ANTHROPOLOGY ENRICHMENT

PROGRAM (AEP) 2025

(ANTHRO 300 +)
(PAPER-II)
(UNIT 1.3 + 1.8)
Ethno-archaeology in India +
Principal of prehistoric archaeology.
 ANTHROPOLOGY (AEP) 2025 | (UNIT 1.3 + 1.8)
Ethno-archaeology in India +
Principal of prehistoric archaeology.

Q.1 Material culture and archeology (10 marks)

Q.2 Elucidate the role of anthropology in nation building. Illustrate with suitable examples. (15 marks)
Q.3 Pit dwellers of Kashmir (10 marks)
Q.4 Make a critical appraisal of Megalithic tradition in India with special reference to North-East India.
(20 marks)
Q.5 Discuss the importance of ethnoarcheology in reconstructing the past citing Indian examples.(15 marks)
Q.6 Ethno-archaeological analysis of hunting activities of contemporary tribal communities. (10 marks)
Q.7 How the ethno archaeological analysis of peasant activities of tribal communities helps in providing
insights about them? (15 marks)
Q.8 Write a short note on Dating Methods. (15 marks)

Q.1 Material culture and archeology (10 marks)

Material culture and archaeology are essential aspects of anthropology and the study of human societies. Here's
a brief explanation of each:
A. Material Culture: Material culture refers to the physical objects, artifacts, tools, and items created and used by
human societies. These tangible elements represent the cultural practices, values, and beliefs of a group of people.
● Material culture includes a wide range of items, such as clothing, architecture, pottery, tools, artwork,
religious symbols, and more. It serves as a window into understanding how people interact with their
environment, express their identities, and adapt to their surroundings.
● The study of material culture is integral to anthropology, as it allows researchers to examine how
societies produce, use, and interpret objects. It sheds light on cultural practices, technological
advancements, economic systems, and the ways in which people express their identities and values
through material objects.
B. Archaeology: Archaeology is a subfield of anthropology that focuses on the systematic study of the past
through the recovery, analysis, and interpretation of material remains, such as artifacts, structures, and
features. Archaeologists explore ancient human societies, their activities, and their environments by
excavating and analyzing archaeological sites.

Key aspects of archaeology include:

• Excavation: Archaeologists dig at sites to recover artifacts and other material remains, stratigraphy,
and features that provide insights into the past.
• Analysis: The recovered materials are studied to determine their age, origin, and significance. This
includes examining the context in which objects are found.
• Interpretation: Archaeologists interpret the data to reconstruct past cultures, societies, and
environments. They explore aspects like subsistence strategies, social organization, trade networks, and
technological advancements.
Archaeology is crucial for understanding human history and prehistory, as it provides a tangible record of human
activities and lifestyles. It offers insights into the development of technology, trade, agriculture, and cultural
changes over time.

Interlinkage of material culture and archeology:

● Material culture and archaeology are interdependent and complementary. Material culture provides the
primary source of data for archaeology, as it is the only direct and durable record of human activities in
the past.

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● Archaeology provides the methods and theories for understanding material culture in its cultural and
historical context, as it considers the social, economic, political, religious, and environmental factors
that influenced its production, use, and meaning.

Material culture and archaeology are closely intertwined, as material culture is the focus of archaeological study.
Together, they help anthropologists and archaeologists piece together the complex puzzle of human cultures,
both ancient and contemporary, by examining the physical remnants of societies and the objects they have left
behind.

Q.2 Elucidate the role of anthropology in nation building. Illustrate with suitable examples.(15 marks)

According to Bronislaw Malinowski the aim of anthropology is to understand and appreciate each culture in
its own right and to construct a comparative science of culture.

Anthropology plays a crucial role in nation-building by providing insights into the diverse cultural, social,
and historical aspects of a nation's population. It helps shape policies, foster social cohesion, and promote
inclusivity.

Here are some ways in which anthropology contributes to nation-building:

1. Cultural Understanding: Anthropologists study the diverse cultures within a nation, providing insights
into the customs, traditions, and practices of different communities. This understanding is essential for
respecting and preserving cultural diversity, which is often a source of national identity.
2. Preservation of Heritage: Anthropologists work to document and preserve cultural heritage, including
languages, traditional knowledge, and art forms. This contributes to the preservation of a nation's unique
cultural identity.
3. Inclusivity and Social Justice: Anthropology helps identify marginalized and underrepresented groups,
allowing for more inclusive policies. By shedding light on historical and social injustices, it paves the way for
social justice initiatives, affirmative action, and policies aimed at addressing inequalities.
4. Gender and Minority Rights: Anthropologists often highlight issues related to gender disparities and
the rights of minority groups. Their research can influence policies and advocacy for the rights of
women, LGBTQ+ communities, and other marginalized groups.
5. Policy Development: Anthropologists provide valuable data and insights for the development of
effective government policies, particularly in areas like education, healthcare, and social welfare. Their
research helps design culturally sensitive and context-specific policies.
6. Conflict Resolution: Anthropologists contribute to conflict resolution by understanding the underlying
cultural, social, and historical factors that lead to conflicts. They promote dialogue and reconciliation
in divided societies.
7. Health and Well-being: Anthropologists study healthcare practices, cultural beliefs, and healthcare-
seeking behaviors. This information is vital for the development of public health initiatives and
healthcare policies that meet the needs of diverse populations.
8. Environmental Sustainability: Anthropology examines the relationship between cultures and their natural
environments. This understanding contributes to sustainable development and environmental conservation.
9. Intercommunity Dialogue: Anthropologists promote intercultural understanding and dialogue. This
fosters social harmony, peace, and cooperation among different ethnic and cultural communities.
10. Development Programs: Anthropological research informs the design and implementation of
development programs aimed at improving the quality of life for marginalized communities, including
those in rural or tribal areas.
Work of famous Anthropologists that has influenced policies, promoted inclusivity, and enhanced
understanding. Here are some examples of anthropologists and their contributions to nation-building:

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1. Margaret Mead:
● Contribution: Margaret Mead's pioneering research in Samoa and Papua New Guinea provided
insights into the cultural variations in human behavior and challenged Western ethnocentrism.
● Impact: Her work influenced the broader understanding of cultural relativity and cultural
diversity, promoting tolerance and appreciation of different cultural norms and values.
2. Franz Boas:
● Contribution: Franz Boas emphasized the importance of studying cultures in their own contexts
and was a strong advocate for cultural relativism.
● Impact: His work laid the foundation for the cultural relativist approach in anthropology, which
recognizes the value of all cultures and informs policies promoting cultural diversity.
3. Ruth Benedict:
● Contribution: Ruth Benedict's research,her study of the Zuni and Pueblo cultures, highlighted
the significance of cultural patterns and how they influence behavior.
● Impact: Her concept of "culture as personality" contributed to a deeper understanding of cultural
diversity and how it shapes the identity and behavior of individuals and communities.
4. Evans-Pritchard:
● Contribution: Evans-Pritchard's ethnographic work with the Nuer and Azande tribes in Africa
provided valuable insights into their social and political organization.
● Impact: His research contributed to the understanding of indigenous governance systems and
informed policies aimed at respecting and incorporating traditional systems in nation-building
processes in post-colonial Africa.

Some examples of anthropological studies that have contributed to nation building in India are:
● The study of industrialization and big dam building by L.P. Vidyarthi and his team in 1968-69 in Bihar.
The study explored the impact of industrialization and dam construction on the tribal communities who
were affected by land acquisition, displacement, migration, and cultural change.
● The study of resettlement of refugees by N.K. Bose and his team in 1950-51 in West Bengal. The study
examined the problems and prospects of rehabilitation of refugees from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
who were displaced by the partition of India in 1947.
● The study of famine by M.N. Srinivas and his team in 1967-68 in Raichur district of Karnataka. The
study revealed the socio-economic and political factors that caused or aggravated the famine situation
and suggested measures to prevent or mitigate future famines.

Anthropology contributes to creating stronger, more cohesive, and equitable nations by recognizing and
appreciating the diversity and complexity of their populations.

Q.3 Pit dwellers of Kashmir (10 marks)

Approach
 Definition & characteristics
 Major pit welling sites of kashmir
 Material culture
 Social culture
 Conclusion

Pit dwellers:
They refer to the class of residential house type used by non-industrial cultures all over the planet.
1. Non-contagious buildings: These are non-contagious buildings with floors lower than the ground
surface as semi-subterranean.

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2. Construction: Construction of a pit house begins by excavating a pit into the earth, from a few
centimeters to 1.5 meters (a few inches to five feet) deep. Pit houses vary in the plan, from round to
oval to square to rectangular.
● The excavated pit floors vary from flat to bowl-shaped; they can include prepared floors or not.
● Above the pit is a superstructure that might consist of low earthen walls built from the excavated
soil; stone foundations with brush walls; or posts with wattle and daub chinking.
● The roof of a pit house is generally flat and made of brush, thatch, or planks, and entry to the deepest
houses was gained by way of a ladder through a hole in the roof.

Pit dwellers of Kashmir:

Pit houses were warm in winter and cool in summer; experimental archaeology has proven that they are quite
comfortable year-round because the earth acts as an insulating blanket.
Time period: Neolithic community of Kashmir who lived from 3000 BCE to 1000 BCE. The period is further
divided into the ACERAMIC PERIOD( 2900 to 2500 BCE ) and the CERAMIC period ( 2500 - 1700 BCE)
according to the development of material culture.

Major Pit Dwelling Sites of Kashmir

Sites Description
Burzahom ● The Burzahom site was discovered by De Terra and Peterson of a Yale-Cambridge expedition
in 1935.
● Later excavated by archaeological survey of India (1969-70) led by T.N Khazanchi
● Pit houses which were dug into the ground with steps leading into them. These may have provided
shelter in the winter period .- Pit houses are typically small, usually no more than ten or twelve feet
in diameter.
● One remarkable characteristic of the site is the ritual dog burial.
Gufkral ● It is a Neolithic site where both agriculture and animal husbandry were practiced .
● Archaeologists have confirmed that Aceramic phase at Gufkral showed large and small dwelling pits.
● Shallow and large pits are said to be more common in its earliest phase. -There are examples of pits
with two chambers in the later phase.
Kanispora ● This site had similarities with that from Burzahom and Gufkral. The significant find of the site was
emmer wheat which is only reported at this site in Kashmir.

Other Neolithic sites of Kashmir include Begagund, Hariparigom, Olchibag, Pampur, Panzgom, Sombur Waztal
and Brah.

The Material culture of pit-dwelling community

1. Tools: A large number of bone and stone tools were found at this site. Bone points, needles and
scrappers made from bones of various animals including sheep, goats and stag were significant.
● Example: The stone tools consisted of axes, drills, picks, querns and mace heads or ring stones
mainly made of Himalayan cattle. A few tools of antler horns were also reported. Celts, axes and
ring stones were also common.
2. Storage: Another major development of this period was the development of pottery for storing food
grains. Initially, it was handmade, later it was wheel made at the end of this period.

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Social/Culture life
● Human occupation: Evidence found at Gufkral and Burzahom showcases the ladders inside the pits
showing the human occupation.
● Sedentary lifestyle: Further the evidence of bones of various animals pointed towards domestication
and the rise of a sedentary lifestyle.
● Development of society: This led to the rise of social, and political organizations for protecting animals,
grains and resolving disputes.
● Burial customs: Much evidence in the later period saw the burial customs of these pit-dwelling
communities.
Example: Skeletons of humans were found in sitting positions along with the skeletons of animals.

Conclusion
Hence, the pit-dwelling community shows the unique social and burial customs of the period and throws light
on the evolution of this community from Neolithic to megalithic and early historical periods.

Q.4 Make a critical appraisal of Megalithic tradition in India with special reference to North-East
India. (20 marks)
Approach
 Definition of megalithic tradition
 Time span
 Majors megalithic sites of Northeast India
 Types of megalithic structures
 Megalithic tradition of Northeast India
 Material culture
 Conclusion

REM wheeler (1956) describes Megaliths as those monuments which are built of rough, large, undressed
blocks of stones, usually, do not invariably, of rudimentary character.
Usage: Those monuments are connected with rituals which fulfil funeral or commemorative or religious
functions .

Time Span
Megalithic culture of India is associated with the Iron age dated around 1500–500 BCE. In Northeast India this
tradition is still practised as a living tradition.

Major Megalithic sites of Northeast India

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Major types of megaliths
● Cairn Circle – the bodies of dead first, and then rounded stones were fixed around the grave. Example
Nagaland
● Cist graves – here the bodies are buried first, with small stones erected around it. larger tones slabs were
made to rest on pillars, thus providing a shade to grave. Example Mirzapur of Uttar Pradesh
● Menhirs – large and tall memorial stones were used to indicate the presence of a grave. Example
Gulbarga region of Karnataka
● Dolmen – here the body is placed on a slab of stone, covered from all sides with a flat stone slab resting
on four legs of stone erected at the corners of the body.
Other secondary types of megaliths include headstone graves ,rock-cut t graves and umbrella stones

Megalithic tradition in Northeast India

1. JP Mills et al opines that in Assam the Ethno- archaeological evidences of megaliths is world-famous
and it is only one of the few places where this traditiion is still practised.
2. Further, Clarke opines that the megaliths of Northeast India are not dated but their practice from the
prehistoric period.
3. TC Sharma in his study notes about great concentration of tradition of megalithic tradition in cost and
Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya.
4. Major tribes: Among the major tribals groups Khasi and Naga has the culture of erecting megaliths.
Various Naga tribes like Angami ,Senma ,Maram, konyak, practice this tradition
5. N.S Sen notes that among the Nagas, whose megaliths do not seem very closely linked with the cult
of the dead, the thought of the afterlife is not completely absent.
6. Ceremonial feast of the Angamis is of seven grades, according to their cost, size and duration. Thus
having social angle to it.
7. Social status: Further rich men put up Menhirs in order to gain social prestige and recognition among
Nagas.
8. Khasi practice: The Khasi erect their menhirs in a linear pattern that generally consists of uneven
number of stones. The tallest of the stones is generally placed at the middle and is occasionally
ornamented with a small stone. These groups of Khasi megaliths represent clan burial. The largest table
stone are seen at Nartiang in Jayantia hills and Lailongkoti in Khasi hills of Northeast India.
● Gurdon classifies the megaliths of the Khasis into the following three groups: i) Menhirs or
Vertical Stones ii) Table Stones or Dolmen Stone iii) Cairn.
● Khasi social practice: The about a closely-knit matrilineal tradition. The prominent position is
given to the eldest maternal uncle which is reflected in the stone monuments with a taller central
memorial stone erected in his memory thus reflecting the matrilineal solidarity in the Khasi social
organization.
9. Naga tribe: Among Nagas ,Stone circles are erected as memorials for rich tribesmen .
● Hutton reports that the Marring villages of Nagaland have as their sacred enclosures, circles of
stones with a stone in the middle.
● Shakespear notes in his study that there are records of Naga circle of thirty-two large stones in
conjunction with a row of fourteen menhirs within which ritual dances are held at an annual feast
in commemoration of the dead.
10. Karbi tribe: Erection of stone in the form a menhir with a table stone in front is still prevalent
among the Karbis living in the plains areas of undivided Kamrup, Nagaon and Morigaon districts
of Assam as a post-cremation rite.
● Acculturation: Compared to their hill counterparts, the plain Karbis have undergone through the
process of acculturation and many elements of Assamese caste Hindu society have penetrated into
their life ways.

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Tribes Nature of the Practice Megalithic Structures Erected
1 Nagas (various groups as Commemorative. Feast of Merit, Menhir, Menhir with a stone
Ao, Angami, Sema, Funerary etc. platform in front, Cist, stone
Marams etc.) platform, Alignment etc.
2 Khasi Funerary, Commemorative, Menhir, Dolmen, Menhir with a
Associated with bone-deposition stone platform in front, Cromlech,
cist
3 Karbis Commemorative. Associated with Menhir, Menhir with a stone
post-cremation rite platform in front, Alignment
4 Central and middle Tribes Commemorative. Sometimes Menhir, Dolmen, Stone- platform.
like Gonda Murias, Dorlas, associated with post-cremation rite.
Mundas etc.
Table: Showing comparision of megalithic trdition among the North-East communities

Material culture
Iron tools such as sickles, flat axis, spearheads and arrows were found from the mega lights. Further the black
and red ware pottery of different types is also found.

Conclusion
Hence the megalithic tradition of Northeast India provides vivid and unique practices among the tribes of
north-east India. This has helped anthropologist and archaeologist to construct the past traditions and culture
of these tribes.

Q.5 Discuss the importance of ethnoarcheology in reconstructing the past citing Indian examples.
(15 marks)
Ethnoarchaeology is an interdisciplinary field that combines ethnography (the study of living cultures) with
archaeology to gain insights into past human behavior and material culture.
Significance: It involves studying contemporary societies and their material practices to make inferences about
past cultures and archaeological remains.
In the context of India, ethno-archaeology has been significant in providing insights into past cultures and
archaeological remains. Here are some key reasons for the importance of ethno-archaeology in reconstructing
the past in India, from an anthropological perspective:

Here are some examples of its importance:

1. Ceramic Studies: Ethno-archaeological studies of contemporary pottery-making traditions have
provided valuable insights into techniques, tools, & social organization of past ceramic production.
● Example: studies of pottery-making communities in India, such as those among the potter
communities of West Bengal or the Kumhar community in Gujarat, have helped archaeologists
understand the manufacturing processes, vessel forms, surface decorations, and firing techniques
that were likely employed in the past.
2. House Construction and Settlement Patterns: Ethno-archaeological investigations of traditional

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house construction methods and settlement patterns have aided in understanding ancient architectural
practices and community organization.
● Example: For instance, studies of tribal communities in central India, such as the Gond and Bhil
tribes, have shed light on the use of local materials, construction techniques, and spatial
organization in traditional dwellings. These insights can be applied to archaeological sites to
interpret ancient settlements and their social dynamics.
● Studying the traditional building practices of tribal communities in the Himalayan region, such
as the Kinnaura or Lahaula tribes, helps in understanding ancient architectural techniques, spatial
organization, and settlement patterns.
3. Tool Use and Technological Replication: Ethno-archaeological studies of tool use and technological
replication have helped reconstruct past manufacturing practices.
● Techniques: By studying the techniques employed by contemporary artisans, such as blacksmiths
or stone tool makers, archaeologists gain insights into the production methods, tool typologies, and
raw material choices that were likely used in the past.
● Example: studies of the iron-smelting process among tribal communities in Jharkhand have
contributed to understanding ancient iron production techniques in India.
4. Rituals and Material Culture: Ethno-archaeology has also contributed to the understanding of past
ritual practices and the material culture associated with them. By studying contemporary religious
rituals, such as those performed during festivals or ceremonies, researchers can gain insights into
symbolic meanings, iconography, and use of artifacts in ancient religious practices.
● Example: Studies of religious practices among indigenous communities in South India, like Irula
tribe, have informed interpretations of ancient temple rituals and use of religious icons.
● Traditions: Studying the pottery traditions of contemporary tribal communities in India, like the
Maria Gond tribe of Madhya Pradesh, can provide insights into the manufacturing techniques,
forms, and decoration styles that were used in the past.
5. Environmental Adaptation and Resource Use: Ethno-archaeology plays a crucial role in
understanding past human-environment interactions and resource use strategies.
● Contemporary studies: By studying contemporary communities engaged in activities such as
fishing, hunting, or farming, researchers can gain insights into ancient subsistence practices, land
use patterns, and resource management strategies.
● Example: Ethno-archaeological studies among Kukna community in Andaman Islands have
contributed to understanding past coastal adaptations and the utilization of marine resources.
6. Subsistence Strategies: Ethno-archaeology is crucial in understanding past subsistence strategies and
how ancient societies adapted to their environments.
● Contemporary studies: By studying contemporary communities engaged in agriculture, fishing,
hunting, or pastoralism, researchers can gain insights into the tools, techniques, resource
management practices, and land-use patterns that were likely employed in the past.
● For example, studying the agricultural practices of the Warli tribe in Maharashtra provides insights
into ancient farming techniques and land-use patterns.

Ethno-archaeology in Indian context provided valuable data and insights that contribute to reconstruction of
past. By studying living cultures and material practices, researchers can make informed interpretations about
ancient societies, technological advancements, social organization, and cultural practices. These studies
enhance our understanding of long and diverse history of human occupation in India.

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Q.6 Ethno-archaeological analysis of hunting activities of contemporary tribal communities. (10 marks)
Approach
 Define Ethno-Archaeology.
 List out the methods used in ethno-archaeological analysis (names only).
 Write down a case study on contemporary tribal society.
 Write significance of ethno-archaeological analysis (in brief).
 Conclude accordingly

Ethno-Archaeology
Definition: The term 'Ethno-Archaeology' was coined by Jesse Fewkes in 1900. Ethno-Archaeology is the
ethnographic study of people for archaeological reasons, usually focusing on material remains of the
society rather than culture, to better understand the archaeological records of past societies.
Research Methods used in Ethno-archaeology:
● Use of quantitative data
● General systems approach
● Hypothetico-deductive model
● Interpretative analysis

Ethno-archaeological analysis of hunting activities of contemporary tribal community (Case Study by

Basanta K Mohanta):
Major component of material culture of Hunting & Gathering East Indian Tribes include household equipment,
ornaments, hunting & fishing implements, etc. Its brief description is given below:
1. Hunting & Fishing Implements:
● Hunting bow is usually made of bamboo & arrow is made with iron tip.
● For fishing, they use a variety of traps like bamboo splits & kasi grass.
2. Household Equipment:
● They use earthen utensils like earthen jar, lid, etc. These earthen utensils are used for variety of
purposes like cooking food, preparing rice-beer, storing grains, etc.
● A typical house of a Ho tribe member would have wooden cot, bamboo umbrella, leaf raincoat,
grain bin made of straw, etc.
3. Dress & Ornaments:
● The Juangs of Odisha use the leaves to cover their body whereas, some other tribes like the Ho,
Santhal & Munda, etc. use simple dresses.
● The female folk use a local made coarse sari. The female folk of the tribes use ornaments such as
earrings, necklace, hair pin, etc.
4. Art & Crafts: While the tribes like Asur & Kolha are famous for their iron smelting techniques,
Mahalis are famous for bamboo craft & Birhors for rope making.

Significance of ethno-archaeological analysis:

● It can provide insights to anthropologists on how people in the past may have lived, especially regarding
their social structure, religious beliefs, etc.
● It can contr towards filling gaps in history. For example, it has helped archaeologists to make inferences
about women’s role in subsistence & craft related activities in early times
● In the context of tribes, ethnoarchaeology has ample scope as its application expands beyond the
understanding of material culture alone.
Ethno-archaeology is the manifestation of deductive reasoning methodology in archaeology & anthropological
discipline. Thus, the study of material remains can be effectively used to reconstruct not just the past
material culture but also the non-material aspects of cultures as well.

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Note: Case study of “Thunder Axe” is very common, all aspirants would write that but you may write above case study
by BK Mohanta to fetch extra marks. However, for reference, we are giving case study of Thunder Axe below.

Thunder Axe
● The concept of ‘Thunder Axe’ is one of the many distinctive aspects of ancient belief systems which
probably dates to a very remote period & remained unquestioned throughout the world stretching
from Europe, Africa, Asia Minor, India & Far East.
● The neolithic stone tools are considered as products of thunder & lightning. Various tribes of North
East India consider them as “thunder axe” having magical & medicinal properties. For example, the
Karbi & Tiwa tribes call these stone objects as ‘Choteracho’ meaning thunder stone.
● Thus, by applying the general comparative analogy for the concept of ‘Thunder Axe’, great insights
could he gained about the cultural and cognitive patterns of prehistoric life.

Q.7 How the ethno archaeological analysis of peasant activities of tribal communities helps in providing
insights about them? (15 marks)

The ethno-archaeology of tribal communities provides information about their cultural evolution. The economic
life of tribals as agriculturists were categorized based on the basis of dominant activities.
Ethno – archaeological analysis of peasant activities of tribal communities:

1. Shifting cultivators:Following two pursuits: More than 90% of the population in India follow traditional
agriculture. But, most of the Indian tribes practiced two types of agriculture.Ex: Primitive & traditional
mode of slash and burn known as shifting cultivation & settled (or) plough cultivation through agriculture
tools & implements.
Inhabitation: Tribes practicing shifting agriculture inhabit permanent villages in a more (or) less settled
way.Example: The shifting cultivation exists in remote areas of NE region, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar etc.
Production of food grains: Shifting cultivators confined their agricultural pursuit to producing only food
grains & cereals, but now started growing cash crops. Example: Shifting cultivators of Assam, Meghalaya,
Nagaland grow cotton as a cash crop while maize, vegetables for domestic consumption.
2. Cultivators:
Productive mode: Tribal people have adopted the permanent plough cultivation by employing various
animals & agriculture implements.Example: The mizos of Mizoram & the Apatani’s of Arunachal Pradesh
are two examples of shifting cultivators emerging as expert cultivators.
Terrace cultivation: This is another type of permanent plough cultivation for cultural & ecological adaptability of
the people.Example: The Tharus and korwas of Uttar Pradesh have adopted settled cultivation.
Advanced in agriculture: Due to many embracing Christianity, modern means of advancements in
agriculture were implemented.Example: Santhal, Draon, Ho of Bihar of Uttar Pradesh, Gond, Bhil and
Bhilala of Madhya Pradesh.
3. Pastoralists:
Economy: When people breed & rear cattle for commercial purposes & make it their source of livelihood,
they may be said to be living under pastoral economy. Example: Most of the Indian tribes rear cattle.
Settled pastoralists: The pastoral tribes, who inhabit mountains, migrate to the plains along with their cattle
during severe winters & return in summer.
A part of socio –religious life: Domesticated animals from the part of socio cultural life.

Example:
1. Toda of Nilgiri hills, Tamil Nadu is a pastoral community. The daily life of the Toda men is mainly devoted
to the maintenance & care of their buffaloes & diaries.
2. Gujjar’s of Himachal Pradesh rear cows, buffaloes & sheep for commercial purposes.
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3. Bhotias of Uttara khand, breed yak, jibu & weave woolen pullovers. Due to the China war in 1962, their
trade with Tibet ruined & hence adopted agriculture as one of the means of livelihood.
Tribal communities peasant activities started similarly as hunters & gatherers to agriculturalist & pastoralists,
indicating evolution of culture & adopting civilisation.

Q.8 Write a short note on Dating Methods . (15 marks)

Dating Methods : Dating techniques are procedures used by scientists to determine the age of a specimen.
Relative dating methods tell only if one sample is older or younger than another sample; absolute dating methods
provide a date in years.

(A) Relative Dating Methods

1. Stratigraphy:Stratigraphy is the study of layers of rocks or the objects embedded as layers. It is based
on the assumption that deeper layers were deposited earlier, and thus are older than more shallow layers.
River terraces do not follow this principle due to erosional activity and decreasing water level.
2. Seriation:Archaeologist James Ford used seriation to determine the chronological order of American
Indian pottery styles in the Mississippi Valley. Artefact styles such as pottery types are seriated by
analysing their abundances through time.
3. Faunal dating: A 100000- 20000 Scientists can determine an approximate age for a layer by examining
which species or genera of animals are buried in it.
4. Dating based on pollen grains zones:The kind of pollen found in any geological stratum depends on the
kind of vegetation that existed at the time.
5. Fluorine dating:By comparing the relative amounts of fluorine composition of skeletal remains, one can
determine the rough age. A bone with a higher fluorine composition has been buried for a longer period of
time.
(B) Absolute Dating Methods :
1. Amino acid racimization dating :It was first conducted by Hare and Mitterer in 1967, and was popular
in the 1970s. It requires a much smaller sample than radiocarbon dating, and has a longer range.
● Amino acid racimization is based on the principle that amino acids (except glycine, a very simple
amino acid) exist in two mirror image forms called stereoisomers.
● Living organisms synthesize and incorporate only the Lform into proteins.
● When these organisms die, the L-amino acids are slowly converted into D-amino acids in a process
called racimization.
● Higher the amount of D form of amino acids older the sample is.
2. Cation-ratio dating:It is used to date rock surfaces such as stone artifacts.
● They do this by chemically analyzing the varnish that forms on these surfaces.
● The varnish contains cations, Cation ratio dating relies on the principle that the cation ratio (K+
+Ca2+ )/Ti 4+ decreases with increasing age of a sample.
● It may has potential errors.
3. Dendrochronology: The absolute dating method utilising tree ring growth is known as
dendrochronology. It is based on the fact that trees produce one growth ring each year. Narrow rings
grow in cold and/or dry areas (and in some region-time periods of cold months), and wide rings grow
in warm areas with plenty of moisture. Tree rings are used to date changes in the climate such as sudden
cool or dry periods.
4. Radioactive decay dating / Radiometric dating:It is a group of related methods for absolute dating of
samples.Potassium-argon dating: .Argon-40 is formed in the rocks by the radioactive decay of potassium-
40 (40 K). The amount of 40 Ar formed is proportional to the decay rate (half-life ) of 40 K, which is 1.3
billion years. This method is generally only applicable to rocks greater than three million years old.

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