ANTHROPOLOGICAL THEORIES

1 CULTURE AND PERSONALITY

Emerged as reaction to evolutionism and diffusionism. It examines the interaction of
psychological and cultural forces at work on human experience.
Culture and personality are closely related to each other. Personality develops and
function in constant association with culture. All the individuals of same culture
experience similar child rearing practices and hence, develop similar personality.
Hence, it can be said that personality is a reflection of culture. The attempts of
this school are to study culture as it is embodied in the character of its
members, rather than seeking to analyse culture as it is manifested in
material items or social institutions.
The culture personality theory combined elements of psychology, anthropology,
and sociology, but principally theory involved the application of psychoanalytic
principles to ethnographic data. It led to establishment of national character,
modal personality and configuration of personality within this school.

1.1.1 Neurosis - Freud

➢ Sigmund Freud highlights the role of child rearing practices in developing
personality. According to him, we all are driven by ‘pleasure principle’ which
inclines us toward easy, physical and emotional rewards and away from unpleasant
things like hard work and discipline. But if we adhere to pleasure principle w/o
constraints, it will lead to dangerous reckless things like doing nothing or eating
too much or notoriously sleeping with members of our own family. Hence, society
adapts the individual by repressing the pleasure principle (Neurosis).
➢ He describes conflict between 3 parts of mind – Id (driven by pleasure principle),
Superego (driven by desire to follow rule and do right things), ego
(accommodates both).
➢ Origin of neurosis is in childhood training. Society provides us with many resources
but it does so by putting heavy restriction upon us. In short society is neurotic
in nature.
Personality is derived from Latin word persona means mark or character. It is
an integrated and dynamic organization of physical, mental and social
qualities of the individual as that is manifested to other people.
1. Culture practices of people are reflections of their personality. Difference in
personality due to differences in culture.
2. Adult behavior is culturally patterned. Childhood rearing experiences
influences the individual’s personality as an adult which is reflected in the
cultural beliefs and social institutions.
3. Interdisciplinary – psychology
4. Examines the influences of socialization practices on personality and vice versa.

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5. Emphasis on participant observation, interviews, questionnaire, etc. e.g. dream

analysis and life stories.
6. NCS
3 sub-schools of culture and personality:
1. Personality influences culture: Ruth Benedict
2. Culture influences personality: Margaret Mead
3. Culture influence personality and vice-versa: Ralph Linton, Abram
Kardiner, Cora-Do-Bois

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1.2 RUTH BENEDICT

She Propounded theory of configurational personality. Developed concept of ‘culture
pattern’ in her book “Pattern of culture”. Personality influences culture. We should try
to understand the way culture is patterned
1. In her thesis on topic “The concept of Guardian spirit in North America”,
she attempted to show that among North American contemporary societies, people
have in mind a concept of Guardian spirit. This guardian spirit commands every
kind of respect and is held responsible for joys and sorrows. Thus, guardian spirit
moulds the behaviour pattern of the group members. Such pattern can be
seen in performances of rites, rituals, ceremonies, festivals etc. which
form the part of cultural practices of a particular group.
2. In her book “Pattern of Culture (1934)”, Benedict talks about culture as a
functional whole. When many traits and complexes of culture become integrated
into functional whole, they form culture pattern. E.g.:- Gandhism, Spiritualism,
Caste system, Joint family system.
Cultural trait C. Complex C. Pattern
Pattern refers to society’s underlying values of existence. It is the way of
arrangement of traits and complexes. A common trend or shared value in all the
aspect of cultural trait brings about integration. The grand design that appears
due to way of arrangement is called as configuration.

➢ For example: Indian culture (Pattern) can be divided into:

o Cultural traits: Dowry, age of marriage, rituals, etc.
o Culture complex: Marriage, joint family ( comprises common kitchen,
common residence, common property)
Culture pattern: When we talk of Indian culture, we talk of cultural pattern which is
the cause of personality shared by all members of culture
3. The wholes that are formed due to pattern is because of ‘special
geniuses’. It is the special genius that brings about cultural integration. It is the
tendency seen in all the aspect of cultures. According to Benedict it is of two kinds

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❖ Apollonian – refers to Greek god Apollo having quality such as peace,

kindness, harmony, discipline and restrain/control.
❖ Dionysian – related to Greek god Dionys who is luxurious, arrogant and has
qualities like anger, violence, unrestrained, megalomaniac.
➢ Applying this approach Benedict looked at different societies and described them
in terms of their basic personality configurations. Pointing out how these
personality types fit in with the overall culture. In her monograph Patterns of
Culture (1934) she discussed, through literature, contrastive personality
types between Zuni of the Southwest America and Kwakiutl of the
Northeast Coast of North America.
• Pueblo Zuni (new Mexico) – live in resource rich area, they’re less
inventive and respect traditions. Individualism is absent and they work for
group (Apollonian genius). Hence their culture reflects these personality
trait such rituals and magic is for group and common welfare. Benedict shows
how this basic personality was reenforced in child rearing practices. The child
rearing practices are designed to suppress individuality. Leadership is
ignored and priest plays low key role. Competition and conflict are absent.
Peace, loving and disciplined.
• Dobu (Indonesia) – is a society with Dionysian genius. It is
characterized by combat, conflict, competition and violence. They’re
paranoid, secretive and treacherous. Dobu practiced magic to protect their
crops and their lives from thefts and poisoning as they believed their
neighbors and kinsman would try to kill them.
• Kwakiutl – materialist in nature. They don’t believe in religion. The wealth
brings to them the status and prestige. They try to assert their position
through organizing ‘potlatches’. In this redistribution ceremonies the chief
boast their position and shamed their rivals.
In this way, both the personalities direct and mould the behavior pattern of members
of their representative groups which ultimately shape the culturally specific
characteristic of concerned cultural group.

1.2.1 Anthropology & Abnormal

According to Benedict, concept of abnormal is culturally dependent. [the
culture provides a framework and if an individual finds a place in it, it is considered to
be abnormal]. Morality or normality is a convenient term for socially
accepted and established behaviors. Abnormal in one culture can be normal in
other. For e.g. for Dobus, rationality and friendship behavior considered as mental
illness.
We should see our culture not from a view that we have become a necessary pinnacle
of human achievement but one entry in the long series of possible adjustments.

1.2.2 Criticism
1. Moris Opler criticizes her idea of two geniuses as vague and limited.

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2. She was criticized for misrepresenting Zunis by overlooking discordant

elements.
3. She doesn’t explain the causality for the special genius.
4. Ahistorical nature.
5. She couldn’t explain variations as 2 geniuses but multiple cultural
practices. She didn’t take into consideration individual variations.

1.2.3 Conclusion
Benedict was one of the first woman anthropologists along with Mead. Her theories of
culture pattern and different types of personality influenced many social scientists.

1.3 MARGARET MEAD

Like Benedict, she was also a Student of Franz boas. Influenced by Sapir. Supported
Ruth benedict through her book “Coming of age in Samoa”. Studied the Impact of
culture on personality by conducting cross-cultural researches in American and
foreign societies.

1.3.1 Coming of Age in Samoa (1928)

Boas gave dissertation to Mead because he then disagreed with the prevalent view of
adolescent psychological development provided by American psychologist G. Stanley
Hall. Hall believe adolescent was necessarily a time of tension and stress for all the
youth because of biological transition.
Mead, in her study of Samoans rejected this. According to Mead, the behavioral
changes in adolescent are related to child-rearing practices not biology. In
Samoa, 68 girls in age group of 8-20, for them adolescent or biological changes
due to puberty was not a significant event in their life. Samoan girls show little
evidence of emotional upheaval and rebelliousness during adolescent. And hence, the
transition didn’t involve any significant behavioral changes.
Among Samoans, the cultural mood is less emotional. Birth, death, sex and
pregnancy are not hidden from children, instead are frequently talked about. Pre-
marital sex was considered natural and didn’t demand strong emotional involvement.
Adolescent was, thus, not marked by storm and stress. The casualty of attitude
towards pubic events was due to the child-rearing practices of Samoans.

1.3.2 Growing up in New Guinea

In this book, Margaret Mead wanted to challenge the belief propounded by French
scholars that animistic ingredients in primitive mentality were similar to childish
thought ways and hence, would be more pronounced in primitive children than

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parents. Mead found that child is less animistic in Manus than parents,
even less than children in USA. Manu children are taught primitive beliefs
such as importance of ghosts and belief in ancestors’ spirits that made them more
animistic as they grow. If seen according to western psychological standard, Manu
children could be more rational than parents and to become normal adults they’re
socialized to be superstitious

1.3.3 Sex and temperament in three primitive society

Sex and temperament in three primitive society in Arapesh, Mundugumor and
Tchambuli (in Samoa, Papua New Guinea), was important because at that time
in USA, sex role viewed by man and women as inevitable, natural characteristics of
gender differences. Mead showed that these behaviors pattern were actually shaped
up by the culture.

1.3.4 Mead’s study in Indonesia

Mead and Betson conducted fieldwork in Bali among the community of Bagong
Gede. They documented the way of life that is based on orientation. Each man’s
place in the social scheme of his village is known. The status differences
were reflected in space, for e.g. superior person sleeps inside of the house as
compared to person of lower status. Vertical elevation also depicts the status. But the
most important contribution of this study was use of documentaries and photographs
in support of written ethnography.

1.3.5 CRITICISM
1. Derek Freeman in his book The Making and Unmasking of Anthropological
myth argued that Mead presented a distorted version of Samoan society.
She greatly underestimated the complexity of Samoan culture assuming them to be
very simple. It is mainly because of lack of command in Samoan language.
2. Mead went to Samoa with Pre-conceived notion of showing culture not biology
determines human behaviors.

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3. Derek Freeman in his re-study of Samoan villages found opposite of what Mead
has describe like strict virginity complex, instances of rape.
4. The process involved in data collection also has been questioned.

1.3.6 CONCLUSION
Mead represents a paradigm shift in discourse of Anthropology; her entry marks the
beginning of a revolution through which female representation will not only be
registered but also appreciated. Her anthropological studies form the basis of future
feminism movement and will help in the empowerment of women.

1.4 CULTURE IMPACTS PERSONALITY AND VICE-VERSA

1.4.1 RALPH LINTON

Started his career as archeologist. He was considered as one of the founders of ‘Basic
personality structure theory’. In his book Concept of Culture, Linton tried to
integrate the idea of Franz Boas and R. Brown. According to him individual interacts
in defined social context with other individual. The network of learned and
shared behaviors (their Culture) creates and maintain a
society/community. He conceived of culture as both Overt (open to observation)
and Covert (having an inferred context of values, emotions, attitude).

1. Status and Role

In his book ‘Study of Man (1936)’ He developed the idea of status and role to
deal with discrete elements as well as integrated aspect of society. Status refers to the
place or position of an individual in society. Role refers to the behavioral aspects
related to a status. Whenever we interact, there is some personality to play due to the
specific status (Status personality). These are personality specific to
interaction of people related to specific position in the society. Status and
role may be specialized or universalized depending on weather they’re shared member
or only by a segment of society.

2. Personality mediation view

Each society has some basic culture which is experience by all the
members like similar process of socialization and child rearing. This is
responsible for shared personality of members of society.
Primary institution -> Basic personality -> secondary institutions.
Basic personality is shared by all of the society’s members as a result of early
experiences which they have in common. It does not correspond to total
personality but is a subset of it. Common elements of status personality found in
a group of persons is considered as the basic personality type of society.

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He differentiated b/w basic personality and status personality:

Basic personality Status personality

Common set of values and Standardized cultural role
behaviors shared by all members due performed by different individual due to
to similar type of socialization and difference in their status. E.g. Indian
culture tradition caste system

3. Culture
According to Linton , culture is sum total of knowledge, attitude and natural behaviour
pattern, shared and transmitted by member of a particular society. He also classifies
b/w:
• Real culture (actual behaviour of people)
• Ideal culture - (philosophical and traditional treated as ideals)
• Cultural construct ( what is written about culture)
Culture is a product of need. It is satisfaction of need which maintain survival of man
and culture. Need: psychic need and Biological need e.g. baby needs mother not
only for survival but affection..
Some cultural traits are followed by all members (universal) while others are shared
only by some members.

4. Concept of cultural background of personality

In his book ‘The Cultural Background of personality (1945)’ Divided culture
into overt and covert

• Overt is what is seen, open, public, actual society and behaviour of its
members.
• Covert: hidden , consists of values, ideas, beliefs, and norms. Hidden in
psychological aspect which gives real meaning to cul ture . They are not seen
and to be inferred from human behaviour . All psychological elements came under

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covert culture which is known s culture core. Every culture has core consisting of
central values. It is around this core entire personality is build up .
Overt has 2 categories
o Material culture: tools, artefacts, houses
o Kinaesthetical culture: behaviour among people
combined together give rise to overt culture.

5. But what Ruth benedict called culture complex and cultural pattern,
Linton called it culture core . Thus changed the name.
• If personality changes substantially ,core is affected through which culture
disintegrates. Thus, for him culture and personality both affect each other.
• However, periphery open to change. Called as cores periphery hypothesis
• Core periphery hypothesis important study of social change. Linton also
considered culture having personality like benedict and mead.

1.4.2 ABRAM KARDINER

He was a psychoanalyst by profession. He developed interest in ‘Ego’ and its
adaptive mediation of biological drive and institutional discipline. He saw
individuals living in a set of environmental and socio-structural constraints and the
basic problem of individual development as culturally specific means available for
adaptation of Ego to these constraints.
His key insight was cultural values derived from and provide compensation for
institutionalized constraints.

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Concept of Basic Personality

In his book Psychological Frontier of Society, he deals with the concept of basic
personality. Basic personality doesn’t correspond to total personality but certain
value attitude system that are basic to all the individuals. It refers to integration of
childcare and training with social institutions and values (i.e. cultural
influences). Ego is the sight of integration. According to Kardiner, basic personality
is formed by the primary institutions. BP refers to adaptive psychological
skills shared by all or most members.
o Primary institutions: concerned with disciplining, gratifying and inhibiting
the infant and young child. It helps in the formation of individual ego and ego
in adapting to these institutions generate secondary institutions.
o Secondary institutions - where basic personality finds its
manifestation. E.g. religion, myth, art , political system, taboo. Which satisfy
needs and tension created by primary institutions.
Kardiner’s concept of ‘Basic Personality type’ can be understood better by going
through the example of Marquesas, a Polynesian Island Culture.

Marquesas (long starvation) -> female infanticide(2:5) -> Polyandry -> attitude on
emphasis on women maintaining erotic beauty in order to representable to all men
and deemphasis on relation b/w mother and child -> shared hatred towards
women -> women in their rituals, myths are portrayed as heartless, wicked,
cannibals and seductress.
Cultural change – change in Primary institution -> change in Basic personality ->
alters secondary institutions.
In his book The Mark of Oppression, Kardiner highlight his observation on
American negros. He identifies common personality traits that negros developed in
order to cope up with racial discrimination. There is a congruence b/w childhood
experience and expressive culture

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Kardiner in his interpretation of Talana community of Madagascar found

ancestor spirit a secondary institution clearly reflecting the relationship b/w
father and son. Sons are trained to be obedient to father following the expectation that
they would inherit the father’s land. Later due to shift to wet rice cultivation there was
increase in economic insecurity and which led to decline of joint families. The sons
couldn’t expect the same benefits now. The basic personality was hostility b/w son and
father. It led to believes in malevolent ancestral spirit.

Criticism
1. It is not necessary that modal or basic personality is totally the outcome of
childhood experiences only. Complete lifetime of individual has an impact on the
basic.
2. The other functions of primary institutions are neglected. It appears that the
primary institutions have no other function but to form the personality.
3. Cannot account for existing differences among primary institutions and provide
no solution to why some societies practice patrilineal and some matrilineal.

1.4.3 CORA-DU-BOIS
With support of Kardiner, she travelled to Allore in Indonesia, she learned their
language and mastered it well enough to translate songs, lyrics, etc.
Methodology - she collected rich materials from Allorys like biographies and life
histories, children drawing and dreams and certain psychological test like Ink
blot test (Rorschach) and Thematic Perception Test (TAT).

1.4.4 Modal Personality

She asked three scholars to analyse this data w/o any ethnographic data and w/o any
consultation with one another, all of them projected shallowness of Allorys
emotional life insecurity, apathy and suspicion in their attitude. Cora-Du-Bois
reached her conclusion by pooling responses from all the individual scholars and
averaging them. She provided an important modification of idea of basic personality
[chief shortcoming of basic personality was it allowed for little variations among
cultural populations].
She replaced the idea of basic personality with modal personality i.e. most
personality feature or that is shared by majority not all. Shared childhood
training practices led to the formation of modal personality. Childhood institutions did
affect the personality but there could be significant variations among members of adult
populations. The idea of modal personality gave room for individual
differences w/o weakening the argument that each culture can produce a
distinctive personality type.

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1.4.5 Criticism
1. It is not necessary that modal or basic personality is totally the outcome of
childhood experiences only. Complete lifetime of individual has an
impact on the basic or modal personality.
2. The other functions of primary institutions are neglected. It appears that the
primary institutions have no other function but to form the personality.
3. The criteria for categorizing the institutions as primary or secondary aren’t
clearly mentioned.
4. They cannot account for difference among primary institutions as they
disregard historical analysis of culture.
5. Ignored the influence of genetics and environment on personality.

1.4.6 Conclusion
• Female anthropologist.
• Busting the myth of biological determinism.
• Foundation of feminist movement in future.

1.5 NATIONAL CHARACTER STUDIES

National character refers to relatively functional personality that are
prototype among the adult member of a society. It is the sum total of habits
and attitudes, desire and inclinations, views and opinions, motive and standards,
beliefs and ideas and hopes and aspiration of an individual which he shares with other
member of his nation. According to Hans Kohn, life in a common territory subject to
same influences of history and legal system produces certain common attitudes called

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as national character. They’re so widespread and influential in a nation that they

mould its image both in the mind of nations and in that of the others.
During WWII, anthropologist developed the idea that their concerns with culturally
developed personality had equal relevance to understand differences among nations.
They believe that careful evaluation of characteristics common to significant segment
of population of the nation involved in conflict could lead to more meaningful analysis
of socio-political development occurring within these nations.

1.5.1THE CHRYSANTHEMUM AND THE SWORD

Ruth Benedict used this idea to study the national character of Japan (on
request of US office of war information) since this study is conducted during war
period, first hand access to Japan was not possible hence, Benedict took help from
secondary sources like biographies, interviews from individual who has
firsthand experience of Japan like POW, Japanese immigrants and US
officials. Hence, such kind of research came to be known as study of culture at a
distance.
She wrote the book The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. Japan culture has two
methods of rearing of individual. During childhood an individual in Japanese
culture is given love, freedom, care and cooperation but as soon as he/she
reaches the period of adolescent, strict discipline is imposed. In The title of
the book chrysanthemum refers to the national flower, it symbolizes socialization of
Japanese child. When children blossom like flower, they have to face the situation of
utter strain as a result they become aggressive and violent.
Benedict on her study based on Eurasian nations, warned against
democratization of middle east and Eurasian nations. It was because they
typically have effective local governance supported by clan loyalty. According to
benedict these institutions will effectively resist any incursion from national govt. in
her analysis an advice related to Japan benedict argued for retaining the office of
emperor as a locus of stability in Japanese society. She showed that how Japanese
culture honor bound to their emperor and this knit together the
hierarchical social fabric. The emperorship is deeply embedded institution in the
culture and customs.

1.5.2 KEEP YOUR POWDER DRY

Margaret mead distinguish two approaches to understand national character. First,
analysis of relation b/w basic learning relation common to children within a nation
and characteristics witnessed in behaviors of adults within the society. Second, pattern
and structures of inter-personal relations – sanctions operating throughout the society
to reenforce the behavioral patterns.
In her book ‘Keep Your Powder Dry – An Anthropologist Look at America’ she didn’t
find difference in the baby of America to that of Japan and Russia. The
difference starts with beginning of school education.

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1.5.3 Geoffrey Goger

Geoffery Gorer tried to asses Russian national character by understanding the
childhood experiences. According to him, Russian individuals’ attitude toward
the authority was because they were subjected to a prolonged Swaddling
during infancy. This feeling of constraint developed the modes of self-control and
limits the attitude of aggression Russian individual.

1.5.4 Significance of NCS

1. For foreign intelligence.
2. Used by corporate houses to promote their products.
3. Economically developed countries study national character to record the so-
called positive traits of their own national character for e.g. Devos analyses
motivation in both rural and urban Japan as a reason for development of Japan
post WWII. He relates it to hard work and internalization of guilt.
4. Economically under-developed countries look forward to national character
responsible for slowing down the development.
5. No effective economic and political planning can be devised w/o proper
understanding of national character.

1.5.5 Criticism
1. Generalizations.
2. Set a ground for new type of racism based on NCS.
3. Ethnocentric in nature and creates stereotypes.
4. Creates a static picture of personality.

1.5.6 questions
1) Critically discuss the characteristics of the psychological types in the cultures
of the American South-West as observed by Ruth Benedict. (20M---2024)
2) Discuss studies. political and methodological aspects of national character
Elucidate the contemporary relevance of such studies. (15M---2023)
3) Critically discuss the controversies related to fieldwork of Bronislaw
Malinowski and Margaret Mead. (20M---2023)
4) Discuss various anthropological approaches to the study of personality and
culture. (20 M -2020)
5) What do you understand by the National character Study? Illustrate. (15 M -
2018)
6) Explain Ruth Benedict’s patterns of culture. (20 M -2017)
7) Discuss the relationship between culture and personality. (2008)
8) Critically discuss the contributions of Ruth Benedict to the study of
culture.(2004)
9) Discuss the contributions of Margaret Mead and Ralph Linton to the analysis
of the relationship between culture and personality. (2001)
10) Discuss the contribution of Ralph Linton, Cora-Du-Bois and Abraham
Kardiner in the study of personality. (1999)

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11) Culture- Personality (1996)

12) Model Personality (Cultural personality school) (1992)

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2 NEO EVOLUTIONISM
In 1930’s evolutionism reemerged in American Anthropology. The proponents tried to
revive the work of Morgan and Tylor, considered theoretically irrelevant especially by
followers of Boas. They believe that all the weaknesses of the Classical evolutionism
can be solved if it is accepted that culture develop not in unilinear sequences
but in the form of parabolic curve.

A cultural stage is born in a specific form, it develops in entirely different form and
later it moves to the original form but in a more sophisticated manner. The
neo evolutionist were concerned with causes of change in a culture. Their
causal explanation was materialism (in contrast to historical and idealist),
changes in the modes of production have consequences in other arenas of
culture.
One of the neo evolutionist categorized evolutionist in 3 classes:
1. Unilinear – Tylor, Morgan, Frazer
2. Universal – concerned about evolution of culture of mankind as a whole and
not about specific culture – Gordon Childe, Leslie White
3. Multilinear – Julian Steward – it projects that culture can have different path
to reach the same stage of development. [parallel of limited occurrence]

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2.1 UNIVERSAL EVOLUTIONISM

2.1.1 GORDON CHILDE

Gordon Childe was a trained archeologist and was influenced by Tylor and Morgan.
Childe’s earliest work on European pre-history, argued that cultural
innovation such as agriculture and metallurgy developed in Egypt and
Mesopotamia and later spread through trade and migration to pre-historic Europe.
He argued against popular notion that saw European civilization as racially and
culturally pure. Childe says that Europe benefited from external influences from near
east and reconfigured him such a way that student soon surpassed the teacher.
In his book ‘Social Evolution’, he highlights 3 major events in mankind
development
o Invention of food production
o industrialization
o urbanization.
He compared the stages of cultural development with archeological period.

Archeological Periods Stages of Cultural Development

Paleolithic age Savagery

Neolithic age Barbarism
Copper age Higher Barbarism
Bronze age Civilization
Changes in culture is directly proportional to aggressive attitude to the environment.
At each stage mankind develop technological skill to exploit natural
resources. Societies lived in different historical environment and had passed
through different ups and downs due to which their traditions have diverged as a result
multiplicity has emerged.

2.1.1.1Criticism
1. Necessity of the order of the stages is matter of dispute. Each step may
not always be a pre-condition for the next one. Kroeber argued that invention
of bronze casting or discovery of copper before iron casting was just accident of
history.
2. The reason for primacy of technology is not explained by Gordon Childe.
3. Doesn’t take into consideration the universal existing institutions of
matriarchy, sexual promiscuity, etc. w/o giving any argument.
4. He relied too much on archeological data on forming cultural theories.
5. According to Steward, the cultural sequences proposed by White and
Childe were so general that they were neither arguable nor useful.
6. Hangover of ‘progress’ is still there.

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2.1.2 LESLIE WHITE

White was a student of Boas, later became anti-Boasian. He was interested in
developing a universal scheme of evolution. In his book The Science of Culture he
attempted to study cultural evolution in terms of technology and scientific
development.
He proposes that culture advances as the amount of energy harnessed per
capita per year increases or the efficiency or economy of means of
controlling energy increases. This law can be symbolized as E x T = C where E
refers to economy/efficiency of energy use, T refers to technological development, C
refers to cultural advancement.
For him culture is a mechanism of harnessing energy and putting it to work on service
of man. Culture is a survival mechanism and energy are required to provide
the man with necessities for his continued existence. He provided a layer cake
model of culture. He divided culture into 3 sub-system they are:
Ideological aspect

Socialization

Technological aspect

➢ Ideological – composed of ideas, beliefs, knowledge expressed either in articulate

form or in symbolic form.
➢ Socialization – made up of interpersonal relations composed in pattern of
behaviors.
➢ Technological – composed of mechanical, physical and chemical instrument
together with the techniques of their use, by means of which man as an animal
survives in the habitat.
According to white, the technological subsystem is the foundation on which
social and ideological system are raise for e.g. Technology and female
beauty. In cultures where technological control over food supply is limited and food
is frequently scare with women having little work, a fat women will be considered
beautiful while in culture where food is abundant and women work little, obesity is
like to be regarded as unsightly. Social organization relation can be symbolized as N
[nutrition] x P [protection] x R [reproduction] = S [social organization]

2.1.2.1 Science of Culture (1949)

Culture depends on man for its existence but can be analyzed as a system in itself. Man
need not be considered a variable in the system. The developmental argument of White
proposes a deterministic approach for cultural evolution. New cultural forms
develop out of preceding cultural forms regardless of the roles of the

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individuals for e.g. calculus was invented by both Newton and Leibnitz but
Calculus wasn’t something that was created from thin air by either man but was a
crystallization of previously existing culturally relevant knowledge.
Moreover, it would have been developed even if both the man had died as infant.
A science of culture should be concerned with general principle and should not be
interested defining specific cultural traits but instead in understanding general
cultural pattern, particular cultures vary among themselves in specific forms but all
are alike in general respect that is all have tools, language, customs, beliefs, etc. the
science of culture therefore shall concern itself with the general culture of mankind.

2.1.2.2 Criticism
1. White’s three categories of culture prioritize technologies because it is essential to
capture and transform energy for survival of humans but humans do not rely
on technological means to obtain energy directly from environment for
e.g. Breastfeeding requires learned behavior for infant and mother. If breastfeeding
(one of the learned behaviors) is the most elementary form of energy transfer then
why can’t system of symbols rather than technology constitute the foundation of
culture.
2. How would a culture be evaluated if energy conservation is the goal of it.
3. Ignoring differential evolutionary paths of particular societies.
4. Ignoring environmental factor’s role in evolution; resulted in Steward theory.
5. Sahlin criticized him as he held that material progress could not be equated with
good quality of life.

2.1.2.3 Conclusion (common to White and Childe)

White’s adaptational and utilitarian views of culture influence a large number of
schools in anthropology. However, white’s major contribution to anthropology was not
only to propose a particular theory of culture but to reintroduce theory building as a
creative anthropological enterprise.

2.2 MULTILINEAR EVOLUTION

2.2.1 JULIAN STEWARD

Steward’s idea was a bridge b/w boas’ historical particularism and cultural
evolutionism. On one hand steward criticize boas arguing that clear similarities b/w
different culture could be explained as parallel adaptation to similar natural
environment on the other hand he believes that not all societies pass through
same stages of development.
He centralized his attention on “cultural ecology” and multilinear evolution. He
divided evolution into three types
Unilinear – same sequence and direction due to PUOM. E.g. Tylor, morgan
Universal – evolution of culture of mankind as a whole. E.g. white and Childe

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Multilinear - culture evolved in multiple direction. Each culture has its own
characteristics owing to its unique environmental conditions.

2.2.1.1 Multilinear evolution

In his book ‘Theory of Culture Change’ (1955) he proposed the idea of ME. Two
key concepts of ME are:
1. Genuine parallels of form and functions developed in historical
independent sequences.
2. It explains these parallels by independent operation of identical causes in each
case.
He proposes that entire journey of societies can’t be shared but similarities b/w them
can be explained w/o assuming that all societies have passed through identical stages
of development. Multilinear evolution deals only with those limited parallels of
form, function and sequence that have developed due to same causes. For
this we have to find cultures in the same environment and same socio-
culture complexity. They should be widely separated to avoid diffusion. Then our
focus should be to find the parallel adaptations (similar response similar
environment).
For example, Steward compares the pre-historic pattern of development in 5
independent centers of ancient civilizations i.e. Mesopotamia, Egypt, China,
Mexican and Andes. These centers shared parallels based on having developed
in arid and semiarid environment. Economic basis here was agriculture with
flood water irrigation. Agriculture created surplus that allowed for no-
subsistence activities and population growth. When population growth reached the
limits of agriculture productivity, competition over natural resources intensifies, this
led to warfare and the political power from shifted from temple priest to warrior
kings as some communities prospered and other suffered, empires were created that
had control over vast region.

2.2.1.2 Culture Ecology

Culture ecology is the study of processes by which society adapts to its environment.
It studies the interaction all social and natural phenomenon within an area. It
postulates that environmental adaptations depends on technology, needs
and structure of the society and on the nature of environment. According to
steward, not all the feature of given ecology are relevant to a sociocultural system. Not
all the elements of the culture are equally affected by ecology. The focus of
anthropologist is to determine those elements of culture which utilize habitats,
these elements are called Culture Core. Three steps to determine culture core:
1. The natural resources and the technology available to extract them.
2. Behavior patterns involved in exploitation of particular area by particular
technology must be analyzed.
3. How these behavior pattern affect other aspect of culture must be determined.

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These three steps help in identification of culture core (the constellation of feature
which are most closely related to subsistence activities and economic
arrangement). He proposed that economic system is more closely related to
environment and other institutions are related to economic system as they are not
directly related to environment. E.g. political system, religion, etc.
Steward studied Shoshone community (in his book Changes in Shoshonean
Indian Culture) living in The Great Basin Region. The fundamental pattern of
Shoshone society was derived from the fact that pursuits concerned with problem of
daily existence dominated their activities. Limited natural resources, simple
technology and seasonal movement was the general model of hunting
gathering society (this emerged due to Shoshone study).
This model emphasize egalitarianism in bands. Steward outlines the parallel b/w
Shoshone, Busman of Africa, San tribe of Africa and Semang of
Malaysia. He proposed that they exhibit similar adaptation due to living in same
environment.

2.2.1.3 Criticism
1. The idea of culture core is confusing. It is very difficult to delineate those
elements of culture which directly or indirectly utilize habitat.
2. According to Steward, similar environment when exploited with similar
technology will create parallels of limited occurrences b/w two culture but
there are different culture practices of people living in the same
environment.
3. They have been criticized by ecological anthropologist as they argue that it’s not
only the culture but both the culture and human adaption.
4. White criticized steward for confusing history with evolution because history is
concerned with particulars while evolution seeks to generalize.

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2.3 MARSHALL SAHLINS

According to Sahlins economic behaviors was enmeshed in other domain of social life
rather than governed by universal formalist laws. In his book ‘Original Affluent
Society’ he proposed that hunter gatherers are first (original) affluent society of the
world. Hunter gatherer societies rather than being doomed to wander endlessly to
escape from starvation, were in fact affluent, it is because their material needs are
satisfied not by producing much but by desiring little and enjoying an unparalleled
material plenty.
In his book ‘social stratification in Polynesia’ sahlins argued that there is a
positive correlation b/w society’s degree of stratification and its level of productivity.
In his article ‘Poor Man Rich Man Big Man Chief’, sahlins argues that big man
qualities have an internal self-regulating feature that inhibits their
development to chiefdoms. As big man polity become larger there are increased
demand on follower to provide more resources, discontent inevitably rises and the big
man’s support evaporate. Thus, the effort to expand big man political system
leads to their fragmentation and collapse.
In his book ‘Stone Age Economics’, sahlins explores cultural patterns which shapes
or limits various dimensions of ‘progress’. In societies where the economies organized
by domestic group or kinship relations, household have an internal anti-surplus
principle, in this once the household needs are met there is no incentive to produce
more. These households would produce much less than they could, labor power would
be underused, technological means are fully engaged and natural resources are left
untapped.

2.4 ELMAN SERVICE

Elman Service defined four classifications of the stages of social evolution which
are also the four levels of political organization these are Bands -> Tribe ->
chiefdoms -> State. He proposed managerial benefits theory which states that
chiefdom like society developed because it was apparently beneficial because of
centralized leadership. The leader provides benefits to the followers and this keeps the
ruler in power, this allows the bureaucratic organization to grow which then leads to
development of state.

2.5 RECONCILIATION OF STEWARD AND WHITE (SAHLINS AND SERVICE)

Sahlins and Service in their book ‘Evolution and Culture (1960)’ propose that
biological and cultural evolution are similar and evolution moves in two directions in
same time. Evolution causes both diversity and progress.

• Diversity because the new form arises out of the old one due the difference in
environment.
• Progress – new complex cultural forms are created stage by stage.

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They call the evolution by diversity as specific evolution and by progress as

general evolution. General evolution was pursued by L. White who was concerned
with long term evolutionary progress of mankind as a whole. Specific evolution was
pursued by Steward who was concerned with local adaptation of culture in specific
ecology. Hence, White and Steward are not antagonistic/contradictory but
complimentary.
However, idea of sahlins and service was criticized as they brought back in cultural
evolution which was ethnocentric.

2.5.1 MARVIN HARRIS

A better reconciliation b/w white and steward was done by Marvin Harris in his book
Rise of Anthropological Theories. He gave the idea of tech-economic
determinism and tech environmental determinism. It says that similar
technology applied to similar environment tend to similar arrangement of labor in
production and distribution and that, in turn call for similar kind of social groupings
which justifies and coordinate their activities by means of similar system of values and
beliefs.
Tech-economic determinism + Tech-environmental determinism

Socialization

Codes, Norms, Beliefs, Moral values

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3 CULTURAL MATERIALISM
Cultural Materialism is based on a simple premise that human social life is a
response to practical problems of earthly existence. Reaction against strictly
emic approach of cultural relativist and idealist (structuralism). According to
materialist, material reality creates consciousness.
Human beings form ideas under the influence of material circumstances. Such ideas
then compel them to adapt to the circumstances. As the productive technology
changes, people’s relationship with each other also changes. Social progress is
driven by progress in material condition (economy, technology, demography).
[historical materialism]
Cultural materialism explains cultural similarities and differences as well as models
for cultural change within a societal framework consisting of three distinct levels;
Infrastructure, structure and superstructure. He was influenced by neo
evolutionist like white and Steward.

SUPERSTRUCTURE
Religion, Myth, Art,
Philosophy

STRUCTURE
1. Domestic Econonomy - family
kinship, gender roles)
2. Political economy -
organisation, caste, class

INFRASTRUCTURE
1. Mode of Production - technology, economic
system,etc.
2. Mode of Reproduction - Demography

• Infrastructure refers to material reality for production and reproduction, w/o

which society can’t survive.
• Structure refers to organizational aspects of culture: political economy
(relationship formed b/w public and govt. when public policy is enacted) and
domestic economic (theory of household management)

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• Superstructure refers to religious, ideological and intellectual aspects of culture

According to CM, all are functionally related; infrastructure determines/moulds
social structure and superstructure. In other words, structure and
superstructure exist to maximize the mode of production and reproduction. (e.g.
Women in post WWII economy and “cultural ecology of India’s Sacred cattle”.)
Marvin Harris in his field work of Mihas vilhas of Brazil, he talks about the growth
of an isolated gold rush settlement which quickly become regional center. There
was establishment of urban ethos due to infrastructural changes. He observed that
once the society reach the stage of technological and social organization in which a
large no. of people can be freed from producing activities, there is little likelihood of
reverting to more homogenous arrangement.
CM emphasize on Etic approach (scientific method focus on observable and
quantitative cultural aspects) to explain cultural change. Etic modes of production
and reproduction determine emic superstructure.
According to Harris, aim of CM to create pan human science of society whose findings
can be accepted on logic and evidential grounds by pan human society.

3.1.1 Pattern of Race in America

Marvin Harris in this book explains economic origin of racism. According to Marvin
Harris, racism is a superstructural belief that maximize infrastructure by
justifying and providing cheap labor from ‘inferior races’.

3.1.2 Rise of Anthropological Theory

He gave the idea of tech-economic determinism and tech environmental
determinism. It says that similar technology applied to similar environment tend to
similar arrangement of labor in production and distribution and that, in turn call for
similar kind of social groupings which justifies and coordinate their activities by means
of similar system of values and beliefs.
Tech-economic determinism + Tech-environmental determinism

Socialization

Codes, Norms, Beliefs, Moral values

1. Prohibition of consumption of pigs in Muslims: Harris explains

prohibition as sound ecological strategy. People living in the middle eastern
region can’t raise pigs in arid habitats. Pigs moreover are ill adapted to heat and
they tend to excrete in the pens indiscriminately. People living there, are better
suited to herd cattle.

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2. Cannibalism among Aztecs: he explains prevalence of cannibalism due to

scarcity of protein from domesticated animal sources. Hence, cannibalism is a
way of exploiting high quality of protein.
3. Sacred cow myth: how infrastructure produce sacred cow? The simple
answer is the need for oxen. Harris cites Vedic text describing beef eating past
but as the human population increase and grazing land converted to farm land,
beef became too expensive. Beginning in 5th century BC, religions developed
that banned killing of cows/cattle. Subsequently milk not meat became the
ritual food and cow worship became the part of Hinduism.
Oxen as a plough animal meant that cows were always necessary. Drought
animals are needed on small farms as mechanization is efficient on larger
farms. The poorest of India’s farmer are the real owners of the sacred cows.
Producing little milk (source of extra revenue) and occasionally ox, the cow is
cost efficient animal. This provides a sufficient reason for protection of cow
from slaughter.
4. Collapse of Soviet Union: according to Harris, the collapse was not due to
triumph of capitalism but due to degradation of infrastructure. In Soviet Union
per capita economic growth was zero or negative, grain production was
unchanged despite heavy investments and between 1970-87 output per unit of
input declined by 1% a year. Inadequate distribution system leads to the loss of
50% of harvest between farm to store.
At structural level the soviet command economy was producing
impediments. State owned factory budget was allocated on number of
employees rather than efficiency of production. Due to misalignment, structure
and superstructure with infrastructure, Soviet Union collapsed.

3.2 MAXINE MARGOLIS

Study of women’s role in post WWII American economy. The existing belief at
that point of time that women should work on household but a lot of women were
entering the workforce. This movement was actually an economic necessity to increase
the production capabilities, this led to ideological changes to suit infrastructural
norms.

3.3 CRITICISM
1. Marxist call the cultural materialist as the vague materialist as they try to
explain complex cultural phenomenon in term of simple mechanical theory.
Belief that superstructure favors the entire society is flawed. According to
Marxist the superstructure favors the capitalist and exploits the
labor class.
2. Cultural materialist relied too heavily on unidirectional change. However, the
change can be bidirectional for e.g. according to Max Webber the protestant
ethics was the reason for rise of capitalism.

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3. Scholars argue that the key to understand culture lies in the emic
thoughts (insider’s view) and behaviors of members of a native society.
4. Post modernist criticize of its strict scientific method and lacks flexibility in
its approach.

3.4 CONCLUSION
Although Marvin Harris gave an oversimplified understanding of a complex
phenomenon of a culture, his idea of understanding race and other aspects of
inequality through materialistic perspective was an eye opener for the academia. It
highlighted the ugly side of capitalism and industrial revolution. CM can be
credited with introduction of more scientific research methods in anthropology.

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4 SYMBOLIC AND INTEPRETIVE

This school of thought was reaction to all the positivist schools including
structuralism. According to this school, culture is seen as system of symbols. It
aims to study symbols in cultural context. Every culture provides a unique world
view. The essence of culture lies in our interpretation of events and things around us.
It provides meaning to our experiences. All the behaviors have a symbolic component
and all the participant must behave in ways that others could understand.

SYMBOLIC Interpretive INTEPRETIVE S y m b o l i c

Clifford Geertz Victor Turner
1. symbols are vehicle of culture Symbols are operators of social process
2. influenced by Max Webber Influenced by Emile Durkheim

4.1 CLIFFORD GEERTZ

4.1.1 Verstehen
Clifford Geertz was influenced by Max Webber’s idea of social action. According
to Max Webber, human vary their action according to social context and how it will
affect other people. People can reflect on how they can act. Individual has a free
will and it can’t be treated like matter.
An action is social as it is consciously performed, has some motivation and it affects
other people. In order to study the context of an action, Webber gave the idea of
Verstehen which means stepping into the shoes of actor, it helps us
understand meaning from actor’s POV. According to Webber, “unlike the objects in
natural world, humans aren’t simply the product of pulls and pushes of external
forces”. individual seen to create the world by organizing their own
understanding of it and giving it a meaning. Steps to understand actions:
1. Investigator should reconstruct the choices and constraints of the actor.
2. Investigator should come at the same wavelength with the actor.
3. He should then interact with the actor to understand the meaning attached.

4.1.2 Hermeneutics
This word is derived from Hermes who is a Greek god with job of delivering and
interpreting god’s message for humans. It is a methodology of interpretation. It
stresses upon narrative having meaning in the cultural context of the society. It is the
job of social researcher to discover those meaning.

4.1.3 Thick Description

Thick description is a way of writing that includes not only describing and
observation but also the context in which that behavior occurs. It is the close
analysis of a particular events so as to uncover the hidden meaning it has for the people
involved in it. The idea of thick description is associated with the work of Gilbert
Ryle. Ryle in his analogy of Wink and Blink, explains that the phenomenon’s
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thin description is simply movements of eyelids and the thick description would talk
about some hidden messages that a person wants to share with the other one.
According to Geertz, culture consist of symbol and what makes other cultures
different is a lack of familiarity with the meaning of those symbols. The goal
of anthropological analysis is to make those sign and symbols interpretable.
Verstehen Hermeneutics Thick description
According to Geertz, culture is historically transmitted pattern of meaning
embodied in symbols – a system of inherited conception by means of
which men communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge and
attitude toward life.

4.1.4 Javanese Funeral

Here Clifford Geertz distinguishes between cultural system and social system.
Cultural system is ordered system of meaning of symbols in terms of which
social interaction takes place. Social system refers to patterns of social
interaction. Both are functionally integrated. According to Geertz, culture is a fabric
of meaning in which human interpret their experience and guide their action.
Peasant religion in Java was a syncritic mix of Islam, Hinduism and animism.
However, post WWII this balance was upset due to rise of conservative Islamic
nationalism (Masjumi Political Party). It was opposed by secular Marxist
nationalism i.e. Permai political party. These differences were seen in Javanese
funeral. In general, the mood of Javanese funeral doesn’t involve formalized cries but
is calm, undemonstrative (Iklas).
In this case a 14-year-old boy from a household who had Permai political poster on its
door died. Village religious leader refused to perform final rites citing the presence of
permai political poster, he said that he can’t perform the final rites as the boy belong
to another religion. Due to this Ikla composer broke down and was followed by
emotional chaos. Geertz explain this as failure of communication because
the religious symbol was understood as political system and vice versa. It
created incompatibility between cultural system of meaning and the pattern of social
interaction.

4.1.5 Religion
Meaning: -
✓ A system of symbols which acts to establish –
✓ Powerful, pervasive, long-lasting mood and motivation in man
✓ by creating a general order of existence
✓ Clothing the order of existence with an aura of factuality
✓ such that the moods and motivation seem uniquely realistic.
There are 3 critical thresholds through which religion gives meaning to our
experiences:
i. Threshold of Reason: satisfies our queries and curiosities.
ii. Threshold of suffering: give us the strength in pain/suffering

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iii. Threshold of evil: explains why does evil thrives in this world.

4.1.6 Balinese Cock Fight

Clifford Geertz in his essay Deep Play: Notes on Balinese Cock Fight, explains
cock fight as a cultural phenomenon.
• Cock fight here is illegal but widespread
• People deeply distaste animals and animal like behavior
• However, they have deep identifications with their cock (cock the animal and
male penis also)
• Gambling is the central part of the cock fight
• At stack is not just money but status, prestige, etc.
• It is the fight for status and the bets symbolizes the risk
• Men of high rank compete with one another by proxy through their cocks.
• When such rivalry occurs between individual of near and equal rank, the fight
becomes emotionally deep for the onlooker i.e. such fights are great social force
in imparting a sense of meaning to existing social relation.
• In these fights people loose rationality
• Fight isn’t between individuals but between social groups (like family,
lineage, clan, villages)
• People don’t bet against their own reference group.
Thick description of Balinese cock fight:
1. It’s a manifestation of social rivalry and way addressing rivalries.
2. Fight represents and also takes part in forming social structures.
3. The significance of the event was in its power to convey multiple messages
about cultural ethos in which the participants live. It talks about a society
characterized by status competition between individual sorted into
hierarchical and gendered rankings.
Rituals such as Balinese cock fight are a form of text that can be read as
society’s manner of speaking to itself and about itself.

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4.2 VICTOR TURNER

Turner borrowed Durkheim idea that social solidarity is a function of system of
symbolic logic that connects people. However, according to turner, social unity
is basically problematic and should not be taken for granted (whereas Durkheim
believe that primitive humankind came together due to innate psychological need for
togetherness). Turner argued that people are essentially forced to repeatedly construct
social life against those forces in the natural world that constantly threatened to
destroy it. Symbols are the instruments used to achieve or reproduce a
social order.

4.2.1 Symbols according to Turner

Symbols are operators in social processes. They instigate certain actions.
These operators by their arrangement and context produce social transformations
which ties people in a society to society’s norms, resolve conflict and aid in changing
the status of the actor.
Properties of symbols:
1. Multivocality – different meaning at different time.
2. Condensation – multiple meaning coming out at the same time.
E.g. Chising’a - it’s a shrine of the hunters, here fork stick is placed on ground
with a piece of earth from termite hill and a braid of grass. By this, the meaning
conveyed are social relationship b/w hunters and non-hunters, hunter’s family
and matricin, toughness of mind and body, love affection and pity toward
ancestors, fertility, fairness in distribution of food.
3. polarization of meaning. The meaning is divided into two extreme pole that
is restrictive in nature and a sensory pole i.e. persuasive in nature.

4.2.2 Rite of Passage and Liminality

Turner borrowed Van Gennep’s idea of Rite of passage. Van Gennep divided rite of
passage into three stages i.e. separation, transition and reintegration. Turner
introduced the idea of liminality and divided rites of passages into 3 stages as pre-
liminal, liminal and post-liminal.
Liminal phase represents the state b/w two phases, it is a stage of Limbo. In this
period all notions of social structure are undone. Individual seizes to occupy
any position within the social order and for that period considered as an outsider. This
is a period where all who’re experiencing together are equal. This creates a group called
as ‘communitas’ this group has intense community spirit, feeling of great
solidarity/social equality. It’s a characteristic of people experiencing liminality
together. It takes the community to a next level and allows the whole the community
to share a common experience through rite of passage

4.2.3 NKANG’A – Puberty ritual among Ndembu

There is a dominant symbol Mudyi tree or Milk tree among Ndembu. Mudyi tree is
equivalent of national flag in the puberty, girl was wrapped in a blanket and placed in
the foot of the tree, the Mudyi tree with its latex represents human breast milk
and breast. It symbolizes the connection b/w a mother and child,

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symbolizes a child swallowing instructions, symbolizes integration of women

into society and continuity of Ndembu into one generation into next.

4.2.4 Social conflicts among Ndembus

Ndembus are matrilocal or virilocal society. Father loyalty is torned b/w sister’s
offspring and wife’s offspring. Turner used the term social drama to analyze Ndembu
social conflict. In this his book ‘Schism & Continuity’ in an African society. Turner
explained social drama having 4 stages:
1. Breach or violation of a norm that governs social ties b/w individual.
2. Crisis i.e. extension of violation
3. Redressal i.e. measures brought into operation by leading members.
4. Schism or reintegration which leads to reestablishment of social order.
Turner plotted how conflict began with breach of a rule and escalate to the level of
crisis. Some process of adjustment then would occur that would result either in healing
the breach or public recognition of its unsolvable character. The entire society faces a
feeling of ‘communitas’ by submitting to a general authority of rituals. Mudyi tree
stands for unity and continuity in the Ndembu society (like a national flag)

4.3 DAVID SCHNEIDER

Culture is a system of symbols and symbol is something which stand for something
else. An anthropologist should be less interested in decoding individual symbols and
more interested in the idea that symbols constitute an autonomous system, within
these systems, certain symbols are central point of orientation on which everything
else depends these are called core symbols.

4.3.1 Kinship
Schneider examine the field of kinship. According to him, kinship is a cultural
system i.e. based on shared symbols and meaning. This form of analysis is
called culturalist approach of kinship studies.
Schneider suggested that blood was the core symbol of kinship in the USA. He
characterized kin ties as bonds with enduring solidarity. This kin solidarity was
derived from two cultural orders in USA.
1. Order of Nature (Blood)
2. Order of Law (Marriage)
These two orders produce 3 classes of kins –
1. Kin in nature alone – naturally born but illegitimate.
2. Kin in law alone – husband and wife adopt a child by law.
3. Kin by nature and law – through blood and marriage.
Here schneider was making an argument that natural basis of kinship in USA lies
mainly in blood or genetic ties.
However, in simple societies, blood ties and biological relationship are not
that important. Here he expressed his resentment against procreative model of

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kinship followed by earlier anthropologist. He called them as Eurocentric in nature. It

failed to take into account the practices in certain culture where kinship is a social
convention not a genetic relation. For e.g. in Yap society, pregnancy was
considered because of ghost, biological fatherhood was of no significance.
Here the social relationship was created by a process of interaction (order of doing) as
against the order of being.

4.4 CRITICISM
1. Objectivity of researcher is under question mark.
2. The approach is too subjective.
3. Validation is difficult in symbolic and interpretive approaches.
4. Crisis of representation critique – symbols are meant to represent a meaning
and meaning can be misinterpreted through various misleading. Hence,
it is difficult to generalize belief of one culture together.
5. Feminist critique – men dominate symbolism and interpretation of them.
Cock fight overlook the role of women in society and focuses too much on male
dominance.

4.5 CONCLUSION
Though symbolic and interpretive provide great insight into human understanding of
symbols embedded in culture and how it affects the way people think, it doesn’t
provide concrete idea to support it. However, it served to introduced how culture
should or could be studied.

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5 COGNITIVE ANTHROPOLOGY
AKA New Ethnography and Ethnolinguistic. It studies the relationship b/w human
society and human thought. Ethnographers sought to discover native’s POV.
This, adopting an emic approach.
Cognitive anthropologist believes that there are universal cognitive processes
that reflect an innate structure of human brain. According to them, culture is
a mental model and linguistic analysis is the best way to understand culture and
gain an insight about human thought.
The underlying assumption of this school is Culture is a set of mental models and
the job of the ethnographer was to duplicate the feature of the cognitive models
so that one could think like a native. An ethnographer model was presumed to be
correct if it allowed him/her to replicate the way a native categorize a phenomenon.
This subfield of anthropology is rooted in Boasian cultural relativism,
influenced by anthropological linguistics, and closely aligned with
psychological investigations of cognitive processes.

Difference between cognitive and symbolic

Cognitive anthropologist since dealing with human thought process invariably
focus on study of symbols. They consider the knowledge of cognitive process imparts
meaning to a symbol as their achievement. But according to symbolic
anthropologist their aim is to find out meaning of a symbol only. Thus,
cognitive anthropology is closer to psychology because it tries to understand
and explain how groups classify their thoughts.

5.1.1Theory of Mind
In order to duplicate the mental model, we need to step into the minds of the native.
Using theory of mind one can go beyond another person’s surface behaviors in order
to see a lot of invisible mental state. (e.g. appreciation of art, making a lie,
calculating moves in chess or any kind of conversation)
Because no one has direct access to another person’s mind, cognitive school of
anthropology relied heavily on technique of linguistic analysis. Here they were
inspired by Saphir-Whorf Hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, language
is not just a means of communication but also a force that shapes people’s perception
of the world. They argued that replicating classification system of any language
would give them the ability to view the world in the same way as native speakers of
that language. ex: Eskimos perception of colour of ice on water.

5.1.2 Idea of domain

The aim of ethnographic study is to discover native conceptual categories called
as domains. Domains are patterns of classification of object specific in a society. For
e.g. sofas, chairs and desk fall in the domain of furniture.

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Mental model

Duplicate the mental model of native (theory of mind)

Linguistic analysis (S-W hypothesis)

Native conceptual clarity (Domains)

Componential analysis

5.1.3 Componential analysis

Cognitive anthropologist then uses a technique called as componential analysis to
determine definite characteristics by which objects and idea in each domain are
sorted.

5.1.4 Schema theory

People conceptualize by reference to general mental prototype called schemas.
Schema is developed as a result of prior experience. We comprehend an event in term
of the schema which it activates.

5.2 HAROLD CONKLIN

He studied Hanunoo tribes of Philippines. He tried to duplicate native
conceptual categories or domains through ethno-botanical studies, identification
of culture categories and dictionary.
1. English Hanunoo dictionary – he created 600 pages of an English Hanunoo
dictionary to discover the indigenous cultural categories. He attacked the early
generation of anthropologist as they describe other culture in term of western
categories.
2. Ethno-Botanical studies of Hanunoo – he discovered that an average
Hanunoo individual can distinguish 1625 different types of plant in their land and
93% of them are culturally significant. This changed forever of our understanding
of diversity and value of rainforest.
3. Color categories – Conklin discovered that Hanunoo use 4 different terms for
color: -
a. (ma) Biru – relative darkness/blackness
b. (ma) lagti – relative lightness/whiteness
c. (ma) rara – relative wetness
d. (ma) latuj – relative dryness

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Cognitive anthropologist asserted that their method of analysis helped anthropologist

to see people in different culture conceptualize their world.

5.3 STEPHEN TYLER

In his book ‘Cognitive Anthropology’ Stephen Tyler discusses the previous
theoretical orientation in anthropology. They are mainly of two types first concerned
with change and development (evolutionist and diffusionist) second is static
description (functionalist, structuralist).
These theories were attempts to construct universal organizational ties which were
linked either by similar process of change or by similarities of internal structure. In
order to achieve this goal only a certain type of information was relevant.
In contrast cognitive anthropology constitutes a new theoretical orientation. It focuses
on discovering how different people organize and use their cultures. Each
cultural group has a unique system of perceiving and organizing the phenomenon,
things, events, behavior and emotions.
Objective of our study is not to study the material phenomenon but to understand the
way they are organized in minds of men. The people of different cultures may not
recognize the same kind of material phenomenon as relevant.
In his book ‘koya: An Outline Grammer’ he conducted a formal and descriptive
linguistic study of Koyas.
• Here he highlights that Americans distinguish b/w Dew, fog hail, snow but
Koyas call them as ‘Mancu’. Even if they can perceive difference among them
but do not consider such differences as significant.
• Koyas can distinguish b/w 7 different types of bamboo while American
know only one.
• in America, mother’s sister’s son or mother’s brother’s son both are refers to as
cousins but among Koyas there is a clear-cut distinction b/w two them.
Mother’s brother’s son is called Baato and mother’s sister’s son as animal.
He concludes that even though same material phenomenon is objectively
present, they’re subjectively perceived and organized differently by
Koyas and Americans.
There is no apparent overall integrative pattern which relates the classification of
bamboo to the classifications of relatives, these are separate classes of phenomenon
with unrelated principles of organization

5.4 CRITISICM
1. New ethnography was unable to move beyond analysis of artificially simplified
and often trivial linguistic domains.
2. They present abstract theory of mind w/o any scientific proof of it.

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3. They failed to explain the relevance of the linguistic domains like color
categories to culture as a whole.
4. Absence of causality factors.

5.5 CONCLSUION
Cognitive anthropology tried to highlight the variability of different cultures by
linguistic analysis. It provided new methods of ethnographic studies which will be
closer to native POV. This way of study of a culture has given cognitive anthropology a
special place in the discipline of anthropology which aims to present the culture reality
in most unbiased form. [due to its methods, cognitive anthropologist is helping
scientists to develop the AI systems]

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6 POST MODERNISM
PM emerged as the critic of scientific methods and ethnographies published in 20th
century. According to post modernism, reality is incomprehensible and truth is
something i.e. socially constructed and dynamic in nature. Understanding of
culture reflects biasness of the observer. All accounts of culture are partial and
conditioned.
Post modernism believes plurality of religion. Each religion might have different
sects. There is no one correct way of life. Multiple truths. Everyone has equal right
to live. Supports homosexuality, can pursue own sexual orientation. One should
not bound by societal structure of heterogeneity, Individual opinion supreme.
Traditional knowledge should be seen in light of post-modern world.

6.1 APPROACH
1. Epistemological tendency (Theory of knowledge)
Post modernism challenges the idea of truth and truth-seeking methodology.
It challenges the knowledge given by previous theories which present a model of static
social structure, rarified view of culture, archaic typologies (band, tribe, chiefdom,
states).
2. Hermeneutics Tendency
They challenged the hermeneutic tendency of the anthropologist by attacking the
assumption of omni-potence (all power) of the author as the final authority of the
cultural text. They also attacked the notion that text can objectively represent
various phenomenon of the world. They adopted a skeptic view on earlier
anthropological studies.
3. Anthropology’s Methodology – role of politics and power
They challenged anthropology’s methodology. They highlight the power equation
involved b/w the anthropologist and the informant. They criticized
ethnography due to the nature of its text, getting influenced by the socio-political
condition.

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4. Polyvocality
Post modernist highlights the willful ignorance of the voices of the
marginalized sections in ethnographic texts. They promote underrepresented
viewpoints of these people.
5. Self-Reflexivity
All the anthropologist are ultimately human beings who have been socialize with
particular set of values. Hence, their ethnographic research will be biased.
Reflexivism is the examination of one’s own belief, judgement, practices
during research.
• Interview with the participant
• what were you thinking and feeling
• acknowledge your baggage; political learning, assumptions due to cultural
influences
• influence this baggage would have on your findings
• reevaluate your findings
• feed reflective insight into your next research.
Methodology
1) Deconstruction and demystifying text to reveal underlying biases in interpretation.
2) focus on fieldwork
3) Intuitive interpretation: introspection based on individual’s own understanding

6.2 JACQUE DERRIDA

Deconstruction – means dismantling excessive loyalty to any idea and learning to
see the aspects of truth that might lied buried in its opposite. To deconstruct an idea
is to show that it is confused and riddled with logical defect.
Aporia – Derrida criticized our tendency to imagine that behind every problem lies
good and neat solution. He criticizes the love of crude simplicity which makes us
comfortable even if the information is filled with errors. According to Derrida, one
should be comfortable with permanently osculating nature of wisdom. Being confused
and uncertain is not a sign of weakness but a sign of maturity. He glorified and
glamorized this condition and called it Aporia.
Logocentrism – refers to our devotion towards reason, logic and clear definition.
Many of the important we feel can never be expressed in words spoken or written.

6.3 MICHEL FOCOAULT

According to Focoault, we’re constantly told that a lot of things in modern world are
fantastically better than in past. He encourages us to break away from optimistic
smugness (blind eye) about presently and to go back and see in history many ways of
doing things were superior.

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There is no truth and reality changes with time. Truth is constructed by

people talking about. Powerful voices are heard more and marginalized
voices are suppressed.

6.4 BANDRILLAND
World is a set of images, truth and science do not have real meaning. Truth is what is
agreed upon and science is only one mode of explanation.

6.5 STANLEY BARRET

• ethnographer should include opinion of people being studied
• sense of relativism should be developed
• we should reject grand universal schemes

6.6 CRITICISM
1. PM has moved the discipline to non-scientific basis.
2. They steered away from professional anthropology fieldwork.
3. Highly subjective.
4. Vague idea and add nothing new to idea.
5. The basic assumption is self-contradictory.

6.7 CONCLUSION

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