of the
difficult for dancers to maneuver. Run is a term used scenic designer for dance. Whether your production
to define the size of a stair’s tread (the place where the has a props designer or not, though, it is important to
foot falls on a stair). A common size for stair treads consider the need for properties, how they will be used

139 scenerY and props

in the dance, and who will be responsible for making or raked platform)? All of these questions will help in
procuring the props. The following list includes some the design process to create a safe, weight-bearing
important questions to ask regarding the use of props in prop.
a dance piece. ●● When do your rehearsals begin?
●● Is it a prop, set piece, or a costume? Since it is dancers who use dance props, it is
important for the designer to see the rehearsal to
● The line between prop, set piece, and costume is
understand the prop within the context of the dance
often a blurry one. Consider an item like a hat. It
and see how the dancers use it. One important
can be worn, certainly, but choreographers like Bob
consideration is the date at which the choreographer
Fosse made a career of utilizing costume pieces
needs props for rehearsal. It could be important to
as props. During initial production meetings try
try out some rehearsal props before committing to
to determine who will be providing these items.
building the show prop. Likewise, in some devised
Don’t assume that just because you think it’s a prop
dances, the choreographer might want to bring in a
someone else will too!
large collection of props and see how the dancers
●● Is there a props budget?
work with them in rehearsal. This will ultimately
The question of a props budget is important to
inform the nature of the choreography.
consider. Is there a separate line of funds available
for props, or do the props need to come from the 8.5 Chapter Review
scenery budget (or some other general fund)? The
Scenery and props design are important production
answer to this question will affect a number of the
elements to dance. Though they are not necessarily
design choices for props.
used in all dance productions, when used properly they
●● How will it be used? can enhance the overall quality of the production and
One of the most important questions for any dance aid in storytelling. Through the use of various scenic
prop is, how will it be used? Does the prop take elements, the scenic designer creates an environment
abuse during the dance? A chair can easily become in which the dance unfolds. In addition to defining the
a stepladder or a ramp in the context of a dance. performance space, the scenery creates interactive
Chances are it would have to be reinforced for safety elements, sets the time, place, and mood while
though. Make sure to know exactly how the prop will contributing to the overall style of the dance production.
be used before purchasing or building. In addition to scenery, props can be used to assist the
●● Does it need to be weight bearing? dancers in their storytelling and amplify the moment
One of the most common requests of a dance onstage. Certainly scenery and props are an important
prop is to be weight bearing. This is an important consideration for every aspect of dance production.
consideration that requires lots of research on the
Review Questions
props designer’s part. What kind of weight does it
bear? If it is a dancer, you need to know how much 1. What is stock scenery?
he/she weighs. Does it only need to hold up a dancer 2. Describe a basket weave sprung floor.
standing on it, or will they be jumping? Where will 3. What is the more common name for PVC vinyl
the prop sit on the stage (a flat level surface, or on a sheeting?

140 production areas

4. What is gaffer’s tape? 8. What are the main differences between a soft flat
5. How do gaffer’s tape and Marley tape differ? and a Hollywood flat?

6. What fabric are most scenic drops made from? 9. What is a rake?

7. Describe a soft flat. 10. What is a good size for stair treads?

141 scenerY and props

 CHAPTER 9
CREATING THE SCENIC
DESIGN

Design is interesting to me as it relates to narrative: the

design has to support the narrative. Storytelling is the most
important thing.

Christine Jones

Student dancers from Eastern Michigan University’s production of Guthrie Redux.

Choreography by Holly Hobbs. Lighting Design by Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.
Like any design area for dance, the scenic design of questions related to the dance and the scenery and
process is a series of steps in which the designer props can spark a conversation that gets to the heart
collaborates with the choreographer and other team of the choreographer’s vision for the production. Some
members to create a visual image that enhances of these questions mirror those asked in lighting and
the storytelling of the dance. The scenic designer sound sections of the book, while others are customized
utilizes a number of different skills during the design to scenery and props in particular. It should be expected
process from research to drawing and painting, model that the choreographer may not have answers to these
making, creating technical draftings, or working with questions in your initial conversations. The important
visualization software to create three-dimensional part is to offer up the right questions to start a dialogue.
renderings. Though the process for each design is In this way, you can arrive at the solutions together,
unique to the dance and collaborators involved, there which is always the goal of a successful collaboration.
are some steps commonly utilized during the design
process. This chapter discusses the process of working Talking About Your Dance
from concept to finalizing the design onstage. For 1. Describe in two to three sentences what you want
the purposes of the chapter, scenery and props are your dance to communicate.
addressed separately, though it is common to find one 2. Is your dance based on a specific story or work
designer executing both scenery and props for the same of art? If so, are there any specifications for how
dance. scenery/props should be used related to the script
or your vision?
9.1 Working with the Choreographer
3. Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases
Like all of the areas of dance design discussed thus
to describe how your dance (or individual sections)
far, scenery and props should function as a storytelling
should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain
device to help communicate the choreographer’s vision
your concept—it tends to be more effective to focus,
for the dance. Unlike lighting and sound, however,
instead, on what the dance or moments should feel
scenery and props are tangible, physical items with
like.
which the dancer must interface. If inserted without
4. In what way do you see the dancers using the space
consideration for how they will be used, these design
for movement?
elements can inhibit the storytelling and, in some
situations, create an unsafe environment for the 5. Are there ways in which the scenery could facilitate
dancers. For these reasons, it is essential that the this movement style mentioned above?
designer(s) working on scenery and props have an open 6. Are there specific technical needs of your dance
and thorough discourse with the choreographer to related to scenery/props (i.e. flying a dancer,
establish how the design elements will be utilized in the climbing a wall, etc.)?
dance and their overall purpose to the storytelling.
Practical Concerns
Setting Goals Like the other design areas on which we have focused,
Going into the process it is important to start discussing there are some practical concerns related to scenery
goals for the design. As with the other design areas that can affect the decision making of the scenic
we have discussed thus far, starting off with a series designer. Make sure to ask these questions early in the

144 production areas

collaborative process to identify potential challenges details some of the methods used by a scenic designer
along the way, before getting too far into your creative to communicate the design. While they may not all
process and discovering that your choices cannot be used in every collaborative process, it is useful to
be accomplished within the given parameters of the understand these techniques as each have their own
production resources. unique purpose.

●● Does the work stand alone, or is it part of a repertory Visual Research

concert?
One technique common to most designers is the use
●● Is this a new piece or a remount?
of visual research as a springboard for conversation
●● If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that with the choreographer. This is particularly useful in
are important to reproduce? instances of creating a design to invoke a particular time
●● What is the rehearsal schedule? period. Each designer takes a different personalized
●● At what point will the dance be fully choreographed? approach to presenting research. Some prefer to print
●● What are the specifics/limitations of the out dozens of images and lay them out on a table to see
performance space? what the choreographer gravitates towards. Another
method is to cut and paste images together to create a
●● Will there be a need for raised levels (platforming) on
research collage (Figure 9.1). In this way, the designer
the stage?
can begin to communicate basic ideas about shape, line,
●● Will projection be involved as a design element? If so,
texture, color, or other design elements without going
is there a projections designer or is the expectation
through the entire process of creating a design. This
that projections will be covered by another design
allows the choreographer to respond to the “feel” of the
area?
imagery without getting bogged down on the details.
●● Are there specific props needed for this production? Provided that the choreographer responds favorably, this
If so, how will the dancers use the props? then becomes the basis for creating the scenic design.
●● What types of costumes are being used and will they Depending on the process and time restrictions, this
be available to view before tech? might be a step that is revisited multiple times in the
process of envisioning the scenic design.
9.2 Communicating the Design
Unlike lighting and sound, scenic design offers up a Sketches
tangible end product in the scenic elements. Since the Sketches are often the next step in a scenic designer’s
scenery physically takes up stage space and affects process. A sketch is any type of drawing used to
movement possibilities, it is essential that the scenic communicate the design idea. Typically this means a
designer and choreographer have a clear understanding freehand drawing executed quickly to get across the
of the design and how it will affect the choreography. design idea. Some designers, however, might use
Since scenery is so much harder to change once in the computer programs like Trimble’s SketchUp to create a
theatre than the other areas we have discussed to this quick 3D model that communicates the size and shape
point, it is essential that the scenic designer effectively of the design without having all of the details included.
communicates the reality of the scenic design to the Others still might use a graphic tablet to input drawings
choreographer before the build begins. This section into programs like Adobe Illustrator or Photoshop.

145 creating the scenic design

F I G UR E 9. 1
A research collage with a number of
images combined to create a composite.
Image by Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 9.2 includes an example of a hand-drawn design execute all of their design drawings through the use
sketch. of one or more computer programs. It is no longer
uncommon to see design renderings done digitally or
Renderings as a hybrid of digitized hand drawing augmented with
A rendering is a type of detailed design drawing done in programs such as Photoshop.
scale with an accurate representation of color, lighting,
texture, scenic details, and human figures as a scale Scenic Models
reference (Figure 9.3). A rendering was traditionally One of the traditional communication tools of the scenic
done in pencil and watercolor paint, though the process designer is the model. A model is a three-dimensional
has changed over the years to include a number of representation of the scenery created in scale (meaning
different types of media including markers, colored that all of the elements are proportionately scaled down
pencils, or acrylic paints. Today, many designers from the real-world dimensions). The model includes

146 production areas

F I G UR E 9. 2
A rough sketch to indicate design details.
Drawing courtesy of Campbell Baird.

147 creating the scenic design

F I G UR E 9. 3
A digital rendering, indicating scenery,
props, and characters.
Design by Jeromy Hopgood.

a representation of the theatre space called a model such as card stock or heavy stationary paper. Because of
box with the scenery inside. It is also important that its small size, it is easy to transport and store. Likewise,
models always include a small figure that represents a the materials are cost effective. Most often this type
human, for scale purposes. Models are quite useful for of model does not include color and is executed in a
discussing the design with choreographers, since they monochromatic color scale based on the color of the
provide a more accurate representation of the spatial materials used (most often white). The 1/8˝ scale model
relations between the dancers and scenery. Figure 9.4 serves as a three-dimensional sketch, communicating
includes examples of a scenic model. the basic design ideas and giving the choreographer an
understanding of the stage space. It does not include
There are many types of models that serve different
complex details, however, so it is understood that the
purposes. A 1/8˝ scale model is the smallest scale used
designer would need to create a larger color model or
for creating scenic models (meaning that every 1/8˝
color renderings to communicate the full scope of the
measured on the model is equal to 1´ in the real world).
design.
This type of model is made of simple thin materials,

148 production areas

F I G UR E 9. 4
Two different scenes represented through
the use of a color scenic model.
Photo and design by Andy Broomell.

149 creating the scenic design

A second type of model used to communicate more all of the elements of color and texture. Models made
specific design ideas is the ¼˝ scale model. As the name for commercial productions may have working scenic
implies, it is twice the size of the 1/8˝ scale model. This representations, immaculately detailed components, and
increase in scale allows the designer to include many even miniature working lights included in the model. It is
of the details regarding size, shape, and depth of scenic important to note, though, that a presentation model is
units, but it still is likely not completely accurate in its an expensive and time-consuming aspect of the scenic
representation of smaller elements. Models that are design process and seen with much less frequency in
¼˝ scale can be either painted to represent the color dance productions than in theatre.
choices in the design or painted in all white. This type of
model is referred to as a white model. Computers and Models
Though the term model has historically referred to
A white model can be created in any scale and is typically
a three-dimensional object created by the designer,
made of heavy white paper, illustration board, and/or
computers have changed the way in which many
foam materials. Frequently, a white model might be
designers create their models. Many designers now
made of different materials that are all painted white to
have access to tools unheard of in the last decade,
create a uniform look. Of course, the white model should
such as CNC cutting and 3D printing. Both of these
always be accompanied with color renderings of the
tools refer to the process of using a CAD file to send
scenery so as to communicate the complete design idea.
information to a tool that can fabricate detailed pieces.
The most detailed and accurate type of scenic model One type of CNC cutting process uses a laser to burn a
is the presentation model. It is crated in ½˝ scale, pattern into a material until it cuts out the pattern. 3D
the largest scale typically used for creating scenic printing works like a traditional inkjet printer, but uses
models. As such, it is much more accurate regarding an additive process to lay down layers of successive
the specific details of scenic elements. Likewise a material on top of one another to create a three-
presentation model is painted in detail to communicate dimensional object from a 3D CAD file (Figure 9.5). Both
of these tools have become affordable enough that a
number of universities and professional designers have
access to them for their designs.

In addition to using computerized tools to fabricate

scenic models, advances in digital rendering software
have opened up a new world of possibilities for the
creation of computer-generated scenic models. Most
varieties of CAD software now include the ability to craft
in both 2D and 3D, meaning the ability to create a scale
model, adding textures, color, and lighting without ever
making a physical model. Programs such as Trimble’s

F IG UR E 9. 5
Two miniature scenic units printed via 3D printer.
Photo courtesy of Michael J. Riha.

150 production areas

F I G UR E 9. 6
A 3D model, featuring scenery, lighting,
and human figures.
Design by Jeromy Hopgood, 3D model created
in SketchUp.

SketchUp, Autodesk’s 3DS Max, or Nemetschek’s scale to communicate the minute details of a design.
Vectorworks (Renderworks) give designers the ability to A drafting can be created by hand (with tools like a
quickly create 3D representations of scenery without the mechanical pencil, drafting board, T-square, and
time and cost associated with the creation of a physical triangle) or by computer (using CAD programs such
model (Figure 9.6). as AutoCAD or Vectorworks), which is then printed.
For both methods, the end goal is to produce a legible,
9.3 Design Specifications precise drafting that uses industry-approved drafting
In addition to creating drawings, renderings, and models standards to communicate the design idea.
to communicate the design idea to the choreographer,
the scenic designer must also create a number of FYI: Recommended Practices for Draftings
detailed documents to communicate the specifics of the
The United States Institute for Technical Theatre
design to those who will build the scenery. These design
(USITT) has created a series of recommended
specifications make up the agreement between the
practices for generating draftings for the
designer and those fabricating the scenery.
entertainment industry, such as light plots, ground
The most common type of document created is the plans, and construction drawings. Though these are
drafting, a mechanically produced graphic, created in not official “standards” per se, they are the accepted

151 creating the scenic design

 ●● the architecture of the theatre space;
practices by those working in the industry to best
●● the location of the proscenium line and centerline of
communicate information through graphic practices.
the theatre (if a proscenium space);
To see information on the recommended practices,
visit the USITT website at www.usitt.org ●● the location of all scenic elements—onstage,
offstage, and flown;
●● dimensions of principal scenic elements, including
The Ground Plan the height of scenery above or below the stage floor;
A ground plan is the principal tool of the scenic ●● a notation of the theatre’s fly system and all flown
designer to communicate placement of scenic elements scenic elements;
on the stage (Figure 9.7). It is a drafting of the stage ●● an indication of the theatre’s sightlines.
drawn from a bird’s eye view—above the stage looking
down. The ground plan cuts away all of the architecture The ground plan is used by a number of people. The
above 4´ from the stage floor and removes any details lighting designer uses it as a basis for the light plot. The
above this point. Anything above this 4´ elevation choreographer uses the ground plan to determine the
is represented as a dotted line on the drafting. The amount of space available for dance. The stage manager
theatrical ground plan includes a number of details. At will need a copy of the ground plan in order to facilitate
minimum, the ground plan must include: rehearsals. In addition, if the dance tours to multiple

F I G UR E 9. 7
A design ground plan, featuring the
theatre space and scenery.
Drafting by Jeromy Hopgood.

152 production areas

 locations, the ground plan will be an important element the centerline and allows the viewer to see the theatre
used to make sure the load-in is accomplished at each from a side view, including both the theatre architecture
location. As such, it is essential that the ground plan be and scenery in the drafting (Figure 9.8). The centerline
precise and understandable to all parties. section is useful for seeing the stage depth and height
of elements and for determining how much of the stage
The Centerline Section and theatre loft is visible to the audience. The centerline
The centerline section is another type of drafting that section includes:
cuts the theatre along a vertical cutting plane—down
●● the architecture of the theatre space;
the centerline of the theatre. The centerline section
●● an indication of the theatre’s sightlines;
removes all architectural information from one side of

F I G UR E 9. 8
A centerline section of the theatre space,
illustrating scenic placement, trim height,
and hanging positions.
Drafting by Jeromy Hopgood.

153 creating the scenic design

 ●● the location of all scenic elements—onstage, where electrics battens can be placed and at what trim
offstage, and flown; height. Likewise, it allows the projections designer to
●● dimensions of principal scenic elements, including determine the ideal placement for projectors in order to
the height above the stage floor (known as trim project imagery on the set and stage.
height);
Design Elevations
●● a notation of the theatre’s fly system, all battens, and
flown scenic elements. Another important drafting generated by the scenic
designer is the design elevation. A design elevation,
The centerline section is principally used by the scenic, or front elevation, is a drafting that shows an object
lighting, and projection designers. Once created by the depicted from the front view, including all of the object’s
scenic designer, it should be made available to other details in scale (Figure 9.9). The scenic designer
designers for use in their design process. The centerline provides this drafting to communicate how the scenic
section allows the lighting designer to determine element should look from the audience’s perspective.

F I G UR E 9. 9
A front elevation drafted above a plan
view of the same scene, for detail. Photo
courtesy of Campbell Baird.

154 production areas

 This drafting includes a number of notations to include intent for the stage picture (Figure 9.10). Painter’s
information about construction materials, texture, and elevations can be created using paint, colored pencils,
more. Though the design elevations are front views only, photo collage, or computer software. It should be
the page of drafting will likely include other views of understood that the painter’s elevation is essentially a
the object, as necessary, to communicate the design, contract between the scenic designer and the scenic
such as section views, plan views, side views, enlarged artists as to how the final product should look. As such,
details, etc. attention to detail is an absolute necessity.

Painter’s Elevations 9.4 Scenic Construction and Painting

One additional graphic element created by the scenic Depending on the nature of the producing organization,
designer is the painter’s elevation. A painter’s elevation scenic construction may be done by a staff member, a
is an elevation created in scale, but painted or rendered professional scene shop, or even the scenic designer
in color to the exact specifications of the designer’s him/herself. Ultimately, the scenic designer should

F I G UR E 9. 1 0
A painter’s elevation for a scenic drop
used in The Nutcracker.
Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird.

155 creating the scenic design

 approach the construction process as though he/she Technical Drawings
will not be present to answer day-to-day questions As mentioned above, the technical director is
about the construction process. This means the responsible for determining the appropriate materials
designer should include all of the details necessary and methods necessary for constructing the scenery so
for someone else to build the scenery directly from the appearance is in keeping with the scenic designer’s
the design draftings and paperwork. For the purpose vision. One of the primary tools for communicating the
of this chapter, we will assume that there will be an method of construction for scenery is the technical
additional team building the scenery that is not the drawing. Technical drawings are the draftings created
scenic designer. by the technical staff used for construction of all scenic
elements. Where the scenic designer creates a front
The Scene Shop
elevation of the scenery, the technical drawing is
In scenery terms, the scene shop refers to both the commonly created as a rear elevation, a drafting from
build location and group of technicians responsible the rear view of the object showing how the framework
for the construction of all of the scenic elements. In of scenery is to be constructed, with what materials,
academic circles, this is frequently done in-house with and how it all fits together (Figure 9.11).
either student or staff workers assisting in the process.
The scene shop is normally composed of a number of The Paint Shop
different technicians with specialized expertise. The The term paint shop is used to refer to both the physical
technical director is the overall supervisor of most location of the paints and all painting tools necessary
scene shops, supervising the process of interpreting to paint scenery and the group of personnel who work
the design draftings and creating technical drawings to paint the scenery. The paint shop is supervised by
necessary to build the show. Depending on the nature of a scenic charge artist, the lead painter in charge of
the shop, there may be one or more assistant technical stocking the shop, interpreting the painter’s elevations
directors, master carpenters, carpenters, welders, and renderings, and supervising a crew of painters
riggers, and more. in finishing and painting the scenery. Painters are

F I G UR E 9. 1 1
A front elevation (left) and the rear
elevation (right).
Draftings by Jeromy Hopgood.

156 production areas

typically referred to as either scenic artists or scenic column on the props list to be checked off when the
painters. The scenic charge artist is also in charge of prop is completed.
budgeting for the paint shop necessary to create the
finished designs. In the world of technical theatre, the Build, Buy, Borrow, Pull, or Rent?
paint shop is responsible for preparation, texturing, and The role of props design varies for every organization.
finishing all scenic surfaces to an exacting standard that Often the person in charge of props has accumulated
precisely reproduces the scenic designer’s drawings, a set of props over the years of doing the job, whether
renderings, and paintings. this is actually housed as part of the company stock
or a personal collection of the designer. Ultimately,
9.5 Props Design the question arises of how to procure the prop. Some
Since the scenic designer is responsible for the overall items can be purchased, however it is important to
stage look, it is common to find props included in his/ consider if there are alternate sources for a prop. Often
her set of responsibilities. Most often in the dance it is wise to look into borrowing from (or even bartering
world, props are considered the domain of the scenic with) another local arts organization to get a prop for
designer. In cases where there is a separate props your production. There will be instances of props that
designer, the conversation about props should always must be constructed. In these cases, it is important to
include a consideration of the scenery and costumes to consider the specific needs of the prop to the dance:
be sure that the properties visually fit in the world of the how it will be used, who uses it, how much it weighs,
design. This section details some considerations of the and what types of stress it must endure are important
props design process for dance. considerations when constructing a prop for a dance.
Remember, safety should always be the primary
The Props List concern in creating any element to be used in a dance.
The props list is a form that combines together all This is especially true for anything with which a dancer
of the necessary props for a production and includes will interact.
pertinent information about their use. Though there is
When renting or borrowing a prop, it is essential to
no standard format for a props list, it should include
keep precise records of the transactions. Always note
important information such as:
who the prop belongs to, the agreed-upon rental fee,
●● prop description; when it is due, when the prop is to be returned, and the
●● where it appears in the dance; replacement value of the prop should it not be returned.
●● who uses it; Too often, people do not consider this aspect of props
when making arrangements.
●● how it is used;
●● how it is procured (build, buy, borrow, pull, rent); Rehearsing with Set and Props
●● additional notes. Rehearsing with the scenery and props is an important
The props list is frequently a collaborative effort aspect for dance. In most instances, the dancers
between the designer, choreographer, and stage will never rehearse with the actual scenery, but it is
management. Since it serves as a makeshift to-do list important to ensure that the rehearsal space has a
for the designer, it is sometimes useful to include a representation of the set. This often entails the stage

157 creating the scenic design

 manager taping out the physical boundaries of the set 30´ military-grade parachute under 45 mph winds
on the floor of the rehearsal space. In some instances, (Figure 9.12). For this performance, the artist had a
it might be important to incorporate a sense of levels residency in a warehouse to work with the parachute
in the space. This can be accomplished in a number and a large industrial fan. In an instance such as
of ways—with the use of risers, tumbling mats, etc. this, it would be impossible to choreograph the piece
The important consideration is making certain the without working with the parachute in rehearsal. The
dancers get accustomed to the physical constraints of choreographer had a number of interesting ideas
the set. as to what to try, but without the process of actually
interacting with the parachute they could not be
Likewise, since the dancers will be interacting with
explored.
the props onstage, it is necessary to start working
with them as soon as possible. One excellent During the rehearsal process it is important for the
example is the 2014 performance of Your Heart & designer to be available for questions. In addition, do
Your Belly & Your Whole Insides Felt Empty & Wanting not underestimate the importance of talking to the
& Hollow by multimedia director, choreographer, and dancers in addition to the choreographer. Since it is the
performer Yara Travieso. In this performance, Travieso dancers who will ultimately be working with the prop
created a “dance for two” between herself and a onstage, theirs is an important perspective.

F I G UR E 9. 1 2
Your Heart & Your Belly & Your Whole
Insides Felt Empty & Wanting & Hollow
(2014). Created and performed by Yara
Travieso. Sound design by Sam Crawford.
Presented by Streb Lab for Action
Mechanics (SLAM).
Photo by Boofa Hobbs.

158 production areas

F I G UR E 9. 1 3
A small props table prepared
for production.
Photo by Jeromy Hopgood.

Props Tables outlines drawn in marker and the prop name labeled
Another important role of the props designer is (Figure 9.13). This ensures that the prop will always be
facilitating the props table. A props table is a table set in the correct location and be returned there as well.
located backstage with all of the props necessary for Likewise, it is easy to determine which prop is missing
a dance piece or concert. There is often more than in the event of one being misplaced.
one props table set up backstage, depending on from
9.6 Chapter Review
which side of the stage the prop enters. Unlike most
theatrical productions, it is important to keep the props As we have seen over the last two chapters, scenery
tables far into the offstage wing space, since dancers and props are expansive design areas that require a
so frequently congregate in the wings anticipating their broad set of skills on the part of the designers and
entrance. In addition, it is important to keep any kind of a number of persons for construction and finishing
a trip or fall hazard out of the wing space, since dancers aspects. Scenery serves the dual role of creating a
often exit into the wings with lights blinding them. visual surrounding for the dance, as well as dictating
the useable space for the dancers and choreographer.
It is common practice to cover a props table in brown Properties enhance the storytelling tools available
craft paper or a similar white paper so it is easy to see to the dancers and expand on the visual world of
in the dark. Props are placed on the tabletop with their the design.

159 creating the scenic design

Review Questions 3. Write a short statement that explains the choices
1. How does a rendering differ from a sketch? you have made and describes the rationale
behind your artistic composition.
2. What does a scenic designer create as a three-
dimensional scale representation of the theatre The Scenic Designer’s Perspective:
and scenery? An Interview with Campbell Baird
3. What is a white model?
campbell Baird has been active in the dance and
4. Which type of drafting shows a section view of the theatre world for over 30 years, designing for some of
theatre from above? the biggest names in the business. as a student, he
5. Which type of drafting shows a section view of the gained a B.F.a. in stage design at the north carolina
theatre from the side? school of the arts and an M.F.a. at nYu-tisch school
6. What does trim height refer to? of the arts. one interesting aspect about his work is
7. What organization publishes the recommended his frequent double billing as both scenic designer and
practices for draftings? costume designer. he was principal assistant to the
legendary oliver smith for 11 years on productions for
8. What is the role of the scenic charge artist?
american Ballet theatre, the royal Ballet at covent
9. What is a rear elevation primarily used for?
garden, La scala, san Francisco Ballet, and Joffrey
10. What is used to track props and their use?
Ballet. an eclectic artist, he worked as a scenic artist for
the Metropolitan opera house for 15 seasons, working
Chapter 9 Project: Thinking Like a Scenic Designer
on such productions as War and Peace, Il Trovatore,
The primary responsibility of the scenic designer The Gambler, Samson et Dalila, La Traviata, Le Nozze di
is to create a three-dimensional world that visually Figaro, Carmen, Lucia di Lammermoor, and Tosca; and
communicates the ideas of the dance and reinforces for the films Malcolm X and Three Sovereigns for Sarah
the emotional and psychological subtext of the (with Vanessa redgrave). in addition, Mr. Baird was
choreography. This can be a challenging undertaking resident designer/scenic supervisor for the Joffrey Ballet
for any designer. This project asks you to embrace for eight seasons, including such works as Billboards,
the design process in order to better appreciate Cotillon, Billy the Kid, and Empyrean Dances. in addition
the steps necessary in creating a scenic design for to his professional work, Mr. Baird teaches graduate
dance. The steps are listed below: studies in advanced rendering, scenic painting, and
theatre history (“connections”) at nYu-tisch school of
1. Find a piece of instrumental music that you find
the arts. he is listed in the Bristol Who’s Who as well as
evocative of an emotion or idea.
with the 2012 Marquis Who’s Who in America.
2. Create a three-dimensional composition
that visually communicates the ideas of the At what point did you begin costuming?
music. Use any medium that you feel best My educational background was in professional design and
communicates your piece—paint, sculpture, execution for scenery and costumes—from high school
collage, etc. on through undergraduate degree (high school diploma
and B.F.A.—both from the North Carolina School of the

160 production areas

Arts, 1969–74) and then my graduate degree in scenic and different voice and eye on a project, and that can be a lot
costume design (M.F.A.) at NYU-Tisch School of the Arts, of fun. Usually my biggest concern is color palette, but so
Design for Stage & Film. far I have been very fortunate to work with other designers
Before that, I was exposed to a lot of dance at home in who have a sympathetic approach to color, which is very
NC. My mother was a professional dancer and teacher, important to me. I am known as a “colorist,” and I guess
and my maternal grandparents taught ballroom dancing that means I relish the use of color onstage. I have done my
back in the 1920s and 1930s. So I grew up seeing and fair share of monochromatic and tight palettes, but I do find
knowing a good bit about dance and theatre. I also that in dance—particularly story ballet in a large 2—3000-
danced a lot and choreographed when I was a teenager, seat house—color blocking is extremely important for
doing parts in musicals in summer stock—in addition clarity, to know who is dancing and who they are dancing
to designing scenery and costumes for them. (I wasn’t with. I also care deeply about the lighting design, because
great, but it certainly taught me to respect performers and that affects every other design element onstage.
choreographers.) How do you find scenery and costume design differs
How did you first start working in dance design? between dance and theatre?

My first forays into serious dance design were at NCSA, Dance and theatre are certainly related. Dance often allows
where I worked a lot in the dance costume shop for the five a freer expression of conceptual thinking—an open door
years I studied there. Christina Giannini was my design to self-expression and getting at the heart of the material.
mentor and teacher for all things to do with dance, and she I love design in all forms—dance, theatre, opera, film,
took me with her as her assistant on projects she designed musical theatre, and ballet—all of them need different
for companies around the United States—including the viewpoints, but at heart they are always about storytelling.
Joffrey Ballet, American Ballet Theatre, and Ohio Ballet. This past year I designed the world premiere of a
I was also fortunate enough to go to the Spoleto Festival new ballet version of peter pan for Nashville Ballet,
in Italy in 1974 to work with her, in both the scenic and choreographed by their artistic director, Paul Vasterling.
costume shops for the summer, on productions directed This was our third collaboration and our most ambitious
by Roman Polanski and Robert Wilson. I assisted her on to date. I had designed two different musicals based on
the Agnes DeMille Heritage Dance Theatre after working the peter pan stories before, but suddenly seeing the
on the world premiere of De Mille’s ballet A Rose for Miss piece without dialogue or singing made me re-evaluate
Emily, which later went into the repertory of American all of the storytelling options available to me, and to the
Ballet Theatre. Most of what I know about dance costume choreographer. Paul is a very sharp dancemaker, and an
is directly due to her patient work with me over my most extremely knowledgeable choreographer regarding music
formative period—my late teens and early twenties, when I choices. Once he had started to assemble the score (mostly
really had to make a lot of costumes myself. early twentieth-century French composers) I was able to
grasp the weight of the piece that he envisioned. We had a
Do you frequently design both scenery and costumes
nice long period to resolve the design ideas, which was of
for dance, or work in one area in particular?
great use to us both. (I once, many years ago, had to design
I actually prefer to design both scenery and costumes for a nutcracker in about three very short weeks—scenery
story ballet, but I am also very happy to collaborate with AND costumes!—and I was a nervous wreck.)
another designer. Sometimes you really benefit from the

161 creating the scenic design

Scenery in dance is often about open space and simplified Can you describe your ideal process for working with
imagery, whereas in theatre—plays and musicals and some choreographers?
operas—there are more specific requirements as to spatial Ideal process with a choreographer—or director for that
demands and props, furniture, levels, and stairs. AND matter—is for them to come to me with a strong idea or
doors and windows. Wow...doors and windows in dance “concept”—scary word in some quarters, but simply put
are usually quite a complicated matter. Costumes in dance a way of seeing the whole work. Some creative people
are about fit and movement, intelligent use of fabrics and work best from the music, others respond to research or
trims and particularly cut, so as to clarify movement and colors or textures. Personally, I don’t like to have a lot of
make life for the dancer easier. Also, dance costumes take rules—I want to know what is going on in the director’s or
a beating, so you learn a lot about upkeep and maintenance choreographer’s mind, and what they want their work to
so that your design will survive for as long as possible. do to the audience. Tom Skelton, the incredible resident
Another issue in dance is that since the costume will lighting designer when I was with the Joffrey Ballet, was
probably be worn by four or five—or six!—different dancers, with me in a studio rehearsal once, and he gave the best
you design the character into the costume, the hair, and the explanation of a design process—one that I still hang onto
make-up. This differs somewhat from plays and musicals, with both hands and my mind and heart: “The piece that
where you usually deal more one on one with a performer we see in the studio is often more complete for us as
to create a singular costume or group of costumes for their designers than anything we can possibly do onstage with
character. Of course you always strive to make the costume lighting, or scenery, or costumes. Our real task is to have
suit each performer as well as you can given time and the audience feel the same feelings in the theatre that we
budget constraints. were able to imagine in the studio—with work lights and
I know you do a lot of work in ballet. How does the old tights and practice skirts and bentwood chairs. Then
process differ in designing for a ballet company vs. we will really do something that will illuminate the material
modern dance? in a true sense. We will make it alive for the audience, as
we saw it alive in our mind’s eye.” And that is what I really
I did more modern dance much earlier in my career, and
believe in, heart and soul.
would love to do it again. Designers get typecast just like
performers, however. Modern dance can also include a In many ways, costumes are very personally linked
lot of ballet technique—and nowadays the reverse is true to the individual dancer. Do you consult with dancers
as well—so I always feel you design for the choreography during your design process?
and the music and the performers. There is often a great I certainly do consult with a dancer as much as the
deal of pleasure in doing more asymmetrical design work choreographer wishes me to while designing for them.
in modern dance, where off center focus is often easier The fitting is the time where this is most important—not
to manage. It’s extremely difficult to make an off center in the initial design stages where the choreographer is
tutu and have the dancer feel at ease in motion. Hats the voice you must hear. But the dancer will have opinions
and headpieces have similar issues—of course a great and issues that must be heard and addressed. I find that
choreographer will ask for something specific because he dancers are often nervous taking on a big classical role the
or she wants to challenge the dancer and the storytelling first time, and if they are wearing a costume that already
aspects of the work. And this is really challenging and exists and is being refitted to them, they will have a lot to
exciting to solve. consider and talk about. I much prefer solving problems in

162 production areas

the fitting room and shop, and not in the theatre. In dance sometimes lie on the surface, and stick with it. I show two
and ballet, there are unbelievable issues about safety that films to my classes, Powell and Pressburger’s the red
seem strange for a designer to consider—the length of a shoes and Baz Luhrmann’s strictly Ballroom. These are
skirt, a sleeve, or a cape or train; the slippery quality of commenting on life in dance and ballet, and how it affects
a fabric; the peculiar nature of certain materials as they people.
absorb sweat; the shoes, oh gosh...so much about shoes Go to theatre museums where they have collections of
and boots and slippers. And then add something technically dance design: the Bibliothèque of the Paris Opéra is
challenging, like flying harnesses in peter pan? You really certainly a major resource, and Lincoln Center Library has
do have an awful lot to consider for these performers. a good deal of material. Learn what dancers do; watch
What advice would you have for a young designer them practice. Learn to admire their incredible devotion
setting out to design his/her first dance? to an art form that at the best can only give them 15 to 20
years of a performing career. Every day they start over in
Best advice for a young designer interested in dance? See
class, take corrections, and try to improve. And then, when
a lot of dance. Go to rehearsals, see performances, buy
they get onstage, you will appreciate why your work can be
or rent DVDs—so much wonderful material is out there
so very important to them.
now that was not readily available when I was a student—
and read about it. Try to see past the snobbism that can

163 creating the scenic design

 CHAPTER 10
COSTUMES, HAIR, AND
MAKE-UP

The costume designer is not only essential (but) is vital, for

it is they who create the look of the character without which
no performance can succeed. Theirs is a monumental job,
for they must be not only artists, but technicians, researchers
and historians.

Audrey Hepburn

Hubbard Street Dancer Quinn B Wharton in Casi-Casa by Mats Ek.

Costume and Set Design by Peder Freiij. Lighting Design by Erik Berglund.
Photo
Source
by Todd
line toRosenberg.
go here
Costumes are an essential component of any dance choreographer and dancers as related to movement,
production. Whereas a dance can technically function the end product has to live onstage with all of the other
without many of the previously mentioned production design elements, seamlessly integrating to create a
elements, it is a rare dance that works without cohesive visual package. Looking at all of these different
costumes, hairstyling, and make-up. Like all other aspects of the costume designer we begin to understand
design areas, costumes serve the dual purpose of the multifaceted role of the costume designer and how
creating a visually interesting artistic element as well as the job is much more than just picking out clothes for a
communicating the concepts and themes central to the dancer to wear. The following sections detail the function
dance. Costumes affect the ability of the dancer to move of dance costumes and their controllable properties.
in the space and can influence the choices available to By examining these details, we can begin to better
the choreographer. For this reason, it is essential for the understand what goes into making an effective dance
student of dance to have at least a passing familiarity costume.
with dance costuming and the processes required to
produce costumes for the stage. This chapter addresses 10.2 Functions of Dance Costumes
the role of costumes, hair, and make-up in the dance (What Costumes can Accomplish)
production. Like the other design areas, it is useful to discuss
the purposes of costume design within the dance
10.1 The Costume Designer production. The immediate purpose of costuming is
While some dance companies view costuming as an obviously to clothe the dancer. Beyond this, though,
extension of the choreographer’s duties, it is important there are specific outcomes that can be accomplished
to recognize that a costume designer brings a very through the use of costume design. These are
specific skill set to the collaboration that cannot be referred to as the functions of dance costume design.
approximated by the choreographer, unless he/she has Listed below are seven functions that costuming can
some previous training in costuming. The designer holds accomplish.
a unique role that blends together a number of different
skill sets: visual artist; fashion designer; craftsperson; Movement
tailor/seamstress; historian; and movement consultant. Costume design for dance is linked closely to
In addition to all of these things, the successful costume movement. A dance costume should clarify the
designer should be adept at working with individuals. movement of the dancer and not inhibit movement
It could be argued that the costume designer has to possibilities (unless it is the choreographer’s vision
collaborate with more individuals during the production to actually force the dancers into working with the
process than many of the other designers on the movement restrictions of a costume). There are a
production team. Since a costume is intrinsically linked number of aspects of the costume that can affect
to the performer who wears it, the costume designer movement needs, such as the fabric type, the cut of
is often in the position of working closely with a dancer the costume, the fit of the costume (whether tight or
who is understandably concerned with his/her physical loose), the size and shape of the costume, and even
appearance and, more so, the ways in which the less obvious considerations like the way a fabric reacts
costume affects movement. Though the dance costume to sweat (Figure 10.1). For this reason, it is imperative
designer’s primary concern must be the needs of the that the costume designer meets early and often

166 production areas

F I G UR E 10. 1
Consider the ways in which the larger
costume, here in The Nutcracker, would
affect the dancer’s ability to move
compared to the other dancers onstage.
Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird

with the choreographer to determine the specific of these associations to assist in the storytelling of the
movement needs of the piece. Equally important to the dance. Particularly when considering dance forms like
decision-making process is attending the rehearsal ballet, which might occur in a larger theatre space,
period as often as possible to observe how the dancers it is important that the costume be able to effectively
will be moving and interacting with one another. communicate information about the character from a
These discussions and observations will help inform distance. This is why the costume and make-up often
the decisions of the costume designer as related to work hand in hand to accentuate the character traits of
movement needs. a dance role.

Character Costume as a Prop

Another function of dance costume is the In some dances, such as Martha Graham’s Lamentations
communication of character information, such or many of the works of Alwin Nikolai, costume functions
as gender, age, social standing, personality, etc. as a prop, of sorts. A costume that envelops the dancer,
(Figure 10.2). Since clothing is such an important made of a stretchy fabric, might be an element to
aspect of everyone’s day-to-day life, the audience will explore through the choreography. In another dance,
have a number of associations related to the dress of the physical act of putting on and taking off clothing
a character. The costume designer can take advantage onstage could be the actual choreography. It is always

167 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

F I G UR E 10. 2
The wedding gown is a prime example of
how roles can be communicated through
the use of costume. Choreography
by Holly Hobbs. Lighting design by
Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

important to recognize the ability for costume to act as a audience focused on which characters are dancing and
prop within the dance and consider the possibilities for with whom.
its use.
Time/Place
Character Relations Unlike a play that features dialogue and detailed
In addition to costume serving as a comment on scenery to indicate the location and time period,
individual characters, it can also establish a sense of dance rarely includes any of these elements. Instead,
relationships between characters on the stage. This costumes are often the first and only indicators that
can be accomplished through similarity in costume an audience gets regarding the time and/or place of
styles, color palettes, fabric types, or textures. As with a dance. By using the lines, colors, and textures of
the previous function, it is particularly important in the fashion associated with a particular time period,
larger theatres with the audience at a distance from the costumer has the ability to instantly locate the
the stage to establish character relations through the dance in a specific time or place from the moment
costumes, simply for clarity’s sake. The use of similar a dancer enters in costume. For this reason, it is
color palettes or unifying themes can help keep the important that the costume designer be adept in

168 production areas

historical research to find images of period dress onstage. Perhaps she would be costumed in a muted
throughout history. color palette with a cut that restricts movement, as
compared to the other dancers in bright, colorful
In addition to references to historic time periods,
flowing dresses. This approach would create a sense
costuming can comment on other temporal elements,
of visual isolation and would be particularly effective in
such as the season or even time of day. These kinds
communicating the choreographer’s theme, mentioned
of details are important to the storytelling of a larger
above.
piece of work like a ballet, in which the audience follows
a sequential storyline. In this setting, the costume can Mood is the suggestion of a feeling or emotional quality
communicate the passage of time in a small scale (from at a given time. This is most often summed up with
morning to night) or even in a large scale (from one adjectives like “somber, joyful, tentative, or jubilant.”
century to the next). Costuming is one element of the overall production
design that contributes to the establishment of mood.
Theme/Mood The selection of colors, textures, pattern, and cut in the
Theme is a word often used in the discussion of costumes combine with other design elements onstage
works of art. There are two main definitions of theme to create the mood of the dance.
related to dance. One meaning of the word refers to
the dominant idea or unifying concept of a work of Style
art. There is a second important meaning to consider In performance, style can refer to a distinct visual
as well. In musical terminology, a theme refers to the appearance purposefully chosen to aid the storytelling
principle melodic subject within a musical composition. process. In art terminology, the term style is often
Frequently, music uses a form called theme and associated with different artistic movements. Words like
variation, in which the melodic theme is introduced and realistic or stylized are frequently used to describe the
then repeated subsequent times with minor variations opposite ends of the style spectrum. Realism mirrors
developed in each repetition. Both of these definitions the actual dress of a time period and location without
can be used to discuss dance, as a choreographer will having the appearance of being a stage costume.
often establish a unifying concept for the entire dance Realism is closely tied to historical accuracy, so
piece and create variations on this theme throughout research is an important element to realistic design.
the entire dance. In either instance, it is the designer’s Stylized costumes, on the other hand, exaggerate or
responsibility to help reinforce these ideas in whatever simplify some aspect of the costume, whether it is the
way seems appropriate. line, the color, texture, or silhouette. A stylized costume
might feature a dress with an enormously long train
As with other design elements, costuming can
trailing behind it, or a dancer performing on stilts
communicate a great deal about the choreographer’s
to appear larger than life. Within both realistic and
overall theme for the dance or the mood of a given
stylized approaches, there are numerous variations and
moment. Consider a dance in which the choreographer
possibilities.
wants to emphasize the isolation of a particular
character and her inability to function in her world. In One factor to consider is the way in which
this instance, the costumer might create a costume for choreographers often affect the style of all design
this dancer that differs from all of the other dancers elements within the dance. Certain choreographers

169 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

have become synonymous with certain stylistic easily as natural fibers. It is important that the costume
approaches in costumes, lighting, and scenery. For designer has a full understanding of all of these
instance, one cannot think of Bob Fosse without attributes in order to make the best decision as to which
conjuring images of a black-clad dancer with forward- fabric to use in constructing a costume.
thrust hips, turned-in feet, and a bowler hat on
The second important factor related to a fabric is its
top. It is important to always communicate with the
construction method. There are a number of different
choreographer and have a full understanding of his/her
techniques for combining fibers together to create a
vision before making costuming decisions that might
fabric (weaving, knitting, crocheting, felting, netting,
clash with the overall production style.
etc.). Each one creates a different quality of fabric. Some
10.3 Properties of Dance Costumes are rough, while others are smooth in appearance.
(Controllable Qualities of Dance Costumes) Some are delicate, whereas others can hold up to the
heavy abuse necessary for performance. One of the
While the previous section addressed what can be
most important considerations is whether a fabric is
accomplished through costume design, we have not
stretched or not, and in which directions. Also, how does
yet discussed how the costume designer goes about
the fabric move? Is it smooth, stiff, clingy, or crunchy?
accomplishing those functions. For this discussion, we
The costume designer must take all of these factors into
return to the idea of the properties of costumes—the
consideration when deciding on fabric choices for the
aspects that can be changed or controlled. Each of
costume.
these properties affects one or more of the functions of
dance costumes listed above. When selecting fabrics for dance costumes, it is always
important to consider color, print (and the scale of
Fabric the pattern), how the fabric moves, its durability, and
Fabric is the medium in which a costume designer texture. All of these factors influence the way that a
creates the costume. As such, it is important for costume can be used on the stage and may affect other
costume designers to have a deep understanding design areas.
of fabric types and what factors control the overall
qualities of the fabric itself. The first factor that Line
contributes to the quality of a fabric is the fiber In costuming, line can refer to the cut of clothing, or the
from which it is made. Fibers are the tiny, hair-like way in which fabric sections are assembled to create
components combined together to create a fabric. the costume. This property affects the silhouette of the
They come in two categories: natural or synthetic. costume, which in turn defines the form of the dancer
Natural fibers are those that come from plant or animal wearing the costume. Throughout history there have
products, whereas synthetics are created from man- been a number of popular silhouettes that defined the
made materials. All fibers have different attributes, style of the time. In this way, the line of a costume can
from their strength, to absorbency, how well they hold place it within a specific historical context. Likewise,
dyes, or the type of care required in cleaning. Generally it controls the way in which a dancer can move in a
speaking, silk, rayon, Lycra, and cotton are excellent costume. Consider the movement restrictions of a
fabric choices for dance. When considering dyeing long, form-fitting evening gown versus those of a short,
fabrics, keep in mind that synthetics tend to not dye as flowing summer dress. These types of considerations

170 production areas

are always important when assessing how the line of removes all wavelengths of light except those in the
the costume affects movement possibilities. desired color of light. If a red color medium were used
to light a white piece of fabric, the fabric would look
Shape/Form red. This is because the white fabric reflects back the
Where line creates the silhouette of a costume, shape red wavelengths without altering the appearance.
or form is the three-dimensional consideration of the However, if the same red lighting were cast on a piece
costume. Another way of looking at this is the amount of fabric dyed green, the resulting color would not be
of space taken up by the costume. Again, this property red, but gray. This occurs because a pigmented fabric
is often tied to certain historic contexts. When looking at can only reflect back the colors of light present in the
historic research, it is apparent that the form of clothing light. In this example, the green pigment absorbs the
changes in conjunction with the lines as well. Consider red wavelengths of light, emitting a resulting color
the difference between a dancer moving onstage in of gray.
a form-fitting body suit compared to the movement
For these reasons it is important for the costume
restrictions of a costume from the Victorian period
designer to always have an open channel of
with a tight corset, hoop skirt, petticoats, long sleeves,
communication with the scenic designer, lighting
and high neckline. Such considerations are not only
designer, and projections designer regarding the use
important for the singular dancer, but also in instances
of color onstage. Costume designers are expected to
of partnering. Depending on the shape of the costume,
provide examples of their color choices before starting
certain types of movements would be impossible
the build or purchasing costumes. When considering
between two dancers, due to the inability to get in close
color choices, the costumer should have a good
proximity. Likewise, if a costume were too bulky, moves
understanding of the other colors used onstage and how
like lifts would be impossible because the partner could
they might affect his/her resulting costume colors. This
never have access to the legs or core of the body.
can be a difficult process, considering stage lighting
Color often uses multiple different types of colored lighting
in conjunction with one another during the course of
Color is one of the most important properties of
the dance. As a reference, Figure 10.3 includes a chart
costuming. The color of the costume can easily
of colors of fabric and their likely appearance under
communicate a sense of mood or even aspects about
colored lighting. I use the term likely because there
the dancer’s character. Color in costuming comes from
are always a number of factors, such as the pigment
two main factors: the color of the fabric, and the color of
of the dye, the sheen of the fabric, the type of lighting
the lighting.
instrument, and more. When in doubt, try to provide a
When discussing color in costuming, one cannot fabric swatch to the lighting designer to see if you can
separate the color of the costume from the lighting. experiment with its appearance under stage lighting.
Light will always affect the perception of a costume’s This is especially important when you are using various
color. This section gives an example of how this works. different fabrics that all look the same color under
Going back to our discussion of color in the lighting regular indoor lighting. Black fabric, in particular, is
chapters, we know that a color medium is used in a notorious for turning slightly green, red, brown, or
light to create colored lighting. The medium, or gel, purple under stage light.

171 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

F I G UR E 10. 3 AMBER RED VIOLET BLUE CYAN
Fabric colors are listed in the left column, FABRIC LIGHT LIGHT LIGHT LIGHT LIGHT
with their appearance under colored light
to the right. GREEN
LIGHT LIGHT
LIGHT GREEN-GRAY GREEN-GRAY GREEN
Illustration by Jeromy Hopgood. GREEN

GREEN-GRAY GREEN-GRAY GREEN

LIGHT
LIGHT
ORANGE ORANGEGREEN GREEN
GREEN-GRAY GREEN

BRIGHT GREEN GREEN

LIGHT
YELLOW GREEN GREEN-GRAY
YELLOW GREEN YELLOW

BRIGHT GREEN GREEN GREEN LIGHT

LIGHT
GREEN
GREEN GREEN GREEN GREEN GREEN-GRAY

LIGHT GREEN GREEN LIGHT

LIGHT GREEN
LIGHT
LIGHT GREEN GREEN BLUE-GRAY

LIGHT LIGHT GREEN GREEN GREEN GREEN

LIGHT GREEN GREEN GREEN GREEN

Texture step foot onstage to touch the fabric, we understand

Texture is defined as the visual appearance of an they will interpret the true texture of a fabric based on
object, especially related to its tactile qualities. In their lifetime of experience. As with some of the other
short, texture refers to how an object feels to the properties of costuming, texture can be a safety issue
touch. We often assume texture only refers to the for dance costuming. It is always important to consider
rougher textures of the world; however, smooth what actions will be performed in the costume before
objects obviously have a specific textural quality to deciding on the fabric’s texture. Fabrics that are too
them as well. When discussing texture in costumes, slick can be dangerous when partnering with another
the first consideration is often the natural texture dancer, whereas something too rough can increase
of the fabric itself. Going back to the discussion of friction and make moves like sliding across the floor
what types of fibers and construction methods are difficult to accomplish.
used to make a fabric, we can understand that there In costuming, texture can be either true or implied
are various textural properties unique to a specific texture. True texture comes from the weave of a
fabric. For instance, satin tends to be smooth and pattern or the type of material. Implied texture can
reflective, whereas burlap has a rough and porous be accomplished through pattern, a visual texture
surface quality. Though the audience will likely never accomplished by repetition of visual elements to create

172 production areas

a design. Pattern can be created through the varying of balance, unless the designer is purposefully trying
use of colored fibers, through paint or dye used to to make a comment through creating imbalance. For
literally “draw” a pattern, or through the variation of instance, a well-balanced, symmetrical design tends to
differing textures of fabric allowing the surface quality communicate a sense of stability and formality, whereas
of the fabric to reflect light in differing ways. Small an imbalanced, asymmetrical costume might appear a
patterns seen from a distance lose detail and create a bit more wild, youthful, or natural. Striking a balance
textured look to the fabric, whereas larger patterns are within a design is one of the many challenges of the
perceived as purposeful symbolic statements. In this costume designer.
way, texture is largely tied to our next property.
10.4 Dance Costume Components
Scale When considering a costume design, there are a
Scale is the property of dance costumes that compares number of different approaches towards assembling
the proportion of one object or element to another. In a costume. The designer can build a costume from
the case of costuming, there are a number of elements scratch, pull it from a stock of costume components
that could be compared to one another. When discussing already owned, borrow or rent from another company,
an individual costume, certain elements of the costume or purchase costume elements. It is important to note
might differ in some way, like having a large pattern that although there are a great many companies who
of stripes next to a small pattern of dots. Though they build dancewear, any piece of clothing can be used as
might appear to clash when viewed up close, the small a costume, given the right circumstances. For both the
scale of the dot pattern is only perceived as a textural choreographer and the designer, a working knowledge
variation of the fabric. Likewise, scale could be used to of standard dance costume components is essential to
compare aspects of one costume to another. Different deciding on the appropriate costume for a dance. Listed
costumes might be designed in a similar approach, below are a number of different types of dance apparel
but one having a small skirt and the second featuring and their functions. The vast majority of the costume
a larger variation on the same skirt. Though these pieces listed below are for female dancers, though there
two costumes share many similarities in design, the are a few specialty items listed for males.
difference in scale will affect the dancers’ movements
and the visual flow of the costumes. Yet another way of Base Layer
considering scale is by comparing a costume or dancer Dancewear typically features a number of layers of
to the overall stage environment. All of these different different types of clothing. After the undergarments,
comparisons each represent a different method of the base layer of most dance costumes is a form-
assessing scale within a design. fitting garment that allows for ease in movement
without obscuring the shape of the dancer’s body. The
One major consideration in the use of scale is the
apparel listed in this section is commonly worn for both
sense of balance in a costume. Balance is a perception
rehearsal and performance.
of an equal distribution of visual weight within a
design. A balanced design should appear visually Leotard
stable between the horizontal and vertical planes of
The leotard is the foundation of almost every dance
an object. Costumes typically feature a strong sense
costume. The French acrobat Jules Léotard popularized

173 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

F I G UR E 10. 4 this unisex form-fitting garment in the 1800s. The
The dancer in this image is wearing a leotard resembles a woman’s one-piece bathing suit
camisole-style leotard.
Photography by Richard Calmes.
(Figure 10.4). As it is a one-piece garment without snaps
or zippers, it must be put on by stepping through the
neck. Many dance costumes feature the leotard as a
core component upon which other elements are added.
The leotard comes in many different styles, such as long
sleeve, short sleeve, camisole, halter top, tank top, or
even turtleneck.

Unitard
A unitard is similar to the leotard, but includes long
legs and often sleeves (Figure 10.5). It is essentially a
one-piece garment that replaces the combination of
leotard and tights. Since the unitard is incredibly sleek
and snug fitting, it gives the dancer the appearance of

F I G UR E 10. 5
Unitards worn in performance for Merce
Cunningham’s EyeSpace (2007).
Emma Desjardins, Andrea Weber,
Rashaun Mitchell (dancers featured),
Merce Cunningham Dance Company at
Carnival Center. Décor and costumes by
Daniel Arsham.
Photo by Ben Thacker.

174 production areas

 uninterrupted lines and a contoured fit to the dancer’s bottoms. Like all of the costume elements discussed in
form. this section, there will be variations in names and styles
between different manufacturers. Listed below are
Biketard some of the common generic varieties of bottoms.
The biketard takes its name from the combination of a
leotard with biking shorts. The design of the biketard Pants
features legs that end at mid-thigh—somewhere When discussing dance pants, there are a number of
between the length of a leotard and a unitard varieties to choose from. One of the main concerns
(Figure 10.6). It is made of the same form-fitting for pants in a classroom/rehearsal setting is that they
materials as the leotard and unitard and comes in a should be short enough so that the instructor can
wide array of colors and prints. see your ankles. This is extremely important in ballet,
considering the instructor cannot see your positioning
Bottoms to make corrections if the pant goes down longer than
When choosing the costume components, there are the ankle. Likewise in a tap situation, a longer pant leg
a number of choices of elements that can be worn as can interfere with the shoes making a clean tap sound.

F I G UR E 10. 6
The dancers in this piece wear long-
sleeved biketards with a mock turtleneck.
Ritual Series One. Choreography by Jillian
Hopper. Lighting by Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

175 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

F I G UR E 10. 7
This photo showcases a wide range of
pants worn in dances. Lighting design by
David Koltunchik and Jeromy Hopgood.
Photos courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

Pants should be light and form fitting for dance. Jazz

pants are typically made of a lightweight, stretchy knit
fabric. Capri pants feature a shorter cut of the leg,
around calf length. Most varieties of pants have different
designs for males and females though, and as in most
dance apparel, there are many more choices for women
than men. There are a number of different fabrics
to choose from, as well, such as polyester, cotton,
spandex, Lycra, nylon, or blends. Each fabric responds
a bit differently to factors such as breathability, wicking
moisture away from the skin, and how slick the fabric
is (slippery fabrics can make for dangerous movements
in some types of choreography). It is always best to
experiment with a certain fabric type before purchasing
a large amount of costumes.

Tights and Leggings

There can be some confusion when referring to tights F IGU RE 10. 8
and leggings, as a number of manufacturers tend to use Tights are a common component of many ballet costumes for men and women.
Photo by Richard Calmes.
the terms almost interchangeably. Technically speaking,
tights are thin, semi-transparent clothing worn on the Since tights are semi-transparent, they are not normally
legs that start at the waist and tend to cover the feet worn without some other covering, like a leotard. Due to
(though there are both footless and convertible tights). the sheer, reflective nature of tights, they do a great job

176 production areas

 of accentuating the natural contour of the dancer’s body. bottom of the ribs) and low-rise (with the waist near the
Leggings are similar to tights, but made of a thicker top of the hip bones).
material and normally stop at the ankle. Leggings can
have a bit looser fit than tights, as well. Skirts/Tutus
Skirts are an important component of any dancer’s
Shorts wardrobe. They add a flourish to the dancer’s
Like pants, shorts come in a multitude of styles and cuts movement and allow the audience to still see the
(Figure 10.9). Like most dance clothing, dance shorts movement of the feet. Dance skirts come in a number
all tend to be a bit tighter of fit than street clothes and of different varieties and lengths. The most common
made of materials that work well to wick moisture away types are wrap skirts and pull-on skirts. Beyond this
from the body. The defining features of shorts tend to distinction, the defining features are the skirt length
be the waist and the inseam length. Waist placement and fullness.
commonly falls into high waist (with the waist near the

F I G UR E 10. 9
Shorts of different lengths.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

177 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

For most people, the mention of dance, and in particular of soft tulle, assembled to create a bell shape, with
ballet, brings to mind the tutu. It is probably the a long flowing skirt. The Romantic tutu comes in two
singular most iconic element of a dancer’s wardrobe variations, one with soft tulle falling from the waist, the
that communicates the visual essence of a dancer to second with the tulle starting at the high hip, called the
most people. The history of the tutu seems to be a point Romantic tutu with basque.
of argument between dance historians, some dating it
A basque is the section of the skirt that sits on the
back to the eighteenth century, while others contend it
dancer’s hips and is sometimes used to connect the
was earlier. The one point that everyone seems to agree
skirt to a bodice. The basque is separated into two
on is the reason for the tutu’s creation. Early ballet
separate sections: the upper basque, which is visible
features dancers wearing long, elegant dresses that
and covers the area from the waist to the hips; and the
fell below the ankle. As the legwork began to grow in
lower basque, which resembles a pair of panties under
complexity, there was a desire to raise the length of the
the skirt. In some types of tutus a decorative set of
skirt to showcase the legs and feet. Since then, there
panties are sewn to the basque. Figure 10.10 shows a
have been many variations on the design of the tutu.
tutu with basque.
The Romantic tutu was the earliest version, featuring
The classical tutu was born from the interest in seeing
a long and floating skirt that begins at the waist and
even more of the dancers’ legs in ballet movements.
is cut somewhere around the calf to just above the
It features a stiffer variety of netting jutting out
ankles. This would be considered a ¾-length skirt.
horizontally from the dancer’s hips. There are two
The Romantic tutu is composed of three to five layers
distinct looks of the classical tutu—the “pancake”
style and the “bell” tutu. The pancake style is a tutu
long favored by Russian ballet companies, featuring a
crinoline, or steel wire, in one of the layers. This creates
a rigid structure to keep the pancake flat and hold up
the longest layers of netting. It is the crinoline that gives
the pancake tutu its distinct flat shape. The bell tutu is
slightly longer than the classical pancake style and does
not include the hoop. This gives it a length somewhere
in between the Romantic and the classical tutu. Both
variations on the classical tutu tend to feature intricate
ruffled panties combined with the tutu in matching
fabric.

Another type of tutu is the platter. The platter tutu is

similar in style to the pancake tutu, with a flat top that

F IG UR E 10. 10
The tutu, with upper basque visible.
Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird.

178 production areas

F I G UR E 10. 1 1
Tutu styles (from left to right): Romantic,
classical tutu—pancake style, classical
tutu—bell style, platter tutu, Balanchine
“Powderpuff” tutu.
Photo by Richard Calmes.

sticks straight out from the waistline. It differs from the One final variation on the tutu is the Balanchine/
pancake tutu in that where the pancake is a bit fuller Karinska, or “powderpuff” tutu. This tutu is named
at the waistline, the platter is almost completely flat after the famous Russian choreographer George
across the entire top surface. Balanchine and his longtime collaborator in costumes,
Barbara Karinska. Balanchine loved to put a large
ensemble of dancers together onstage. The stiff nature
of the classical tutu meant that the dancers’ tutus would
frequently collide and create a bobbing effect, due to the
metal hoops. Karinska devised a new type of tutu that
used shorter, self-supporting layers of netting that gave
a looser, fluffy appearance (i.e. powderpuff) without the
need for hoops. Each of the tutu types is compared in
Figure 10.11.

The Bodice
Though not technically part of the tutu, the bodice is
a frequent companion to a tutu for classical ballet. A
bodice is a form-fitting top sewn from several panels
of fabric (Figure 10.12). Some of these sections are cut
on the bias, meaning that the fabric is cut along the
diagonal plane, which allows the fabric to stretch more.
The bodice cinches up tightly in the back and features
boning to help shape the dancer’s form. Bodices are
attached to the tutu at the waistline or high on the
hip. There are literally hundreds of different designs
F I G UR E 10. 1 2
A bodice on a dress form. for bodices and a quality bodice can cost hundreds to
Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird. thousands of dollars.

179 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

Tops Ballet
Dance tops come in a wide array of styles, colors, and For ballet performances, ballet slippers or ballet pointe
prints. Unlike some of the other varieties of dance shoes are the norm. The ballet slipper is commonly
garments, tops use the same names as most types made of leather, canvas, or satin. It has a flexible sole
of street clothes, so they are easier for the novice to with an excellent grip but no heel. The slipper has either
understand. A camisole is a sleeveless top with thin a single elastic strap or a double, crisscross band that
“spaghetti” straps holding up the top. A tank top is goes across the top of the foot.
similar, but with wider straps. A halter top resembles a
Ballet pointe shoes are a specific type of ballet shoe
tank top when viewed from the front, but on examination
used for dancers en pointe, or dancing on the tips of
from the back you can see that there is only one strap
the toes. Pointe shoes include a component called the
holding up the top. This strap runs from the front of
box, a rigid reinforced toe of the shoe that encases and
the garment behind the dancer’s neck. Other varieties
supports the dancer’s toes. The box features a flat toe
of tops are wraparounds, turtlenecks, crop tops (with
called the platform that makes it easier for the dancer
a raised bottom, showing the stomach), bra tops, and
to balance. The top of the shoe is called the vamp and
jackets. For men, there are a wide variety of T-shirt style
may sometimes include a drawstring that is used to help
shirts, as well.
adjust the fit of the shoe. The sole of the shoe is made
Dresses of a thin strip of leather stitched to the bottom of the
shoe. Inside of the pointe shoe is a rigid reinforcement
Like tops, there are a multitude of dress types that
insert called the shank. The shank gives support to the
can be worn for dance. Dresses should accentuate
dancer’s arch and can come in various different lengths
the movement of the dancer and serve the style of
of full, half, or ¾ length. The pointe shoe is kept in place
the dance piece. When discussing the common types
by a combination of an elastic strap that goes across
of dresses made specifically for dance by dancewear
the top of the foot at the ankle and two ribbons that
manufacturers, defining factors are the length of the
crisscross around the ankle and tie together in a knot.
dress and the placement of the waistline. The primary
Figure 10.13 includes images of both types of ballet
question for a dress should be how it serves the
shoes.
movement of the dance.
Ballet slippers are unisex and typically come in three
Footwear colors: pink (the most common color for women),
Footwear (or lack thereof) is an essential consideration black, or white (commonly worn by men). Pointe
of any dance costume. The dancer’s foot is the point shoes are intended for females, but can be worn by
at which the body meets the stage and receives more men in certain situations, such as a female character
stress than almost any other part of the body. For this commonly played by a man, like the wicked stepsisters
reason, there is a wide array of footwear choices on the in Cinderella.
market, specifically geared towards the individual needs
of the dance performance. Jazz
Jazz shoes are similar to ballet slippers, but feature a
slight heel and raised arch to accentuate the dancer’s

180 production areas

F I G UR E 10. 1 3
Ballet slippers (left) and ballet pointe
shoes (right).
Photo courtesy of Jim Lamberson.

foot. Jazz shoes come in both the slip-on and lace-up in a number of variations such as the jazz sandal, jazz
variety and feature a split sole for greater flexibility of boot, jazz sneaker, etc. Each shoe behaves similarly but
the foot. Shoes are normally made of either leather or has a different sort of look that is preferable for different
canvas. The soles are made of leather or rubber for dances and costumes (Figure 10.14).
maximum shock absorption and grip. Another variation
might include a reinforced toe for the ability to briefly Tap Dance
rise en pointe. Common colors are either black or tan. Tap is a specific dance style for which the shoe is
Jazz shoes can be worn by men or women and come essential. The tap shoe has evolved quite a bit over the

F I G U R E 1 0 . 14
These slip-on jazz shoes feature a small heel and raised arch.
Photo courtesy of Jim Lamberson.

181 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

 F IG UR E 10. 15
A pair of tap shoes.

the character shoe. These shoes were originally named

character shoes for the fact that they were worn by
actors either auditioning for roles or acting onstage. The
character shoe is very similar to the jazz shoe, but some
make the argument that character shoes are slightly
sturdier than traditional “dance” jazz shoes. Like the
jazz shoe, character shoes feature a heel. Unlike jazz
shoes, though, the heel of character shoes comes in
a number of high-heel varieties. One of the defining
features of the character shoe is the leather sole,
which makes for more comfortable use onstage. Men’s
character shoes look like a standard oxford shoe with
laces and no decoration. For both men’s and women’s
varieties, the character shoe can be equipped with taps
to make them function as a tap shoe as well.

Modern Dance
Unlike ballet or tap, modern dance tends to hold an
years since its introduction. Tap dance can be linked to
“anything goes” philosophy as related to footwear.
the dance style of African slaves brought to America.
Commonly dancers will go barefoot for modern dance
Their dance style involved a dancer pounding out a
pieces, though it is not uncommon to see dancers wear
rhythmic beat with bare feet on wooden planking.
dance sneakers, slippers, boots, or other varieties of
As time advanced, the use of a specialized shoe with
shoe. Even if the choreographer wants a unique look, it
wooden soles replaced bare feet. It was not until the
is always a good idea to select footwear from a dance
early 1900s that we saw the addition of metal “taps”
manufacturer. There are a number of modern options to
on the bottom of tap shoes. Today, there are a number
footwear created with the dancer in mind. Using street
of specialized types of tap shoe featuring specific tap
shoes can lead to a dangerous situation for the dancer
sizes, thickness, and materials for creating a unique
and damage the dance flooring in the performance
sound. Though there are many variations on the design,
space.
the common factor remains that tap shoes feature
metal taps applied to the underside of the heel and When getting a barefoot look may be desirable for the
toes that are used to produce the signature tap sound choreographer, there are certain options for the dancer
(Figure 10.15). to give foot protection while still giving the appearance
of being barefoot to the audience. Capezio, one of the
Musical Theatre oldest dance shoe manufacturers in the United States,
Since dance is such an essential component of most makes multiple varieties of their foot Undeez™, a
musical theatre productions, it is a good idea to address nude shoe that covers either the ball of the foot or the

182 production areas

ball and heel. There are many different options on the It is essential to recognize that a wig is a complex tool
market for the foot thong-style shoe, though many that must be provided to the dancer in enough time to
dancers simply prefer the feel and lack of restriction rehearse while wearing it. This will give both the dancer
that comes from being barefooted. Always make sure and designer an opportunity to see the wig in action
to take special care in setting up the dance floor and and determine what specialty needs there might be to
backstage for sweeping and mopping, since it is a given secure the wig in place for the production. The style
that there will be dancers walking around in bare feet! needs to be secure enough to withstand the movement
of the dance, and the wig must be fastened to the head
10.5 Hair and Wigs securely enough not to move around or come off. This
When considering hairstyles for dance, the two basic point cannot be overstressed!
choices are natural hair or the use of wigs. Overall, the
rules of hairstyles for dance are straightforward: keep Hats, Masks, and Headpieces
it out of your eyes, don’t let it interfere with movement, In addition to hairstyling, another common approach
and don’t let it clash with your costume. Some types to drawing attention to the dancer’s head is the use of
of dance have expectations of how a dancer’s hair will hats, masks, and headpieces. Each element has its own
be styled. Ballet, for instance, mostly assumes that unique challenges. All three must be properly secured
a ballerina will have naturally long hair. The hair is into place, else they move around and possibly even
normally placed up in a bun high on the back of the fall off.
head. The final step is to use a shellac-style hairspray
Hats, while visually interesting, can create large
to affix the hair in place so that it stays up under the
shadows, making it difficult to see the dancer’s face.
most rigorous of conditions. Though it is not necessarily
Masks present the unique challenge of possibly creating
a rule that all female ballet dancers must have long
“blind spots” for the dancer, should they move to
hair, it is something of a convention that many classical
obscure the line of sight. It is important that a mask
dancers follow.
always be properly secured, have large openings around
Wigs and Hairpieces the eyes, and not protrude too far in any direction so as
to block the dancer’s vision. For all of these reasons, it
Sometimes a dancer may need to use a wig or hairpiece
is important to make sure the dancer can rehearse with
in order to achieve the desired look for a role. This
the mask as soon as possible. This is important not only
could be because of the length of the dancer’s hair,
for the dancer wearing the mask, but for anyone who
his/her hair color, or for a specific look desirable for a
might be partnering with the dancer, as it could create a
certain character in the dance. A wig is a head covering
hazard for the dance partner as well.
with hair that covers the entirety of the head, whereas
a hairpiece supplements a wig or natural hair. Both Headpieces come in a number of varieties from crowns
wigs and hairpieces are normally made of human to headbands, decorative hair combs, or strings of
or synthetic hair. Those made of human hair can be jewels. Headpieces must be pinned securely into place
colored, curled, and styled in a similar fashion to the to avoid jarring loose during performance. Figure 10.16
hair on your head. Those made of synthetic fibers will shows a few examples of the use of masks and
often melt under heat and cannot be colored as easily. headpieces for dance.

183 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

F I G UR E 10. 1 6
Four images featuring the creative use of
headpieces and masks in dance (Peter
Pan and The Nutcracker).
Photos by Richard Calmes (top row). Photos
courtesy of Campbell Baird (bottom row).

10.6 Make-up Considerations the facial expressions of the character far into the
Although make-up is not technically a part of the back rows of the auditorium. Although some of the
costume, many dancers believe that make-up is the techniques and tools are similar to street make-up or
final step to preparing for the dance performance and even theatrical make-up, there are some aspects of
an essential component to taking on the character. dance make-up that are unique to the art form.
Dance make-up is bold, so as to help communicate

184 production areas

The Make-up Kit As a rule of thumb, start with the lightest color
There are a number of different manufacturers of just beneath the eyebrow and work your way to the
stage make-up. The types of make-up used for stage darkest color above the eyelashes. Use a clean brush
applications tend to be a bit thicker and are used to to blend the colors together smoothly. This creates a
create a higher contrast on the face than for basic sculpted look that really accentuates the eyes.
cosmetic applications. The basic dance make-up kit ●● Accentuate the shape of your eyebrows with an
should include cleanser, moisturizer, foundation, eyebrow pencil. One of the most important elements
powder, eye shadow and eyeliner, eyebrow pencil, to making the dancer’s expressions visible from a
mascara, blush, lip liner/lipstick, and a setting spray. distance is the eyebrow. An eyebrow pencil can be
In addition to these varieties of make-up, it is useful to used to fill in the eyebrow and elongate the shape.
have items such as sponges, cotton balls, brushes, false The chosen shape of the eyebrow can go a long way
eyelashes (and glue), and baby wipes. Manufacturers towards portraying your character onstage.
such as Mehron and Ben Nye sell specialty stage ●● Apply eyeliner to eyelids. The purpose of the
make-up kits for a reasonable price. eyeliner is to darken the lines of the eyelashes and
draw attention to the eye. Many dancers use liquid
Applying Dance Make-up liner for the top lashes and an eyeliner pencil for the
When applying make-up, there are some basic steps bottom. Others still opt for no lining on the bottom
to follow in order to achieve an appropriate look for the lashes at all. The liquid liner on the top should
stage while protecting your skin. The list below includes be bold in appearance and as close to the natural
a step-by-step approach to applying dance make-up. eyelashes as you can manage. Lining on the bottom
lashes should be subtle. Using heavy eyeliner on
●● Cleanse, tone, and moisturize your face and neck.
both top and bottom can lead to the appearance of
This process is important for the health of your skin,
eyes being less open on stage—the opposite of our
as well as for creating a smooth palette on which
goal.
to apply the make-up. After cleansing your face,
immediately apply moisturizer. This step fills in the
●● Apply mascara to the eyelashes. Mascara is also
tiny cracks on the surface of your face and makes for applied more heavily to the top lashes and very little
a smooth application surface. For those with acne to the bottoms. If using mascara on the bottom, start
problems, use an oil-free moisturizer. If you have dry with the bottom lashes and give a few minutes for
skin, choose something a bit thicker. the bottoms to dry before applying mascara on the
top. Mascara should always be a darker color, often
●● Apply a foundation. Directly after moisturizing,
black.
apply your foundation over the face, neck, and upper
chest (not forgetting the ears). This makes for an
●● Affix false eyelashes, if desired. False eyelashes
even transition from make-up to bare skin. Many are often used for the stage. When using them,
people use a finishing powder at this point to set the mascara is not required. In fact, using mascara
foundation and prevent an overly oily appearance. can make it difficult to re-use a false eyelash after
application. To apply false eyelashes, hold them in
●● Add eye shadow. Next apply the eye shadow. Many
place with tweezers and apply glue to the strip that
dancers use multiple colors of eye shadow to create
holds the eyelashes together. Let the glue dry for
a gradation of color from the eyebrow to the eye.

185 costuMes, hair, and MaKe-up

 a few moments so that it becomes tacky. The false 10.7 Chapter Review
eyelashes are placed as close to the root line of your As this chapter illustrates, the world of dance
real eyelashes as possible and then pressed into costumes, hair and wigs, and make-up is an exhaustive
place from the center outward. area covering a number of different considerations.
●● Apply blush. Blush is used to accentuate the In addition to the individual considerations for a
cheekbones and add definition to the dancer’s face. production, there are also the traditional expectations
Powder varieties should be applied with a large of dance styles to keep in mind. Perhaps more so than
brush for blending. Cream varieties can be blended any other designer in dance, the costume designer must
with a sponge. For both methods, start at the center blend together a wide array of skill sets and expertise
of the cheekbone (the “apples”) and work your way in order to create the finished product viewed on stage.
out, blending evenly. Whether it is the historian, the fashion designer, the
●● Color the lips and define the shape. Most dancers archivist, the craftsperson, or movement consultant,
use either a combination of a lip liner and lipstick, the costume designer is an integral part of the creative
or simply use a colored lip cream. For ladies, bold process for producing dance and one whose expertise
red lips are the norm in dance. This may seem affects many of the other production areas.
excessive from close up, but it is necessary to allow
the dancer’s facial expressions to be read from Review Questions
the audience. When using lip liner, first draw in 1. In what way is a costume linked to movement?
the shape of the lips, following the natural line of 2. What color would be the most likely result of
your lips. Next apply a colorstay variety of lipstick shining a red light onto a green fabric?
to the interior areas of the lips. The colorstay is 3. What is the key difference between a classical tutu
important for keeping the lipstick on the lips and off and the powderpuff tutu?
of costumes. When using a color cream, the lip color
4. What is the flat toe of a pointe shoe called?
is applied using a lining brush for details.
5. How do jazz shoes differ from ballet slippers?
●● Finish the make-up application with a barrier
6. Which dance style most commonly features
spray. After all of your make-up is applied, spray a
dancers in bare feet?
finishing coat of barrier spray onto the face to set
the make-up. This will help prevent the make-up 7. What is the difference between a wig and a
running with perspiration and color rubbing off onto hairpiece?
your costume or others. 8. What are some concerns when working with hats
or masks onstage?
9. Why is dance make-up so bold in appearance?
10. What is the purpose of a barrier spray in make-up?

186 production areas

This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 11
CREATING THE
COSTUME DESIGN

Costumes are the first impression that you have of the

character before they open their mouth—it really does
establish who they are.

Colleen Atwood

Student dancers from Eastern Michigan University’s 62nd annual Faculty and Guest Artist
dance concert. Choreography by Laura Zimmerman. Lighting Design by Jeromy Hopgood.
Photo courtesy Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.
Since costume designs are so eclectic and involve up some suggestions for initiating a conversation about
a number of different components, it only stands to the dance and how the costume design can assist in the
reason that the process of creating the costume design storytelling process.
would also be a multifaceted one requiring many
specialized skills. The costume designer must work Setting Goals
closely with the choreographer and dancers to create a As mentioned above, the role of the dance costume
costume that both fits within the conceptual framework designer is a bit different from its counterpart in
of the dance and assists the dancer in creating the role. theatre. Though the ultimate goal of creating costumes
This chapter details the process for creating the design for a performer remains the same, the path to getting
from concept to opening night. there is a bit more circuitous. Since the choreographer
will often not have a definite concept for the costumes
11.1 Working with the Choreographer in the early stages of discussions, it is useful to start a
Other than the dancers themselves, no other aspect dialogue that focuses on what should be communicated
does so much to communicate the essence of the through the dance. Listed below are some questions
characters than costuming. Unlike the process of that can spark this conversation and drive the
designing costumes for theatre, television, or film, discussion to revealing pertinent information about the
when working on dance costumes the primary source dance. Even if the choreographer has not begun the
of character information will most often come directly process of discovering these things about the dance, it is
from the choreographer. For this reason, the costume important to put the questions out there. In many cases,
designer and choreographer often have a close this helps him/her frame their approach to the dance,
relationship. When working in the theatre, the script especially as it relates to characterization.
dictates much of the story arc. As a result, the costume
designer can enter production meetings with a fairly Talking About Your Dance
solid concept of where the costume design is heading.
1. Is your dance based on or influenced by any
Since there is rarely a script for a dance, the process of
particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include
creating the story happens in rehearsals. This means
images, links/references with this response.)
that designers typically do not have a notion of the
2. Describe in two to three sentences what you want
story arc, pertinent themes, or concepts until well into
your dance to communicate.
the rehearsal process. For the costume designer who
comes from a strictly theatrical background, this can 3. Is it important to distinguish different characters
be a foreign concept and take some time to adjust. For within the dance, or should the dancers all be a bit
these reasons, it is important that the costume designer more uniform?
establishes an early dialogue with the choreographer 4. If there are specific characters, do you have a sense
and makes time to attend rehearsals. Be aware that of who they are and what they should be saying to
some choreographers may not like to bring the designer the audience?
in until the piece is a bit closer to completion. The 5. Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases
bottom line is that the choreographer and designers to describe how your dance (or individual sections)
have to determine a method that will work best for their should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain
individual project and stick with it. This section offers your concept—it tends to be more effective to focus,

190 PRODUCTIONAREAS
 instead, on what the dance or moments should feel ●● Is it OK for me to attend rehearsals and see how the
like. dancers will be moving?
6. Are there specific movement-related needs for the ●● At what point will the dance be fully choreographed?
costuming? ●● What is the tech schedule?
7. Will movement create specific demands of the ●● At what point do the dancers need to be working in
costume (i.e. will knee pads be necessary)? costume?
8. Is there any other design element that might affect ●● Are there specific props needed for this production?
the way in which costumes have to be used (i.e. If so, how will the dancers use the props?
scenery—the use of stairs, props: dancers all must ●● Are there specific colors selected for the lighting yet?
hold umbrellas, etc.)?
●● Are there any special effects needs that might affect
9. What kind of footwear is needed for the dance? the costuming (flying a dancer, etc.)?
10. If the dance is done in a repertory setting, is ●● Does the dance company have a costume stock from
there a requirement for quick changes—either which I can pull or a reciprocal arrangement with
within this dance or to/from the previous/ another company’s stock?
subsequent dances?
Attending Rehearsals
Practical Concerns
As mentioned earlier, attending rehearsals is one of
In a perfect world, the costume designer would be the important aspects of the costume designer’s job.
able to provide any type of costume for the dance in Most designers would agree that the more time spent
any number required. The truth of the matter is more with the choreographer and seeing rehearsal, the
often that what can be offered in a design is factored better. There are a number of things one can take from
on a sliding scale. The important factors to consider watching a rehearsal, the most important of which
are the budget, the number of dancers to costume, the is how the dancers will be moving onstage and what
number of workers to help build the costumes, the skill types of movement the costume must accommodate.
level of available workers, timetable for construction, Rehearsal gives the designer an opportunity to consider
access to a costume stock to pull from, and more. For not only the needs of the choreographer, but also those
each production these factors must be considered as of the dancer. Liz Prince, a Bessie Award-winning
part of the design planning. Make sure to ask the right costume designer for such dance companies as Bill
questions early in the collaborative process to identify T. Jones and Pilobolus, mentions that her rehearsal
potential challenges along the way, before getting too process is often informed by the dancers’ clothing:
far into your creative process and discovering that “Sometimes I sneak a peek at what the dancer wore
your choices cannot be accomplished within the given to rehearsal—their street clothes. It can give me a
parameters of the production resources. clue into who they are and how they like to present
●● Is this a new piece or a remount? themselves. Sometimes their style shows me something
about how garments will best fit their body. Even
●● If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that
rehearsal clothes can sometimes be inspiring and
are important to reproduce?
useful to observe.”
●● What is the rehearsal schedule?

191 CREATINgThECOSTUmEDESIgN
The rehearsal process is useful in planning the choreographer can flip through and respond to elements
costumes for the dance and especially their that he/she likes or dislikes. It is ideal to share them
construction. Watching rehearsals can greatly inform in person and chat about the choices, but when this is
the choices a costume designer makes. Perhaps more not a possibility, it is a good idea to assemble an online
important, though, is the ability to let a dancer try out presentation that walks the choreographer through
the costume in a rehearsal setting. If at all possible, the research. Online tools such as Google Presentation
it is of great benefit for the dancer to rehearse in the or Pinterest offer unique possibilities for virtual
actual performance costume. This will let both the interaction.
choreographer and costume designer see the costume
Research can take many different forms. Primary
in action and determine if changes are necessary before
research, like photographs, paintings, or etchings of
going into tech. Of course, this is only possible if there
period costumes, is useful for realistic dress. When
is sufficient time in the rehearsal process to view the
considering costumes that are a bit more stylized,
piece. Many choreographers are hesitant to open up
though, it might be beneficial to draw from alternate
their rehearsal time for others to see the work before
resources, like works of art or textures found in nature,
it is complete. It is always important to have an honest
etc. Another more practical form of visual research
conversation with the choreographer about the pros
might be looking through dancewear or apparel catalogs
and cons of an open rehearsal process and how it can
to see what pre-fabricated costume pieces might be
benefit the overall process.
suitable for the dance. Finally, it is not uncommon for
11.2 Communicating the Design the choreographer to provide research images of his/
her vision for the costumes. Every collaboration is a bit
The job of communicating the design is multifaceted.
different. Try to find the right process to work for the
Not only must the costume designer generate
given project instead of attempting to make the project
information for the choreographer and other designers,
fit a preconceived notion of how it should work.
but there is also the task of working with those who will
be building the costumes, shopping, etc. Specificity in Costume Sketches
the design materials is a necessity. This section breaks
The process of determining design choices frequently
down the many steps that go into communicating the
begins with the costume sketch. The first sketches
costume design to other members of the production
created by the designer are referred to as costume
team.
roughs, sketches that include the basic form of the
Visual Research costume design on a human figure, but typically without
color or specific details (Figure 11.1). The purpose of
One of the most useful tools of the costume designer is
the rough is to present a quick representation of the
visual research. Finding suitable images that represent
design idea to the choreographer without spending too
possible choices in the costume design can save a lot of
much time on the execution. If the idea does not work,
time and energy. Particularly in instances of historical
then the designer creates another rough, gradually
dress, it is beneficial to find pictorial references of
eliminating the undesired details and arriving at the
period costumes to show to the choreographer as a
essence of the desired costume. The next step is the
starting point. In this phase of the design process,
creation of the costume rendering.
it is often a stack of photocopied images that the

192 PRODUCTIONAREAS
F I G UR E 11. 1 mostly purchased or rental elements, the designer may
Rough sketch for the mice in decline the use of sketches and renderings in favor of
The Nutcracker.
Design by Campbell Baird. including the actual photos of costumes to be used.

Costume Design Paperwork

A big part of the costume designer’s job is assessing the
costume needs for all of the dancers in a performance
and planning how all of the costume pieces will be
provided. In larger dances, or when costuming a
dance concert featuring multiple dances, there can
be hundreds of different costume pieces to keep track
of. The most efficient method of planning for costume
needs is costume paperwork. There are a number of
different methods used by different designers to plan for
and execute a design. This section details a few different
lists that come in handy when assessing the costume
needs of a dance production.

The Costume Plot

The costume plot is a type of form used to track the
action of a performance and list the costume elements
worn by each character over the progression of the
performance (Figure 11.3). This is most useful in
dances where there are costume changes during the
performance. It is more common in story-based dance
forms like ballet, though it certainly is a possibility for
any dance style. A costume plot is generally created in a
Renderings spreadsheet layout with columns and rows customized
After discussions and design roughs, the costume to fit the needs of the production. In Figure 11.3, dancers
designer will create a costume rendering, a color are listed in the left column, with the breakdown of
illustration of the costume design that features precise scenes progressing from left to right in the subsequent
details, patterns, color, and any additional notes that columns. Each cell lists the necessary information
might be necessary to communicate the design to regarding the dancer’s costume. The costume plot
those building it (Figure 11.2). In addition, the costume is useful for tracking the progression of a dancer’s
rendering normally includes fabric swatches, small costume changes throughout the entire performance,
pieces of fabric attached to the rendering that illustrate listing the changes that occur and allowing the designer
the type of fabric used for the costume. Sometimes, to see when quick changes happen. This information
swatches will be included after the actual fabric is will be invaluable to the wardrobe crew when planning
purchased. In the instance of a costume design that is for the performance.

193 CREATINgThECOSTUmEDESIgN
F I G UR E 11. 2
A costume rendering for multiple
dancers with fabric swatches included,
for Headless Woman, a dance from
the University of Michigan 2013 dance
concert, Translation. Choreography by
Amy Chavasse. Costume design by
Suzanne Young.

F I G UR E 11. 3 Show: The Nutcracker Designer: Deborah Sery Date:1-18-14

A mock costume plot for The Nutcracker.

Character Act 1
Mr. Stahlbaum 2-pc tailsuit, vest, wing shirt, tie, suspenders, gloves, hat, ballet slippers
Mrs. Stahlbaum Evening gown, hoop, gloves, pointe shoes
Clara Stahlbaum Party dress, bloomers, tights, large hairbow, pointe shoes
Fritz Stahlbaum Party suit, shirt, tie, hose, ballet slippers
Drosselmeyer 2-pc frock, vest, shirt, bowtie, gloves, ballet slippers
Nephew 3-pc frock,shirt, tie, ballet slippers

194 PRODUCTIONAREAS
F I G UR E 11. 4 Show: Soul Kinetic Designer: Holly Ridges Date: 1-18-14
A concert breakdown, illustrating which
dancers perform in each piece of a Dancer Dance 1 Dance 2 Dance 3 Dance 4 Dance 5 Dance 6 Dance 7 Dance 8
dance concert. Abby x x x
Chloe x x x x
Courtney x x x x x
Amber x x x
Jennifer x x x x x
Javon x x x
Deante x x x x x
Mykalah x x x x x
Randy x x x x
Kira x x x x

The Concert Breakdown lists used for tracking specific needs. The costume
Unlike theatrical performances, dance is frequently list breaks down the costume needs of each individual
presented in the concert format: an evening of dances dancer, with separate lists for each particular character
that often feature dancers in multiple pieces intended they play. By creating a separate costume list for
to stand alone as independent works. The concert each character in the dance, the costume designer
breakdown, a chart that breaks down each dance has a quick reference to see all of the wardrobe items
and the dancers that appear in them (Figure 11.4), required to create the costume. In the first column,
is a form used to assess the number of dancers that the costume designer lists the wardrobe piece, such
appear in each dance and how their assignments as camisole, tights, tutu, pointe shoes, etc. In the
might correspond. This is similar to the French scene columns to the right of the wardrobe piece, there is a
breakdown for plays, a chart that shows each scene of check sheet that lists the procurement method for each
the play and who appears in it. The concert breakdown piece (build, pull, buy, rent) and a space for additional
is a useful tool for both the costume designer and those notes, as necessary. This simple list is essential in
arranging the order of performances for the concert. communicating information between the costume
By considering which dancers appear in which pieces, designer, costume shop manager, wardrobe crew, and
one can plan for a show order that does not require others. In addition, this list can lead to other types of
multiple quick changes and allows for the dancers to useful lists and forms, such as the shopping list, pull
rest between individual pieces, if possible. list, rental list, or the to-build form.

The format for these simple lists and forms varies

Lists
from designer to designer. The common theme
Assembling the wardrobe for a production can be a is that this paperwork is used to communicate
daunting task when you consider the hundreds of information to the costume construction personnel
articles of clothing that can go into even one dance. who might be working on the project, as well as
One time-tested method for keeping track of all of the to simply help organize the approach to different
costume needs is the list. There are multiple types of tasks necessary for the design implementation. The

195 Creating the Costume Design

shopping list, pull list, and rental list are all three spreadsheet template that can be used for all of your
variations on the same type of list, including costume costume designs. The first sheet you make should
items, the dancer/character who wears them, the be the costume list, and then you can add other
appropriate size needed, and additional notes. Once sheets for shopping lists, pull lists, rental lists, etc.
generated, these lists can be given to shoppers, Since most spreadsheet programs allow you to link
costume shop personnel, or sent to rental houses to information from one sheet to another, you can set
indicate the items needed. up the shopping list to copy all of the costume items
from your costume list that have been checked as
The build list is a specific form used to indicate all of
“buy” directly into the shopping list. This eliminates
the steps necessary to building a costume piece. Most
the redundancy of re-writing a list of items already
often, the costume shop manager creates this form in
listed on your costume list.
consultation with the designer. It lists all of the different
costume pieces for a given dancer and all of the steps
necessary to complete said pieces. Common steps The Costume Bible
include: purchase fabric, pre-wash fabric, dye fabric, iron
During the process of preparing for a production,
fabric, cut fabric, attach trim, paint/decorate fabric, fit
most costume shops will create a book referred to
costume to dancer, etc. The build list becomes a to-do
as the costume bible, or the show bible—a collection
list for costume shop personnel and helps keep track of
of all of the information necessary to plan for and
where each project is in the construction timeline.
execute the design. This includes basic information
such as calendars, costume plot, measurement
FYI: Spreadsheets for List Making
sheets, costume renderings, costume lists (build,
When considering the amount of paperwork that buy, pull, rent), research, budgets and receipts, etc.
a costume designer might need to generate for In addition, it is common to have a separate section
a given design, you might ask yourself if the time for each dancer including costume renderings, build
spent making these lists might be better spent lists, fitting schedules and notes, and additional notes
on actually building the design? While it can be a pertinent to the build. While it may seem like a lot of
time-consuming endeavor, the more organized the time and effort go into the creation of the costume
plan for creating the design, the better the chance bible, the payoff is huge considering it provides
the costume designer has to finish on time without a centralized location for all of the information
accidentally leaving something out. Perhaps more related to the costume design. Frequently, costume
important is the fact that, without a detailed list, shop personnel can get the answers they need by
no one can provide assistance without the costume referencing the bible instead of waiting for an answer
designer taking time from his/her schedule to from the costume designer. This alone makes the
explain everything needed for a project. One tool effort well worth it.
that can speed up the process of creating and
maintaining lists is the spreadsheet. Programs like 11.3 Executing the Design
Microsoft Excel or online versions like Google Drive’s Once the designs have been approved and the build
spreadsheet can make the task of creating lists process begins, there are a number of steps that go
much more manageable. I recommend creating a into the design execution. The process of assembling

196 PRODUCTIONAREAS
all of the necessary components for a costume design hands-on endeavor. Since the quality, color, and
requires that the designer multitask and keep track attributes of fabric can vary immensely, it is essential
of a vast amount of information. This section details for the costume designer to touch and see the fabric
the process and personnel for executing the costume in person. For fabric shopping, the fabric shop is the
design. primary location for purchasing. Depending on your
location, you might have to make special trips out of
Taking Measurements town to visit a suitable fabric store, as the selection of
One of the most important steps to ensuring the fabric is so important to designing the costume. Arrive
correct fit and movement of a dance costume is at the store with the appropriate lists of fabric needs,
taking measurements. Who is responsible for types, and yardage. Remember that when purchasing
taking measurements varies according to the type fabric you often get a discount when purchasing in bulk,
of production. In a larger professional company or so it is better to buy everything you need at once, rather
some academic environments, it is often the costume than making multiple trips. Likewise, keep in mind
shop staff that will take measurements. For smaller that fabric from different bolts can have an incredibly
professional companies, it would be the responsibility different appearance, so always try to purchase the
of the costume designer. In a repertory company, it is amount needed from the same bolt rather than having
common to have the company members’ measurements to purchase from separate sections.
on file, but it is a good idea to update the measurements
on file, and fluctuations in weight can occur over a Costume Shopping
relatively short period of time. Whoever performs the Some things are easier and more affordable to purchase
task of taking measurements, the process should be than to build. This leads to one of the fundamental roles
professional and efficient. The dancer should give of the costume designer: shopping. Since shopping is
basic information such as shoe size and weight. Most only one component of the costume design process
other measurements will be taken and transferred and it takes the designer away from the costume shop,
onto a measurement form that lists all of the dancer’s shopping trips must be meticulously planned to make
measurements in one easy-to-reference sheet. In the most of time and resources. When heading out on a
addition to common measurements, there should shopping trip, try to plan ahead so as to make the most
be space for uncommon measurements that apply of your time. Is the item you are looking for available
to specialty items. In addition, there should be basic online? If so, how quickly can it be delivered and for
information about the dancer, such as hair color, what cost? This will require some cost comparison up
length, eye color, complexion, allergies, and any item of front, but it is definitely possible to save time and money
importance that might inform the design process. The through ordering in costume items from the Internet.
measurement form should be kept on file for reference
Along those lines, before heading out to shop in a
in patterning, shopping, or renting costumes.
store, it is often useful to visit the store’s website to
Fabric Selection check their inventory and pricing. Spending a little time
researching stores online can save you an unnecessary
The Internet has drastically changed the way in which
trip. Keep in mind, though, that most websites do not
costume designers can shop for pre-made items, but
feature an up-to-date inventory, and even if it says an
the process of buying fabric still remains a mostly

197 CREATINgThECOSTUmEDESIgN
item is in stock, it may not always be available when you developed a modest stock of costumes from which to
arrive. When you do head out, try to line up shopping pull. The primary advantage of working from stock is
trips to visit vendors in similar parts of town, so that that, since the company owns the pieces, designers are
you don’t find yourself wasting time and money making allowed to alter stock to a much greater extent than
multiple trips. when working with rentals. In addition, the use of stock
items is free of charge, which opens up your budget for
Thrift stores are an excellent resource in shopping
other expenses.
for costumes, but definitely more hit-or-miss than a
retail store. In addition, this type of shopping requires Patterns
flexibility on the part of the designer to make use of
When considering making a costume from scratch,
available pieces that fit within the design intent but are
there are a few different methods that can be used for
not exact matches. For the lower budget production, the
construction. A pattern is a template that can be used
thrift store is definitely a must.
to construct apparel according to the specifications of a
Rentals design and the measurements of the dancer. There are
commercial patterns available in a number of different
Rentals are a common part of the costume design
styles. The benefit of using a commercial pattern is the
process that enables the designer to pick pieces that
low cost, lack of skilled labor necessary to create the
might be impossible to build or buy. Typically, the
pattern, and relative ease in locating the desired look.
costume designer should go to the rental house to
When the goal is a period costume, commercial patterns
peruse their stock, as this allows for changes in design
can look a bit modern in their approach. Another option
on the fly based on availability. Go to the rental house
is the creation of a pattern from scratch, drafting the
with measurements and a rental list in hand in order to
pattern off of the measurements of the dancer. A well-
facilitate the selection process.
equipped costume shop will also have slopers that can
When renting a costume, there is normally a flat be used to make patterns quickly. A sloper is a pre-
fee per costume. The rental agreement should made pattern custom-fitted to match a dress form or
be made with careful attention to allowances for individual. It is sewn in muslin or a cotton fabric and can
modifications. Typically, modifications are allowed, be used as a template for creating other patterns (Figure
so long as it is something that can be undone before 11.5). Still another option is draping a costume, in which
returning the costume. Obviously, this means no muslin is hung on a dress form, pulled and pinned into
cutting or dyeing of the fabric. Always keep in mind the the appropriate shape to create the desired style. After
arrangements that must be made for delivery time and this is done, the seams are marked and the muslin taken
shipping costs when dealing with a rental house outside apart to be used in the creation of a pattern for the actual
of your area. These fees must be included as part of costume piece. Whatever process is used, patterning and
your overall budget. working from patterns is a time-consuming process that
requires a great deal of experience.
Working from Stock
One of the benefits of working with an established dance Fittings
company is the use of a costume stock. Most companies A fitting is a meeting in which the dancer tries on
that have been producing for some period of time have different aspects of the costume to see how well they

198 PRODUCTIONAREAS
F I G UR E 11. 5 which the dancer comes back in to try on the costume
Some basic sloper shapes. once final adjustments have been made. It is not
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.
uncommon to have only two fittings, but it should not
be an expectation. In all fitting sessions, the costume
designer and shop personnel should be prepared to
take detailed notes as to what changes must be made
to the costume. Fittings are a necessary component
I to the costume design process that should always be
FRONT BACK factored into the production schedule.
I
BODICE BODICE I
11.4 Preparing for Dress Rehearsals
I
SLEEVE Unlike the other design elements, costume designs
I are not always present from the beginning of technical
I rehearsals. First dress is the first technical rehearsal in
I
I which costumes are integrated into the process. As the
FRONT BACK time draws near for dress rehearsals, the pace begins
BODICE BODICE to quicken and it is more important than ever to remain
efficient and organized in approach.

Though first dress is technically the first time costumes

are required to be used, many choreographers and
lighting designers will request at least one costume to
be present for setting lights during a cueing session
or cue-to-cue. Likewise, if the costumes are used in
fit and move. If the costume is being built, the first unique ways by the dancers, the choreographer may
fitting is often done with a muslin mock-up of the request to have the costumes in rehearsal before going
costume. This allows the costume designer to check into tech rehearsals. Always plan ahead to determine if
the pattern and make necessary adjustments according there will be special needs for the costumes before first
to the fit and movement. Once this fitting has occurred, dress.
the designer should mark changes as necessary and
then use the corrected mock-up as a template for Organizing Costume Elements
the final product. Once the actual costume has been The final step of preparing the costume design for going
assembled, the dancer should be rescheduled for a into dress rehearsals is an organization of the costumes
second fitting, to try on the show costume. This fitting into logical groupings for moving into the theatre space.
should be a thorough meeting in which the costume As pieces are completed in the shop, they should be
designer and dancer address the fit of the costume. labeled for the character or dancer wearing them and
The dancer should be given the opportunity to work combined together with other wardrobe elements for
through any movements that may be affected by the the performance. Wardrobe racks, rubber bins, and
costume. If necessary, there may be a final fitting, in banker’s boxes are some of the storage devices

199 CREATINgThECOSTUmEDESIgN
commonly utilized for organizing costumes. Small pressing, and repair of costumes, if necessary. To
items such as jewelry, tights, etc. can be organized into facilitate this, the wardrobe crew often posts a sheet
bags labeled with contents. It is important to keep the backstage for dancers to note any repairs that need
finished wardrobe elements separated from those to be to be undertaken before the next performance. This is
completed in the shop. particularly important given the wear and tear that most
dance costumes endure.
Working with the Wardrobe Crew
The wardrobe crew is the group of people responsible 11.5 Dress Rehearsals and Beyond
for the running of the show and maintenance of costume Dress rehearsals are the designer’s first chance to see
elements once the show opens. As you get close to the costumes integrated into the production beside all of
first dress, it is important to bring wardrobe crew into the other design elements. It is essential for the costume
the shop and begin the process of preparing for dress designer to attend these rehearsals in order to see how
rehearsals. The wardrobe supervisor is the head of the costumes work, specifically under the stage lighting
the wardrobe crew and supervises the crew once dress and in the context of scenic and property elements.
rehearsals begin. The supervisor is familiar with the Detailed notes should be made regarding the look of
production and all of the costume elements so that costumes and any changes that might need to occur,
he/she can fully appreciate the requirements of the such as toning down the color of a costume or adjusting
wardrobe crew throughout the performance. the fit of a piece. Dress rehearsals should operate under
show conditions whenever possible in order to assess
The wardrobe supervisor and the designer should
the amount of time needed for quick changes or costume
coordinate with other design areas to allow for quick-
demands. It is important to communicate openly and
change locations backstage. These areas often require
honestly with the choreographer regarding costumes. If
running lights, a mirror, and sometimes masking for
a wardrobe element is incomplete or not present, make
privacy’s sake. This means consulting with scenery and
sure to mention it. Find out what is working and what he/
lighting in order to provide the appropriate backstage
she does not like. Always communicate when changes
accommodations. During the course of the production,
are coming and try to make sure nothing is a surprise.
there may be members of the wardrobe crew who
There are typically a limited number of dress rehearsals
function specifically as dressers, wardrobe crew
in which to make adjustments. Make the most of your
members whose responsibility is specifically working
time and keep calm under pressure.
with the dancers during costume changes to ensure a
quick and safe costume change. Performance Run
Another role of the wardrobe crew is setting up Once the dance is up and running, the designer will
dressing rooms and organizing costumes into their typically move on to his/her next project. If the designer
appropriate locations before first dress. Wardrobe crew is part of a repertory company, this may mean the
will communicate with the costume designer and shop next show of the season. As a freelancer, he/she may
supervisor before this point, as well, to determine be heading across the country. Once the show is in
the specific maintenance and costume care needs performance runs, it is up to stage management to
of the wardrobe elements. Once the show is up and ensure that the dancers maintain a sense of continuity
running, wardrobe crew will be responsible for cleaning, as related to the costume design; always wearing the

200 PRODUCTIONAREAS
costume in the appropriate manner, reporting any the costume designer is undeniably a major role on the
damage, and contacting the designer should there dance production team.
be a need for a replacement costume. As dances
become part of a company’s repertory, it is important Review Questions
that detailed documentation be maintained in order to 1. What is a costume rough?
ensure future productions remain consistent with the 2. What is the difference between a costume sketch
original concept. and a rendering?

Strike 3. What is the purpose of a costume plot?

4. What information is on the build list?
The final step of the production process is strike, the
closing and putting away of the show. In most cases, 5. What is the costume bible?
designers are not required to attend strike, though 6. Explain the draping process.
this may not be the case in academic environments or 7. What is the purpose of a muslin mock-up used in
repertory companies. All rental and borrowed items the first fitting?
must be cleaned and promptly returned. In addition, all 8. At what rehearsal are costumes first incorporated
pulled costume pieces must be returned to stock and with the other design elements?
new purchases added to the costume stock. Finding
9. What is the role of the wardrobe supervisor?
clean, safe, and dry storage for costumes can be a task,
10. What happens at strike?
but it will save time and money in the long run to not
shortchange this process.
Chapter 11 Project: Thinking Like a
11.6 Chapter Review Costume Designer

As this chapter showed, the role of a costume What a dancer wears communicates a lot about
designer is a wildly eclectic combination of skill his/her character. The costume designer’s job is to
sets. From the initial planning stages to attending use the wardrobe to help reinforce character traits
rehearsals, working with the choreographer and without “spoon-feeding” the audience or coming off
dancers, facilitating the build, and making adjustments as overly stereotypical. Included below is a list of
along the way, the costumer designer wears a number character descriptions, short phrases that might be
of different hats to execute the design. Communicating used by a choreographer to describe the dancer’s
the design occurs through visual research, costume presence. Pick two descriptions from the list below
sketches, and color renderings. After this, the and create a research collage that visually illustrates
process becomes a bit more hands-on by taking the type of clothing choices that communicate the
measurements, selecting fabric, pulling and/or renting character for each description. For your collage,
costume pieces, shopping, and building new costume try to arrange the images in an aesthetically
pieces. Throughout it all, the costume designer must pleasing composition that shows both attention to
maintain an open channel of communication with the detail and clear choices. Think about how color,
choreographer, construction personnel, wardrobe crew, fabric, textures, flow, and cut make statements.
and the other members of the production team. It is If presenting these in a classroom setting, make
certainly not a job for which everyone is well suited, but sure to take time for discussion and Q&A. Talking

201 CREATINgThECOSTUmEDESIgN
 about design choices is an important aspect of the NewYorkPublicLibraryforthePerformingArts,
designer’s role in the production process. ClevelandCenterforContemporaryArt,Snugharbor
●● Calm and reserved CulturalCenter,andRocklandCenterfortheArts.ms.
●● Hot-tempered PrincereceivedtheNewYorkDanceandPerformance
“Bessie”Awardforcostumedesignin1990,aswellasa
●● Magical
2008CharlesFlintKelloggArtsandLettersAwardfrom
●● Mesmerizing
BardCollegeforachievementinherfield.Inadditionto
●● Looking for attention herprofessionalwork,shealsoteachescostumedesign
●● A broken soul atSUNYPurchaseandmanhattanvilleCollege.
●● Noble
Do you have a dance background/any formalized
●● Unremarkable training in dance?
●● Gracefully elegant
Yes, I was a Dance and Theater Major at Bard College.
●● Self-assured When I moved to NYC after I graduated, it was to be a
performer in dance and theatre.
The Costume Designer’s Perspective: An
Interview with Liz Prince How did you first start working in dance design?

LizPrinceisoneofthemoreprolificdancecostume My work-study job while I was attending Bard was to design

designersinthefieldtoday,havingdesignedcostumes the costumes for the four dance concerts each year. It
forsomeofthemostreputablecompaniesforover25 was very basic stuff that I came up with, but I remember
years.ShehasworkedextensivelywithBillT.Jones well the struggle of trying to find something appropriate
andhiscompany,BostonBallet,BerlinOperaBallet, for each dance and tried very hard to understand what the
andAlvinAileyAmericanDance.Otherworkincludes choreographer wanted—not always an easy endeavor!
designingforDougVarone(DougVaroneandDancers, Aileen Passloff was one of my teachers there and she had
JoséLimónDanceCompany,DaytonContemporary worked closely with James Waring and showed me some
Dance),markDendy(DendyDance,PacificNorthwest costumes he had created. They were very beautiful and odd
Ballet,DortmundTheaterBallet),TreymcIntyre and had a lot of handwork and detail. The pieces were like
(WashingtonBallet,PhILADANCO,PennsylvaniaBallet, animals, so lively and intense. I remember trying to create
houstonBallet),mikhailBaryshnikov’sWhiteOak pieces like his work because they so impressed me!
DanceProject,PILOBOLUSDanceTheatre,BillIrwin,
Upon graduating from Bard I moved to NYC and started
Neilgreenberg,RalphLemon,JaneComfort,Lenora
creating costumes for friends’ work as well as my own. It
Champagne,Bebemiller,SarahEastJohnson,gerard
snowballed into a career.
Alessandrini(mOBILmasterpieceTheaterCelebrates
20YearsonPBS),DavidDorfman,Patriciahoffbauer, How do you find dance costume design differs for
Jennifermonson,Lawrencegoldhuber,andKeely theatrical costume design?
garfield. Theatrical design generally starts with a script and that
ShedesignedcostumesforNancySavoca’sfilm script is the design team’s map for their work. It’s all about
Union Square(2011)starringmiraSorvinoandTammy realizing the director’s vision for the script. Designers are
Blanchard.hercostumeshavebeenexhibitedatthe trying to realize the choreographer’s vision for a dance,

202 PRODUCTIONAREAS
but at the end of the day in theatre, the arc of the piece is too heavy on one idea, it may squelch other ideas that are
pretty much is mapped out in the script from day one in the being expressed in the dance as it progresses, and then the
creative process. This allows the entire team to play around whole piece—the costume and the dance—will start to look
with ideas months in advance of rehearsals. very static.
Dance is very different because, for the most part Can you describe your ideal process for working with
(unless it’s a classical ballet with a story that everyone choreographers?
knows) the creation of the piece happens mostly in
The more time a choreographer can give me the better. I
rehearsals and designers have no advance clues as to the
like to come in early in the process and hear their ideas—
arc of the piece. Often, where the piece lands isn’t even
even if they change. It gives me more time to mull over/
fully clear until very close to the technical rehearsals and
sleep on it and discover without feeling terrified that there’s
premiere of the work.
not enough time. Sometimes choreographers don’t like
This can make the timeline for designing for dance to bring people in to design their piece until the piece is
somewhat hair-raising, especially for costume designers practically finished and often that leaves a designer with a
because sewing a costume from scratch takes a HUGE tiny amount of time to work because the piece is about to
amount of time. On top of that, very often there are be premiered.
technical issues, like how a costume moves and what to do
if it gets hung up on the body when the dancer flips upside In many ways, costumes are very personally linked
down or how does it take sweat. There’s a lot of that stuff to the individual dancer. Do you consult with dancers
you don’t find out until the costume is fully made and on the during your design process?
dancer in technical rehearsals. I always consider the dancer. The two-dimensional piece
Also, many times there aren’t any costume changes in a of fabric a costume designer works with to create a three-
dance as there are in theatrical productions. In a play a dimensional costume (you could even think of that costume
character moves through different times of day or a year as a sculpture) lives in space and works with the dancer’s
etc. and will encounter other characters and the story body like one, so there is always some sort of dialogue
progresses, so there are all these psychological changes going on with the dancer.…I always consult performers
and mood changes onstage that designers try to enhance during fittings and listen to their comments. This is very
or express (in my case through costume changes). This is important. Sometimes they are a little skeptical about what
very different from dance costuming, where often there is I am putting on them, and I have to explain my intention. At
no costume change. Most often when I design for dance I other times, it’s the other way around and they will come up
am trying to come up with one phenomenal costume that with a great solution if there’s a fit issue.
will address a number of ideas in the dance and I endeavor I know you have a lot of experience working with
to get that one costume to express those ideas as fluidly as companies like Pilobolus, where the dancers can be
the dance itself. This is a very important aspect of dance very interactively involved with their costumes. Can you
costuming, because these various ideas and concepts in the describe the process for working with a company like
dance are often perceived on stage concurrently— there is this?
no time for a costume change to express all these ideas at
If it’s a complex costume that needs to function in a
once. They must all be embodied in one costume. It’s a very
particular way, you really need to respond to the dancer’s
nuanced way of having to work. If you create a costume that
needs and make sure they feel like they can move freely

203 CREATINgThECOSTUmEDESIgN
and also not somehow hurt themselves if it’s a really work. It’s a little intense because so much is happening at
complex costume. Getting a rehearsal costume into once, but you can get great results. It’s important to have a
rehearsal as soon as a complex costume is conceived is good sense of humor in those situations.
of utmost importance. Rehearsal costume pieces also Sometimes we would use the actual set of garments we
can help the performer play with the costume so it is truly put together and other times I would have them rebuilt so
integrated into the dance. they fit better or also so they could ultimately withstand the
There are many approaches when beginning to work with rigors of touring (lots of wear and tear, and washing with
a choreographer. Sometimes they know what they want dance costumes!).
exactly and other times they just have a sense of a color
What advice would you have for a young artist
or quality of fabric that interests them and other times
interested in costume design for dance?
I’m completely on my own as to what will happen with the
costumes. Sometimes I build a look with the choreographer I think it is useful to understand dance as a dancer and
and dancers by bringing in a selection of clothes to as a choreographer. If you are in school and have the
rehearsal and come up with everyone’s costume together at opportunity, take dance classes and make some dances
the same time. as well! It’s a great artistic endeavor and will feed you
creatively, also give you insight into what works when
Jonathan Wolken loved to work this way. I have done this
costuming dance and what doesn’t. It also really helps to
often with other choreographers but this ended up being
understand how a choreographer works and appreciate
Jonathan’s only way of creating costumes when I worked
what it means to be working and creating something with a
with him. I think choreographers like it because it allows
large group of people in the room. It’s a tremendous feat to
them to express their vision for the work in a similar way
have all those personalities present and be directing them
to how they build a dance with the dancers, and so it feels
and creating at the same time!
well integrated into their work and not a foreign imposed
element tagged on at the end of the process. If you try to design for dance, be prepared to go to a lot of
dance rehearsals. Go see dance! All kinds of dance! If you
When working with Jonathan in this way we would chat a
see something you like, figure out what it is you like about
bit about the piece and then I would go off and hunt and
it, why you think it works, and if you don’t like it so much,
gather a huge amount of garments for a couple of weeks. I
figure out what exactly it is that isn’t working for you. Of
would then come in and cover the rehearsal room floor with
course, go and see art. Lots of art! There is so much there
my finds and the dancers would start to put things on and
that can give you a new perspective and also there are
come up with great combinations. Jonathan would approve
many visual artists that have designed for dance—great to
the looks or suggest other things to try and I, of course,
see what they came up with and how they came at dance
would be suggesting things like mad throughout the fitting
from their world.
time. Clothes are flying through the air and there’s a lot of
joking of course because it’s half dress up time and half

204 PRODUCTIONAREAS
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 12
PROJECTIONS
AND VIDEO

A film is never really good unless the camera is an eye in

the head of a poet.

Orson Welles

Hubbard Street Dance Chicago in One Thousand Pieces by Resident Choreographer

Alejandro Cerrudo. Costumes and Set Design by Thomas Mika.
Lighting Design by Michael Korsch. Photo by Todd Rosenberg.
Projection design is the art of integrating still and nature of the performance, though, any of these tasks
moving imagery into a live performance. The use could be expanded or reduced to a great degree.
of projected film imagery in live performance dates
Projection design seems to use a number of different
back at least as far as the 1800s, but the field of
names in different locations across the world. Some
projection design as we know it today is still in its
refer to the projection designer as a video designer,
infancy. United Scenic Artists’ Local 829, the union
media designer, or even video director. Whatever
that represents designers and scenic artists in the
the title, the role of the projection designer is to be
entertainment industry, created a section for projection
a blend of artist, technician, computer programmer,
designers in 2007. The first graduate program in
filmmaker, director, and performer. In addition to all
projection design began in 2010 at the Yale School of
of these things, a projection designer must be first
Drama.
and foremost a collaborative artist. The projected
The term projection design can be a bit misleading, image must ultimately land on a surface, be it a
since imagery is not always projected. Productions set piece, a prop, a performer, or the walls of the
that use LED walls, video monitors, or television performance space. Since the nature of projected
screens would also be referred to as projection imagery is to always work in conjunction with some
design. Projection design is not a given in every dance other element, the projection designer must be adept
production, especially since the equipment required in communicating and collaborating with all of the
for projection on a large scale remains somewhat members of the production team in order to create a
expensive. It seems that every year projection successful design.
technology becomes a bit more affordable, however.
As projection design is rooted in the world of film and
As this trend continues, we will see more dance
animation, the designer must have an understanding
companies incorporating projection design into their
of a wide range of tools from cameras to video editing
production programs. This chapter addresses the use
software to display solutions, projection systems, and
of projections in dance design and some of the unique
content creation software. Since the moving imagery
challenges inherent in integrating this discipline with
will be incorporated into a live performance, the
dance.
designer must also have a good working knowledge of
12.1 The Projection Designer other production areas such as lighting, scenery, and
show control systems. Finally, the projection designer
Like so many of the designers addressed in this text, the
must be quick on his/her feet, with the ability to
work of the projection designer is greatly dependent
incorporate a wide range of imagery into a presentation
on the scope of the project and the design needs of the
and be ready to respond to changes that invariably
dance. At its core, the job description of the projection
come along due to the domino effect of collaboration
designer is the creation of visual content (photographs,
(i.e. the wall that you were projecting on has to be
animations, and videos), acquisition of any stock footage
moved ten feet upstage, or the choreography has
necessary for the performance, editing all content
changed and now we need to focus on the downstage
together, and designing a projection system for the
instead of upstage right).
presentation of imagery for the stage. Depending on the

208 PRODUCTIONAREAS
F I G UR E 12. 1
A projection designer at work at the
tech table.
Photo courtesy of Michael James.

FYI: Is it Projections or Lighting? limited budget situations where the dance company
cannot afford powerful high-lumen projectors.
Many people consider the projection design part of
If the projector is not bright, or the projection
the lighting design. While it is true that projections
surface is not ideal for projections, then the lighting
are composed of light, it is important to recognize
designer must compensate by trying to keep the
that the field is specialized and not simply a subset
lighting design from washing out the projections.
of lighting design. One important aspect of projection
Of course, this means that the choreographer must
design is the necessity of a truly collaborative
also agree to stage the movement away from the
arrangement between a number of production team
projection surfaces, so that there can be both clear
members—primarily, the choreographer, lighting
projected images and well-lit dancers. If a dance is
designer, and projection designer. That said, it is
to successfully incorporate projection seamlessly
important to recognize that the lighting design
with the other design elements, the project must be
greatly affects the projection design and vice versa.
approached proactively with an open mind from all
An effective projection design is only achieved
members of the team.
through collaboration. This is especially important in

209 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
12.2 Assessing Projection Needs year. This section focuses on a number of these functions
Similar to lighting design, projection design cannot of projection design. However, if the choreographer and
be accomplished without specialized equipment. projection designer do not approach the project with
Often the producing dance company will have to rent a clear vision of how the projection design should be
this equipment for the performance. In addition, used, it runs the risk of coming off as an afterthought
projection design requires the creation or acquisition or a design element that seems out of place within the
of visual content in order to facilitate the design. context of the performance. So the question must be
For these reasons, it is essential that the designer, asked, how will we use projection design in this dance?
choreographer, affected design personnel, and Will the projection be used to produce an immersive
management meet as early as possible to discuss the environment that creates a scenic backdrop for the
needs of the project. Projection design is closely related dance performance? Should the projection be more
to both scenery and lighting and will affect both areas of interactive in nature, with media designed to respond
design. For this reason, it is important to involve these to and interact with a performer onstage? Should it
other designers in discussions related to projections be used in a presentational method, projecting video
so that they are not surprised. Likewise, even though footage of pre-recorded dancers with which the live
projections are created with light and also have the dancers “partner”? Perhaps the need is a simple
ability to serve as scenic reinforcement, the role of projection of words, like a poem or quotation, on to
projection designer should not simply be piled on as the cyclorama? Each approach carries with it different
an additional responsibility for either designer without challenges and affects the amount of design time and
additional compensation. It is a separate discipline equipment necessary for the project.
and should be treated as a separate production line.
Projections should never be considered an afterthought What Content Do You Want to Project?
or a simple solution to creating an environment. In The answer to this question will no doubt be tied to the
truth, the process of integrating projection design into previous question of how projections will be used in
a dance has the potential to be more time-consuming the production. Specifically, though, are there certain
than any of the other design areas. images, textures, or video footage in mind for the
One of the first duties of the projection designer is to projection? This requires content creation or finding the
meet with the choreographer and others to determine appropriate stock footage. An important consideration
the actual projection needs of the dance. So many times, here is permissions. Like music, video and film footage
a choreographer knows that he/she would like to use is typically under copyright and cannot simply be used
projection in the dance, but has no understanding of without permission. It is important to identify at this
what that actually entails. The following list of questions stage if there is a need for using footage that is under
offers a starting point for discussion that will inform the copyright. If so, that means the added task of securing
entire team as to the reality of the projection needs. permission for using the imagery in grand performance.
It can be easy in the Internet age to forget that the
How Do You Want to Use Projections in the Production? image you found through a Google images search is
Projection can be used for dance productions in so many actually someone’s intellectual property. Don’t fall
interesting ways, with new applications surfacing every victim to this and find yourself on the receiving end of a
cease-and-desist letter or, worse yet, legal action.

210 PRODUCTIONAREAS
 In addition to footage, another common type of projection method of orienting a projector in front of an object
content is live video feed. Will the design feature and projecting on to its surface. If there is only room
moments within the dance that should be captured on to project on to a projection surface from the front,
video and incorporated into the projection design? Many then there is the potential of the light from projectors
projection designs feature a combination of both pre- also illuminating the dancers. This would create the
generated and live content. If so, this adds a number of appearance of imagery projected on to the dancers
different pieces of equipment beyond a basic projection and their bodies casting shadows on to the projected
system. background. Sometimes this is an interesting visual,
whereas other times it is undesirable. Another option is
What Type of Performance Space? the use of rear projection, the orientation of a projector
Since projection design is the by-product of light, the behind the desired projection surface. For this method,
performance space is always a concern. One main the projection surface must be translucent, in order for
consideration should be the projectors’ positions. There the image to be visible from the audience. Figure 12.2
are two common methods of projector placement: front shows a projection design utilizing both front and rear
projection and rear projection. Front projection is the projection.

F I G UR E 12. 2
In this projection design, the upstage wall
and ceiling unit use rear projection on to
special rear projection material, while the
side walls use front projection, due to
their solid surfaces. Projection design by
David Koltunchik.
Photo by Jeromy Hopgood.

211 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
Another important question is the amount of light in
the performance space. For theatre spaces, lighting is
a factor controlled by the lighting designer. In exterior
spaces, though, it is important to consider time of day,
season, and shade in order to determine the brightness
needed for a projector to overcome the natural lighting
of the space.

What is the Projection Surface(s)?

Projections are incredibly versatile as a design medium.
F IG UR E 12. 3
Since they are composed of light, virtually any substance, The image on the left is the original image. The one on the right shows the keystone
both opaque and translucent, can serve as a projection effect of the image being projected on to a surface from a non-perpendicular angle.
Photo courtesy of NASA.
surface. If the surface is intended to be an extension of
the scenery, the scenic designer should have a say in
the selection of the material to function as a projection image is squared up when it lands on the projection
surface. This could be a common flat, scrim, any number surface. Because of the keystone effect, it is important
of fabrics, or projection screen designed specifically for designers to observe both the projector placement
for use as a projection surface. In addition, dynamic and projection surface locations to determine how to
surfaces like fog, haze, or even water can function as address the problem of keystoned images.
a projection surface. For exterior performance spaces,
Another important consideration is the number of faces
landscape and plant life itself could be used. In dance, it
or planes on the projection surface. When projecting
is common to project on to the performers themselves.
on a flat surface, the image remains consistent. With
The possibilities are virtually limitless.
the addition of raised, recessed, or angular planes
While it is a fairly straightforward process to project to the projection surface, the resulting image will
imagery on to a flat surface when the projector is be distorted. Projection designers use a process
aligned at a perpendicular angle to the surface, it is referred to as projection mapping to address this
a different matter to project on to complex surfaces phenomenon. Projection mapping is the manipulation
with multiple angles and planes. First, if a projector of a projected image through the use of specialized
is not aligned directly centered on an object and at computer software to “map” the projection in a way
a perpendicular angle to the surface, the resulting that allows three-dimensional multi-plane surfaces to
image will be skewed, a result known as the keystone function as a suitable display surface for projections
effect (Figure 12.3). This distortion of the image (Figure 12.4). Projection mapping enables the use of many
makes a square or rectangular projection appear to non-traditional forms as projection surfaces, such as
be trapezoidal. Whether through the projector itself or architecture, landscaping, stage props, or even the human
with projection software, the image must be augmented body. For all of these possibilities, it is important to identify
through a process called keystone correction, or early in the production planning process the types of
keystoning. This process simply adjusts the image to surfaces intended for projection, as each type presents its
be trapezoidal before projecting so that the resulting own unique challenges to the projection designer.

212 PRODUCTIONAREAS
F I G UR E 12. 4 projections in the past and should be more familiar with
Projection Mapping used in DLECTRICITY,
the process and any potential problems that occurred in
Detroit’s nighttime exhibit of art and
light at the Detroit Institute of Arts. The the past.
projection content was mapped to interact
with the facade of the DIA building. What is the Timeline?
Production credits: TLS Productions, Inc.
XL Video. Mindfield. The timeline for creating projection designs can
Photo courtesy of Carl Kedzierski. vary greatly based on the needs of the project. For
something relatively simple, like the projection of
words or a single image, the design can come together
in a shorter timeframe. If the design is more complex
and requires pre-production work (filming dancers,
editing the film, creating animations, etc.), the timeline
must be adjusted to facilitate these needs. Likewise,
it is important to recognize that the needs of the
projection designer may affect the schedule of the
choreographer and other designers. If, for instance,
the projection design incorporates pre-recorded video
of the dancers then the choreographer must complete
the choreography for those sections early enough in
advance to allow for filming the dancers. Likewise, if
the dancers must be in the same costumes, then the
costume designer’s timetable will be affected by this
decision. The projection designer is the only person
qualified to determine how much time is needed for the
recording, editing, and post-production work necessary
Does the Company Have Any Equipment in Stock? to assemble the footage. Make sure to plan ahead and
One important consideration is if the dance company allow for ample time in the schedule or everyone will
already owns any projection equipment. We will discuss feel the crunch.
projection systems in depth later in the chapter, but
some common needs for projection would include: Reality Check: Is Projection Right for Your Dance?
projector(s), a mount for hanging the projector, a control Projections are an amazing design element that can
computer (or multiple, depending on requirements), contribute a certain magical element to a production.
cabling to run from the computer to the projector, The bottom line, though, is that projection design
and a dowser to eliminate the light of the projector is not suited for every production situation. For the
(especially important if there is ever a blackout or low- young choreographer, it is so important to remember
lighting situation). If a dance company already owns that flashy design elements are no substitution for
this equipment, then the cost of projections is reduced. well-conceived, purposeful choreography. Any design
Also, unless the equipment was purchased for the element can help or hinder the dance, but in my
dance in question, it means that the company has used experience projection seems to be one of those areas

213 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
that has the most potential for seeming out of place their very nature, ephemeral. The imagery projected
in the world of the dance. Don’t just decide to use onstage has the potential to be constantly changing.
projections for the sake of novelty. Make certain that This leads to a dynamic sense of movement on the part
projection is a tool to help illuminate your vision for the of the projection design, something that very naturally
dance and the themes you want communicated to the works in the context of dance. Some might be tempted
audience. to refer to this as virtual scenery, but that is only one
component of the dynamic environment. While projected
Always keep in mind that projections will have a
scenery is certainly one possibility, the interesting
completely different aesthetic quality to them than painted
thing about projections is how it marries together both
scenery. Like LED lighting, projectors will create a bright
scenery and lighting. In addition to virtual scenery,
and vividly colorful presentation. By its very nature,
projections could be used to create ambient textures as
projection is eye-catchingly theatrical. It is important to
a background, something popularized in concert touring
remember that, if not carefully executed, projection has
and club environments for some time now (Figure 12.5).
the potential to draw focus away from the dancers and
overpower the visual composition of the stage. Interacting with Dancer(s)
The unfortunate reality of projection design is that it is Potential for interactivity is an important element
an expensive and time-consuming endeavor. It has the of projection design. Typically, there are two basic
potential for looking amateurish if the designer does not approaches to projections design content: linear and
have access to projectors that are both bright enough interactive. Linear content is imagery that will always
and can fill a large enough area of the stage. If you are in be presented in the same fashion for each performance
the position to decide on the inclusion of projections into without the potential of change. This is common in many
a dance production, ask yourself if it can be executed in theatrical, cue-based environments where it is desirable
a professional and aesthetically pleasing fashion. A dim to reproduce similar results for each performance.
image that fills a small window of the stage picture can Interactive content is created with the intent of featuring
be much more of a distraction than a benefit. media with which the performer interacts and changes
in response to the performer’s actions. This type of
12.3 Functions of Dance Projection Design interactivity has become ubiquitous in projection design
(What Projection Design can Accomplish) with the proliferation of motion capture technology.
Projection design can be used to accomplish many As computer technology has advanced, giving the
different outcomes in a dance production. It is important public access to multiple forms of motion capture and
for the projection designer and choreographer to both movement sensitive devices, projection designers
understand the goals for the projection design and how have integrated this into their toolkits to expand the
to go about accomplishing them. Listed below are six possibilities of interactive projection.
functions of dance projection design that explain how
One common use of interactivity is the projection of
projections can serve the dance.
virtual costumes on to dancers. Through the use of
Creating a Dynamic Environment motion sensors built into the costumes or by the 3D,
depth-sensing capabilities of hardware like Microsoft’s
This function refers to the use of projections to create
Kinect™ sensor, projection designers are now able to
a scenic environment for the dance. Projections are, by

214 PRODUCTIONAREAS
 F IG UR E 12. 6
This interactive projection design utilizes bio-sensors and motion tracking to capture
the movements of the dancer and create an interactive pairing between the dancer
and projections.
Photo courtesy of João Biera.

way, the projection design almost functions as another

performer, allowing the dancer to “partner” with the
projections and add another level to the choreographed
movement of visual elements on the stage.

Presenting/Representing the Dancer(s)

One function of projection design that dance frequently
utilizes is the presentation of the dancer as a projection
F I G UR E 12. 5 element. Whether this is in the form of a pre-recorded
An ambient video background, utilizing amorphous starbursts, pulsating lights, and numeric sequences. Dead Man’s Cell Phone, Eastern video of the dancer, or a real-time video capture, both
Michigan University. Scenic design by John Charles. Lighting design by Emily Clarkson. Projection design by Jeromy Hopgood.
Photography by Jeromy Hopgood. options serve to capture the movements of the dancer
and present them in a magnified format via projections.

Another possibility that has emerged more recently is

interpret the movements and positioning of a dancer’s
the representation of the dancer through projection
body and map projections in real time on to the dancer’s
design. There are a number of ways that this can occur.
body onstage.
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, motion capture
Another possibility is allowing the dancer to change their software has made it possible to analyze the movements
environment through interaction: triggering changes of a figure in real time. By using simulation software,
in the projection design, appearing to move projected the dancer’s movement can be captured and applied to
elements, or many other possible interactions. In this the form of an avatar (a graphic representation of the

215 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
 F IG UR E 12. 7
These images illustrate the use of projection to create a graphic representation
of the dancer.
Photo courtesy of João Biera.

the storytelling of the dance, thematic elements, or

support other production elements such as scenery,
sound, or costumes. In addition, one of projection’s
greatest strengths in reinforcement is the fact it is a
kinetic element itself, which makes it a natural choice
to reinforce movement within the dance. If projections
are moving in conjunction with or in counterpoint to the
type of movement that occurs onstage, it can help draw
attention to the movement of the dance. Finally, visual
imagery has the ability to evoke emotional responses
in the viewer in a way that can truly accentuate mood
onstage. Projections, when used in conjunction with the
visual storytelling of the dancers, can help communicate
a tone or emotion in a given moment.

Stage Magic/Special Effects

Projection design can function as a tool for the creation
of special effects or magical moments for the stage.
Projection could be used for creating a visual of
explosions, magical appearances, flight, underwater
acrobatics, or more. Typically special effects are best
accomplished in projections when combined with
another production element. For example, the spectacle
dancer) projected in real time. This representation of of flight might be best accomplished by flying a dancer,
the dancer can mimic the movements in a completely while the projections track the movement of the dancer
different physical form. In addition, projection could be around the stage.
used as a more abstract representation of the dancer’s
movement, mood, or character through the use of Creating a Commentary
changing colors, textures, or forms. Projections can be used to comment on certain
elements presented onstage. This can be done in a
Visual Reinforcement number of different ways. Quite often imagery can be
Like some of the other design areas mentioned used to draw comparisons and point out similarities or
earlier, projection design is useful in reinforcing differences between actions being seen onstage and
elements seen onstage. Projections can reinforce a concept with which the audience might already be

216 PRODUCTIONAREAS
F I G UR E 12. 8
A projection design for ballet utilizing rear
projected imagery as a kinetic backdrop.
Opera (2013), La Scala Ballet, La
Scala, Milano. Choreography by Alexei
Ramansky. Projection design by Wendall
K. Harrington. Costumes by Colleen
Atwood. Lighting design by Mark Stanley.
Photo courtesy of Wendall K. Harrington.

familiar. An example of this might be a dance piece that

features a dancer in obvious emotional/psychological
distress onstage juxtaposed with a projected image
of her idealized self, well dressed, smiling, and as
she would want the world to see her. This form of
commentary obviously is used to illustrate two opposite
realities.

Another common use of projections as commentary

is the integration of text into the projection’s design.
Words or commonly understood visual symbols (such

F IG UR E 12. 9
Dr. Faustus being pulled into the flames of Hell by a pack of demons. Dr. Faustus,
Eastern Michigan University. Scenic design by Jeromy Hopgood. Lighting design by John
Charles. Projection design by David Koltunchik. Costumes by Melanie Schuessler.
Photo by Jeromy Hopgood.

217 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
F I G UR E 12. 1 0
This image showcases the use of
projection to comment on the action of a
scene. Urinetown: The Musical, Eastern
Michigan University. Scenic design by
John Charles. Lighting and projection
design by Jeromy Hopgood. Costumes by
Melanie Schuessler.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University.

as a stop sign or skull and crossbones signifying 12.4 Projection Systems

poison) could be used to literally comment on the As with our discussions of sound and lighting,
action in the dance. This is a dramatic tool that was projections are created through the use of a projection
pioneered in the theatrical works of Bertolt Brecht, system. A projection system can be defined as a
whose style of Epic Theatre purposefully reminded collection of all the equipment necessary to execute
the audience that they were watching a theatrical the projection design. As such, each system is variable
performance. As a function of projection design, using depending on the needs of the project. A basic system
projections as a commentary runs the risk of coming off might include a collection of components: a media
as overly simplistic or pedantic in its approach. While storage unit (computer); cameras; cabling/network;
it certainly has its place, one should use it sparingly and output devices (monitors, projectors, televisions,
and with consideration of the tone it can create in a LED/LCD panels). More complex systems might include
performance. peripheral devices that interact with the projection,

218 PRODUCTIONAREAS
such as motion capture devices. As you might assume, network. It is much more common in the video system,
there are a number of different configurations one could however, to find a number of different computers
choose, based on the needs of the project. This section networked together, each controlling different aspects
details the purpose of different projection systems and of the playback.
their components.
The most basic form of a playback system is a computer
Video Workstation connected to one projector or monitor displaying the
media. Each computer comes with a graphics card,
Though not specifically part of the projection system
a device used to process graphic information on the
used in a performance, the video workstation is the
computer and output to external display devices. Some
first step necessary to creating and/or editing content
computers have multiple outputs available on the
for playback. A video workstation is any computer
graphics card, allowing the computer to connect to
with the necessary peripherals and software used
more than one display device. It is much more common,
to generate and edit video content. You could easily
however, that consumer grade computers have only one
spend tens of thousands of dollars to create a high-
video output.
end editing station with digital video cameras, editing
software, interfaces, graphics software, and more. The Video Reinforcement System
Likewise, the beginner can do rudimentary video editing
In addition to playing back pre-recorded video,
through software that comes pre-installed on their
a projection system will frequently need to
home computer.
accommodate the use of live video as part of the
For video editing considerations, the most important projection design. The video reinforcement system is
hardware aspects to consider are processor speed used to capture and input live video into the projection
(CPU), RAM, and graphics card (GPU). Another system. This type of system is similar to the playback
important consideration is storage. Video files are large system except that the input video signal comes from a
and take up a lot of space. A video editing workstation camera, rather than from a video or graphics file. This
should have a dedicated drive for video storage with a system can include many components, but the basic
minimum of 1 terabyte storage capacity that is separate setup would consist of a video camera connected to an
from your startup disk. In addition, invest in portable input device that connects directly into the projection
hard drives for backup and transportation purposes system.
since the projection designer deals in vast amounts of
data transfer. 12.5 Projection Equipment
Depending on the needs of the project, projection design
The Video Playback System can require a staggering amount of equipment. While
Video playback systems are a combination of all this book is not intended to serve as an introduction to
the equipment necessary to play back pre-recorded hardware, it is important to have a basic understanding
video or still images in a live performance/installation of the tools used in creating a projection design. While it
environment. Like audio systems, the video playback is by no means an exhaustive list, this section lists some
system is a combination of one or more computers of the fundamental tools to the design process.
connected either directly to an output device(s) or into a

219 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
The Digital Video Camera Media servers are expensive and require specialized
The digital video camera is a tool that captures moving training to operate, but have become common
light and then sends the light through one or more components of any high-end projection system.
sensors to translate this captured light into images. The
Interface Connections
captured video image is then translated into computer
pixels. For live performance, the digital video camera For any type of audio/video system, physical
will be connected to a computer interface so the video connections (both hardware devices and cabling)
signal can be sent through the projection system. comprise a substantial amount of the necessary
components. Each device in your system will require
FYI: Pixels and Resolution some type of cabling for input and output. Typically,
this is one of the commonly overlooked costs of setting
A pixel is short for “picture element,” the tiny dots of
up a projection system. Keep in mind that each project
colored light that make up a digital image. Typically,
can have considerably different needs, based on the
thousands of pixels combine together to make an
number of input devices, computers, output devices,
image viewed on a digital monitor. The number and
and the distance between each component in the
size of pixels in an image is related to the image
system. Check with all of your equipment to determine
quality. Images with smaller pixels (and greater pixel
what types of connectors are required. It is also a
count) have higher resolution, the measurement of
good idea to sketch or draft out a plan that takes into
pixels in a given image. Images with lower resolution
consideration the distances between each component
tend to be a bit fuzzier and, when enlarged, have
and the required physical connections between each
a blurry, unclear look with individual pixels more
device. Common connector types are VGA (Video
visible called pixelation.
Graphics Array), DVI (Digital Video Interface), HDMI
(High-Definition Multimedia Interface), and Category
5/6 networking cables.
The Computer
In any projection system, you will likely find one or more Display Devices
computers serving various functions. For most basic
A display device is any type of equipment used to receive
systems, the computer serves as a media storage device
a graphic signal and translate it into light impulses
and an interface for transmitting live video footage from
for visual display. There are many types of display
the video camera. If recording video for later playback,
device that can be used in a projection system: digital
the computer will be used in conjunction with video
projectors, flat panel displays, LED walls, monitors,
editing software to edit audio and video components of
television sets, etc. The ultimate result is the visual
the digital video file.
display of graphics and video footage for the projection
Some installations make use of a media server, a system. The list below covers some basic information
specialized computer built specifically for media storage about the most common types of display devices.
and playback across multiple different displays. Most
Digital Projectors
media servers are equipped with ultra-fast processors
and graphic cards, a large amount of RAM, intense solid- Digital projectors, sometimes called video projectors,
state storage capabilities, and multiple video outputs. are digital outputs that accept audio and video

220 PRODUCTIONAREAS
F I G UR E 12. 1 1 For most entertainment applications, there
A digital projector. are three suitable categories of lumens: mid
range (2000–3000 lumens), high-performance
range (3000–4500 lumens), and ultra-bright range
(4500–12,000 lumens). For some applications the high-
performance range is suitable and not cost-prohibitive.
As throw distance and ambient light increases, though,
the ultra-bright range is a must. Of course, the price of
this range is incredibly high as compared to the lower
range models.

Operating distance is the second consideration that

will influence the type of projector necessary for
a given project. All digital projectors have a given
throw ratio that describes the ratio of the distance to
the screen (throw) to the resulting image width. For
instance, if a projector has a throw ratio of 2:1 and the
projector is placed ten feet away from the screen, then
the resulting image width would be five feet. It is worth
signals from a number of different source types, from noting that, since most projectors have zoom lenses,
computers to DVD/Blu-ray to live input from a video most ratios will be variable in nature (i.e. 2–2.4:1).
camera (Figure 12.11). Digital projectors work by All decisions for projector selection should take into
receiving a video signal and transmitting it via a bright consideration both the need for lumens and throw
light source and through a lens to enlarge the image distance.
and project it across a distance.
Flat Panel Displays
Considerations for digital projectors tend to fall into
A flat panel display is a type of display surface
two categories: brightness (lumens) and operating
known for being thin and lightweight (e.g. flat screen
distance (throw ratio). Brightness of a projector affects
TVs). Most flat panel displays today are Liquid
how visible the projected image will be, especially when
Crystalline Display (LCD) technology. Another variety of
in the presence of other light. The amount of light in a
flat panel is the plasma display, known for producing
given space (outside of that created by the projector)
vivid colors and deeper blacks, enabling a high contrast
is commonly referred to as ambient light. When
ratio for displayed video. Plasma displays can be
ambient light reflects on to a projected image, there is
manufactured in large panels and are quite thin—
a potential for the projected image to appear “washed
typically around 4˝.
out,” or lacking in definition and color. This is why most
dance applications call for the use of a digital projector Another possibility with video displays is the ability to
with high brightness output, typically referred to as link multiple displays together to create a video wall.
“high-lumens.” The term refers to the use of multiple display devices

221 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
F I G UR E 12. 1 2
A projection design utilizing an
LED wall. Merrily We Roll Along by
Stephen Sondheim, Encores! New
York City Center. Direction by James
Lapine. Projection design by Wendall
K. Harrington.
Photo courtesy of Wendall K. Harrington.

arranged to create one large screen. In this instance, 12.6 Software Solutions
the displays are not treated as individual devices, but as As important as hardware and equipment is to the
one display. projection system, the software used to control that
equipment could be even more important. Software
LED Panels
should be selected based on the needs of the project
One of the emergent trends in all areas related to and what the designer wants to accomplish. Listed
lighting and media is the use of LED technology. LED below are some common programs used for projection,
displays are quite popular due to their ability to produce organized according to their functions. Each has its own
incredibly bright, vivid colors while using a smaller unique attributes and uses. Some are incredibly basic,
amount of electricity and having a longer life than while others require specialized training in order to use.
traditional lighting fixtures or projectors. LED panels
are basically circuit boards with clusters of LEDs Slide-based Presentation
attached to the facing (Figure 12.12). They can be easily This area is one of the most basic in form and function
connected together to form large surfaces and can even and features software with which most casual computer
be constructed as a curved display surface. users are familiar. Slide-based programs are created to

222 PRODUCTIONAREAS
 mirror the old slide projector method, creating a linear system, individual looks called cues are saved into the
approach to presenting information where the presenter playback device’s internal memory. Typically, these
can advance from one slide to the next in order. cues are stacked in a column in ascending order
Microsoft’s PowerPoint is probably the best-known with the lowest numeric values at the top. When the
program for this type of presentation method, though performance begins, the operator simply presses the
Apple also makes a similar program called Keynote. GO button and progresses in a linear fashion down the
Both programs allow users to create slides with still cue stack from cue to cue. In terms of consistent, linear
images, video, text, and basic animation effects (fade-in, playback for projection design there is really only one
fade-out, etc.). While this software is not normally program on the market: QLab by Figure 53.
utilized for projection design, it can be used in basic
QLab is a complete show control software package for
applications such as simple photo stills or projecting
Mac OS X that can be used for sound, projections, and
title card information for a dance, etc. The benefit of this
controlling other devices in your system, like lighting
is accessibility, as many computer users already have
or special effects (Figure 12.13). There are currently
access to a slide presentation program. The down side
two versions of QLab for sale: version 2 and version
is the somewhat unreliable nature of the software and a
3. In version 2, there were basic projection design
lack of interactivity.
functions, but the program primarily remained in the
Linear Playback domain of sound design. Since the release of version
3, however, the program has included a vast array of
For many years most theatrical and dance control
projection design tools, such as video effects, keystone
systems followed the method popularized by lighting
correction, surface mapping, animation, and more. In
consoles, a cue-based linear setup. In the cue-based
addition to providing a robust range of functions for

F I G U R E 1 2 . 13
An example of a QLab workspace.

223 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
 sound, projections, and show control, QLab also is operator then manipulates the length, placement, size,
quite affordable and easy to learn. For these reasons, and visibility of the cues in relation to one another in the
a number of dance companies have embraced QLab as timeline. The power of Watchout is in its versatility. Each
their method of playback. Watchout system is made up of a production computer
networked to display computers. The production
Timeline-based Playback computer holds the media and sends signals out across
Timeline-based playback is an alternate method for the network to the individual display computers. Each
playback control. Dataton’s Watchout is the program display computer can be connected to up to six display
most commonly associated with this type of playback devices. The fact that Watchout uses separate display
for projection design in live performance. Watchout is computers makes it remarkably scalable to almost any
used for multi-display applications, distributing video size of application.
and stills across numerous different displays like video
walls or seamless overlapping projected imagery. Interactive Visual Programming
Unlike QLab’s linear approach, Watchout features an From the beginnings of projection design, dance artists
interface with a horizontal orientation of cues stacked have experimented with ways to interact with the
atop one another, called the timeline (Figure 12.14). projections. The program most widely used in dance
Each instance of media (video, still images, sound files) applications for interactivity in projection is called
is imported into the timeline as a separate cue. The Isadora. Mark Coniglio, a composer and media artist,

F I G UR E 12. 1 4
The Watchout workspace.

224 PRODUCTIONAREAS
 created Isadora for use in performances by Troika initially designed for dance production, there are a
Ranch, a media intensive dance company he co-founded. number of functions that are appealing for the dance
Today, Isadora (frequently referred to as Izzy, for short) environment. Isadora can control audio and video in
is distributed by TroikaTronix and used in production real time based from pre-recorded or live feed. It can be
settings for dance, theatre, video artists (VJs), and more. used to manipulate media based off of the movements
of dancers and their location in space. Likewise, it can
Isadora is a visual programming environment, meaning
process a live video feed of the stage, enabling the
that the program can be used to manipulate media in
projection design to integrate live dancers with their
real time while watching the effects live. One of the
own processed image in the projection design.
main benefits to this is a simplified workflow. Designers
can use the same program for editing and playback. It With so many different interactive functions, it is no
works by using 250-plus basic building blocks called surprise that Isadora is a favorite amongst dance
“actors” that are pre-programmed functions such as companies across the world. In addition, it features a
image warping, opacity, and more (Figure 12.15). By relatively low price point (currently $350 per license),
combining multiple actors together and applying them educational and non-profit discounts, online video
to a media file, the designer can manipulate the media tutorials, and a stable platform for live performance. It
in interesting and interactive ways. can be a bit of a steep learning curve for the beginner,
though, so make sure to include ample experimentation
The terms used most often when describing Isadora
time if using it for the first time.
are flexible and interactive. Since the program was

F I G UR E 12. 1 5
An example of the Isadora
programming interface.

225 PROJECTIONSANDVIDEO
 12.6 A Word About Interactive Dance and fashion into an interesting new genre that defies any
Interactive dance is a dance field that blurs the line one label (Figure 12.16).
between dance, music, and projections, merging the
12.7 Chapter Review
performing and interactive arts. In traditional dance
performance, the dancer performs to the media with Projection design is an important field of dance
no control over the music or projection. This means production that enables a greater level of interactivity
that the dancer must synchronize his/her movement and versatility in presenting the choreographer’s vision
to pre-recorded media, leaving little to no room for for the performance. The technology used in projection
improvisation. Interactive dance, on the other hand, design is changing at a rapid pace, making it possible
integrates motion tracking and data processing for a wider range of users to have access. Even so, it is
capabilities of modern rigs to create a new performance a production area that requires a great deal of planning
style, in which the dancer’s movement actually controls and financial investment on the part of the producing
and interacts with the media. While experiments in dance company. As such, it should be discussed early
interactivity have been popular in dance since the 1970s, in the production process with an honest assessment
it has not been until the last decade that advances in of the company’s resources. It is important for the
motion sensing technology combined with computer choreographer and production team to consider the way
animation have broadened the scope of what is possible in which projections will be used in the production and
in integrating media and live performance. Companies how projection design affects all of the other production
like Kansas City’s Quixotic blur the lines between dance, areas.
electronic music, projection mapping, aerial acrobatics,
Review Questions

1. What is rear projection?

2. How does ambient light affect projections?
3. Describe the keystone effect.
4. What is projection mapping?
5. What is the difference between linear and
interactive content?
6. Explain the difference between a video playback
system and a video reinforcement system.
7. What is a media server?
8. Describe a video wall and how it functions.
9. Which program is ideal for linear, cue-based
playback?
10. Which program is a real-time visual programming
F I G UR E 12. 1 6 environment?
Quixotic’s unique brand of interactive
dance.
Photo courtesy of João Biera.

226 PRODUCTIONAREAS
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 13
CREATING THE
PROJECTION DESIGN

Projected images are ephemeral; they live in another more

poetic dimension. Dance is the poetry of music as made
manifest by the body. Projection and dance are an inevitable
and welcome combination.

Wendall K. Harrington

Alexei Ratmansky’s Cinderella at the Australian Ballet, 2013. This world premiere ballet set to
music by Sergei Prokofiev featured scenery, projections, and costumes inspired by Surrealist art.
Photo courtesy Wendall K. Harrington. Choreography by Alexei Ratmansky.
Costume and set design by Jérôme Kaplan. Lighting design by Rachel Burke.
Projection design by Wendall K. Harrington.
The role of the projection designer, perhaps more so For instance, perhaps he wants to use the work of
than any other dance designer, is defined by the needs a well-known painter to create a three-dimensional
of the project. As illustrated in the previous chapter, environment. In this example, the role of the projection
so many aspects of the design are dependent on the designer is more centered on composition and visual
requirements of the dance. Like the lighting designer, storytelling, rather than being rooted in the creation
the projection designer deals with the ephemeral of original visual content. In another example, the
and must communicate his/her design ideas in great choreographer may have only a loose concept in mind
detail, often before even having stepped foot into the of the dancers creating movement onstage that will
performance space. In order to communicate the design ultimately be represented in the projection design,
idea, the projection designer relies on research, pre- with the projections serving as a counterpoint to the
visualization, draftings, and paperwork in addition to the movement of the dancers onstage. In this instance, the
basic written and verbal communication skills. Since projection designer will likely be involved to a greater
projection design is still a young and rapidly changing degree in the rehearsal process and might even have
art form, there are a number of different approaches a hand at collaborating with the choreographer to
to the creative process. This chapter details a few key determine how the movement might best serve the
concepts for how a designer progresses from the design projections and vice versa.
idea to execution.
Setting Goals
13.1 Working with the Choreographer In my experience, projection design tends to be
The collaborative process for projection design can be a the area with which choreographers are the least
bit more circuitous than some of the other disciplines, familiar. As a result, there is often a tendency to rely
since projections tend to affect so many other areas on the projection designer to define the goals and
of design. The successful projection designer must outcomes of the project. While this can seem helpful
be prepared to be in constant communication with the at first, it can sometimes lead to negative outcomes
choreographer, scenic designer, and lighting designer in collaboration. Clear communication from the
about design decisions, since those decisions (and the earliest stages is important to ensure that all parties
decisions of the other designers) can have such a great know what the goals are for the projection design
impact on the process and affect a great number of and how the designer hopes to accomplish them.
factors. Like the other design areas we have discussed so
far, I find it useful to present the choreographer with
One of the most important goals for working with the
a series of questions to help focus the conversation.
choreographer is determining the function of projections
Sometimes the answer will be, “I don’t know. What do
within the dance. As discussed in the previous chapter,
you think?” This opens the door to conversation that
there are a number of ways in which projections
will help guide the way.
can function in the dance setting. Determining the
choreographer’s expectations for projections will help Talking About Your Dance
define the nature of your collaborative model.
1. Describe in two to three sentences what you want
Sometimes the choreographer will enter the process
your dance to communicate.
with a specific vision in mind for the projected imagery.

230 PRODUCTIONAREAS
2. If possible, describe the basic “plotline” of your ●● If so, has permission been secured for its use?
dance, describing important events or changes ●● What is the rehearsal schedule?
within the dance. ●● What is the tech schedule?
3. How do you see projection contributing to the ●● Will there be additional time built into the tech
storytelling? process for working with projections?
4. Is your dance based on or influenced by any ●● Will the projections require filming the dancers?
particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include
●● If so, will costumes, hair and make-up, props, etc. be
images, links/references with this response.)
required?
5. Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases
●● Will projection design require syncing with audio (e.g.
to describe how your dance (or individual sections)
actor voiceover, video syncing with music, etc.)?
should feel.
6. Do you see the projections as part of the scenery or 13.2 Communicating the Design
more of a stand-alone element? No matter the design area, one of the primary roles of
7. Do you see the projections as a presentational the designer is communicating his/her design ideas to
element or a design element with which the other members of the production team and those
dancers interact? working to execute the design. In the area of projection
design, this is particularly important since the projected
Practical Concerns
imagery interacts with so many other areas of the
When going into collaboration with a choreographer production. This section details some of the ways in which
(especially for the first time) I always try to send a projection designers can communicate ideas.
message with a list of practical concerns that will
be important to the overall process. Listed below is Visual Communication
a checklist of information with which the designers, The projection designer tends to produce fewer
choreographer, and dancers should be familiar. In drawings than the scenic or costume designers
addition, some questions were listed in the previous and deal more in the world of digital imagery. It is
chapter in Section 12.2. Try to address as many of these much more common to find the projection designer
questions as possible early in the production planning communicating ideas through visual research,
process, since the answers will dictate the choices that storyboards, verbal exchanges, or pre-visualization than
must be made regarding equipment, content, budget, through a traditional rendering medium. The following
and more. list includes some common methods of visually
communicating design ideas.
●● Is this a new piece or a remount?
●● If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that Research
are important to reproduce?
One of the first methods of communicating projection
●● How will projections be integrated with the scenic
design ideas is the use of visual research. One of the
and lighting design?
primary benefits of this method is the ability to show
●● Is there specific graphic content needed for the a number of different ideas without having to commit
projection design? to hours of work in producing visual content. This can

231 CREATINgThEPROJECTIONDESIgN
be assembled in a collage method, or as a slide show performance space and scenery. The purpose of this plot
featuring certain types of imagery for different moments is to include all of the necessary technical information
in the dance, or simply as individual photos to discuss. of the projection design rig needed to hang, circuit, and
The designer should always walk the choreographer focus the equipment. It is drafted atop a ground plan
through the research, pointing out what aspects are of the theatre space and any included scenery. Since
important: color, the actual image, the contrast, etc. projection and lighting equipment are frequently vying
for the same space, it is important to coordinate with the
Pre-visualization lighting designer to determine placement possibilities.
Since light is such an ephemeral medium and is
The section is a drafting of the theatre cut down the
heavily affected by the projection surfaces, it is difficult
centerline and viewed from one side. Again, this is very
to emulate the finished product of a design without
similar to the lighting designer’s centerline section—
the use of computer technology. As mentioned in our
used to visualize the theatre architecture, scenery,
discussions of lighting design, pre-visualization (or
and masking in the context of hanging positions and
pre-viz, for short) has become an expectation of many
equipment.
lighting and projection designers. In projection design,
as in lighting, there are a number of software solutions Design Paperwork and Informational Graphics
that can be used for pre-viz. For some projects, the
The projection designer utilizes a vast amount of
use of graphics editing programs such as Photoshop
paperwork to complete the projection design. Unlike
would be sufficient for presenting a design idea. This is
lighting design paperwork, there are few software
not, however, true pre-visualization. Pre-visualization
solutions on the market created specifically for use
requires a 3D rendering program that allows the
by the projection designer. One interesting thing to
designer to input a 3D model of the theatre, scenery,
consider about the projection design industry is that,
and human figures into a program and include the
since it is such a young field, there are not as many
projectors in their exact placement as well. Through the
industry standards to design approaches as in the
use of the software’s graphic engine, the geometry is
other areas examined. You will find that the workflow,
calculated to determine exactly how the visual content
paperwork, and design methodology will vary greatly
will appear when projected on an object.
from designer to designer, since there is not yet an
There are a number of different choices on the official “right way” to do things. That is not to say that
market, such as Nemetschek’s Vectorworks, or Cast there are not approved methods and recommended
Technology’s WYSIWYG. Other platforms like D3 are practices, but in many ways the field is still discovering
intended to function as an extension of their own how best to define its own industry standards. Listed
projection design hardware. In cases like this, the below are some different types of paperwork and
software allows the designer to pre-program the show informational graphics used by projection designers to
before even entering the space. plan for the design execution.

Draftings: The Projection Plot and Centerline Section Signal Flow Charts
The projection plot, similar to the light plot, shows the One common informational graphic created by the
placement of projection equipment in relationship to the projection designer is the signal flow chart. This chart

232 PRODUCTIONAREAS
F I G UR E 13. 1
A simple block-style signal flow chart,
showing the path of video signals from CAMERA
a video camera and media stored on a MEDIA SERVER
INPUT ---3>-
media server, outputting to eight separate
digital projectors.
Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

COMP.1 COMP. 2 COMP. 3 COMP.4

COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4COMP.4

(or charts) is a graphic representation of how the dependent on only one person. In a collaborative
equipment is set up and in what direction the media environment, however, other members of the production
flows from the source to the display device. This chart team affect the workflow. For instance, if the projection
is helpful in determining the cables required to connect design uses video footage of the dancers, filming might
devices and can be invaluable to the troubleshooting have to wait until costumes are complete. Likewise,
process once something inevitably malfunctions. There there might be multiple members contributing content.
are a number of different approaches to creating a In this case, it is important to identify exactly who is
signal flow chart, but the most common approach is doing what task and in what order. This is the purpose of
a series of boxes with lines that connect them to one the content workflow diagram. This diagram illustrates
another and arrows to indicate the direction of the not only who will be providing what content but in what
signal flow (Figure 13.1). order and how one step affects others in the process.
This type of chart can be used to increase productivity
Content Workflow Diagrams and help instill a sense of accountability to the process.
When creating the projection design, it is always
important to consider workflow. Workflow can Cue Sheets
be described as the sequence of events and tasks As the designer nears the process of creating cues for
required to take a design from concept to completion. the dance, it is important to create a cue sheet, a form
Each designer develops his/her own unique approach that breaks down the dance according to individual
to workflow. When working alone, the timetable is cues, their timing, description, and routing (which

233 CREATINgThEPROJECTIONDESIgN
computer/projector sends the image to what surface). Apple’s iMovie or Windows’ Movie Maker can be used
The cue sheet can be organized in a number of different for basic video editing. For more complex applications,
formats, but it is common to use the spreadsheet- programs like Final Cut Pro, Adobe Premiere, Avid
style approach, utilizing columns and rows to track the Media Composer, and Sony Vegas Pro are all solid
information. Important considerations are cue number, choices. Each of these programs has built-in functions
description (what happens onstage that motivates to trim and splice video, create fade-in/fade-out effects,
calling a cue), and timing (how long it takes for the add titles, manipulate brightness, contrast, and color
action to occur), though there may well be a number settings, etc. It is common for a projection designer
of other areas included. The cue sheet is an important to have access to a number of different video editing
way for the designer to cement his/her thoughts on programs.
what will happen in the projections design and is used
In addition to basic editing, programs like Adobe After
to communicate to the stage manager how the cues
Effects allow the projection designer to create motion
should be called for the dance.
graphics, 3D and visual effects with video files. There
13.3 Content are many interesting effects that these post-production
editing programs can accomplish, such as explosions,
The successful projection designer must have a
blurring imagery, or animating moving elements into a
balance of artistic talent and technical proficiency—an
video.
ability to generate original graphic content with an
understanding of the tools of image and video editing. Stills
This is an area in which the artistic ability of the
In addition to video, photo stills are a common content
projection designer shines. Content creation allows the
element for projection design. For creating this type of
designer to create new artistic works for presentation
content, the normal tools are a digital camera and/or
on a wide scale, through photography, digital art, video,
some type of graphics software. Graphics programs like
or animations. This section details a few of the tools
Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator have become staples in
common to the projection designer for content and
content creation for image stills. There is also freeware
editing.
software such as Gimp that can accomplish many of the
Video Content same outcomes. A common attribute of most graphics
editing programs is the ability to stack different layers
When discussing video content creation, the basic
of imagery atop one another and change the opacity,
requirements are a video camera and some type of
enabling the designer to create rich and dynamic
editing software. Cameras can be either digital video
compositions.
or analog, though if a camera is not digital video your
computer must have specialized inputs for converting The two standard types of graphics software generate
analog video to digital. Digital video cameras have either raster graphics or vector graphics. Raster
become incredibly affordable and offer up a number of graphics are images made up of a series of dots called
high-definition options, even in entry-level models. pixels, where each pixel is assigned a specific color
value. These images are created in programs such
Once the video has been captured, it is necessary to edit
as Photoshop or Gimp. While raster images are great
the video takes into a final presentation. Programs like
for print and web media, they are not always ideal for

234 PRODUCTIONAREAS
projection design. Since raster graphics are designed Stock Footage
at a specific resolution, when the image is enlarged When creating a projection design, the designer has a
or reduced, the pixels are affected, creating a blurry number of choices for content. In addition to making
or pixelated image. Vector graphics, on the other content from scratch, many designers utilize stock
hand, are images created from basic geometric forms footage as components of the design. Stock footage
such as points, lines, and curves. The vector graphic is a catchall term referring to any type of pre-existing
is expressed in a specific mathematical equation that imagery, either stills or video, which can be used
enables the image to be reduced or enlarged without as part of the projection design. Stock footage can
distortion. Vector graphics are created in programs such come from a number of different sources. There are
as Illustrator, CorelDRAW, or Inkscape. numerous companies that provide stock footage for a
fee. Of late, there are also many websites that offer free
3D Rendering and Animation
stock footage. Most projection designers also create
In addition to the two-dimensional graphics mentioned a database of stock footage for their own use that can
above, projection designers are frequently called upon be repurposed for a number of different projection
to create three-dimensional images. In contrast to 2D, design projects. For these purposes, it is essential that
3D graphics use a three-dimensional representation the designer creates a logical system of naming and
of geometric data to create a representation of a organizing the files.
three-dimensional object. The final image created by
this software, featuring color, textures, and lighting, Legal Concerns
is referred to as a 3D rendering. These images are There are many different legal concerns when dealing
amazingly realistic and often cannot be distinguished with the use of an image created by another person.
from an actual photograph or video. Projection Technically speaking, the artist who created an image
designers use programs such as Autodesk’s 3DS Max or or took a photograph owns the copyright for that work
the open source Blender to create 3D renderings. of art from the moment of its creation. This means that,
when using someone else’s work, you really need to
Audio Content
understand the legality of use without violating someone
Finally, no projection designer’s content creation setup else’s copyright. You should typically have the copyright
would be complete without considering sound editing. holder’s permission when using any artistic work not
Even though the projection designer does not execute of your own creation. Listed below are some important
the overall sound design for the production, it is a considerations for securing permission.
common occurrence that video would feature an audio
feed. In these cases, the projection designer must be Always get permission in writing for using the image.
proficient in editing and/or creating audio content for This permission form should indicate how the image
the design. While many video editing programs have will be used, in what performance, the number of
built-in sound editing capabilities, projection designers performances, the number of seats in the performance
may also use programs such as Apple’s Logic Pro space, and how/if the acknowledgement of the copyright
or Avid’s Pro Tools, both of which offer the ability to holder will be listed to the audience. It is best to confer
integrate video into the editing workspace and sync with a legal representative about the specific wording
audio with your video. of such permission forms, so as to protect yourself.

235 CREATINgThEPROJECTIONDESIgN
When dealing with photographs of people, there is surest course of action is to use original imagery, and
also a secondary consideration of the model. Ask when in doubt about the legality of image use, err on
the photographer if there was a model waiver form the side of caution and look for another option. Another
signed for the work. If the artist did not explicitly have note of caution should be extended to those in academia.
permission to photograph the model in the work, then Many academics make the false assumption that, since
he/she may not be able to give you permission to use their work is created in an academic environment, the
the work. use of copyrighted materials is covered as fair use. While
it is true that the classroom is typically covered as a fair
Licensing is another important thing to be aware
use environment, the moment that the work is integrated
of as a designer. There are a number of different
into a performance it leaves the domain of the classroom
license types for imagery. If an image is part of the
and becomes a public event. When in doubt, seek out
public domain, it means that the rights for the image
permission for the use of copyrighted works.
have been released for public use without cost. If the
copyright expires on a work of art, it will fall into the 13.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals
public domain. Likewise, certain entities can choose to
Unlike scenery or costumes, much of the work of the
automatically release the work into the public domain.
projections designer is accomplished once the load-in
For instance, any work created by the United States
occurs in the performance space. One of the indications
government and its entities (US military, NASA, etc.) is
of a designer’s success in technical rehearsals is often
part of the public domain and a valuable resource for
the amount of preparation done beforehand. A well-
stock footage.
prepared designer will respond to the rigors of technical
Not all stock footage is part of the public domain, rehearsals much better than one who plans on “winging
however. If using an image from a stock footage service, it.” Listed below are some things to consider before
it is likely licensed under very specific terms. Two heading into the tech process.
common types of licensing are royalty-free and rights-
managed. With royalty-free images, you typically pay Preparing to Cue
a one-time licensing fee and then own the right to use Much of the content creation and organization can
the image in whatever way you choose. It is important to be done offsite, but it is sometimes difficult for the
recognize that royalty-free does not mean free to use. projection designer to truly cue the show outside of
In most every instance, royalty-free images must still the theatre space. Since so much of the specific detail
be purchased up front to ensure licensing. With rights- of the design is related to the physical projection
managed imagery, there is a licensing fee as well, but surfaces, cueing is a process best accomplished in
your right to use the image is restricted to a greater the performance space. Before beginning the cueing
degree. There are typically limitations for image use process, however, there are a number of questions to
related to timeline, geographic location, purpose, etc. address.
In this case, the license agreement will indicate exactly
how the images can be used. Do You have all of Your Content?
In preparing for the cueing process, it is important
The complexities of copyright law are far too great to be
to collect and organize all of the content to be used
completely covered in this text. Keep in mind that the
in the projection design. At this point, the cue sheet

236 PRODUCTIONAREAS
and paperwork are indispensible for knowing what sequences of events. Like both lighting and sound, the
content is secured and what needs to be completed. Plan cueing process will be affected by the type of projection
on bringing in all of the content and backup copies with equipment and control software. Each program has
a few different methods for accessing the materials. It is its own unique process for the creation of cues. The
unfortunate to be in the space with only one copy of the projection designer should be intimately familiar with
content when a hard drive malfunctions or is damaged. the use of the software and understand how it will
affect his/her cueing process. No matter what setup is
Is all of Your Equipment Installed and Working? used, though, there are some common considerations
While this might seem like an obvious question, it for the cueing process. Listed below are some of these
is essential that all of the equipment be set up and thoughts.
tested before going into the cueing process. Time
1. The tech table. Like the other areas discussed
is money and the projection designer will only be
previously, it is common for the projection designer
given so much time in the space. You don’t want
to have a tech table set up in the auditorium. The
to waste the valuable cueing time troubleshooting
tech table allows the designer to see his/her work
nonfunctioning equipment. In addition to basic
from the vantage point of the audience, rather
questions of equipment function, this is the time to
than from the control booth, which is typically far
consider any specific needs that might be required
away from the stage and in an awkward position.
for cueing. For instance, is the projection computer(s)
Sometimes it is impossible for the projection
positioned in a location where the stage is visible? If
control equipment to be positioned at the tech
not, is it possible to set up a remote network to control
table, however. In these cases, it is important
the computer? Perhaps a video feed of the stage would
that the projection designer has headsets for
be another option to aid in cueing. Taking the time to
communicating with the operator and, ideally, a
answer these questions before the cueing session will
method for remotely accessing and controlling the
save a lot of time later on.
projection control system.
Do you have Dark Time Scheduled in the Space? 2. What to bring? When moving into the theatre, it
is important to consider what things you will want
Everyone has a lot to accomplish in a short period of time
on hand at the tech table. It is always wise to think
during the time leading up to technical rehearsals. This
ahead so that you don’t find yourself having to leave
is why it is so important for the projection designer to
to get something from home. A well-equipped tech
schedule a period of time in which all of the theatre’s
table should include: pencils and scrap paper,
auditorium and work lights will be turned off so the
cue sheet(s), design paperwork, a flashlight, a
projections can be seen under show conditions.
stopwatch, a laptop for the designer with a network
Cueing the Show connection, a backup computer for the control
system, a portable hard drive and thumb drives
The cueing process for projections is similar to the
for backup and file transport, and surge-protected
approaches to both lighting and sound. Like lighting
power strips.
design, it is important to be in a darkened performance
space to see the work come to life. Similar to sound, so 3. Working with the music. If your dance incorporates
many of the cueing choices will be linked to timing and music, it can be useful to listen to the music while

237 CREATINgThEPROJECTIONDESIgN
 cueing. Especially in instances where projection of a production to ensure everyone has a sufficient
must sync with music, there is no better way to get amount of time and resources to complete their work in
it right than working with the music. In addition, if time for opening night.
the sound design must sync with the projections,
it is essential to meet with the sound designer and 13.6 Chapter Review
discuss the necessary equipment used and how the The job of creating the projection design is a complex
two systems must integrate. For these purposes, process with a number of different requirements.
a device called a word clock is used to synchronize The projection designer must balance artistry and
the multiple devices in the system. technical expertise to create a dynamic and visually
4. Working with a rehearsal video. As mentioned in interesting design that contributes to the dance
previous chapters, a rehearsal video is invaluable without drawing focus away from the performance. In
to the cueing process. By referencing the video, creating the design, the projection designer must use
you can determine the location of certain moments draftings, drawings/renderings, paperwork, and verbal
on the stage and ensure the timing is correct. communication to communicate his/her ideas. Planning
Likewise, if using a rehearsal video that includes and workflow are central concerns of the projection
music, this allows you to include both music and designer, used to ensure continuity from his/her initial
movement into one package. concept through the final performance. Through a
study of the projection designer’s process, we gain an
13.5 Technical Rehearsals increased appreciation for the job of the designer and
The nature of technical rehearsals varies from project his/her role within the production.
to project. At its essence, the technical rehearsals are
Review Questions
those sessions dedicated to working through the dances
with all technical elements included. It might be a long 1. What is a signal flow chart?
process over the course of multiple weeks or only a day, 2. Which document is used to communicate who is
depending on the specific production arrangements. If providing content and in what order work is done?
the dance company owns its own space, it is common 3. What document is used to break down the
to see longer periods of tech. If the company is renting dance according to individual cues, their timing,
the space, the tech process might be limited to one day description, and routing?
or even a few hours before going into the performance.
4. Name a software program that can be used for
The duration of the tech process is definitely a deciding
basic video editing.
factor for projection use and how they are integrated
5. What is a raster based graphic?
into the production. With a production that requires a
high level of interaction between the performers and the 6. What is a vector based graphic?
projections, it is wise to schedule more time in technical 7. What is a 3D rendering and how is it created?
rehearsals. Likewise, if the technical rehearsal is a 8. What is stock footage and how is it used?
shortened time period, it will require that the designer 9. Explain the difference between royalty-free and
plan ahead and have the projection design fully cued and rights-managed stock footage.
ready to go from the beginning of tech. These are the
10. What is a word clock used for?
factors that must be brought up early in the discussion

238 PRODUCTIONAREAS
The Projection Designer’s Perspective: An back in the beginning of 2000. I wrote my master’s thesis
Interview with João Beira about the computer jockey and his relevance in upcoming
JoãoBeiradescribeshimselfasanewmediaartist art forms such as live cinema. Their live experience with
andvisualperformer.hisworkinprojectiondesign media and in particular with digital media is the core of my
isrelatedtoresearchinspatialaugmentedreality, expression as a visual artist. In 2010 I moved to the United
interactivedesign,andresponsiveandimmersivedigital States to do a Ph.D. and I met Professor Yacov Shariv, who
environmentsinrealtime.Joãoisthefounderand became my mentor and also my supervisor. He worked for
artisticdirectorofDatagrama,avisualperformance decades in the intersection of dance with technology and
artprojectfocusedoninteractivelivevisuals,stage introduced me to interactive media design for dance. Since
design,and3Dvideomapping.Forthelastdecade, then, I have devoted my research and work to combining
hehasperformedinternationallyatartandmusic motion tracking with 3D video mapping, collaborating with
festivals,participatinginartisticresidenciesand many different artists such as musicians, choreographers,
collaboratingwithmanyartistsandperformers.heis architects, designers, dancers, art directors, FX artists, etc.
alsoacollaboratorwithKansasCity’sQuixoticFusion, My experience as a projection designer extended from
aperformancegroupthatmergestogetherdance, the VJ and electronic music scene; since then I started
acrobatics,projectionmapping,music,andfashioninto to use motion and 3D video mapping as my main forms
amultidisciplinaryspectacle.Since2010hehasbeen of expression. I believe that the role of the VJ has gained
workingonadualdegreePh.D.inDigitalmediaatthe new meaning over the last decade, adding a stronger layer
UniversityofTexasatAustinandintheFEUPatthe of creativity and DIY solutions for projection design and
UniversityofPorto.Joãoholdsanm.A.inmultimediaArt interactive art.
fromtheUniversityofPortoandabachelor’sdegreein
One of the companies for which you have done some
FineArtsfromESAP.Twoofhisrecentprojects,2&4and
interesting work is called Quixotic Fusion. Can you
3D [Embodied],werenominatedforbestvideodesignin
describe Quixotic and the process of working with
2012and2013bytheAustinCritics’TableAwards.
them?
The projection design world is such a new field in Quixotic Fusion is an ensemble of artists from various
dance. Could you tell me a bit about how you got started disciplines including aerial acrobatics, dance, design,
as a projection designer? music, and visuals. It is a collective of creative designers
My exploration of video and design started with electronic and performers.
live music events in my youth. This style of work is usually My collaboration and role with Quixotic Fusion was an
referred to as VJ-ing and has been attracting young visual extension of the work that I was developing as a practice-
artists over the last decade to projection design. Through based Ph.D. student working with interactive dance, more
music and using real time strategies, VJs use light and precisely my work with depth sensors and motion tracking
video projections to invoke an expression and design with dancers. Quixotic Fusion has provided me with an
process. amazing framework to explore the potential of motion
My background was in fine arts and design. My focus has capture technologies for dance artists. In particular, to
always been related to real time visuals, even when that explore the depth camera visualization tools with body
was not fully accepted as an art form in the academic world mapping in real time. For this we use generative design

239 CREATINgThEPROJECTIONDESIgN
strategies. First, through the use of motion sensing input significant number of artistic projects in interactive
devices we capture 3D data of the dance performer, the dance. As Peter Kin wrote in 2011 in his blog www.
cloud point. This data is then translated into shaders and createdigitalmotion.com: “the combination of sensing with
to specific design pallets. The visual outcome is projected projection is to live digital visuals what a technique like
back onto her body and a transparent screen right in front perspective was to painting centuries ago. It’s a calculated
of the performer—a scrim. This process changes and grows illusion, but it could be the basis for an entire body of work,
as we perform every show. It is an evolving process just like both a marvel in itself and a springboard to new art.”
a music band’s creative process.
I know you work on a wide range of projects. How does
Using a depth sensor camera means that instead of working in a dance-based art form differ from what you
working with light values that we have from video cameras do in some other genres?
we now use data values of depth and motion. The mapping
My work as a projection designer is based in interactive
process of this data to creative design strategies is the core
strategies for real time and also the exploitation of 3D
of my work with Quixotic Fusion.
space with video. This means I do a wide range of shows,
I know one of your areas of expertise is interactive varying from architectural lighting with 3D animation, live
dance. Many of our readers may not be particularly visuals, theatre, and dance performances.
familiar with that field. Can you tell us about interactive Dance-based art relies on a collaborative process and the
dance as an art form? articulation of different arts and it’s based in motion. This
Interactive dance is a field that emerged from performing changes profoundly the creative process for media design.
and interactive arts. Choreography in the digital age had When you work with musicians you usually focus on sound
a difficult start due to the complexity of human movement and time, while in theatre we usually focus on storytelling
to be digitized. Technological development in computer and narrative. In dance we focus on the body, space, and
hardware and software has made it possible to record digital time. With the use of sensing technologies this process
3D representations of moving bodies. During the 1990s most might be described as augmented reality, as we use live
of the work was based on pre-recorded content and based direct physical real-world environment to augment in the
in pre- and post-production usage of the data gathered virtual space. This process is referred to as mixed reality
from dancers. I believe this was not really augmenting the and this output can be also described as spatial augmented
dancers’ movement but actually restricting it. reality, merging real and virtual worlds in one display and
In general, performers had to do the same routine, reality for the audience. In conclusion, the nature of the art
leaving almost no space for improvisation, creating a form that you collaborate with dictates the creative process.
disembodiment for the dancers, for movement freedom Do you have a dance background/any formalized
and expression. During the last decade this has changed training in dance?
significantly. With the introduction of motion tracking and
I do not have any formal training in dance; my background
data processing began a new philosophy and media design
was in fine arts and multimedia.
strategies for movement in the digital age. Dance and
technology attained a new and higher level of integration. Have you done any “traditional” dance design? If so,
The scientific breakthroughs in sensing technology how does this process differ from the work you do in
combined with computer animation have created a interactive dance?

240 PRODUCTIONAREAS
No, I have never done traditional dance design. But this traditional approach of video design for live events. When
question brings us to the nature of “dead” media—pre- I moved to the United States in 2010 as a Ph.D. student
rendered or pre-recorded media— and “live” media—real I found there were opportunities to use live video design
time generative media. for events. At this time it seemed to me that there were
Real time feedback and the use of sensing natural clearly opportunities in the entertainment industry and that
interfaces are two benefits of choreographing in the digital not many people were creating work with a wider range
age. The dance performer practices with the system like an of skills than traditional projection designers. In general,
instrument and the process is quite similar to the computer there are more resources and opportunities to develop big-
gaming experience. As a media designer and visual artist, scale projects in the United States. This is also visible in
I engage in regular sessions with them, and the outcome the academic world, especially in large universities, where
of each project is based on this collaborative process. you can have access not just to equipment, but also to
With analog media, or “dead” media, it was too complex multidisciplinary collaborations with different departments
and demanding to map such large amounts of data. This within the same university. I also found in the United States
process and technological development changed profoundly opportunities to conduct my Ph.D. work as practice-based
the creative process of media design for live dancers. research, which is a great framework to work as a designer
and educator. Overall, I believe that there is a lot of space
I know you have worked internationally as a designer for experimentation and pioneering development in Europe,
and educator. What are some of the key differences you but it is usually in the United States that these ideas gain a
notice in American vs. international work? different scale and exposure. I also found that the American
My experience as a teaching professional and designer in public is extremely receptive to new ways to experience
Portugal and Europe was quite relevant since it allowed video and calculated illusions with light. My work in
me to gain experience and interest in the DIY culture and collaboration with Quixotic Fusion is a great example of
architectural light design. France-based projects like that, as we perform mostly in the United States, but also in
1024 and antivj highly influenced me to start to expand the Asia and Europe.

241 CREATINgThEPROJECTIONDESIgN
 CHAPTER 14
STAGE MANAGEMENT

Perhaps, therefore, ideal stage managers not only need to be

calm and meticulous professionals who know their craft, but
masochists who feel pride in rising above impossible odds.

Peter Hall

A photo from the studio collection “Simply Magic” by Richard Calmes.

Photography of dancers in motion from the Gwinnett Ballet Theatre in suburban Atlanta, Georgia.
Photography by Richard Calmes.
The stage manager is undoubtedly the linchpin of the theatre artist, this chapter should be a useful primer
live performance. This is true for dance as well as in considering the differences between theatrical and
theatre. From the initial discussions with designers, dance stage management.
to the rehearsal period, to running the show and
interacting with the company, the stage manager is the 14.1 The Stage Manager
single person whose job affects the greatest number In both professional and academic circles, the role of
of individuals in the production process. As a dance stage management is often linked to the individual
stage manager, one must be fluent in many different dance company or academic department and their
languages—dance, theatre, and management being specific needs. Since the role is often so specific to
three of the most important. The stage manager is the the individual workplace, there will never be a cookie
source through which all information is disseminated cutter, “one-size-fits-all” job description for a dance
and the individual responsible for keeping all production stage manager. The term stage management refers to
members on schedule. In addition to organizing the collective group of personnel responsible for the job
rehearsals and production meetings, the stage manager of managing the production. In most dance companies,
also runs the technical rehearsals and during the the main management roles fall under the categories
performance is the single individual coordinating cues of production management and/or stage management.
and calling them out over the headset (referred to as While, technically speaking, a production manager’s
“calling the show”). Finally, once the production is duties do not fit neatly into the job description of stage
up and running, it is the duty of the stage manager manager, many companies combine different aspects of
to continually watch performances and ensure each of these roles into one job. Listed below is a brief
consistency to the original vision of the choreographer description of some common roles for both areas.
and designers, so that the artistic integrity of all of the
artists is maintained. It is a huge responsibility. Many Production Management
dance stage managers come from the dance world As mentioned in Chapter 1, the production manager (or
and have never worked as a theatrical stage manager PM, for short) is the person who keeps the production
(the same is true in reverse for many theatrical stage on schedule and on budget. In addition, most dance
managers). Though many of the duties are similar, the companies utilize the PM as a liaison between the
dance stage manager tends to take on many specialized performance venue and the company. Since many dance
roles within the dance company that would not typically companies do not own their own performance space,
fall under the domain of a theatrical stage manager. it is an important aspect of the job. Typical duties of a
This chapter details many of the aspects of serving as a production manager include forwarding technical specs
dance stage manager. It is, by no means, meant to be an to the design staff, examining the performance space
exhaustive study of the role of the stage manager. There for any special considerations, setting up production
are many excellent textbooks on the market dedicated meetings that bring together administrators and
to that pursuit. Instead, this chapter should introduce production staff, creating the production schedule,
the aspiring dancer, choreographer, or designer to tracking the production budget, and hiring technicians
the world of stage management for dance and foster a to run the performance. In many dance companies,
sense of appreciation for all of the ways in which stage it has become the norm to employ the production
managers assist in the creative process. Likewise, for manager to participate in rehearsals and call the show

244 PRODUCTIONAREAS
as well. In this case, the role is often known as the ●● Communication: One of the primary roles of any
production stage manager. This term can lead to a bit stage manager is communication. All information
of confusion, since many theatrical productions use the should be shared through the stage manager to
term production stage manager to refer to the lead stage ensure that it is properly documented in writing
manager in a group of several different stage managers. and that all parties have access to the information
(since one area’s choices might inadvertently affect
Stage Management another). As a result, the stage manager documents
Depending on the size of a production, there might all meetings, rehearsals, and correspondence to and
be more than one stage manager involved in running from production team members.
the show. For smaller productions, there will likely be ●● During the rehearsal period, the stage manager
one stage manager for the entire process. For larger disseminates information to all production members
productions, there might be a stage manager and one or through daily emails of notes and reminders. These
more assistant stage managers working to fulfill stage are referred to as rehearsal reports. In addition, the
management duties. Sometimes the supervising stage stage manager typically compiles notes for dancers
manager is referred to as the production stage manager to be posted on the callboard of the rehearsal space
(PSM), head stage manager, or first stage manager. The or through email. A callboard is a location in the
assistant stage manager (ASM) is commonly situated rehearsal and/or performance space dedicated to
backstage during the production run and organizes posting information for performers. It will include call
backstage traffic, calling dancers for places, and working times for the following day’s rehearsal, notes, and
with properties and/or wardrobe crews to facilitate props pertinent information for the company (Figure 14.1)
tracking and quick changes. During the pre-production ●● Once the show is up and running, daily
process, it is common to only have the stage manager correspondence continues in the form of
working with the choreographer and production staff and performance reports, a record of the performance
to bring in ASMs during the technical rehearsals. including running times, accidents, technical
problems that arose (and how they were addressed),
Common Responsibilities
technical problems that must be addressed before
No matter the nature of the organization, there are the next performance, and information about
some duties that will commonly fall into the domain upcoming performances and events (such as photo
of stage management. Listed below are a collection calls, etc.). In addition, the performance report
of these responsibilities and a brief description of frequently includes front-of-house information such
expectations. as attendance, when the house opened, when the
●● Scheduling: Stage managers frequently create performance began, intermission times, and patron
rehearsal schedules, production meeting schedules, issues. In this way, the performance report is a way
technical rehearsal schedules, and schedules for a wide range of people can stay informed about the
tech times in the space for production members. In performance.
addition to creating the schedule, the stage manager ●● Running rehearsals: If the dance company expects
is ultimately responsible for disseminating the a stage manager to be involved in the rehearsal
information (see next). period, it is common for him/her to perform a

245 STAgEmANAgEmENT
F I G UR E 14. 1
A callboard used for theatre and
dance performances.

number of tasks to ensure an efficient use of time ●● Recording information: One of the more important
and resources. The stage manager will work with tasks of the stage manager is to act as a sort of
the choreographer to determine the number of human recording mechanism. In meetings, stage
dancers that should be called and at what times, management will take minutes of what is said. In
thereby ensuring the dancers are only in rehearsal rehearsals, stage management will take movement
when needed. Likewise, the stage manager will keep notes and start to assemble a performance script
an eye on the clock during rehearsal and remind of what actions occur in what order. Included with
the choreographer of the schedule, including break this is important information such as tracking props
times. If the dance company is a union structure, use during the show (what is the prop, where does
there are very specific rules that must be followed it enter, where does it exit, etc.). This information is
for scheduling and running rehearsals. useful in determining the placement of props tables

246 PRODUCTIONAREAS
 and presets. Likewise, the stage manager should that any amount of additional time in one slot will
keep track of costume changes and the amount of take time away from the next dance slot.
time available for quick changes. This information ●● Calling the show: No matter what other duties are
will be necessary for the costume designer, since assigned to the stage manager, the calling of cues in
there is normally a rigid and fixed amount of time for the performance remains the primary responsibility.
quick changes in a dance. This job requires patience, organization, and a calm
●● Compiling the prompt book: Another stage demeanor. During the run of a performance, the
management task is assembling the prompt stage manager might call hundreds of different
book. A prompt book is a special annotated cues, many happening simultaneously. The job is
script used by stage managers to call cues complicated by the fact that one must keep one eye
for the dance production. Section 14.4 details on the prompt book and another on the stage, while
the specifics of assembling the prompt book and communicating with the board operators on headset.
its use. This role can be compared to that of an air traffic
●● Running technical rehearsals: Once the production controller, controlling the operation and timing of
process enters technical rehearsals, the stage numerous simultaneous tasks on a daily basis.
manager’s job becomes much more involved. The ●● Maintaining the artistic integrity of the work: Once
stage manager’s role during tech is ensuring all the production opens, most often the choreographer
personnel are present and ready to run the technical and other members of the production team will
rehearsal. To those ends the stage manager will have left to go on to other productions. This leaves
regularly check in with all production staff to ensure the stage manager responsible for the day-to-day
all parties are familiar with the schedule and are operations of the dance and the only remaining
ready to go. Once the tech process begins, the stage member of the production team who has the insight
manager will call instructions out from the house of having worked on the entire creative process.
for dancers and production teams alike. During this For this reason, the stage manager is charged
period, it is important that the stage manager be with maintaining the intent of the choreographer
intimately familiar with the dance and its structure. and designers. During the course of a longer run
This is one situation in which it is beneficial for it is sometimes necessary for the stage manager
the stage manager to have a command of dance to give some notes related to the continuity of the
terminology. Since the technical rehearsal tends to performance.
be stop and go, it is important to understand exactly
what the choreographer means when he says “take it Stage Management and Union Structures
from the pas de deux.” There are a number of different unions who represent
● Another of the important roles of the stage manager artists and performers in the arts. The United Scenic
in technical rehearsals is that of timekeeper. The Artists-Local 829 (USA-829) represents designers
stage manager must keep a watchful eye on the working in all areas of the entertainment industry,
clock and be aware of the time remaining in the including dance. The American Guild of Musical Artists
allocated timeslot. This is especially important in a (AGMA) is the union that represents opera singers,
concert setting with multiple dances, understanding dancers, opera directors, and backstage production

247 STAgEmANAgEmENT
personnel at opera and dance companies. Any artist If you find yourself in this situation, there are some
working at a principal opera or dance company operates things that can be done to help make the task more
under an AGMA contract. Unlike stage managers manageable. For one, the choreographer should make
working in a theatrical production, dance stage every attempt to take on some of the normal stage
managers are represented by AGMA and not the sister management responsibilities, such as scheduling, notes,
union of Actors Equity Association (AEA). The union etc. If at all possible, the choreographer should try to
structure is an important consideration for those stage help get the stage manager up to speed on the dance—
managing in dance. If the production is operating under shoot video of the dance, write a synopsis of the piece
a union contract, then union rules must be followed with key moments, etc. The stage manager should try to
meticulously. Common rules relate to length of working get in touch with the choreographer and the design team
days, duration and frequency of breaks, mandatory days to establish communication. Attempt to determine what
off, amenities in the performance space, and many more the needs might be before heading into tech rehearsals.
details. The stage manager is ultimately responsible for Even a cursory understanding will go a long way towards
maintaining the rules and reporting infractions to the making the process more manageable. Everyone can’t
union, a role that must be taken seriously. be employed in an elite professional company, but it
should not stop you from performing to the highest
FYI: Realistic expectations professional standards of your position.

The material presented above is tailored for a

14.2 Pre-production
professional dance company structure with a
One of the many ways that a stage manager assists
relatively large amount of personnel. Unfortunately,
the dance production is in pre-production planning and
small companies with limited budgets and
organization. One of the important considerations is the
academic dance programs often cannot mirror
stage manager’s contract. If operating under a union
this professional model. While it would be ideal to
contract, the stage manager may not be available until
always have a stage manager involved in the creative
rehearsals begin. In other instances, the stage manager
process, the fact remains that many companies
might be considered more of a staff position, executing
simply cannot afford to enlist a stage manager for
some of the day-to-day operations of pre-production.
anything other than calling the show. In an academic
The following section lists some ways in which the stage
environment, the stage manager is often a student
manager might assist during pre-production.
with little to no experience. It is a common situation
for the stage manager to come into the job late in the
Auditions
creative process, not be involved with rehearsals,
The audition is an important event that allows
work with designers on a short timeline, and have
choreographers the opportunity to see a wide range
a lack of assistants or backstage crew. It is not
of dancers and cast available roles for their dance
uncommon, in fact, for the stage manager to be the
performance. The stage manager can play a pivotal role
only backstage personnel and to be brought into the
in the organizational process of auditions, especially
process for tech rehearsals only (sometimes as late
if the auditions are for multiple dance pieces. When
as the day of the performance).
arranging the audition, it is common to have the stage
manager(s) compile audition information that might be

248 PRODUCTIONAREAS
included in the audition listing such as audition location, for contact information. This is the contact sheet. The
time, number of roles being auditioned, performances stage manager assembles the contact sheets for the
dates, etc. In addition, stage managers might be production. It is common to have two separate contact
involved in the process of scheduling and booking an sheets for cast and production staff. This information is
audition space. In this case, the stage manager should collected from audition sheets and contact information
be intimately familiar with the rules of the space, from designers and technicians. The stage manager
procedure for opening and locking up, and any special must keep this information up to date and disseminate it
requirements such as piano or sound system. to all the members of the production team.

When the time for auditions comes around, the stage Assisting the Choreographer
management team will normally set up an audition
Much of the stage manager’s role in the pre-production
table with registration forms. It is common for dancers
period is determined by the needs of the choreographer.
to arrive with résumés and headshots. The stage
Since every dance is different, even when working
management team will collect these and have the
with the same choreographer, it is always important
dancer fill out an audition form that includes contact
to determine his/her needs. Perhaps it is coordinating
information, physical information (height, weight, hair
the arrangement of rehearsal props for the rehearsal
color), education and specialized training, scheduling
space. Whenever possible, the stage manager or
information, and any important information about the
another member of the stage management team will
production that the company would like the dancers to
assist the choreographer in tasks required to prepare
know. An important question to ask of the choreographer
for the rehearsal period. Sometimes the stage manager
before auditions begin is how he/she wants to handle
might be assigned to work with a number of different
cuts. Some choreographers prefer to wait until the entire
choreographers as well. In this case, the stage manager
audition is complete to let dancers know they will not be
should be aware of all of the ways in which the dances
cast. Others will make dancer cuts during the audition
interact, such as rehearsal times, use of similar dancers,
process in order to better study the dancers in whom
etc. In some ways this setup is preferable, since the
they are most interested. Either method is acceptable,
stage manager can enter into production meetings with
but the stage manager should know the preferred
a wider understanding of the needs of the production.
method before auditions begin. Some choreographers
also prefer to have an audition with callbacks. Callbacks The Production Calendar
are the second round of auditions that bring in the short
Depending on the structure of your academic
list of dancers to be seen a second time. This approach
department or dance company, the stage manager
might offer the choreographer an opportunity to focus
might be handed a completed calendar, given a loose
a bit more on basic skills in the first rounds of auditions
set of guidelines and asked to create the calendar, or
and work a bit closely on the dancers’ interpretation of
any number of variations between. When assembling
choreography in the callback.
the calendar, it is important to consider for whom it
Contact Sheets is intended. For designers and other members of the
production team, it is sufficient to create a standard
Since there are so many individuals involved in producing
calendar with the days of the week and month. For
a dance, it is important to have one centralized location
performers, it is likely that this type of graphic-based

249 STAgEmANAgEmENT
calendar will not be sufficient for containing all of the and, as such, has a number of responsibilities linked to
necessary information. Often, rehearsals will include the rehearsal process. Many dance companies do not
dozens of indications for individual performers, such as utilize a stage manager during the rehearsal period,
their call time and when they are excused. For this type or at least not for the entirety of it. This is often due to
of rehearsal calendar, it is often better to simply go with the fact that budgets do not contain enough funds to
a text-based approach. include the stage manager until closer to the technical
rehearsals. For this reason, it is important for the stage
Meeting with the Production Team manager to determine the expectations of his/her role
The stage manager is often responsible for organizing before entering into the process. This section covers a
production meetings and recording minutes of the number of concerns for the stage manager during the
production meeting. In some instances, a formalized rehearsal period.
production meeting with all members of the production
staff is not a possibility (due to scheduling conflicts, Preparing the Rehearsal Space
non-local participants, or the dance company choosing One of the duties of any stage manager is the preparation
to not have regularly scheduled meetings). By all of the rehearsal space before rehearsals begin. There
accounts, the best-case scenario is having regularly are multiple considerations to this process, many of
scheduled production meetings with all production which will vary for different types of dance. Listed below
team members participating, whether in person or via are some important questions to consider before the
teleconferencing. If this is not a possibility, though, the dancers enter the rehearsal space.
wise stage manager will reach out to the production
●● Is the rehearsal space the correct size?
team members to communicate information about the
● This is an important question to address before
project and determine their needs and expectations.
rehearsals begin. If the dancers get accustomed
It is not, strictly speaking, the stage manager’s job
to a certain amount of space, it is difficult to leave
to accommodate the needs of each member of the
this muscle memory behind once they get into a
production team. It is important to recognize, however,
different size performance space. This is particularly
that the stage manager can serve an important function
important for the choreographer as well. Sometimes
of gathering information from all parties and including
there simply is not enough room to fit the entire cast
them in regular correspondence with the entire team.
of performers onstage at the same time. If this is
In this way, each member of the production team has
the case, it must be understood from the beginning
the opportunity to see what is going on in the other
of rehearsals. The best practice is to determine
areas. This is especially important considering the
the size of the performance space and tape out the
collaborative nature of dance production and how one
constrictions of the performance space on the floor of
area’s choices can affect others.
the rehearsal space. In addition to the basic size and
14.3 Rehearsals shape, if the dance will incorporate scenic elements
that affect where the dancers can be positioned, it
Once the dance enters the rehearsal period, the stage
is important to spike out the placement of the set
manager’s role expands to include assisting the dancers
before rehearsals begin. This process requires a
in addition to the rest of the production team. The stage
scale ground plan from the scenic designer and a
manager is the daily contact point for all of the company

250 PRODUCTIONAREAS
 good understanding of how to interpret a drafting. ●● Is there a sound system?
The stage manager uses a scale ruler to measure the Since music is so important to the rehearsal
ground plan and multiple tape measures to precisely process, it is always a good idea to know the details
measure out the placement of the scenery on the of the sound system for the performance space.
stage and spike it in the rehearsal space. Most dedicated dance rehearsal spaces will have a
● There are a few options for marking the floor. Spike system in place for playing back CDs or inputting
tape is a special variety of thin cotton tape made from a portable music player. Quite often, this
in a wide variety of colors. Spike tape typically equipment might be locked up and require a key or
comes in ½˝ wide rolls and is used for “spiking” combination to access, though. Also, if the space
important marks on the stage floor, such as set does not include a sound system, then arrangements
placement or key locations for dancer placement to must be made for bringing in a portable system
be appropriately placed in areas of lighting. Spike for rehearsals. Likewise, it is important to discuss
tape can sometimes leave a residue or discolor the sound needs with the choreographer and
Marley flooring, so it is important to know if the sound designer. Some dances might require an
rehearsal space has rules about what can be used accompanist for rehearsals. Does the space have a
as spike on the flooring. Sometimes it is preferable piano? Has the accompanist been contracted for the
to use Marley tape, a vinyl tape intended for use on rehearsal period? Even though these factors may
Marley dance floors. It typically comes in wider rolls not be the responsibility of the stage manager to
(2–4˝) and can be cut down to the smaller strips used arrange, it is always an important part of the stage
for spike marks. manager’s role to ask the right questions.

●● What are the rules of use for the space? ●● Are special rehearsal elements required?
● Another important consideration is the rules of use Always ask the choreographer if there are special
for the rehearsal space, including basic policies rehearsal elements required for the dance, such as
of unlocking and locking the space, acceptable props, rehearsal costumes, video, etc. Since these
footwear, time limits, checking out equipment, and elements are not a common requirement for the
more. Each space has its own unique rules and rehearsal process, the only person who can speak to
limitations for use and it is important to know these their need is the choreographer. If there are special
beforehand so this information can be communicated needs, the stage manager can then contact the
to the choreographer. If, for instance, there are necessary parties to inform them of the needs and
rules for the rehearsal space that keep music timeline.
from being played during certain times of day, this
information would affect the rehearsal schedule. FYI: The Stage Manager’s Kit
Some spaces may not allow for the use of tape on All professional stage managers have a collection
the dance flooring. This can be a complication if of essential supplies on hand for rehearsals and
there are scenic elements that must be represented productions. This kit is normally held in some
for rehearsal purposes. A good stage manager will sort of tackle box, duffle bag, or rolling suitcase—
always try to foresee any complications that may depending on the stage manager’s preference. The
arise before going into rehearsal. contents of the stage manager’s kit are typically

251 STAgEmANAgEmENT
 an amalgam of first aid and office supplies. During the Rehearsal
Sometimes the dance company will provide some Once the rehearsal actually begins, the stage manager’s
of these items, though it is often a good idea for job is to assist the choreographer in the rehearsal process,
the professional stage manager to have their own supervise the dancers, and serve as the primary method
supplies just in case. The following list is by no of communication between the choreographer and other
means exhaustive, but it would be a good starting members of the cast and production team. The stage
point for the dance stage manager. manager will create a cast list before rehearsals begin
that includes a sign in for each rehearsal. When the
Keep in mind that the distribution of medicine dancers arrive, they will initial the sheet indicating that they
is sometimes acceptable and at other times it can are present. The stage management team will immediately
create a legal dilemma. Over-the-counter anti- contact any late arrivals, unless prior arrangements have
inflammatory medicines are beneficial in the event of an been made. This process guards against a room full of
injury, but one should always ask about allergies before people waiting on one person to show up.
distributing the medicine. Likewise, if the dancer is a Once everyone has arrived and the rehearsal begins,
minor, the decision might best be left up to the parents. the stage manager’s role is to assist the choreographer
●● First aid supplies: Ace bandages, triangular in a number of different ways. The stage manager and
bandages, Band-Aids of all sizes, gauze, blister choreographer should communicate beforehand to
plasters, instant heat/cold packs, nail clippers/nail determine what services will be most useful. The stage
file, antibiotic ointment, sterile medical gloves, throat manager can take specific movement and blocking
lozenges, scissors for cutting bandages, tweezers, notes or simply be there to observe and take general
splinter removal kit, and Q-Tips. notes on the choreographer’s behalf. Whatever tasks
the stage manager performs, this period is remarkably
●● Basic medicines: Aspirin or other pain relievers,
useful in that he/she will see the evolution of the dance
ibuprofen or other anti-inflammatories, cough drops,
and have a deeper understanding of the subtleties in the
saline solution, antacid, and vitamin c supplements.
dance. This will be invaluable when it comes to calling
●● Office supplies: Brads, stapler, paper clips, binder
the show, as the stage manager will understand all of
clips, hole punch, pens/pencils/markers/highlighters,
the various parts of the dance completely.
pencil sharpener, scotch tape, Post-it notes, ruler,
scale rule, scissors, whiteout pen, three-ring binder, Communication
blank paper, and reinforcement rings.
Communication is one of the most important aspects of
●● Backstage supplies: Tape (Gaffer’s tape/spike tape/ the stage manager’s job. During the rehearsal period,
glow tape/clear packing tape), measuring tape, this is performed in many different ways. The list below
batteries, flashlight, clip light, multi-tool, sewing kit, includes some of the ways in which the stage manager
stopwatch, extension cord, and electrical plugging serves as the communication hub for the production.
strip
●● Dancer supplies: Hand sanitizer, breath mints, Rehearsal Announcements
hairpins, tissue, tampons, baby wipes, dental floss, Since everyone is together for the rehearsal period,
and high-protein individual snacks. this is often a good time to make announcements.

252 PRODUCTIONAREAS
This might be a general announcement from the same type of notes, so it is important to discuss with all
company regarding the upcoming performance or of the production team what their needs might be.
specifics from the choreographer. Typically, rehearsal
announcements are best placed at the end of rehearsal 14.4 Technical Rehearsals
when the dancers aren’t preparing for the rehearsal Once the dance heads into technical rehearsals, the
and are free to take notes, as necessary. Sometimes, stage manager’s role focuses on integrating all of the
the announcement might be as simple as reminding the design, technical, and performance aspects into one
dancers to check the callboard for notes. seamless package. The effective stage manager makes
this task look easy, even though it is without a doubt one
The Callboard of the most challenging roles in any type of production.
Many rehearsal and performance spaces use a bulletin Planning and experience are essential to the success of
board to post information for the company. This is the stage manager. Listed below are some thoughts for
referred to as the callboard. The callboard is a useful how the stage manager can make the difficult task of
location for including notices such as rehearsal notes, managing technical rehearsals a bit more manageable.
weekly schedules, fitting schedules, photo calls, and
more. It is important to make sure everyone is aware of Assembling the Prompt Book
the placement of the callboard and reminded to check As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the prompt book is
it on a daily basis. It is also important to remember a tool specifically used by the stage manager for calling
that the callboard is not the appropriate method for cues in the show. As the stage manager approaches
disseminating sensitive or private information. The the technical rehearsals, it is important to assemble a
stage manager must always be aware of the necessary clean and legible prompt book that will be used for the
balance between communication and privacy. production. For theatrical productions, this is typically a
three-ring binder with the script on one side (often the
Rehearsal Notes left side) and the notes on the opposite side (the right).
During the rehearsal process there are many different Cues will be marked on one side with a line drawn to
types of notes that the stage manager takes for different indicate the location in the script for calling the cue.
purposes. Since some of the design team may not
For dance productions, however, it is less common to
be able to attend rehearsals, the stage manager is
have a true script. In lieu of a script, stage managers
expected to provide answers to them regarding timing,
will often work with the choreographer to write out a
tracking, and details. The stage manager is responsible
shorthand script for calling the show, with descriptions
for sending out a daily rehearsal report to all members
of movements or music, the point in the running time
of the production team to inform them of any
when it would be called, and the cue name/description.
information or questions that may have arisen during
For something of this nature, it is common for the stage
rehearsal. In addition to notes for the rehearsal report,
manager to meet with the respective designers and
stage management often tracks important information
assemble the cue script by combining information from
such as movement of props or set pieces (where items
the various designers’ cue sheets.
enter and exit), costume changes, and timing of certain
sequences that might relate to precise cueing of lights, Another consideration is the type of prompt book
sound, or effects. No two dances will require the exact used for longer story-driven dances, like ballet. When

253 STAgEmANAgEmENT
working with ballet or longer pieces, it is common for manager. In this case, the production stage manager
the stage manager to create a prompt book from the would often be responsible for hiring the necessary crew
musical score of the ballet. Since the orchestra will members and communicating duties and schedules
be playing for the duration of the performance, the before technical rehearsals begin. Even if this is not
score is a natural method for marking and calling cues. the case, the stage manager should make an effort to
This means that the ability to read music is a must reach out to all crew members, communicate duties,
for those interested in stage managing these types of and answer any questions that might arise. All crews
productions. In truth, all dancers and those working in should have a designated crew head that supervises the
dance production should have a passing familiarity with crew and reports to the stage manager. Each crew head
musical notation and music terminology. should have a detailed schedule and checklist of duties
for each performance, as well as receiving any training
The Paper Tech necessary to performing his/her role in the performance
As mentioned in previous chapters, some dance space. In an academic environment, it is not uncommon
companies have a special meeting called the paper to find crews comprised of dancers who have little to no
tech, in which all designers, the choreographer, and technical experience. In this case, it is doubly important
the stage manager meet to talk through the cues and to ensure the crew is properly trained in expectations
cue placement in the production. This is much more and safe operation of any stage equipment. While this
common in academic environments and resident responsibility may fall to the technical director or house
companies with in-house production support. When the technician, the stage manager should make an effort to
production team is made up of freelance artists, it is reach out to all crew members and identify these needs.
sometimes difficult to carve out a time for everyone to
meet. In this case, it is essential that the stage manager Assemble a Tech Packet for Dancers
receives cue sheets from the designers in advance so Another useful tool that the stage manager often
that he/she can incorporate the separate cues into the generates is an informational packet to give to the
prompt book. dance company before heading into tech. This packet
might contain useful information such as schedules,
Communicating with Cast and Crew house rules for the performance space, maps (should
One of the main roles of the stage manager is to ensure the dancers need directions to the performance space),
communication flows between all parties and that the and any other information that might be of use to the
information remains both timely and consistent. This company. This is particularly useful when taking a dance
is the reason that all information should be vetted on tour, as each individual performance might offer up
through the stage manager. As the company nears its own unique challenges.
tech rehearsals, the stage manager should reach out
to both cast and crew to ensure all parties have all the Daily Schedules
necessary information. Since the stage manager will be sending out daily
reports to both cast and production staff, it is important
Check in with Crew Members to include with these messages a detailed schedule for
As mentioned before, many companies utilize the stage the following day. These schedules, sometimes called
manager as a production manager or production stage dailies, must be sent out as soon as possible to ensure

254 PRODUCTIONAREAS
the performers are sufficiently prepared for call times. Early Arrival
The schedule should include call times (the time at The stage manager is often one of the first people in
which individuals are required to report to the theatre), the building. In some spaces, he/she would arrive early
release times (when people are free to go), and the and unlock doors, turn on lights, and prepare for crew
evening schedule for things like sweeping and mopping arrival. In other spaces, there might be a house tech
the floor, lighting/sound/projections check, company crew that takes care of these responsibilities. Either
warm-ups, curtain time, and anything else of specific way, it is always a good idea for the stage manager
importance. to be in the space from the moment it is available
so he/she can begin the process of prepping for the
FYI: A Word for the Dancers performance.
Throughout the rehearsal and performance process,
Check-in
the choreographer and stage manager will be your
constant points of contact. Keep in mind that, once Before going into technical rehearsals, the stage
tech begins, you will be interacting with a wide management team should create a check-in sheet
range of designers and technicians whose jobs are that lists each cast and crew member. Beside each
multifaceted and demanding. Remember the rule of name there should be a box for checking in. When the
thumb for communication protocol is to always go performer or crew member arrives, he/she should
to your choreographer first. The designers always initial the box. The stage management team will then
welcome the input of the dancers, but it can be check the list to ensure all participants are present
difficult during the process of tech to address the and on time. Should there be a late arrival, the stage
concerns of every dancer who brings up an idea. If manager or assistant stage manager will call this
you have a question or comment about a production person to determine their location and estimated arrival
element, bring it up with the choreographer, who will time. While this may seem a bit tedious or excessive,
in turn talk to the stage manager and designers or this system ensures that stage management will have
address the concern with the appropriate designer sufficient time to locate and put in an understudy or
and/or crew member. This type of professionalism replacement dancer, should this be necessary.
will make you look like a seasoned pro and get you
Technical Checks
hired back again. Everyone likes working with a team
player. Typically the crew will arrive a bit earlier than the
performers so that there is time for running through
various crew checks. Common checks during this time
14.5 During the Run period are dimmer checks (making sure all of the lights
Once the show is up and running, the stage manager are functioning properly), sound check, projections
transitions to a dual role of calling the show and check, and headset check (to ensure all of the headsets
ensuring that the production remains true to the vision are properly functioning). During this time period, it is
of the choreographer and designers. Listed below important that the stage manager checks in with each
are some common responsibilities that occur during crew head to determine if their pre-show checks have
the run. been done and if there was anything amiss. If so, this

255 STAgEmANAgEmENT
would need to be addressed before opening or marked 14.6 Chapter Review
in the production notes to be fixed before the following The stage manager has one of the most difficult jobs
performance. of all the roles in performing arts. He/she must be a
master communicator with the ability to juggle with one
Giving Calls
hand while taking notes with the other, all the while
Once dancers arrive in the performance space, the watching the stage and talking to multiple people over a
stage manager is responsible for keeping everyone headset. The stage manager, above all else, is dedicated
aware of the time remaining until the curtain goes up. to working behind the scenes to facilitate collaboration
There are a number of different events that must occur and help others out. From the initial discussions with
at specific times, such as sweeping and mopping the designers, to the rehearsal period, to running the show
stage, technical checks, dancers getting into costumes, and interacting with the company, the stage manager
stretching/warm-ups, etc. Typically, the stage works with the greatest number of individuals in the
manager will make an announcement on the theatre’s production process. The role of the stage manager is
intercom system at the top of the call, letting everyone fluid, with duties and expectations changing during the
backstage know what time it is and how long remains production process from pre-production planning to
until the house is open (when the audience enters the auditions, rehearsals, technical rehearsals, and running
auditorium). Most theatre spaces open the house 30 the show. The stage manager who can successfully
minutes before the curtain goes up. At this point, the balance the needs of the creative staff, dancers, crew,
stage manager will announce to the backstage that and performance space staff will be an invaluable
the house is open and give a 30-minute warning. After member of the production team whose work is always
this, there will be a 15-minute warning for dancers in demand.
to be in places, followed by a 5-minute warning, and
finally a call for places. The specific times may change Review Questions
according to different companies, but the process 1. What is a production stage manager?
remains similar.
2. What is the role of the assistant stage manager?
Working with House Management 3. Explain the purpose of a callboard.

In addition to communicating with the cast and crew 4. What type of information is included in a rehearsal
backstage, the stage manager is also in communication report?
with the house management for the performance 5. What are some of the duties of stage management
space. The house manager is the individual who at auditions?
interacts with the box office and patrons and 6. What are some of the stage manager’s
determines if the show will start on time or if there is responsibilities related to the rehearsal space?
to be a delay in order to get all of the patrons seated 7. What is spike tape and how is it used?
(called “holding the curtain”). The house manager will
8. Explain the use of a stage manager’s prompt book.
communicate to the stage manager once the house
9. What is a paper tech?
has been closed and, only then, the stage manager
10. Describe the activities a stage manager undertakes
communicates with the cast and crew that the show can
during the performance run.
begin.

256 PRODUCTIONAREAS
The Stage Manager’s Perspective: An Interview on, Powergoes, I was brought in quite early just to
with Julie Ballard start getting ideas (more often than not I am doubling
JulieBallardisaChicago-basedlightingdesigner, as the lighting designer). We were lucky enough to
photographer,production/stagemanager,andsound/ recently complete a technical residency at the Museum of
mediadesigner.Sheworkedasthelightingdirector Contemporary Art here in Chicago, and right up until I put
attheDanceCenterofColumbiaCollegefornearly the company in a stand-by, I am still the lighting designer.
eightyears,andisowner/operatorofOverlapLighting During our main run of the piece, I saw maybe five cues
Productions.Asanindependent,freelanceartist,ms. that I could take any type of lighting notes for. I’m usually
BallardisanartisticassociatewithSignalEnsemble having to record the show, watch the lighting there, and
TheatreandUnnaturalSpaces,aswellastechnical make adjustments from that.
directorforTheSeldoms,SamePlanet/DifferentWorld, Other times, I’m brought in two or three weeks before.
andDeeplyRootedDanceTheatre.ms.Ballardhasbeen Again, 99 percent of the time (and I really can’t think of
apartofnumerousfestivalsaswellasAmericanDance a time where I just called a show) I’m doing double duty.
Festival,andhastourednationallyandinternationally Based on budgets during a tech week, I’ve seen the piece
withDavidDorfmanDanceandTheSeldoms.ms. (recorded it from rehearsal) and I’m laying the Marley,
BallardholdsaB.A.inTheater,andearnedherm.F.A.in spiking the floor, getting the space ready for folks to
LightingDesignfromtheUniversityofFlorida. arrive, and then switching gears back to design the lights
(sometimes set up QLab for sound), and then calling/
Do you have any background in dance beyond the
running lights and sound for the performance.
design/tech aspects?
I have never even taken a dance class. Are there any tricks/tools of the trade that you find you
just can’t live without when stage managing a dance
How did you get into stage management for dance? production?
While working on my M.F.A. at the University of Florida, I Spreadsheets, schedules, and communication. I know
was introduced to some folks that were quite awesome. what you are thinking—really? Recently, I filled in for an
Kelly Drummond Cawthon (Shapiro and Smith Dance LD [lighting designer] that had a family emergency and in
Company) took me under her wing and began to teach me the beginning email correspondence it took three emails to
what her SMs [stage managers] did for the company. I was even get the basic info of their name!
aware that there were differences between theatre and
Other than that: clear vinyl tape—don’t pull the backing off
dance, but I didn’t know how much.
of glow tape to stick it to the floor. Just cut and cover it with
I went out on a summer five-city tour and got handed a the clear tape, you will save yourself hours pulling up goo
priceless gift of what being an SM for dance was all about. off the floor!
You really need to be a Jill/Jack of all trades in the mid-size
dance company world here in Chicago. Have you done stage management for theatrical
productions? If so, in what ways do you see the job
What is the typical process for you as a stage manager? description differ for the two worlds?
It differs from project to project. I work with The Seldoms, I have not stage managed for theatre since undergrad.
under the direction of Carrie Hanson (Dance Magazine’s When I started doing lighting, I couldn’t give up enough
25 to Watch 2012). For the new project we are working

257 STAgEmANAgEmENT
time to devote just to one show, those SMs are special, differences you noticed in American vs. international
special people! work?
Calling a dance piece is very different than a theatre piece— Sometimes in Eastern Europe the [facilities and
there is no “script” that you can follow along with. You learn equipment promised in] correspondence [are] not what
the piece or you miss cues. Setting up a cue sheet so that is there when you get there. I was promised a great
it makes sense to you (and in a pinch to someone else) is lighting rig on one show and we showed up and had a less
crucial. Again, it sounds silly, but my chicken scratch of cue than desirable plot. What I say in that situation, you need
notes needs to make sense to someone outside. to know your show! I also once had to give hand cues to my
I often give a cue sheet to the choreographer at the end of a video op. because there was no other communication and
run, so that they have a record of what was done, and if they no way to get light board and video computer in the same
need to remount it for a festival situation. room or area.

I know that you also do lighting design as well. Do you What advice would you give to a young artist interested
find that your work as a stage manager is affected by in stage management for dance?
your lighting design experience? And vice versa? Be a sponge! Learn everything, and take at least one
I’m a better LD because of the SM world. I have a great class in each of the disciplines. Educate yourself, be
sense of timing with cues. In dance, for me, I really don’t do involved, and don’t be afraid to ask questions. You really
one without the other. I actually find it hard to turn over a don’t know how and where your experiences will lead
dance design to a different SM. In theatre, no problem, here you. I’ve been from New York to San Francisco, Siberia
take my design and enjoy the run! to South Africa—the better “armed” you are, the more
employable you become, and you might find new things
I know you have worked internationally on some dance that interest you!
productions. Tell us a bit about that and if there were

258 PRODUCTIONAREAS
 PART III
QUICK REFERENCE
 CHAPTER 15
DANCE TERMINOLOGY

One forgets words as one forgets names. One’s vocabulary

needs constant fertilizing or it will die.

Evelyn Waugh

Hubbard Street Dancers Jessica Tong, left, and Jesse Bechard in One Thousand Pieces by
Resident Choreographer Alejandro Cerrudo. Costumes by Thomas Mika.
Lighting Design by Michael Korsch. Photo by Todd Rosenberg.
Every successful collaborative project relies on good ofdescribingthismethodofchoreography,withthe
communication. One of the challenges in a multi- repetitiveuseofmovementsorgesturesthatgradually
disciplinary endeavor such as dance production is buildup,or“accumulate.”
making sure everyone is communicating in the same
Alternate
language. Some years back, when I first began polling
Indance,analternateisaroleperformedbymorethan
colleagues about what would be most useful in a
onedancer.Unlikeanunderstudy,whoonlyperforms
dance production text, the most frequent request was a
ifsomeonegetshurtorcan’tgoon,analternateis
glossary of commonly used terms. These final chapters
guaranteedsomenumberofperformances.
present just that—a quick reference guide of common
terms used in both the dance and theatre world. Neither And
chapter is meant to represent the entire canon of dance The“and”referstothehalf-beatthatis
or theatrical terminology, as that would be two separate countedbetweentheconsistentdownbeatof
books worth of material. Instead, I have tried to distill music—i.e.countingrhythmsoutforadanceas
the information down to the terms that will be of the “one-and-two-and-three-and-four-and…”
most use to the uninitiated from either dance or theatre.
Arabesque
This should be a good starting point to give you a
Aballettermreferringtoadancerstandingonone
working vocabulary of some of the most essential terms
legwiththeotherlegextendedbehindthebodywitha
and concepts.
straightknee.Thereareanumberofdifferentarabesque
As a final thought, when in doubt please ask a question! positions,definedbytheplacementofthearmsin
It is so much better to know that you truly understand relationtothebody(Figure15.1).
what is being said rather than to smile and pretend.
Attitude
This will lead to problems down the road. I hope that
Aballetpositionsimilartoarabesque,butwiththe
you find this as useful and interesting as I did when
extendedlegbentattheknee(Figure15.2).Theposition
compiling it.
caneitherbeattitude devant(withthelegextendedin
frontofthedancer)orattitude derrière(withtheleg
A extendedbehindthedancer).

Abstract dance En avant

Anabstractdancereferstoatypeofchoreographythat TheFrenchterm,meaning“forward,”ortoexecutea
doesnotfollowanarrativeconstruction.Anotherway movetowardstheaudience.
tolookatthisis“movementforthesakeofmovement,”
thatis,notrelatedtostory,symbolism,ideas,or
associations.
B
Ballet
Accumulation
Balletisthetheatricalworkwhichachoreographer
ThenotablechoreographerTrishaBrowncreateda
createstoexpresshis/herideasthroughsoloandgroup
dancecalledAccumulationin1971,comprisedofdancers
dancingtomusicalaccompaniment,includingscenery,
meticulouslyworkingthroughthegraduatedgestures
costumes,andlighting.
ofthepiece.Thetitlebecameusedwidelyasaway

262 QUICKREFERENCE
F I G UR E 15. 1 Ballet (Classical)
A dancer in arabesque. Aformalandstructuredstyleofdancethat
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern
Michigan University. originatedintheFrenchcourtsinthesixteenthcentury.
Classicalballetistypicallyperformedtoclassicalmusic
andcombinestogetherhighlytechnicaldanceworkwith
elaboratescenery,lighting,andcostumesinorderto
tellastory.Itisoftencharacterizedbytheuseoflight,
graceful,andfluidchoreographedmovement.Theterm
classical balletisoftenusedlooselytorefertothetype
ofballetthatadherestotheperformanceframework
establishedinthenineteenthcentury.

Ballet (Romantic)
Romanticballetreferstothetypeofballetcreatedinthe
earlynineteenthcentury.Basedontheartisticconcepts
ofRomanticism,theballetsoftenfeaturedthemes
revolvingaroundareturntonatureorthesupernatural.
TheRomanticballetsshowedadeclineintheuse
ofmaleballetdancers,andinsteadfocusedonthe
ballerina.

Ballet blanc
Ballet blanc,literallytranslatedas“whiteballet,”
referstotheRomanticstyleofballetpopularizedinthe
nineteenthcenturyinsuchworksasLa Sylphide,Giselle,
orSwan Lake. Thetermoriginatesfromthetraditionof
dressingtheballerinasandcorps de balletinallwhite
Romantictutus.

Bar (measure)
Inmusicalterms,abarreferstoasectionofthemusical
compositionthatcontainsacertainnumberofbeats.
Insomeinstances,themeasuremaybeginwithan
accentedbeat,asinthecaseofawaltz.Forinstance,
waltzesarewrittenwithmeasurescontainingthree
beats.Thefirstbeatisastrongdownbeat,withthelast
twobeatshavingalesseremphasis(i.e.1-2-3,1-2-3…).

F IG UR E 15. 2
Dancers in attitude devant.
Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

263 DANCETERmINOLOgY
 F IG UR E 15. 3
Barre work.
Photo courtesy of Jim Lamberson.

ofeightbeatsandstartingoveragainatone(i.e.
5-6-7-8-1-2-3-4…).

C
Canon
Seealso unison.
Inchoreographicterms,therepetitionofchoreographed
movementbyanumberofdancersstartingatdifferent
pointsoftime.

Character artist
Seealso corps de ballet, coryphée, principal,and soloist.
Aseniorpositionwithinaballetcompany,thecharacter
artistoftenperformsroleswithintheballetthatrequire
agreatdealofacting,aswellasdancing.Seasoned
professionalswithinthecompanyorguestartistshired
Barre onfortheballetoftenfillthesepositions.
Frenchfor“bar,”thishorizontalrailingiseither
attachedtoastudiowallorfreestandingonsupport Choreographer
legs(Figure15.3).Therailingisusedprimarilyatthe Thechoreographeristheartistwhoenvisionsthe
beginningofaclassperiodforstretching,warmingup, movementofthedance.Thoughthereareanumberof
orperformingspecificexercises—commonlyreferredto differentchoreographicmethods,mostchoreographers
asbarre work. workspecificallywiththeproductionstaffand
performerstoensuretheirvisionisrealizedonstage.
Battement
Anextensionofthelegtothefront,side,orback, Coda
creatingabeatingactionoftheextendedorbentleg. Inballet,thefinalsuiteofdances(calledthegrand
pas)isusedasahigh-energyshowcaseforthe
Beat dancers.Thecoda,literallytranslatedas“tail,”refers
Seealso down beatandup beat. totheconcludingportionofthegrand pas,inwhich
Abeatistheprimaryunitoftimeusedtomeasureboth theprincipalperformersexecutethefinale—either
musicanddance.Itistheregularrepeatingpulsethat separatelyorwiththeirpartners.Ifalargenumberof
isfeltwhenlisteningtothemusic.Indanceterms,the performersparticipate,thismightbereferredtoasthe
beatisoftenaseriesofpulsescountedaloudwhile coda générale orgrand coda générale.
learningchoreography—oftenoccurringinasequence

264 QUICKREFERENCE
Contemporary dance sometimesperformsolos,whilemaintainingtheir
Contemporarydanceisaformofdancethatemergedin positioninthecorps de ballet.
themid-twentiethcentury,bestillustratedbytheworks
ofmerceCunningham.Intermsofstyle,contemporary
dancedrawsonbothclassicalballetandmoderndance,
D
creatingamovementlanguagedrawingfromanumber Dance captain
ofdifferentsources.Contemporarydanceistypicallyan Arolemostoftenseeninmusicaltheatre,thedance
unpredictable,non-narrativeformofdancethatfocuses captainisadancerwhoisinchargeofoverseeing
oncreativefreedom.Often,contemporarydancefeatures dancersinaproduction,maintainingthechoreography,
theuseofscenery,lighting,projection,andsound andrunning“put-in”dancerehearsalsforanunderstudy
elementsfunctioningindependentlyfromthedance comingintoarole.
elements.
Dance theatre
Contraction Seealso Tanztheater.
Seealso release. Dancetheatreisatermusedtodescribeagenre
Acommontermusedingrahamtechnique,horton ofperformancethatblendstogetherperformance
technique,andjazz.Ingraham’stechnique,all elementsfrombothdanceandtheatre.Dancetheatre
movementwasbasedaroundtheoppositemovement issimilartomusicaltheatre,withlessofafocusonthe
conceptsof“contractionandrelease.”Theprocessof dramaticstorytellingthroughtheuseofsong.Though
contractingtheabdominalmusclestomakethelower dancetheatremayincorporatedialogueandsomesong,
backcurveoutandtheabdomenappearhollowedout. thefocuswillremainonstorytellingthroughdance.
Incontraction,theshouldersshouldremainpositioned
En diagonale
abovethehips.
TheFrenchtermmeaning“onthediagonal.”
Corps de ballet
Down beat
Seealso character artist, coryphée,principal,andsoloist.
Seealso beat, up beat.
Inballet,therearetypicallythreetiersofperformersin
Thedownbeatreferstothefirstbeatofameasureof
thecompany:principals,soloists,andthecorps de ballet,
music,i.e.numberone.Inmanymusicalstylesitisalso
orcorpsforshort.Literallytranslatedasthe“bodyof
theaccented,oremphasized,beatofthebar.
theballet,”thecorpsisagroupofdancerswhodonot
haveleadrolesbutperformingroupnumbers,similar
toachorusroleinthetheatre.mostoften,thecorpsis E
composedofagreaternumberoffemalesthanmales.
Evening length dance
Coryphée Adancepiece,atleastoneactinlength,whichcouldbe
Seealso character artist,corps de ballet, principal,and usedasastand-aloneperformance.
soloist.
Acoryphée isamemberofthecorps de balletwhohas
beenelevatedtoahigherrankwithinthecorps.They

265 DANCETERmINOLOgY
Extension J
Thistermisusedinanumberofdifferentdancestyles
Jeté
torefertoextendinganarmorlegawayfromthebody
Aballettermthatmeans“throwing.”Thoughtheterm
andholdingitinplaceforaperiodoftime.Often,the
isoftencombinedwithotherwords,whenusedbyitself
extensionisanexaggeratedposeorposture,done
itmeanstolightlyspringoffofthefloorononefootand
toaccentuateaparticularbodylineandtocreatean
landontheother.
interestingpictureattheendofaphrase.

F L
Legato
En face
Indance,asinmusic,legatoreferstoasenseof
AFrenchtermreferringtothedancerfacingthe
movementthatdoesnotstop,creatingasmoothsense
audience.
ofconnectedmovementwithoutbreaksbetweenthe
Fall motions.
Atermusedtodescribeadancerquicklydroppinghis/
Lift
herbodytothefloorwiththeweightcenteredoverthe
Aliftisadancemovementinwhichonepartnerlifts
ballofthesupportingfoot.
theothersothatbothfeetareoffofthefloor.Thereare
Freeze manydifferentvariationsonlifttypes.
Whenthedancerinstantlystopsmovementandholdsa
fixedbodyposition.
M
Full out
Mark (mark it)
Seealso mark.
Whenachoreographerusestheterm“markit,”he/
Torunthedanceaschoreographed,executingeach shereferstorunningthedancewiththemusic,
moveinthepropertimeandplacewiththemusic.Show keepingyourgeneralplaceonthestage,butwithout
conditions. executingthemorecomplexmoveslikeliftsorfalls.
Thisisoftendoneinatechnicalrehearsalsetting
G forthebenefitofthedesignerstoseetheplacement
ofdancersonstagewithoutmakingthedancers
Grand pas physicallyexhaustedbyrunningthedance“fullout”
Seealso coda. eachtime.
Inballet,thegrand pasisasuiteofdancesoftheballet,
Merde
usedasashowcaseforthedancers.Thissuiteofdances
Likealloftheperformingarts,itisconsideredbadluck
comestowardstheendofanactoratthefinaleoftheballet
tosay“goodluck”beforeadanceperformance.In
itself.Thoughtherearedifferentvariationsonthegrand
musicandtheatre,performersoftensay“breakaleg”
pas,ittypicallyconsistsoftheentreé(theintroduction),
insteadofgoodluck.Foropera,thephrase“toi,toi,toi”
thegrand adage(alsoreferredtoastheadagio,inItalian),
isused,oftenaccompaniedwithknockingonwoodand
whichfeaturesdancepartnering,andthecoda.

266 QUICKREFERENCE
spitting(whetherliterallyorfeigningtheact)toward N
offbadluckorahex.Dancersprefertousetheword
Notation
merde,theFrenchcursewordliterallymeaning“shit.”
Theprocessofdocumentingthechoreographyfor
Likeallsuperstitionsintheperformingarts,there
adance.Therearetwomainmethodsfornotation:
areanumberofwildlydifferenttheoriesonwhythis
LabanotationandBeneshnotation.
becamethenorm.Onepositsthatintheoldendaysa
successfulballetwouldbevisitedbyanumberofthe
wealthyelitewhoarrivedinhorse-drawncarriages.The P
moresuccessfultheshow,thelargerthepileofhorse
Pas de deux
droppings.Anothertheoryisthatintheoldendays,
Inballet,thepas de deuxreferstoadancefortwo.The
animalswereoftenonstageforperformances,leaving
Frenchwordpas, meaning“step,”iscombinedwitha
droppings.Thetermmerdewouldbeusedbefore
numberofotherwordstodescribenumerousballet
theperformancetowishthedancergoodluckanda
terms.Sincemostoftheseothertermsarenever
remindertoavoidsteppinginthemanure.Whateverthe
shortened,thepas de deuxissometimessimplyreferred
trueoriginoftheterm,ithasremainedapartofdance
tobydancersasthepas,forshort.Allclassicalballets
vocabularyintheatresacrosstheworld.
haveatleastonepas de deux,soitmightbenecessary
Modern dance toindicatewhichspecificpas de deux isbeingreferenced
Inmanycircles,thetermsmodern danceand (i.e.theGiselleAct1pas de deux).
contemporary danceareusedinterchangeably.When
Phrase
referringtospecificdancemovements,however,
Aphraseisaseriesofdancemovementsthatcreatea
moderndancetypicallyreferstothetypeofdance
senseofchoreographicpattern,typicallywiththedistinct
thatemergedinthelatenineteenthcenturyand
feelingofhavingabeginningandend.
continuedonuntilthelate1950s.moderndance
wasadirectresponsetoclassicalballet,leaving Pirouette
behindthestrictforms,tightcorsets,andpointe Frenchfor“spinning,”thistermdescribesadancer
shoesandembracingafreersenseofmovementand spinningononelegwiththeotherofftheground.
expression.marthagraham,maryWigman,andLester
Plié
hortonarethreepioneersofmoderndance.Asthe
Thisisakeypositioninballetthatallowsthedancerto
movementprogressed,artistssuchasPaulTaylor,
executeanumberofdifferentmoves.Derivedfromthe
TwylaTharp,andAlvinAileycontinuedinthemodern
Frenchwordmeaning“tobend,”apliéisthebendingof
tradition.
thelegsoutwardatthekneeswiththeheelspositioned
Motif onthefloor.Thegrand pliéisadeeperversionofthis
Athemeorideathatmakesupapatterninawork bend,inwhichtheheelsliftslightlyoffthefloorwhen
ofart.Indance,amotifismostoftenamovementor thedancerreachesthelowestpartofthebend.
gesturethatbecomestheframeworkforrepetition
En pointe
andvariation,creatingapatternthatappearswithin
Seealso pointe shoes.
thework.

267 DANCETERmINOLOgY
 Tosupporttheweightofthebodyonthetipsofthetoes, Post-modernism
whilewearingpointeshoes. Indance,post-modernismreferstothetwentieh-
centurydancemovementwhoseworkreactedtothe
Pointe shoes
compositionalandpresentationalformsofmodern
Seealso en pointe.
dance.Post-moderndancechampionedthenotion
Pointeshoesarespecialballetshoesdevisedfor thatallmovementisdanceandsupportednovelnew
dancers(typicallyfemale)toperformen pointe.These methodsofdancecomposition.Thoughshort-lived
shoesaretypicallycoveredinsatinwithnoheeland (mostlyinthe1960sand1970s),post-modernismformed
areinforcedtoecalledtheboxthathelpssupportthe thebridgebetweenmodernandcontemporarydance.
weightofthedancer.Pointeshoesaresecuredontothe Famouspost-modernchoreographersincludeTrisha
anklethroughtheuseofribbonand/orelasticstraps Brown,YvonneRainer,andJudsonChurch.
(Figure15.4).
Principal
Seealso character artist, corps de ballet, coryphée,and
soloist.
Thetermprincipal dancer,orsimplyprincipalfor
short,describesthehighestrankofdancerwithina
professionaldancecompany,particularlyinballet.In
short,theprincipaldancersarethemarqueeperformers
whohaveearnedapositionofprominenceinthe
companyandplaytheleadroles.Principaldancersare
typicallyhiredbythecompanyorpromotedfromwithin
thecompanyrankstotakeonbothsoloandpas de deux
pieces.Principalsmayalsooccasionallytakeonaguest
performerpositionataseparatedancecompany.

Q
Qualities of movement
Thequalitiesofmovement,sometimesreferredtoas
dynamics,areagroupofsixtermsusedtodescribe
thenatureofphysicalmovement.Thesetermsare
particularlyusefulwhendescribingchoreography
andshouldbeaworkingpartofeverydanceartist’s
vocabulary.
1. Swing:Atypeofmovementthatappearsthemost
naturalinperformance.Itbeginswithaslight
F I G UR E 15. 4
impulseandallowsthemovementofthedancerto
Pointe shoes.
Photo courtesy of Jim Lamberson.

268 QUICKREFERENCE
 followthenaturalflowofgravityalongthenatural Release
pathofanarc.Afreesenseofmovement. Seealso contraction.
2. Sustained (see also legato):Sustainedmovement Acommontermusedinanumberofdifferent
issmoothandeven,withouttheperception dancetechniques(includinggraham,Cunningham,
ofaccentorabruptstarts/stops.Thistypeof horton,Laban,etc.).Releasereferstoarelaxingor
movementusesacontinualreleaseofenergyand archingmovementofthebody.Ingraham’stechnique,for
requiresaheightenedamountofphysicalcontrol. instance,allmovementwasbasedaroundtheopposite
Comparedtomusicalterms,sustainedmovement movementconceptsof“contractionandrelease.”In
iscomparabletothetermlegato(someartists additiontoamovement,releasecanreferto“release
mightusethetermsinterchangeably). technique,”amovementpracticethatfocuseson
3. Percussive:Atypeofmovementthatisshort, breathing,relaxation,andtheuseofgravityand
choppy,andhasabroken,disconnectedsensetoit. momentumtocreateefficientmovement.
Inmusicalterms,thistypeofmovementmightbe
Repertoire
referredtoasstaccato.Thisisindirectopposition
Thecollectionofchoreographicworkscommonly
tosustainedmovement.
performedbyanindividualoradancecompany.
4. Suspending:Themomentwhenallopposingforces
reachequilibrium—themoment,forinstance, Repertory concert
whenafterexertingagreatamountofenergy,the Aconcertfeaturingseveralshorterdances.
dancerissuspendedatthepeakofajump.Thisis Retrograde
themomentwhenkineticenergyhasrunout,the Thistermisoftenusedbychoreographersinreference
momentbeforethebodysuccumbstogravityand totheperformanceofchoreographyinreverse—from
fallstothefloor. endtobeginning.
5. Vibratory:Quick,repetitive,andpercussive
Run
movementsthatproducethevisualeffectof
Toexecutetheperformanceofadancefrombeginningto
vibration.Invibratorymovement,energyisexerted
endwithoutstopping.
inbrief,intermittentspurts.
6. Collapse:Collapseisamovementinwhichgravity
takesoverandthemovementtakesthedancer S
towardsthefloor.Itcanoccurinagradualor
Site specific
suddenfashion.Oftencollapseisfollowedbya
Thetermsite specificreferstoanydancepiececreated
recoverymovementupwards.
forperformanceinaspecificlocation,mostoftennot
atraditionalperformancespace.Sitespecificworks
R includelocationssuchasartgalleries,elevators,
shoppingmalls,orevenrockquarries.
Re-staging
Anewinterpretationofapre-existingworkof Soloist
choreography. Seealso character artist, corps de ballet, coryphée,and
principal.

269 DANCETERmINOLOgY
Inballet,therearetypicallythreetiersofperformersin Thegermanterm,meaning“dancetheatre.”This
thecompany:principals,soloists,andthecorps de ballet. styleofgermanExpressionistdanceemergedduring
Thesoloistisaperformerwhohasearnedtherank Weimargermany.RudolfLabanwasthemostfamous
abovethecorps,butnotyetattainedprincipalstatus. artistworkinginthisstyle.hebelievedthatTanztheater
Inmanydancecompanies,thesoloistsperformdance representedanewinterdisciplinarytotalartform.
solosandunderstudytheprincipalroles,occasionally Tanztheatercombinesdance,speaking,chanting,and
performingthem. songwithtraditionaltheatricaldevicestocreatea
performancewithnonarrativeplot,focusinginsteadon
Spotting
atrainofthoughtorcentraltheme.
Atechniqueusedduringpirouettesandotherturning
movementstokeepthedancerfromgettingdizzy.The Tempo
dancerfocusesononespot(oftenalightinthebackof Indance,asinmusic,temporeferstothespeedatwhich
theauditoriumcalleda“spottinglight”)astheturnis somethingisperformed,measuredinnumberofbeats
made,keepinghis/hereyesonthatspotuntilthehead perminute(bpm).
hasnochoicebuttowhiparound.
Turnout
Sprung Turnoutreferstoadancerturninghis/herfeetorlegsat
Atermreferringtotheprocessofcreatingafloorsurface a90-degreeangleawayfromthehips.Alsoreferredto
withtheabilitytoflexandmoveunderthedancer.Asprung asrotation.
flooristypicallymadeusingaspecialwoodenframeworkor
Tutu
foamblocksbeneaththeperformancesurface,allowingfor
Thetraditionalcostumeforaballerina,composedof
flexibilityofthefloor.Thistypeoffloorabsorbsshockandis
multiplelayersofnet.Thetutucomesinanumberof
easieronthedancers’kneesandjoints.
differentstyles,oftenassociatedwithspecificballet
Supporting leg styles(i.e.theRomantictutuforRomanticballet).The
Seealso working leg. tutuisoftenwornaccompaniedwithabodice.
Thesupportinglegreferstothelegthatholdsupthe
weightofthebodyduringadancemove,incontrastto U
theworkingleg,whichdoesthemovement.
Unison
Seealso canon.
T Asthenameimplies,unisonisatermreferringtoa
Tableau numberofdancersperformingidenticalchoreographyat
TableauisaFrenchtermmeaning“picture.”Indance thesametime.
terms,thisreferstothedancersfreezinginoneposition
Up beat
tocreateastagepicture.
Seealso beat and down beat.
Tanztheater Theupbeatreferstothelastbeatinabarofmusic.When
Seealso dance theatre. lookingatasequenceofmusicalbars,theupbeatisthe
beatthatanticipatesthefirstbeat(ordownbeat)ofabar.

270 QUICKREFERENCE
V W
Variation Working leg
Inballetterms,avariationisasolodanceperformedin Seealso supporting leg.
aclassicalballet. Theworkinglegreferstothelegperformingthe
movement,incontrasttothesupportingleg,which
holdsuptheweightofthebody.

271 DANCETERmINOLOgY
 CHAPTER 16
THEATRE/STAGECRAFT
TERMINOLOGY

The limits of my language mean the limits of my world.

Ludwig Wittgenstein

A photo from the studio collection “Lighting Drama” by Richard Calmes.

Photography by Richard Calmes.
A
Amplifier
Anamplifier,orampforshort,isanelectricaldevice
usedtotakelow-poweraudiosignalsandamplifythem
toalevelpowerfulenoughtoactivatealoudspeaker.

Apron
Seealso proscenium line.
Theareaofthestage,downstageoftheprosceniumline,
thatextendsouttowardstheaudience.

Arena stage
Arenastaging,ortheatreintheround,isatypeof
stagefeaturingaudienceonallfoursidesofthestage.
Typically,theseatingisrakedsothattheaudienceis
lookingdownonthestage.

F IG UR E 16. 1
B A batten, in the foreground.
Photo by Jeromy Hopgood.
Back light
Seealso front light, side light, top light, up-light.
Anangleoflightinwhichthelightinginstrumentis Batten
positionedtoprojectlightfromtheupstagetothe Seealso fly.
downstage,illuminatingthebackofthefigure.Thistype Alongmetalpipesuspendedabovethestagefromwhich
oflightingaccentuatestheheadandshouldersofafigure lightingandscenicelementsarehung(Figure16.1).In
andvisuallyseparatestheformfromthebackground. atheatrewithaflysystem,thebattencanbelowered
Barn door tostagelevelorraisedoutofsighthighabovethestage
Seealso Fresnel. deck.

Alightingaccessoryattachedtothecolorslotofa Black box

lightinginstrument(oftenaFresnel)withfourhinged Asmall,simpleperformancespace—frequentlywithfour
panelsusedtoshapethebeamoflight. wallsandblackmaskingcurtainsalongthesides(ergo
blackbox).Blackboxspacesoftenfeatureadjustable
Bastard amber
seatingsotheaudienceorientationcanbereconfigured
Acoloroflightingmediumfrequentlyusedfordance
fordifferentstylesofperformance.
lighting.Theresultingcoloredlightingisaslightly
warmer“whitelight”withapinkishhue.Bastardamber Blackout
isapopularcolorfordancelightingasitnaturally Toturnoutallofthestagelightingandleavea
enhancesawidevarietyofskintones. completelydarkenedstage.

274 QUICKREFERENCE
Blacks Circuit
Blackvelourcurtainsusedformaskingpurposesonthe Seealso dimmer, stage-pin connector.
stage—legs,borders,andfull-stageblackoutcurtains. Theplugintowhichalightinginstrumentisconnected
Boom toprovideelectricity.Inmosttheatres,thecircuitis
Averticallightingposition,typicallyinthewingsofthe connecteddirectlytoadimmerthatprovidesvariable
theatre,usedasasidelightingposition.Boomsfeature electricalflow.mosttheatricalcircuitsutilizethestage-
asteelboombaseonthefloorintowhichatallvertical pinconnector.
pipeisthreaded.Sinceboomsarefrequentlytopheavy, Color drop
itisalsocommontousesandorshotbagsplacedonthe Colordrop,ordroppingcolor,isatermthatrefersto
boombasetokeepthemfromtippingover. droppingofgelsintothelightinginstruments.Fordance
Border concerts,itiscommontohavestagehandsdropcolor
Aborderisamaskingcurtainthathangshorizontally inthesidelightsbetweenthedifferentdancepieces,
fromabattenabovethestage.Itsprimarypurposeisfor enablingthelightingdesignertoachieveawidervariety
maskinglightinginstrumentsandscenerythatmight oflooks.
beflownoverhead.Somepeoplemightrefertoaborder Crescent wrench
asateaser,buttechnicallyspeakingtheteaseristhe
furthestdownstageborderusedtoframeoutthetopof Atypeofwrenchcommonlyusedforhangingand
theprosceniumopening. focusinglightinginstrumentsandothertypesof
equipment(Figure16.2).Thecrescentwrenchfeatures
Boundary mic anadjustablespannerwhoseopeningisopenedor
Aspecifictypeofmicrophonedesignedforbeingplaced closedbyturningathreadedspindle.Thepropername
ontheperimeterofthestage,typicallyplacedonthe foracrescentwrenchistheadjustablewrench(US)or
stagefloor.Thismicrophoneiscommonlyusedindance adjustablespanner(UK).IntheUSandCanada,themost
performancestoreinforcethesoundsmadebyadancer. popularmanufacturerofthewrenchwastheCrescent
CommonmodelsarethePCC(PhaseCoherentCardiod), ToolCompany,leadingtothecommonterm“crescent
whichpicksupsoundfromonedirection,andPZm wrench.”Somepeoplerefertothecrescentwrenchasa
(PressureZonemicrophone)thatpicksupsoundinall “c-wrench”forshort.
directions.
Cross
Tomovefromonepartofthestagetoanother(i.e.to
C crossdown,tocrossright,etc…).
Catwalk Cross-fade
Aseriesofelevatedwalkwaysabovethestagefloor, Cross-fadeisatermthatreferstoshiftingfromone
oftenwherelightingpositionsarelocated. cueintoanotheroveraperiodoftime.Asthefirstcue
Centerline isfadingout,thesecondcuebeginstofadeup,creating
Theimaginaryreferencepointrunningdownthecenter aseamlesstransitionbetweenthetwocues.Thisterm
ofthestagefromtheupstagetothedownstage,dividing canbeusedtorefertotransitionsinlighting,sound,or
thestageatthecenter. projections.

275 ThEATRE/STAgECRAFTTERmINOLOgY
 particularevent,suchasadancerenteringorascenic
change.

Cyclorama
Thecyclorama,orcycforshort,isalargegreyorlight
bluestretcheddroppositionedupstageasabackdrop.
Thecyciscommonlyusedforlightingeffectstocreatea
colorfulbackgroundfordance.

D
Dark
1. Darkisatermusedtorefertoadayonwhichthere
isnoshowatthetheatre,i.e.Thetheatreisdarkon
mondays.
2. Going darkisaphraseusedtodescribeturning
offlights,eitheronthestageorintheauditorium.
Beforeturningoffstagelightsduringarehearsal,
itiscommonetiquettetoannounce“goingdark”so
thatnooneiscaughtbysurprise.

Dead hung
Atermthatreferstorigginganobjectoverheadwithout
FI GU RE 16.2 theintentionofiteverflying.
A crescent wrench.
Deck
Thestagefloor—particularlyininstanceswhereastage
Crossover
floorislaidatopofthemainstagefloor.
Seealso cyclorama.
Acrossoveristhespaceusedtocrossfromone Diffusion
sideofthestagetotheotherwithoutbeingvisibleto Diffusionisaspecifictypeofgelmadeofathicker,
theaudience.Fordance,itisimportantfordancers partiallyopaquematerial.Thepurposeofadiffusiongel
tohaveaccesstoacrossoverforquickmovements istosoftentheresultinglightandeliminate“hotspots”
fromonesidetotheother.Thisisoftenupstageofthe orharshshadowsinthelighting.
cyclorama,orahallwaylocatedbehindthebackwallof
Dimmer
thestage.
Seealso circuit.
Cue light Anelectricaldevicethatregulatestheflowofvoltageto
Acuelightisatypeoflightpositionedatkeylocations acircuit,therebydimmingorbrighteningthelighting
backstageandoperatedbythestagemanagertocuea instrumentpluggedintoit.

276 QUICKREFERENCE
Dimmer check firstERSunit,introducedin1933,wasnamedtheLeko,
Theprocessofgoingthroughthelistofalldimmers afterthelastnamesofitscreators.Thenamestuckand
andturningthemontoseeifthelightinginstruments remainsacommonnicknameforallvarietiesofERS
pluggedintothatdimmerwork.Thisistypicallydone lightinginstrumentstothisday.
duringthecallperiodbeforeaperformance.

Down light F
Seealso back light, front light,side light, up-light.
Flat
Downlightingisadirectionofstagelighting,inwhich Averticalpanelofscenery,typicallyframedinwoodwith
thelightisfocusedonafigurefromabove,shiningdown eitherwoodenormuslinfabriccovering.Flatsframed
atasteepangle.Thistypeoflightingcreatesstrong withwoodenfacingareoftenreferredtoasHollywood
slightlyunnaturalshadowsonthefigure.Downlightis flats,whereasthosecoveredinmuslinarecalledsoft
sometimesreferredtoastoplight,aswell. flats.
Downstage Fly
See stage directions. Toraiseorloweranitemoverheadbymeansofarigging
Dress parade systeminthetheatre.
Aspecificeventinwhichallofthedancerscomeonstage Fly house
incostume,givingthechoreographeranddesignersa Seealso fly, fly system.
chancetoseethedancersallincostumeunderstage
Atheatrewithadedicatedflysystem.
lighting.
Fly loft

E Seealso fly, grid.

Theareaoverthestageinaflyhousethatcontainsthe
Electric grid,blocks,andbattensnecessarytoflyelementsout
Seealso batten. oftheaudience’soverheadlineofsight.Theflyloftis
Anelectricisatypeofbattenwithelectrical typicallytwoandone-halftimestallerthantheheightof
circuitsdedicatedtopoweringlightinginstruments theprosceniumarch.
(Figure16.3).
Fly system
Electrician Atheatricalriggingsystemthatutilizesbattens,
Anelectricianisthenamegiventoastagehandworking cables,pulleys,andcounterweightsinorderto
inlighting. flycomponentssuchaslighting,scenery,soft
goods,etc.overhead.
ERS
TheEllipsoidalReflectorSpotlight,orERSforshort, Follow spot
isatypeofstagelightinginstrumentthatcreatesa Amoveablespotlightlightinginstrumentthatcanpan
definedpooloflight.ERSinstrumentshavetheabilityto (moveinahorizontalplane)andtilt(moveinavertical
shapethebeamoflight,colorslotsforusinggels,and plane)allowingafollowspotoperatorto“follow”a
accessoryslotsforitemslikegobosand/oririses.The performeracrossthestagewithapooloflight.

277 ThEATRE/STAgECRAFTTERmINOLOgY
F I G UR E 16. 3
An electric.

Footlights shapetheirbeamsoflightwithoutusingbarndoors.
Seealso up-light. TheFresnelisapopularchoiceoflightinginstrument
Arowoflightspositionedalongthefrontedgeofthe forbackandtoplightingbecauseofitsabilitytowash
apron,pointingupstagetoilluminatetheperformersin wideareasofthestagewithanevendistributionof
low-angleup-light. lighting.Anotherinterestingcharacteristicofthe
Fresnelisthefocusknobthatallowsthelighttobe
Fresnel changedfromflood(awiderbeamoflighting)tospot(a
Seealso barn door. narrowerbeam).
AFresnelisatypeofwash-lightinginstrument,named
Front light
foritsuseoftheFresnellens,alensthatutilizesa
Anangleoflightinginwhichthefigureisilluminated
seriesofsteppedglassringsontheoutside,givingit
fromalightsourceshiningfromdownstagetoupstage,
thecharacteristicappearanceofconcentriccircleson
particularlyusedtolightthefacesoftheperformers.
thelens.Fresnelinstrumentsdonothavetheabilityto

278 QUICKREFERENCE
 F IG UR E 16. 4
Three separate gels cut to size and a gel frame, resting on a paper cutter.

Thelightenablessomeonetowalkonstageinthe
darkandavoidaccidentslikecollidingwithsceneryor
fallingintotheorchestrapit.Thesuperstitionholds
thatalltheatreshaveatleastoneghost.Keepinga
ghostlightrunningallowstheghostanopportunity
toperformonstage,therebyappeasingtheghostand
preventingthemfromcursingthetheatreorsabotaging
aproduction.

Gobo
Atemplateinsertedintoalightinginstrumentthat
createsapatternoflight.gobosaremadeofmetalor
glassforconventionalinstruments,andsometimes
plasticforLEDlightingfixtures.

G Grand drape
Thetheatre’smaincurtain,flowndirectlyupstageof
Gaffer’s tape theprosceniumarch.Thegranddrapeistypicallymade
Atypeofpaintablefabrictapeusedfortapingdown fromaheavyweightvelourfabricwithfullnesssewninto
electricalcablesandinawidevarietyofstagecraft thecurtain.Thegranddrapeissometimesreferredtoas
applications. themain rag,aswell.

Gel Grid
Agelisanothernameforathinsheetofplasticcolor Thegridistheframeworkofsteelbeamsatthetopof
medium,usedtoshiftthecoloroutputofalighting theflyloft.Thegridsupportstheblocksandcabling
instrument.Thegelisplacedintoametalgelframeand necessaryforoperatingtheflysystem.
insertedintothecolorslotofthelightinginstrument.
Ground row
gelispurchasedinlargesheetsandthencuttofit
Inlightingterms,agroundrowisarowofstriplights
individualinstruments,oftenwithalargepaper-cutter
positionedatthebottomofthecycloramapointing
(Figure16.4).
upward.Inscenicterms,agroundrowisalow-profile
Ghost light scenicelement,typicallypositionedintheupstagearea
Aghostlightisaportablelightleftonstageduringtimes nearthecyclorama.Fordanceproductions,itiscommon
whentheotherlightinginstrumentswouldbeturnedoff. tohavealightinggroundrowwithascenicground
Itistypicallyrolledontothecenterstagepositionand rowpositionedtomasktheappearanceofthelighting
leftturnedonforreasonsofbothsafetyandsuperstition. instruments.

279 ThEATRE/STAgECRAFTTERmINOLOgY
H L
Head high Leg
Asidelightingpositionfromsideboomswiththelighting Averticalmaskingcurtainusedtomaskoffthe
instrumentpositionedapproximatelyheadhighfrom audience’sviewofthetheatre’swingspace.
stagelevel.
Leko
Hollywood flat SeeERS.
See flat.

House M
Atermindicatingtheauditoriumofthetheatre(i.e.
Main rag
sittinginthehouse).
Seegrand drape.
House lights
Mid high
Thelightingsystemusedforilluminatingtheauditorium.
Asidelightingpositionfromboomswiththelighting
instrumentpositionedapproximatelywaisthighfrom
I stagelevel.

In-between
Theareaofthestagelocatedbetweenthemaskinglegs, O
wherethesideboomsarepositioned.Thesepositions
Offstage
arenamedaccordingtostagedirections,movingfrom
Seestage directions.
downstagetoupstage(i.e.stagerightin-1,stageright
in-2,etc…). Onstage
Seestage directions.

J Orchestra pit
Asunkenarealocateddownstageoftheapron,intended
Jack
tohousetheorchestraperformers.Inmanytheatres,the
Atriangular-shapedbraceaffixedtothebackofaflatto
orchestrapitisbuiltwithanelevatorthatallowsforitto
holditverticallyinplace.
beraisedorlowered.
Jumper
Ashortelectricalcable(typically5–10´inlength)with
stage-pinconnectorsusedtospanthedistanceto
P
connectalightinginstrumentandacircuit. PARcan
APARcanisasimpleandcost-effective

K flood-typelightinginstrument.Thenameis
derivedfromitsuseofaPARlamp(Parabolic
Kill AluminizedReflector)housedinasimplemetal
Toturnoffalightorsoundimmediately. housing(thecan).

280 QUICKREFERENCE
Proscenium Sightlines
Theportalthatseparatestheaudiencefromthestage Theareaofthestageandbackstagevisibletothe
andframestheactionoftheperformance. audience.

Proscenium line Soft flat

Alsoreferredtoastheplaster line,theprosceniumline See flat.
isanimaginaryreferencepointrunningacrossthestage
Soft goods
fromtheupstageedgesofthelegsoftheproscenium
Thestagedraperies,masking,scrims,etc.usedina
arch.Combinedwiththecenterline,thesetworeference
theatreforperformancepurposes.Thisincludes,but
pointsdividethestageintoquadrants.
isnotlimitedto,legs,borders,cycloramas,blackout
curtains,scrims,etc.Softgoodstypicallyhavea
R jutewebbingattachedtothetop,withgrommetsfor
reinforcement,andtielineusedtotieitofftoabatten.
Raked stage
Astagefloorbuiltsothatthesurfaceinclinesasit Special
movesupstage. Alighthungforaspecificpurpose,i.e.thedownstage
centerspecialusedforthefinalliftintheActIIpas de

S deux.

Spike
Scrim
Aspikeisamarkonthestagefloortosignifythe
Atypeofstagefabricwithanopenweave,similar
placementofanobject,setpiece,orlocationof
togauze.Whenlitfromthefront,thefabricappears
significance.Spikemarksaretypicallymadewithspike
opaque.Whenlitfrombehind,itwillappeartranslucent.
tapeor,insometheatres,paintpens.
Duetothis“scrimeffect”thefabricisoftenusedfor
magicaltheatricalreveals. Stage directions
Thedirectionsusedbyperformersonastage.Stage
Scroller
directions,incontrasttohousedirections,usethe
Amechanicaldevicethatscrollsaloopofgelsinfrontof
dancerastheframeofreference—therightofthe
alightinginstrument,allowingthedesignertotransmit
performer(whenfacingtheaudience)isstageright,and
multiplecolorsfromonelightinginstrument.
theleftisstageleft.Tomoveawayfromtheaudienceis
Shin busters upstage,whereastomovetowardsthemisdownstage.
Thelowestsidelightingpositionfromboomswiththe movingtowardsthecenterlineisreferredtoasonstage,
lightinginstrumentpositionedapproximatelyshin-high andtomoveawayfromthecenterlineiscalledoffstage.
fromstagelevel.
Stage-pin connector
Side light Thestandardconnectortypeusedinentertainment
Alightingposition,typicallyinthewings,that lightinginNorthAmericaandmanycountriesaround
createsasculpturallook,accentuatingthedancer’s theworld.Thestage-pinconnectorhastwoseparate
form. typesofconnectorends:maleandfemale.Themale

281 ThEATRE/STAgECRAFTTERmINOLOgY
connectorhasthreecylindricalpins,whereasthefemale Lightingafigurefromalightinginstrumentplaced
hasthreecircularopenings(seeFigure4.10). low(typicallyonorbeneaththestagefloor)pointing
upwards.Oneexampleofthisistheuseoffootlights.
Strike
Toremovealloftheproductionelementsoftheshow Upstage
fromaspace. See stage directions.

T V
Teaser Visual
Seeborder. Avisualisacuethatiscalledbasedoffofphysicalaction
onthestage.
Thrust
Aperformancespacewiththeaudiencepositionedon Vomitorium
threesidesofthestage.Alsocalleda¾roundspace. Avomitorium,orvomforshort,isapassageway
positionedbeneaththeseatinginatheatrespacewith
Top light
raisedseating,suchasathrust.
Thelightingpositionwiththelightinginstrument
positionedaboveandpointingdownatthestage.

Tormentor
W
Atormentorisaverticalcurtainorframedstructure Wagon
actingasaleg,typicallyplacedinlinewiththeteaser. Awagonisamobileplatformthatcanbeusedto
Theplacementofthetormentorisdirectlyupstageofthe transportthree-dimensionalsceneryonastage.Inmost
proscenium. instances,thesceneryisbuiltontothewagonandcanbe
movedasasingleunit.
Two-fer
Atheatricallightingplugusedtoconnecttwolighting Wings
instrumentstoonecircuit. Theareaofthestagedecklocatedoffstagerightandleft,
typicallymaskedbythelegs.

U
Up-light
Seealso footlights.

282 QUICKREFERENCE
Index
Note: Page numbers in bold are for terms that appear in the quick reference section. Page numbers in italics are
for illustrations.

1
⁄2” scale models 150 American Guild of Musical Artists microphones 101, 275; mixers 102,
1
⁄4” scale models 150 (AGMA) 247–8 102
1
⁄8” scale models 148 American Society of Composers, auditions 28
3
⁄4 round theatre 47 Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) auditorium, divisions of 46, 46–7
3D models 82, 145, 146, 148, 149, 106 AutoCAD 82, 151
150–1, 151, 232 amplifiers 103, 274 en avant 262
3D printing 150 analogous colors 75
3D rendering 235 and (half-beat) 262
B
3DS Max 151, 235 Andrew, Jason 21
angles of lighting 59, 59–60 back lighting 58, 59, 66–7, 67, 71,
animation 235 274
A
Apollo gels 75 backdrops: scenic 135, 136; see also
abstract dance 262 apron stages 38, 274 curtains and backdrops
academic dance work 33 arabesque 262, 263 Baird, Campbell 160–3
accompaniment, music/sound as 98 arbors, counterweight systems 44 balance (costume design) 173
accompanists 10 arena theatres/stages 49, 274 Balanchine, George 90, 179
accumulation (of movements/ arrangement of concert 26–7 balcony seats 46
gestures) 262 artistic directors (AD) 8, 10, 13 Ballard, Julie 257–8
Accumulation (Trisha Brown) 262 assembling a team 14 ballet 262; classical 130, 263;
Actors Equity Association (AEA) 248 assistant stage managers (ASM) 12, romantic 263
additive color mixing 74 245 ballet blanc 263
administrative personnel 8–9 Atlas, Charles 17 ballet pointe shoes 180, 181, 267–8,
Adobe After Effects 234 atmospherics see mood/atmosphere 268
Adobe Illustrator 145, 234, 235 attitude 62; derrière 262; devant 262, ballet slippers 180, 181
Adobe Photoshop 145, 232, 234 263 bar (measure) 263
Adobe Premiere 234 Audacity program 113, 114 barn doors (lighting) 72, 274
AGMA see American Guild of Musical audibility 98 barre 263, 264
Artists audience(s) 24; expectations 24; basket weave sprung floors 133, 133
alternates 262 seating 45–7; sightlines 39–40, 40, bastard amber 75, 274
Alvin Alley Dance Theater 13 152, 281 battement 264
ambient light 221 audio equipment 100–4; amplifiers battens 44, 45, 274, 274
American Federation of Musicians 103; equalizers (EQ) 102–3; input beam spread of lighting 70
(AMF) 116 source 100–1; loudspeakers 103–4; beat 264; down beat 265; up beat 270

283 INDEX
Beira, João 239–41 catwalks 275 color filters (gels) 57–8, 75–6; color
biketards 175, 175 c-clamps 69–70, 70 cut lists 86–7; swatch books 75;
Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance ceiling slots 65, 65 transmission 75
Company 13 center stage 37 color filters (glass) 75
black box theatres 49, 274 centerline sections 153, 153–4 color mixing 74–5
blackout 274 centerlines (CL) 38, 38, 152, 275 color saturation 73–4, 75–6
blacks/blackout curtains 41–2, 275 chance, as choreographic device 17 color scrollers 70, 281
Blender program 235 channel hookup sheets 85–6, 86 color values 74
block diagrams see sound diagrams character, and costume 167 color(s): analogous 75;
BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.) 106 character artists 264 complementary 75; costume 90,
Boards of Directors 8 character relations, and costume 168 171, 172; in lighting 73–6; primary
bodices 179, 179 character shoes 182 74; secondary 74
boom lighting 40, 63, 63–4, 275 check-in sheets 255 Come, and Back Again (David Dorfman
borders (curtains) 41, 275 choreographers 12–13, 27, 264 Dance) 93, 120
bottoms (costumes) 175–7 choreographers: and costumer communication, stage manager’s role
boundary microphones 101, 275; designer collaboration 190–2; and in 245, 252–3, 254–5, 256
pickup patterns 101, 101 cueing process 90; freelance 16; communication protocol 255
box office managers 9 and lighting designer collaboration company managers 8–9
box seats 46 80–1; perspective: Julia Gleich company model of collaboration 15–16
Brecht, Bertolt 218 19–21; and projection designer compensation 32
brightness 57 collaboration 230–1; resident 10; complementary colors 74
The Brodmann Areas (Norte Maar) 21 and scenic designer collaboration composers 10, 96
Brown, Trisha 262 144–5; and sound designer composition in dance 55–6
budget 27, 31–2; props 140 collaboration 110–11, 116; and computer aided drafting (CAD) 82,
build lists (costumes) 196 stage managers 249 150–1
business managers 8 choreography 10 computer software: 3D renderings
choreologists 10 146, 235; audio/video editing
circuit 275 113–14, 234, 235; lighting design
C
coda 264, 266 85; pre-visualization 82, 232;
cables: intelligent lighting instruments collaboration 2, 7–21; projection systems 222–5; raster
73; jumper 280; projection systems choreographer—costume designer graphics 234; scenic models
220, 233 190–2; choreographer—lighting 150–1; sketches 145; slide-based
CAD (Computer Aided Drafting) 82, designer 80–1; choreographer— presentation 223; sound playback
150–1 projection designer 230–1; 114, 117, 223, 223–4; vector
Cage, John 17 choreographer—scenic designer graphics 235
call times 255 144–5; choreographer—sound computers, and projection design 220
callbacks 249 designer 110–11 concert breakdown charts 195, 195
callboards 245, 246, 253 collaborative models: collective concessions 26
calling the show (calling cues) 11, 29, method 16–17; company model conductors 10–11
88, 244, 247, 253, 254 15–16; freelance model 16; Coniglio, Mark 224–5
canon 264 independent model 17 connectors: projection equipment 220;
Capezio (dance shoe manufacturer) collage concerts 25, 126 stage-pin 281–2
182 collapse movement 269 contact sheets 249
Caplan, Elliot 17 collective method of collaboration contemporary dance 265
capri pants 176 16–17 content workflow diagrams (projection
Category 5/6 networking cables 220 color drop 275 design) 233

284 INDEX
contraction 265 counterweight systems 43–5 dancers 10; and communication
contracts: letters of agreement (LOA) coves 65, 66 protocol 255; principal 10, 268;
14–15, 32; technical rider 12 Crawford, Sam 119–22 soloists 269–70; tech packets 254;
copyright 96, 105–6, 210, 235, 236 crescent wrenches 90, 275, 276 and tech week 30
CorelDRAW 235 cross 276 dark 276
corner blocks, soft flats 136 cross-fade 275 dark time 88, 237
corps de ballet 265 crossover 275 David Dorfman Dance, Come, and Back
coryphée 265 cue lights 11, 276 Again 93, 120
costume bibles 196 cue sheets 258; lighting 88, 89; dead hung 276
costume design 190–204; projections 233–4, 236–7; sound/ Dead Man’s Cell Phone (Eastern
communicating the (paperwork music 113 Michigan University) 215
193–6; renderings 193, 194; cue-to-cue rehearsals 30 decibels (dB) 99
sketches 192, 193; visual research cueing process 28; and deck 276
192); and dress rehearsals choreographers 90; lighting design staff 11, 28
199–200; execution 196–9 (costume 28, 88–91; and paper tech designer runs 28
rentals 198; costume shopping 91; projections 233–4, 236–8; development directors 9
197–8; fabric selection 197; fittings referencing rehearsal videos en diagonale 265
198–9; patterns 198, 198; taking during 90; representing the figure diffusion gel 276
measurements 197; working from during 90; sound/music 28, 90, 112, Digital Audio Workstations (DAW) 113
stock 198); and performance run 114, 116–17; tech tables 89–90, digital projectors 220–1, 221;
200–1 116–17 brightness (lumens) 221; operating
costume designers 11, 21, 166; and cues: calling 11, 29, 88, 244, 247, 253, distance (throw ratio) 221
choreographer collaboration 254; fade time 89; linear playback digital video cameras 220, 234
190–2; perspective: Liz Prince 223; placement of 29 dimmer checks 255, 882, 277
202–4; and rehearsals 191–2 Cunningham, Merce 2, 17, 80, 265 dimmers 61, 62, 276
costume lists 195–6 curtains and backdrops 40–2; blacks/ direction (lighting) 58–9; see also
costume plots 193, 194 blackout 41–2, 275; borders 41, lighting positions and angles
costume roughs 192 275; cyclorama (sky drop) 40, 42, direction (sound) 100
costume shopping 197–8 67–8; grand drapes (main rag) dissonance 99
costumes 148, 162–3, 166–83; changes 40–1, 279; guillotine 40; legs 41, documenting the dance 31
of 247; components 173–83 (base 280; lighting 67–9; scrim 42, 42, Dorfman, David 93, 120; see also David
layer 173–5, 174; bodices 179, 68–9, 281; traveller 40–1 Dorfman Dance
179; bottoms 175, 175–7, 176, 177; cyc lights 67–8, 72 down beat 265
dresses 180; footwear 180–3, cyclorama (cyc) 40, 276; lighting 42, down lighting 67, 277
181, 182, 267–8, 268; organization 67–8, 72 downstage 37, 277
of 199–200; skirts/tutus 177–9, Cymbeline 132 Dr Faustus (Eastern Michigan
179; tops 180); functions of University) 129, 217
(character 167; character relations draftings (lighting design) 82–5
D
168; costume as a prop 167–8; draftings (projection design) 232
movement 166–7; style 169–70; D3 program 232 draftings (scenic design) 151–5;
theme/mood 169; time/place daily schedules (dailies) 254–5 centerline section 153, 153–4;
168–9); projection of virtual dance artists 9–10 ground plan 152, 152–3; painter’s
costumes 214–15; properties of dance captains 265 elevations 155, 155; USITT
(color 90; fabric 170; line 170–1; dance education 13 recommended practices for 151–2
scale 173; shape/form 171; texture dance terminology 261–71 drapes see curtains and backdrops
172–3); see also fabrics (costumes) dance theatre 265 draping a costume 198

285 INDEX
dress parade 277 swatches 193; textural properties front lighting: balcony front 65, 65;
dress rehearsals 15, 31, 199–200 172–3 ceiling slots 65, 65; coves 65, 66;
dressers 12, 200 en face 266 footlights 65, 65; front low-angle
dresses 180 fall 266 side lighting 66; high-angle 65–6;
dressing rooms 27 far-throw cyc fixtures 72 low-angle 65
Dropbox 111 fibers 170 front projection 211
drops: scenic 135, 136; see also Final Cut pro 234 full out 266
curtains and backdrops final dance 26–7 funding 27, 31–2
DVI (Digital Video Interface) first aid supplies 252
connectors 220 first dress rehearsal 199
G
flat panel displays 221–2
flats 135–7, 277 Gaffer’s tape 134, 135, 279
E
flooring 132–5; dance surface 134–5; GAM gels 75
Eastern Michigan University: Dead sprung 132–4, 133, 270 Garage Band program 114
Man’s Cell Phone 215; Dr Faustus fly 277 gel frame holders 70
129, 217; Red as Blood, White as fly house 277 gels 279; see also color filters (gels)
Snow 131; Ritual Series One 175; fly lofts 44, 277 general managers 8
The Shape of Things 213; Urinetown: fly systems 43–5, 152, 277 ghost lights 279
The Musical 218 flymen 12, 45 Gimp software 234
educational dance 13 focus, in lighting 60, 87–8 Gleich, Julia 19–21
electricians 277; see also master focus charts 87–8 gobo slots 70
electricians (ME) fog 26, 73; as projection surface 212 gobos 60, 60, 72, 279; glass 76
electrics (batten for lighting fog juice 73 going dark 276
instruments) 65–6, 67, 277, 278 foldback systems 105 Gonzales, Tamara 21
Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlights (ERS) follow spots 70–1, 277 Google Drive 111
69–70, 277; barrel 70; c-clamp and followspot operators 12 Google Presentation 192
yoke 69–70, 70; color filters 76; foot blocks 44 Graham, Martha 20, 80, 267, 269;
gobo slot 70; shutters 70, 70 footlights 65, 65, 278 Lamentations 167
emotion, as inspiration 14 footwear 180–3; ballet pointe shoes grand adage 266
entrée 266 180, 181, 267–8, 268; ballet grand drapes 40–1, 279
equalizers (EQ) 102–3 slippers 180, 181; jazz shoes 181, grand pas 264, 266
ERS see Ellipsoidal Reflector 182; modern dance 182–3; musical grand rights performances 106
Spotlights (ERS) theatre 182; nude shoes 182–3; tap grandMA 3D 82
ESP Vision 82 dance 181–2, 182 graphics cards 219
evening length dance 265 form (costumes) 171 green rooms 27
executive directors 8 formal concerts 24 grids, proscenium theatres 44, 279
extension 266 Fosse, Bob 170 ground plans 152, 152–3
extreme sightlines 39–40, 40 freelance model of collaboration 16 ground row 68, 279; masking of 42–3
EyeSpace (Merce Cunningham Dance freeze 266 guillotine curtain 140
Company) 174 frequency (sound) 99
Fresnel, Augustin-Jean 71
H
Fresnel lighting instrument 71–2,
F
278 hair 183
fabrics (costumes): dyeing 170; fibers front elevation 156, 156 hairpieces 183
and quality of 170; and lighting 171, front-of-house arrangements 27 hanging schedule 33
172; pattern 172–3; selection 197; front lighting 58, 59, 64–6, 278 hard flats see Hollywood flats

286 INDEX
Harlequin Liberty sprung floors 133, jeté 266 light plots 11, 82, 83, 84, 152; USITT
133 Johns, Jasper 17 notation 84
harmony 99 Johnson, Bernard 21 lighting: arena stage 49; background
hats 83 jumpers (electrical cables) 280 elements (cyclorama (cyc) 42,
haze 26, 73; as projection surface 212 67–8, 72; painted backdrops 68);
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia beam spread 70; color in 73–6; and
K
Interface) connectors 220 costume colors 171, 172; direction
head high lighting 64, 64, 280 Karinska, Barbara 179 of see lighting positions and
headpieces 183 Keynote software 223 angles; functions of (composition
headset checks 255 keystone correction (keystoning) 212 55–6; mood/atmosphere 56;
holding the curtain 256 keystone effect 212, 212 reinforcement/punctuation 56;
Hollywood flats 135, 136–7, 137, 277 keystones, soft flats 136 rhythm 56; sculpting/modeling 55,
Homasote sheets 139 kill 280b 55; visibility 54–5); gobos 60, 60, 72,
Horton, Lester 267 Kin, Peter 240 76, 279; house lights 280; masking
house 280 KinectTM sensor 214–15 42–3; and mood/atmosphere 56,
house lights 280 Kook, Edward 69 73; properties of (angle 59, 59–60;
house managers 9, 256 brightness/intensity 57; color 57–8;
house technicians 9, 27 direction 58–9; movement 60;
L
Hubbard Street Dance Chicago 87 visual quality 60); specials 67, 281;
hue 73 La Scala Ballet, Opera 217 tech tables 89–90; thrust space 8
Laban, Rudolf 270 lighting booms 40, 63, 63–4, 275
Lamentations (Martha Graham) 167 lighting consoles 62, 62, 89; channel
I
LCD (Liquid Crystaline Display) hookup sheets 85–6, 86
iMovie program 234 technology 221 lighting design 80–93; communicating
in-betweens 43, 43, 280 lecture-demonstrations 24 the 81–7 (draftings 82–5;
independent model of collaboration LED (Light Emitting Diode) lighting 58, paperwork 84–7; pre-visualization
17 72, 75, 76 82, 232); cueing process 28, 88–91;
input source (sound) 100–1 LED (Light Emitting Diode) panels 222, and projection design 209; and
inspiration 14 222 technical rehearsals 88–91
intelligent lighting instruments 62, Lee gels 75 lighting designers (LD) 11, 28, 54, 80;
72–3; cabling 73 legal concerns: music 96, 105–6; and choreographer collaboration
intensity of light 57 projection design 210, 235–6 80–1; perspective: Seth Reiser
interactive dance 226, 240 legato 266 92–3
interactivity: and projection design leggings 177 lighting ground row see ground row
214–15, 215, 224–5; with scenic legs (curtains) 41, 280 lighting instruments 62, 69–73;
elements 128–9 Lekos 69, 69–70; see also Ellipsoidal conventional 62, 69–72; cyc lights
intermissions 26 Reflector Spotlights (ERS) 67–8, 72; electrics 65–6, 67, 277,
Internet, and costume shopping 197 length of dance presentation 25 278; focus 87–8; footlights 65, 65,
Isadora program 224–5 Léotard, Jules 173 278; hanging 87–8; instrument key
leotards 173–4, 174 82, 83; intelligent 62, 72–3; LED 58,
letters of agreement (LOA) 14–15, 32 72, 75, 76; PAR-type 71, 72, 280;
J
Levy, Joseph 69 schedule 86; spotlights 69–71, 277;
jacks 280 licensing 106, 236 wash lighting 71–2
jazz dance 130 lift (dance movement) 266 lighting positions and angles: down
jazz pants 176 light board operators 12 67, 277; front 58, 59, 64–6, 278; see
jazz shoes 180–1, 181, 182 Light Emitting Diode see LED also back lighting; side lighting

287 INDEX
lighting sections 84, 85 merde 266–7
N
lighting systems 60–2; control 62; Merrily We Roll Along (Stephen
lighting instruments see lighting Sondheim) 222 Nashville Ballet 161
instruments; power 61 mezzanine seats 46 New York City Ballet 80
lighting towers 63 microphones 101; see also boundary Nikolai, Alwin 167
LightWright software 85 microphones non-proscenium theatres 47–9
line (costumes) 170 mid-high lighting 64, 64, 280 notation 267
linear playback (projection design) 223 MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital nude shoes 182–3
linesets 44 Interface) 113 number of dance pieces 25
list-making (costumes) 195–6; mix (sound) 100 The Nutcracker 126, 130, 167, 184, 194
spreadsheets 196 model boxes 148
load-in 28 modeling with light 55
O
load-out/strike 31, 201, 282 models see scenic models
loading gallery 45, 45 modern dance 267 offstage 38
lock rails, counterweight systems 45, mood/atmosphere: and costumes 169; onstage 37
45 and lighting 56, 73; and scenery opening nights 31
loft blocks 44 129; and sound 98 Opera (La Scala Ballet) 217
loge seats 46 motif 267 orchestra pits 39, 280
Logic Pro 114, 235 motion capture technology 214–16, orchestra seats 46
loudspeaker plots 112 226
loudspeakers 103–4 movement: and costumes 166–7; and
P
Luhrmann, Baz 163 lighting 60; qualities of 268–9; and
sound/music 100 paint shops 156–7
Movie Maker program 234 painted backdrops (drops), lighting
M
multidisciplinary collaborations 17 68
McKernon, John 85 music 17, 28, 96; as accompaniment painter’s elevations 155, 155
magic effects, using projections 216 98; arrangements of 106; panning 100
magic sheets (cheat sheats) 87, 87 composers 10, 96; and cueing pants 175–6, 176
main rag see grand drapes process 28, 90, 112, 114, 116–17; paper tech 29, 88–9, 91, 254
make-up 184–6 as inspiration 14; legal concerns PAR-type lighting fixture 71, 72, 280
make-up crew 12 96, 105–6; live performance pas de deux 267
Marine, Stacey-Jo 32–3 106, 115; and movement 100; patrons 31
mark (mark it) 266 pre-recorded 96, 106, 116; and pattern (costume fabrics) 172–3
marketing directors 9 projection design 237–8; and patterns (costumes) 198, 199
marking 30 prompt book compilation 254; PCC boundary microphones 101
Marley flooring 134–5, 139 rehearsal 113; and rhythm 98; percussive movement 269
Marley tape 134, 135, 251 samples 111 performance 15; sound as element
Martha Graham Dance Company 13 music creation/editing programs in 98
masking 40–3 114 performance reports 245
masks 183 music rehearsals 115–16 performance spaces 28, 35–50; arena
Masonite 139 Musical Instrument Digital Interface theatres 49; black box/studio
master electricians (ME) 12, 87 (MIDI) 113 theatres 49; general concerns
Media Composer 234 musical staff 10–11 27; non-traditional spaces 49;
media servers 220 musical styles 14 and projection design 211–12;
Merce Cunningham Dance Company, musicians 96–7, 115 proscenium theatres 36–46, 127,
EyeSpace 174 muslin 135 281; seating 45–7, 46, 48, 49, 127;

288 INDEX
 and staging techniques 126–7; Prince, Liz 191, 202–4 functions of 230 (as a commentary
thrust theatres 47–8, 127, 282 principal dancers 10, 268 216–18; creation of dynamic
Performing Rights Organizations Pro Tools 114, 235 environment 214; interactivity
(PROs) 106, 127 production calendar 27–8, 30–1, 214–15, 215; magic/special effects
permissions 210, 235–6 249–50 216; presenting/representing
Peter Pan 161, 184 production managers 9, 245–6; the dancer(s) 215–16, 216; visual
philosophical concepts, as inspiration perspective: Stacey-Jo Marine reinforcement 216); interactive
14 32–3 content 214–15, 215, 224–5;
photo calls 31 production meetings 16, 28, 33, 250 keystone effect 212, 212; legal
phrase 267 production process 13–15 concerns 210; and lighting design
Pinterest 192 production stage managers (PSM) 209; linear content 214; methods
pipe pockets 135 245, 254 (front projection 211;
pirouette 267 program concerns 24–7 rear projection 211); and motion
pitch (sound) 99 projection design 229–41; capture technology 214–16,
pixelation 220 communicating the (draftings 226;and music 237–8; and
pixels 220, 234 232; paperwork and informational performance space 211–12;
place, sense of: and costumes 168–9; graphics 232–4; pre-visualization software (interactive visual
and scenery 129 232; visual communication programming 224–5; linear
plan views 82 231–2); content creation 234–6 playback 223–4; slide-based
plasma display panels 221 (3D rendering and animation 235; presentation 222–3; timeline-
plaster lines 38 audio content 235; legal concerns based playback 224); tech tables
platforms 137, 138, 139 235–6; stills 234–5; stock footage 237; timeline for designs 213; video
playback systems 101, 104, 105, 114, 235, 236; video 234); and technical walls 221–2; of virtual costumes on
117 rehearsals 236–8 to dancers 215–15
plié 267 projection designers 11, 208, 230; projections check 255
en pointe 267 and choreographer collaboration prompt books 247, 253–4
pointe shoes 180, 181, 267–8, 268 230–1; perspective: João Beira props 126, 130, 139–40, 144; costumes
post-modernism 268 239–41 acting as 167–8; rehearsals with
postmortems 15, 31 projection equipment 213, 219–22, 140, 157–8; tracking 246
Powell, Michael, Red Shoes 163 237; cables 220, 233; computers props designers 11
PowerPoint 223 220; connectors 220; digital props tables 159, 246–7
premiere piece 13 video cameras 220; display proscenium arch 36, 36
premium seats 47 devices (digital projectors (video proscenium lines 38, 38, 152, 281
pre-production planning 23–33; projectors) 220–1; flat panel proscenium theatres 36–47, 127, 281;
budget considerations 31–2; displays 221–2; LED panels 222, audience seating 45–7; masking
performance space concerns 222); projection plot 232 40–3; scenery fly systems 43–5;
27; personnel considerations projection mapping 212, 213 sightlines 39–40; stage 37–40
32; production calendar 27–31; projection plots 232 public domain 105–6, 236
program concerns 24–7; stage projection surfaces 212 publicity 28
managers and 248–50 projection systems 218–19; video pull lists (costumes) 196
presentation models 150 playback systems 219; video punctuation of dance, lighting and
presenters 9 reinforcement systems 219; video 56
Pressburger, Emeric, Red Shoes 163 workstations 219 purchase lines, counterweight
pre-visualization: lighting design 82, projections 208–26; appropriateness systems 44, 45
232; projection design 232 of 213–14; content of 210–11, 214; purpose of production 24
primary colors 74 cueing process 233–4, 236–8; PZM boundary microphones 101

289 INDEX
 release 269 scenic models; sketches 145–6,
Q
release times 255 147; visual research 145)
QLab 114, 117, 223, 223–4 renderings: costume design 193, scenic designers 11; and
qualities of movement 268–9 194; projection design 235; scenic choreographer collaboration
quiet time 115 design 146, 148 144–5; perspective: Campbell
Quixotic Fusion 239–40 rentals (costumes) 198; rental lists Baird 160–3
196 scenic elements: dimensions of
repertoire 269 152; drops 135, 136; flats 135–7;
R
repertory companies 13 flooring 132–5; platforms 137–8;
rails: soft flats 136; stock platforms repertory concerts 269 stairs 139; trap doors 39, 139
137 resident choreographers 10 scenic ground row 68
raked seating 48, 48, 49 resources, availability of 97, 127 scenic models 82, 145, 146, 148,
rakes/raked platforms 139, 281 rhythm: and lighting 56; and sound/ 149, 150–1, 151; 1⁄2” scale 150;
raster graphics 234–5 music 98 1
⁄4” scale 150; 1⁄8” scale 148;
Rauschenberg, Robert 17 rights-managed licensing 236 computer-generated 150–1;
re-staging 269 Ritual Series One (Eastern Michigan presentation models 150; white
realism 169 University) 175 150
rear elevation 156, 156 Rosco gels 75 schedules/scheduling: 14; stage
rear projection 211 roundels 76 manager’s role in 245
recording systems 104 royalty-free licensing 236 scrim 42, 42, 68–9, 281; black 69
Red as Blood, White as Snow (Eastern run 269 scrollers 70, 281
Michigan University) 131 running crew 12 sculpting with light 55, 55
The Red Shoes (film) 163 seating 45–7, 46, 48, 49, 127
rehearsal announcements 252–3 secondary colors 74
S
rehearsal directors 10 self-examination 15
rehearsal music 113 scale (costumes) 173 self-powered speakers 103–4
rehearsal notes 253 scene shops 156 SESAC (Society of European Stage
rehearsal pianists 10 scenery 125–39; assessing needs Authors and Composers) 106
rehearsal reports 245 for 126–7; changes of 26, 126; fly SFX program 114, 117
rehearsal space 28; rules for use of systems for handling 43–5, 152; shape (costumes) 171
251; size of 250–1; sound systems functions of 127–130, 132 (defining The Shape of Things (Eastern Michigan
251 space 128; interactivity 128–9; University) 213
rehearsal videos 15, 28, 90, 238 mood 129; problem solving 130, shin busters 64, 64, 281
rehearsals 15, 28; costume designers 132; style 130; time/place 129); shopping lists (costumes) 196
and 191–2; cue-to-cue/spacing preconceived expectations about shorts (costumes) 177, 177
30; designer runs 28; dress 15, 127; and re-mounted productions show bibles 196
31, 199–200; music 115–16; with 127; re-using 127; and seating shutters (lighting) 70, 70
scenery and props 140, 157–8; arrangements 127; and touring side lighting 58, 59, 62–4, 63, 281
special needs 251; stage managers productions 127 side lighting: head-highs 64, 64, 280;
and 245–6, 250–3; see also scenic charge artists 156 highs 64, 64; mid-highs 64, 64, 280;
technical rehearsals scenic construction and painting shin busters 64, 64, 281
reinforcement function: of lighting 56; 155–7 sightlines 39–40, 152, 281; extreme
of projection design 216; of sound scenic design 126–7, 143–63; 39–40, 40
99 communicating the (design signal flow charts 232–3, 233
reinforcement systems 104 specifications 151–5; renderings silence 96
Reiser, Seth 92–3 145–6, 148; scenic models see site specific 269

290 INDEX
sketches: costume design 192, 193; sound samples 111 auditions 248–9; contact sheet
scenic design 145–6, 147 sound systems 104–5; playback assembly 249; production calendar
SketchUp 145, 151 systems 101, 104, 105, 114, assembly 249–50; production
skirts 177–9 117; recording systems 104, meetings 250); as production
sky drop curtain see cyclorama 104; rehearsal space 251; managers 244–5, 254; and union
sleds 71 reinforcement systems 104 structures 247–8
slide-based projection 223 sound tech tables 116–17 stage monitor systems 105
slopers 198, 199 sound technicians 97 stage pin connectors 61, 281–2
Society of European Stage Authors SoundCloud 111 stage right 37
and Composers (SESAC) 106 soundscape 98 stage weights 44, 45
soft flats 135, 136, 137, 277 spacing rehearsals 30 stagehands 12
soft goods 281 speakers see loudspeakers stairs 139; rise and run 139
software see computer software special effects, using projections 216 stiles: soft flats 136; stock platforms
soloists 269–70 specials (lighting) 67, 281 137
Sondheim, Stephen, Merrily We Roll spike marks 281 stock footage 235, 236
Along 222 spike tape 251 stock platforms 137, 138, 139
sound board operators 12 sponsors 31 Strictly Ballroom (film) 163
sound checks 116, 255 spotlight operators 12 strike 31, 201, 282
sound design 97, 97–107, 109–22; spotlights 69–71; follow spots 70–1, strip lights 67, 72, 76
communicating the (music/ 277 strobe effects 72
sound samples 111; paperwork spotting 270 studio theatres 49
112–13); cueing process 28, spreadsheets: for costume list making studio time 15
112, 114, 116–17; functions of 196; for organizing cue sheets 88, style(s): choice of 14; and costume
(accompaniment 98; audibility 234 169–70; musical 14; and scenic
98; mood/atmosphere 98; sprung floors 132–4, 270; basket choices 130; theatrical 14
performance 98; reinforcement weave 133, 133; Harlequin 133, 133 stylized approaches 169
99; rhythm 98); and projection stage coordinate system 38 subwoofers (sub) 103
design 235; properties of (mix 100; stage directions 37, 37–8, 281 supporting leg 270, 271
direction 100; movement 100; pitch stage left 37 suspending movement 269
99; sound quality 99–100; volume stage managers 11–12, 29, 152, sustained movement 269
99); sound editing and composition 243–58; common responsibilities swing 268–9
tools 113–14; and technical (calling cues in the show 11, 29, 88,
rehearsals 114–18; see also audio 244, 247, 253, 254; communication
T
equipment 245, 252–3, 254–5, 256; during the
sound designers 11, 28, 97; and run 255–6; giving calls until curtain tableau 270
choreographer collaboration up 256; maintaining the artistic Tagliabue, Benedetta 17
110–11, 116; perspective: Sam integrity of the work 247; prompt Tanzheater 270
Crawford 119–22 book compilation 247, 253–4; tap dance 130
sound diagrams 112, 113 recording information 146–7; tap shoes 181–2, 182
Sound Forge program 113–14 rehearsals, preparation for and tech packets for dancers 254
sound mixers (sound boards) 102, running 245–6, 250–3; scheduling tech schedule 28, 33
102 245; technical rehearsals 247, tech tables: lighting 89–90; projections
sound mixing cue sheets 113 253–6; timekeeping 247); kit 251–2; 237; sound 116–17
sound plots 112, 112 perspective: Julie Ballard 257–8; tech week 28, 30–1, 91; role of dancer
sound quality 99–100 and pre-production planning in 30
sound reinforcement 99 (assisting the choreographer 249; technical checks 255–6

291 INDEX
technical directors (TD) 12, 156 turnout (rotation) 270 video workstations 219
technical drawings 156 tutus 177–9, 270 visibility 54–5
technical rehearsals 15, 30; first dress tutus: Balanchine/Karinska visual elements, as inspiration 14
199; and lighting design 88–91; (powderpuff ) 179, 179; bell 178, visual quality of light 60
and projection design 236–8; and 179; classical 178, 179; pancake visual research 145; costume design
sound design 114–18; and stage style 178, 179; platter 178–9, 179; 192; projection design 231–2;
managers 247, 253–6 romantic 178, 179 scenic design 145
technical rider contract 12 visuals (cues) 282
technical staff 11–12, 27 volume (sound) 99
U
tempo 60, 270 vomitories 48, 48, 282
tension blocks 44 unions 27, 33, 116, 246, 247–8
texture, in lighting 60 unitards 174, 174–5
W
theatre in the round 47, 49 United Scenic Artists-Local 829
theatre staff 9 (USA–829) 208, 247 wagon platform 282
theatrical styles 14 up beat 270 wardrobe crew 12, 200
theme 14, 169; and variation 169 upstage 37 wardrobe supervisors 200
thrift stores 198 Urinetown: The Musical (Eastern Warhol, Andy 17
thrust theatres 47, 47–8, 127, 282 Michigan University) 218 Watchout program 224
ticket sales 28 USITT (United States Institute for water: effects 26; as projection
tie lines 135 Theatre Technology) 84, 151–2 surface 212
tights 176–7 white light 74, 75
timbre 99 white models 150
V
time, sense of: and costumes 168–9; Wigman, Mary 267
and scenery 129 variation 271 wigs 12, 183
timekeeping 247 Vasterling, Paul 161 wigs/make-up 12
timeline-based playback (projection vector graphics 235 wings 40, 282
design) 224 Vectorworks 82, 151, 232 wireless microphones 101
timelines, projection designs 213 Vegas Pro 234 word clocks 238
toggles: soft flats 136; stock platforms VGA (Video Graphics Array) connectors workflow, projection design 233
137 220 working leg 271
tour managers 9 vibratory movements 269 works in progress 24
touring productions 127 video editing 219, 234 WYSIWYG 82, 232
trap doors 39, 139 video monitor systems 115–16
trap rooms 39 video playback systems 219
Y
traveller curtains 40–1 video projectors see digital projectors
Travieso, Yara 158 video recorded rehearsals 15, 28, 90, yokes 69, 70
Troika Ranch 225 238 Your Heart & Your Belly & Your Whole
Troike Tronix 225 video reinforcement systems 219 Insides Felt Empty & Wanting &
Tudor, David 17 video walls 221–2 Hollow (Yara Travieso) 158, 158

292 INDEX