International Journal for Empirical Education and Research
Vilfredo Pareto Philosophical Theory, Action & Residue with its
Classification
Mamduh Kahil Sabbag
Department of Philosophy
University of Baghdad
Email: kahilmamduh34@gmail.com (Author of Correspondence)
Iraq
Abstract
Vilfredo Pareto summarized his aim in writing his major sociological work, “The treatise on General
Sociology.” His ambition was to construct a system of sociology analogous in its essential features of the
generalized physicochemical system. The treatise attempts to study only non-rational aspects of action.
Now we will discuss about his views.
Keywords: Action; Category; Residues; Elite.
ISSN Online: 2616-4833 ISSN Print: 2616-4817
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1. Introduction
Vilfredo Federico Damson was an Italian engineer, sociologist, economist, political scientist, and
philosopher. He made several important contributions to economics, particularly in the study of income
distribution and in the analysis of individuals' choices. He was also responsible for popularizing the use of
the term "elite" in social analysis.
He introduced the concept of Pareto efficiency and helped develop the field of microeconomics. He was
also the first to discover that income follows a Pareto distribution, which is a power law probability
distribution. The Pareto principle was named after him, and it was built on observations of his such as that
80% of the land in Italy was owned by about 20% of the population.
2. Actions
The fact or process of doing something, typically to achieve an aim is an action.
Two kinds. Logical action and non-logical action.
2.1. Logical Action
If the actions are based on logic and experiment and if the means and ends are connected with each other,
those actions are known as logical action. For an action to be logical, the logical connection between the
means and ends must exist both in the mind of the actor who performs the act and in objective reality.
2.1.1. Characteristics of Logical Action
a) All the actions personal or social that have a proper adjustment between means and the
ends.
b) The actions which are based on experiment and logic.
c) Actions must be objective.
d) Actions must be real.
e) Actions must be accepted by the actor and must be defined objectively.
f) These actions have no place in imagination or prejudices.
g) Both the ends and the means must be scientific and justified.
h) Social sanctions must be there behind such justification.
i) There must be logical connection between means employed and ends attained.
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j) Logical actions must be rational in nature.
k) Logical actions are motivated by reasoning.
2.2. Non-Logical Action
The action which is not based on logic that can be considered as non-logical action. According to him,
Non-logical action doesn’t mean illogical. He added that, non- logical action are those which are not logical,
but non-logical action is action guided by sentiments and other non- logical factors.
There are two worlds of view of an action.
a) Subjective World
b) Objective World
3. According to Raymond Aron
Thus we can immediately draw up a table of non-logical actions which we shall call the second class of
human actions.
Objectively : NO NO YES YES
Subjectively : NO YES NO YES
3.1. Reflections of these above Categories
No-No Category
No-Yes Category
Yes-No Category
Yes-Yes Category
3.1.1. The No-No Category
Here action is not logical. The means are not connected to the ends neither in reality nor in the mind. The
actor does not even have in mind either an end or a means-end relation. This “no-no category” is rare as
man has reasoning capacity. There is no relation in the aim and goal both in subjective and objective world.
Example: A man sometimes does unexpected stuffs but then wants to give logic on that.
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3.1.2. No-Yes Category
This no-yes category is widespread. There is no relation in the aim and goal of objective world but exists
a relation in subjective relation. Example: Social regulation, superstition. When people desire rain they
make sacrifices to the God. They are convinced that their sacrifices have an effect on the rainfall. In this
case a means-end relation exists subjectively but not objectively.
3.1.3. Yes-No Category
In objective world, there exists a relation between aim and way. But there is no relation in subjective world.
Example: Closing of eyes when dust comes. That was not expected and not supported by mind.
3.1.4. Yes-Yes Category
Both relation are presented. But there is no similarities in subjective world and objective world.
Example: The behavior of revolutionaries. They wish to change existing society, to correct its vices.
4. Residues of Pareto
Pareto says, Residues no doubt, are the manifestation of sentiments and instincts but the manifestations is
not constant. Residues are intermediary between sentiments and concomitant behavior. These are related
to human instincts but not synonymous with them. Residues are those permanent elements in man’s
rationalization of behavior are intermediary between sentiments. In his work “Treatise on General
Sociology”, Pareto explained about residues by saying that residues as conceived as manifestation of
sentiments or at least corresponding to them and not as equivalent of sentiments.
4.1. Characteristics of Residues
Residues have certain characteristics
a) Residues are not instincts and sentiments.
b) They are the manifestation of sentiments and instincts.
c) Residues are related to individual instincts but these residues do not cover all of them.
d) Residues are intermediary between the sentiments we cannot know directly and the belief system
and acts that can be known and analyzed.
e) Residues are non-logical.
f) Residues are not based on any reason.
g) Residues are more or less permanent motivators of human behavior. They guide human behavior.
h) Residues represent the general elements of human actions and behavior.
i) Residues cannot be explained with the help of logic and experimentation.
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j) Residues are responsible for maintaining social equilibrium.
5. Classification of Residues
Pareto classified residues into six groupings which corresponding more or less to certain instincts or
emotional propensities of mankind.
These six types are
5.1. Residues of Combination
Pareto told about innate tendency. This residues runs the person in the way of change. It works as the
evolution, the basic of civilization, the development of reason of the person. As outcome of these people
made many theories, propositions, regulations etc.
Example-
Devotion to God leads to salvation. Likewise butterfly in dream indicates future happiness. There is no
logic behind the working of such residues but they effectively control our social behavior. Class-I residues
are found in inventors, speculators and politicians.
5.2. Residues of Persistence of Aggregates
This is the opposite of first type of residues. These residues are responsible for giving stability to the social
relations and the relations between individual members of a particular social life. This is class-2 residues.
It explains the inertia associated with group membership. It explains the persistence of kin groups, ethnic
groups and socio-economic classes.
Example-
Traditions and customs are good examples of these residues.
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There is a natural tension, or anti-thesis between class-2 and class-1 residues.
Class-2 residues are found in churchmen, family men and “good subordinates.”
5.3. Residues of Manifestation of Sentiments through External Activities
This residues is similar to innate tendency. Residues of this class are connected with external activities.
These activities deal with the unexpressed desires of the individual. These feelings express themselves in
form of religious feelings and worship etc. These class 3 residues are manifested in ceremonies, religious
ecstasies and festivals. Political movements in order to achieve political freedom and such other social and
economic movements those are intended at getting economic and social emancipation are parts of these
residues.
5.4. Residues of Sociability
Because of this residue man becomes a social animal and tries to modify his behavior according to social
norms and values. These residues make for communal living. These residues are also connected with life
in society. These Class 4 residues explain the persistence of fashion, feelings of pity and cruelty and acts
of self-sacrifice. Co-operation, sympathy, fears, kindness are the results of these residues. This kind of
residues is very important for social organization.
5.5. Residues of the Integrity of Personality
These residues of class 5 involve “the defense of integrity and development of personality.” This class is
manifested in “sentiments” to alterations in the social equilibrium. The sentiments to which class 5 residues
correspond are “sentiments of interest.” They refer to individual acts based on self-interest. These residues
are for maintaining the integrity and balance of personality. These are also helpful in making people moral
in maintaining high moral standards.
5.6. Residues Regarding Sex
The sex residues, i.e. the class 6 residues are responsible for “mental states” having to do with sexual
activities. All those residues that are responsible for establishing, maintaining and strengthening the sex
relations come under this residue. These residues are also concerned with sexual urges. These residues
influence our outlook, attitude and thinking. According to Pareto, debauchery that is carried out in the name
of welfare of women is based on these very residues. Since there are many sex taboos, therefore sexual
residues are very complex and complicated.
7. Derivations
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Generally it means the explanation making logical the residues. Derivations make action appear to be
logical. They do not permit such individuals to understand the real purpose of their action. According to
Pareto, those factors which help in presenting logical explanations to the activities on the basis of needs,
nature, circumstances and norms are known as Derivations. Man tries to explain the logic behind the action.
These actions may not always be correct. Basically, they do many illogical actions. Then they want to
present some logics behind them. This is derivation.
7.1. Characteristics of Derivations
a) Derivations are linked with residues. These try to explain actions performed under the influence of
residues.
b) Derivations are non-logical actions and facts. These are accepted on the basis of emotions and
feelings.
c) Through derivations we try to provide justification to our ideologies and the actions on the basis of
morality, logic and ideologies.
d) As compared to residues, derivations are more flexible and changeable.
e) These are an attempt to hide realities.
7.2. Types of Derivations
Pareto, on the basis of his analysis has tried to classify derivations under the following four heads.
7.2.1. Derivations of Assertion
7.2.1.1. Non-logical Assertions
It is including affirmations of facts and sentiments. These sentiments are not subjected to experimentation.
These are usually accepted as true and it is not possible to oppose them. This class of derivation is used
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with class-I residues. For instance, a scientists might see himself as working long hours because he has “a
thirst for knowledge.”
He might describe himself as a thoroughly logical person who is dedicated to “truth.” Pareto however
would have claimed -that such a person is embodying the non-logical “instincts for combinations.”
Affirmations which are partially based on facts and partially on sentiments are called “Mixed
Affirmations.” If these affirmations are repeated they are generally accepted.
7.2.1.2 Derivations of Authority
7.1.2.1. Giving Wrong Logics for Instigating People
If the affirmations are based on reason and stated with definiteness they become an authority. Those
derivations that are the sanction of some force or power behind it are called “Authority”. Authoritative
relations in this class are in concord with sentiments. This class of Derivation is used with Class-2 residues.
For instance, the residents of ethnic Ghettoes might claim that they prefer to stay in their neighborhood so
that they can be with their own people and attend their own churches. They might point out that this is
“logical” because, by living in the same neighborhood they do not have to cross town to get what they
want.
Pareto however, would have insisted that their desire to place themselves under the authority of their own
communal mores was a derivation from the residue of group persistence.
7.1.3. Derivations accord with Sentiments
7.1.3.1. Here Works the Interest of People’s Common Traditions and Ideas
This class of derivations is based upon agreements with emotions and the invocation of meta-physical
entities. These include sentiments, collective interests, legal entities such as law and justice, meta-physical
entities such as solidarity, progress, humanity etc. Such derivations are to be found when we link our
sentiments with national interest, spiritual welfare etc.
7.1.4. Derivations of Verbal Proofs
7.1.4.1. These Are Found In Form of Metaphors and Analogies
Metaphors are figure of speech by which a thing is spoken of as being that which is only resembles.
Analogies are agreement in certain respects between things otherwise different. Verbal proofs are not based
on realities, but are used only to prove justification.
Most political speeches belong to the categories of verbal proof. Verbal proofs are non- logical in character.
It is more concerned with the psychological procedure by which men influence one another. Raymond
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Aron says, “Pareto’s theory of derivations is a contribution to the psychology of interpersonal and inter-
group relations, especially in the field of politics.”
10. Circulation of Elites
Pareto’s treatment of the circulation of elites is often cited and is generally considered the most interesting
part of his sociology. Pareto believed that individuals are born with quite different abilities and acquire
quite different skills and aptitudes.
According to Pareto, since in every society there are classes. According to Pareto, people are unequal
physically, as well as intellectually and morally. Some people are more gifted than others. Pareto says,
those who are most capable in any particular grouping are the elite. Elite is generally considered as a social
group. Pareto made discussion about elites basing on his 1 st and 2nd class of residues. Elites are basically
the most successful in their occupation.
10.1. Pareto Further Divided the Elite Class into Two Categories
a) A governing elite: A governing elite comprising individual who directly or indirectly play some
considerable part in government. Governing elites are directly and indirectly concerned with
administration. They play highly important role and enjoy prestigious place in society.
b) A non-governing elite: A non-governing elite is comprising the rest of the individuals. Pareto’s
main discussion focuses on the governing elite. Non-Governing elites are not connected with
administration but occupy such a place in society that they somehow influence the administration.
10.2. Basic Characteristics of Elites
a) The individuals not belonging to either of the governing elite or non-governing elite are called non-
elite.
b) The class of elite is universal and continuous process.
c) The elite manipulate overtly or covertly the political power.
d) The elite is having the capacity to establish superiority over others.
e) The members of the elite class will always try that the non- elites should not influence social,
economic and political processes in any manner.
f) The non-elites respect only such elites who are liberal in outlook and approach, because they alone
can help them to come nearer to each other.
g) Circulation or upward and downward circulation amongst the members of the elite and non-elite is
a typical characteristic of the elite.
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According to Pareto the work and the role of the elites are influenced by two types of factors which are
always operative in every society. One type which is constant is called residues, the other type is
derivations.
According to Pareto social change comes because of residues of combination and residue of persistence of
aggregates. Cycle of social change is a continuous process. Political, economic and ideological factors are
responsible for continuing this process.
Following the Machiavellian formula, Pareto states that the elites are able to manipulate and control the
masses by resorting to two methods: Force or Fraud, which corresponding to Machiavelli’s famous anti-
thesis between the ‘Lions” and the “Foxes”.
The “Foxes” are the elites abundantly endowed with residues of the first class (Residues of combinations)
which includes the propensities in social groups to adopt flexibly to environmental or situational
exigencies.
They are capable of innovation and experiment, prefer materialistic to idealistic goals, but lack fidelity to
principles and use strategies that vary from emotional appeal to unadulterated fraud.
The “Lions” are conservative elites in whom the second class of residues (Persistence of aggregates)
predominates. They have faith and ideology; they display group loyalty and class solidarity; they gain and
retain power by the use of force.
The concept of elites has been given a great deal of attention by Vilfredo Pareto. Pareto’s views and
conclusions about the elites are interesting and incisive. According to him, every society has elite groups
of different kinds. These elites, being the best or excellent members of their classes are always in a minority.
But they are nonetheless vital and it is they who determine the development or progress of every society.
Pareto concerns himself with a simple distinction between those having power called the elite and those
having none called the non-elite. He sees the history of every human society as the history of the relations
between its elite who rules and its non-elites who are just ruled. Circulation of Elite is between elite and
non-elite, and between governing elite and non-governing elite.
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According to Pareto, there can be also a circulation of elites in the sense of being a process by which
individuals circulate between the elite and the non-elite. This process of replacement takes place in two
ways. It is either by a gradual process of infiltration or by a violent revolution.
Pareto explains all this in terms of changes in the psychological characteristics of the members of the elite
on the one hand, and those of the lower strata, on the other. Thus when the elite no longer possesses the
residues necessary for keeping it in power and at the same time at the lower strata of society, the necessary
residues are sufficiently manifest then the declining elite recruits new elements from the lower strata of
society and thereby restores its vitality. Or it may so happen that an elite decaying in the necessary residues
is violently overthrown by the lower classes strong in the requisite residues necessary for keeping them in
power.
According to Pareto the elites not only change within or amongst their own classes, they also do so across
the classes. A few individuals may join the ranks of elites from the non-elite groups. And a few elites may
become non-elite members of society.
The numbers of the various elite groups may decline both in arithmetical terms as well as in their quality
or significance on account of the various factors. When this happens the elites cease to be elites and tend
to come down to the non-elite group. On the other hand, when some members of the non-elite groups
achieve excellence or acquire special power they tend to join the particular elite groups.
Pareto says that this kind of increase in the number or strength of elites as well as the decrease or decline
in their ranks is common features of every society. Pareto takes a very large canvas of history particularly
Roman history and the Italian history of his times to show how the circulations of elites take place.
He observes that in a perfectly free society there would be a constant and free circulation of elites. But such
a perfect society is almost an ideal society. Most societies have imperfections of various types and therefore
the circulation of elites is seldom ideally free or unimpeded.
Pareto adds that in case of great social changes as signified by wars or revolutions there takes place a large
scale replacement of the old elites by the new ones. He argues that, whether particular elites stay in power
or not, whether they are partially or fully replaced or not, the fact remains that they remain in vital positions
and characterized the development and progress of a given society.
Pareto argues that men have a predominance of either Class-I residues where they are the “foxes” or of
Class-II residues where they are the “lions”. The style of governing will depend on whether the ruling elite
is composed of the foxes or the lions. The foxes are bold and adventurous, they do not care to be cautious
and live by cunning and cleverness.
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In the economic field, the foxes are the speculators; they do not dread risks for the sake of maximum profits.
They indulge in promotion schemes. The lions on the other hand, are solid, conservative, tradition loving,
loyal to family, church and nation.
They always prefer to rely on force rather than on cleverness. In their economic field they are renters. They
are cautious, thrifty, content with small returns on safe investments and unwilling to gamble. The elite are
composed of either of these types of individuals depending on the sort of residues that happen to prevail.
When Class I residues are dominant, the foxes will rule and the predominance of Class II residues will
establish the rule by the lions. Indeed, history reveals a constant alteration between an elite having the
dominant Class I residues and an elite having the preponderance of Class II residues.
The theory of elite is that in every society there are “people who possess in a marked degree the qualities
of intelligence, character, skill, capacity, of whatever kind; that there are two kinds of elite: that the two
groups are disjunctive at any given time, and that there is an up and down circulation of the elite. But
aristocracies with the governing elite at the top, do not last. The Athenian aristocracy of the elite passed
away without leaving descendants. “In Germany the aristocracy of the present day is very largely made up
of descendants of vassals of the” Lords of Old.”
Pareto says, “History is the grave-yard of Aristocracy”.
The famous statement reveals the fact that history is accentuated with the elite class since generation, who
emerge, dominate, fall into decadency and is replaced by non-decadent elites in society. Pareto has given
a number of reasons for mortality of aristocracy which are un-graved in history for generation and
generation.
a) Aristocrats (mainly King and Emperor) were engaged in historical wars which lead to degeneration
of aristocracy.
b) The inheritors of aristocracy are not necessarily possessed with some inherent traits of that of their
forefathers. But they rule or govern on the basis of heredity even though they may not have the
necessary skill, knowledge about governance and sufficient ability to govern the kingdom, or
empire; they fall into decadence after few hours of glory.
Thus aristocracies emerge, dominate, fall into decadence and fall into power, replaced by non-decadent
elites.
On the whole the up and down movement of elite takes place in two ways. Firstly, some non-elite, by their
merit, may rise to the level of elite. Secondly, by revolution the entire governing class may be reduced to
the status of the governed. Pareto says, circulation of elite is necessary for healthy social change.
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The general mechanism of society according to Pareto, can be understood by interest, residues, derivations
and social heterogeneity. These four major variables are in a state of mutual dependence on which the
movement of society depends. These are the four clear components in all the activities which had to assume
some sort of equilibrium in any social system.
‘By the circulations of elites, “Pareto wrote, “the governing elite is in a state of continuous and slow
transformation. It flows like a river, and what it is today is different from what it was yesterday. Every so
often, there are sudden and violent disturbances. The river floods and breaks its banks. Then afterwards,
the new governing elite resume again and slow process of self-transformation. The river returns to its bed
and once more flows freely on.”
10.3. Criticisms
a) Pareto was busy with discussing about Elites. But he didn’t discussed about the changes of general
people.
b) His theory seems like that, it is a political theory not social theory.
c) Talcott Parsons criticized Pareto that he failed to define the conditions governing changes in the
proportions of residues. He has not said anything about biological and genetic factors, “bearing
upon these changes.”
11. Conclusion
Pareto was the first to realize that cardinal utility could be dispensed with and economic equilibrium
thought of in terms of ordinal utility– that is, it was not necessary to know how much a person valued this
or that, only that he preferred X of this to Y of that. His contribution is thus significant.
References
1. Robert A. Nye, the Anti-Democratic Sources of Elite Theory: Pareto, Mosca, Michels, Sage, 1977,
p. 22.
2. J. J. Chambliss (ed.), Philosophy of Education: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, 2013, p. 179
