Practical class № 1

Word-Meaning and Polysemy

Problems for Discussion

1. Semasiology as a branch of
linguistics
Semasiology, also known as
semantics, is the branch of
linguistics that deals with the
study of meaning in language.
It explores how words, phrases
and sentences convey meaning
and how meaning is
constructed in communication.
Semasiology is an important
aspect of linguistics because it
delves into the relationship
between language signs and the
concepts they represent.
The meaning of a word:
Semasiology studies the
meaning of individual words. It
looks at how words gain
meaning, how meanings can
change over time, and how
words relate to the objects,
actions, or ideas they represent.
Semantic structure: It is
believed that every word has an
internal form or semantic
structure that represents its
meaning. Understanding this
structure helps linguists analyse
how words contribute to the
overall meaning of a sentence.
Meaning in context:
Semasiology also looks at how
meaning is affected by context.
The same word can have
different meanings depending
on the context in which it is
used.
2. Interpretations of word
meaning:
а) referential approach;
Focus: This approach focuses
on the relationship between
words and the outside world. It
tries to understand how words
are related to objects, concepts
or referents in the real world
and how they represent them.
Components:
Sound form or graphic form:
The actual pronunciation or
written representation of a
word.
Concept or idea: A mental
representation or idea
associated with a word.
Reference: A real object,
quality, or process in the
external world to which a word
refers.
Example:
Consider the word "flower" in
the semantic triangle:
Sound form: ['flauə].
Concept: A mental
representation of a flower or
blossom on a plant.
Ref: A real flower in the
outside world.
b) functional (contextual)
approach;
Focus: This approach defines
the meaning of a word based on
its function in the language and
its use in context.
The meaning is not fixed; it can
change depending on the
context in which the word is
used. The meaning of a word
should be examined in real
speech and in relation to other
linguistic units. The same word
can have different meanings in
different contexts.
Example:
Consider the word "bank":
In the context of finance: "I put
my money in the bank".
In the context of a river: "The
boat is at the bank of the river".
The functional approach
helps to understand how a word
takes on different meanings
depending on its use in
different contexts.
It is a complement to the
reference approach:
The functional approach
complements the reference
approach. While the reference
approach looks at the
relationship between words and
external reality, the functional
approach focuses on how words
function in the dynamics of
language use.
c) cognitive approach
(prototype theory).
Focus: The cognitive approach
to word meaning, often
associated with prototype
theory, is based on the
cognitive function of language.
It views the meaning of a word
as a prototype of the object or
concept to which it refers.
Prototypes represent the most
visible and typical features of a
category.
For example, a prototype for
the category "bird" might
include features such as wings,
beak, and the ability to fly.
3. Meaning and concept
(notion).
4. The problem of motivation
of meaning.
The problem of meaning
motivation in linguistics
concerns the question of how
the form of a word is related to
its meaning. In other words,
linguists investigate how the
sound or structure of a word is
related to the concept it
represents or the object it refers
to. There are three main types
of motivation: phonetic,
morphological and semantic.
Phonetic motivation:
Phonetically motivated words
are those in which the sound of
the word imitates or reminds
the sound of the object or
action it represents. Examples
include words that are
onomatopoeic, such as
"buzzing", "mooing", or
"splashing". However, there are
not many such phonetically
motivated words in languages.
Morphological motivation:
Morphologically motivated
words are words with a
complex morphological
structure that consist of more
than one morpheme. The
meanings of these words can be
deduced from the meanings of
the morphemes that make up
the word and the structural
pattern. For example, the word
"re-read" is composed of the
morphemes "re-" and "read",
which indicates the action of re-
reading.
Semantic motivation:
Semantic motivation suggests a
connection between the form of
a word and its meaning, either
direct or metaphorical. In this
case, the meaning is deduced
from the semantics of the word
itself. For example, in
expressions such as "the root of
all evil" or "the fruits of peace",
 the words "root" and "fruits"
are used metaphorically,
combining direct and figurative
meanings.
5. Types of meaning:
a) lexical vs. grammatical;
Lexical meaning:
Nature: Lexical meaning refers to
the content or conceptual meaning
associated with a word. It is the
central, basic meaning that the
word conveys.
Repetition: This component of
meaning is repeated in all forms of
a word.
Example: In the word forms "go",
"goes", "went" and "is going", the
lexical meaning includes the basic
idea of movement.
Grammatical meaning:
Nature: Grammatical meaning is a
component of meaning that is
repeated in identical sets of
separate forms of different words.
It is related to the grammatical
structure of the language.
Repetition: This meaning is
common to different words within
a grammatical category.
Example: In the word forms "cats",
"dogs" and "horses", the common
grammatical meaning is plural.
b) denotative vs.
connotative.
Denotative meaning:
Nature: The denotative meaning is
the literal, primary or obvious
meaning of a word. It is the
objective, dictionary definition of a
term.
Directionality: This meaning is
associated with a specific, direct
reference of the word to an object,
idea or concept.
Example: The denotative meaning
of the word "mother" is a female
parent.
Connotative meaning:
Nature: A connotative meaning is
an additional, often emotional or
cultural, meaning given to a word
beyond its literal definition.
Directionality: This meaning
includes the subjective or cultural
associations of a word.
Example: The connotative
meaning of the word "home" may
include feelings of warmth,
comfort and belonging.
6. Polysemy. The semantic
structure of a polysemantic
word.
Polysemy is a linguistic
phenomenon in which a single
word has several related meanings,
each associated with an extension
of a common underlying concept.
Polysemy is common in natural
languages and contributes to the
richness and flexibility of the
vocabulary.
Semantic structure of a
polysemous word:

The semantic structure of a

polysemous word involves the
organisation of its different
meanings or senses. Here are the
key aspects of the semantic
structure of a polysemous word:

Basic meaning:
Polysemous words tend to have a
core or central meaning that serves
as the basic or primary sense.
Example: The word "bank"
originally means a financial
institution.
Extended meanings:
Multiple meanings involve the
expansion of a primary meaning to
include related but distinct
meanings.
Example: The word "bank" can
also mean a riverbank, an
ammunition storage area, a slope
or inclination.

Semantic relationships:
The different meanings of a
polysemous word are often related
to each other through semantic
associations.
Example: The different meanings
of the word "bank" are related to
the idea of a vault or a slope.

Contextual variation:
The specific meaning of a
polysemous word is often
determined by the context in which
it appears.
Example: In the sentence "I
deposited the money in the bank",
the word "bank" means a financial
institution. In the sentence "The
boat is at the riverbank", it refers
to the riverbank.

Practical Assignment

1. Classify the following

words into three columns
according to the type of
motivation – phonetic
motivation, morphological
motivation, semantic
motivation:
babble, basketball, blooming
(health), bookshelf, bottleneck,
boyish, bump, buzz, catlike,
chatter, chirrup, crash, eatable,
foot (of a mountain), giggle, green
(with envy), handkerchief, head (of
a family), heart (of the country),
howl, key (to a mystery), legs (of a
table), lioness, mow, nightgown,
nose (of a plane), overgrow,
prefabricated, purr, skillful,
splash, swish, teacher, tinkle,
tongues (of flame), travelling-bag,
twitter, untie, watery.
Phonetic Motivation:
babble
blooming (health)
bump
buzz
catlike
chatter
chirrup
crash
giggle
howl
mow
nightgown
overgrow
purr
splash
swish
tinkle
twitter
watery
Morphological Motivation:
bookshelf
bottleneck
boyish
eatable
foot (of a mountain)
green (with envy)
handkerchief
head (of a family)
key (to a mystery)
legs (of a table)
lioness
nose (of a plane)
prefabricated
skillful
teacher
tongues (of flame)
travelling-bag
untie
Semantic Motivation:
heart (of the country)
nightgown
lioness
nose (of a plane)
head (of a family)
key (to a mystery)
legs (of a table)
tongues (of flame)
heart (of the country)
teacher
travelling-bag

2. Consult Macmillan
Dictionary and analyse the
following word forms
classifying them on the
grounds of common
grammatical or lexical
meaning and its elements
(denotative / connotative):
1. telephones, desks, paintings,
curtains, men, books,
students;
the common grammatical meaning
is plural.
2. asked, reflected, smiled,
smoked, told, wished,
brought;
Common grammatical meaning:
All verbs refer to an action that
took place in the past tense and
they end in ed.
3. happiest, bravest, best, most
interesting;
Common grammatical meaning:
They are all adjectives expressing
qualities or degrees. They all have
the superlative form of the
adjective.
4. smell, scent, odour, aroma;
Common Lexical Meaning: Each
word represents a distinct type or
quality of smell.
5. intelligent, clever, alert,
quick-witted, bright, smart,
brainy, sharp, shrewd,
canny;
Common Lexical Meaning: Each
word represents a specific aspect
of intelligence or cleverness.
6. goal, jail, clink, trunk, jug,
can, cooler;
7. head, nob, nut, bean, upper
storey, belfry, crumpet.

3. Consult Macmillan
Dictionary and determine
the denotative and
connotative meanings of
the following pairs of
words in the sentences,
dwell on the type of
connotation in each case:
1. fat vs plump
You'll get fat if you eat all that
chocolate.
The baby's nice and plump.
1. Fat vs. Plump
 Denotation:
o Fat: Having a lot of
flesh or adipose
tissue; overweight.
o Plump: Pleasantly
rounded and well-
covered in flesh;
healthy and attractive.
 Connotation:
o Sentence 1: "Fat" has
a negative
connotation, implyin
g overindulgence and
potential health
issues.
o Sentence 2: "Plump"
has a positive
 connotation, suggesti
ng healthy fullness
and cuteness in a
baby.

2. obstinate vs mulish
Don't be so obstinate!
He gave me a mulish look
 Denotation:
o Obstinate: Unwilling
to change one's mind
or opinion; stubborn.
o Mulish: Extremely
stubborn and resistant
to persuasion or
control.
 Connotation:
o Sentence
1: "Obstinate" is less
intense than "mulish"
and might imply
childish resistance.
o Sentence 2: "Mulish"
carries a
stronger negative
connotation, indicati
ng extreme
inflexibility and even
irrationality.
 infant vs kid
Infants and elderly people are
particularly at risk.
There was a group of kids playing
football in the street.
 Denotation:
o Infant: A very young
child, typically under
the age of one year.
o Kid: A young
person, typically a
child or teenager.
 Connotation:
o Sentence 1: "Infant"
emphasizes young
age and vulnerability.
 o Sentence 2: "Kid" is
a neutral term for a
young
person, lacking the
specific vulnerability
connotation of
"infant."

beg vs implore
I begged Helen to stay, but she
wouldn't listen.
'Don't go,' I implored her.
 Denotation:
o Beg: To ask for
something earnestly
and humbly, often
repeatedly.
o Implore: To ask for
something very
earnestly and
urgently, often in a
formal or emotional
way.
 Connotation:
o Sentence 1: "Beg"
suggests desperation
and pleading.
o Sentence
2: "Implore" sounds
more formal and
heartfelt, highlighting
urgency and
emotional appeal.

friend vs crony
She told this to only a few trusted
friends.
He spent the evening drinking with
his cronies.
 Denotation:
o Friend: A person
with whom one has a
bond of mutual
affection.
 o Crony: A close
companion or
associate, often with
negative connotations
of being involved in
questionable
activities.
 Connotation:
o Sentence 1: "Friend"
emphasizes trust and
closeness in a positive
way.
o Sentence 2: "Crony"
implies a less
genuine, possibly
self-serving, relations
hip.

fragrance vs reek
The garden flower had a rich
fragrance.
The reek of cigarettes and beer
filled the room.
 Denotation:
o Fragrance: A
pleasant smell.
o Reek: A
strong, unpleasant
smell.
 Connotation:
o Sentence
1: "Fragrance"
evokes positive ideas
of beauty and
enjoyment.
o Sentence 2: "Reek"
emphasizes the
intensity and
unpleasantness of the
smell.

love vs adore
I've always loved children.
Betty adores her grandchildren.
I simply adore chocolate.
I’m lovin’ it (McDonald’s
advertising jingle)
 Denotation:
o Love: A strong
feeling of deep
affection and care for
another person.
o Adore: To love
someone or
something very much;
to worship or revere.
 Connotation:
o Sentence 1: "Love"
expresses a
general, broad
affection.
o Sentence 2: "Adore"
suggests a more
intense and almost
reverential type of
love.
o Sentence 3: "Adore"
can also be used
playfully for non-
human things, while
"love" might sound
more genuine.
o Sentence 4: "Lovin'
it" uses "love"
casually and
commercially, losing
its deeper meaning.

talent vs genius
She had an obvious talent for
music.
She was a mathematical genius.
 Denotation:
o Talent: A natural
aptitude or skill for
something.
o Genius: Exceptional
intellectual or
creative power.
 Connotation:
 o Sentence 1: "Talent"
implies a natural
ability that requires
development and
practice.
o Sentence 2: "Genius"
suggests remarkable
and almost
superhuman
intellectual capacity.

gobble vs eat
I exercise and eat right and get
plenty of sleep.
She gobbled down her lunch.
 Denotation:
o Gobble: To eat
greedily and noisily.
o Eat: To take food into
the mouth and
swallow it.
 Connotation:
o Sentence 1: "Eat" is
neutral.
o Sentence 2: "Gobble"
emphasizes
greediness and noisi

4. Group together the

following words according
to the lexico-semantic
variants (LSVs) they
represent. Use dictionaries
if necessary. What context
(lexical or grammatical)
actualizes the meaning in
each case?
smart:
1. Appearance: You're
looking very smart in your
new clothes! (Formal, well-
dressed)
2. Intelligence: Smart kids get
good grades and go off to
 college. (Ability to learn and
achieve)
3. Sharpness: He got a smart
blow on the head. (Causing
sharp pain)
4. Technological
advancement: Virtual
reality, ‘smart’
materials, biosensors have
become an integral part of
our life. (Incorporated
advanced technology)
5. Fashionableness: We had
dinner in one of the smartest
restaurants. (High-end, trend
y)
golden:
1. Material: She received a
golden ring as a
present. (Made of gold)
2. Color: The girl has got
beautiful golden
hair. (Golden yellow)
3. Opportunity: He wasted a
golden opportunity when he
missed from the penalty
spot. (Exceptional chance)
4. Anniversary: They
celebrated golden wedding
anniversary yesterday. (50th
anniversary)
5. Figurative: The 19th
century is traditionally
referred to as the "Golden
Era" of Russian
literature. (Flourishing
period)
sound:
1. Wise: The book is full of
sound
advice. (Sensible, practical)
2. Healthy: He is lucky to
have a sound constitution
and sound
teeth. (Strong, reliable)
 3. Thorough: He has a sound
knowledge of
English. (Deep and
accurate)
4. Disciplinary: The child got
a sound whipping. (Severe
punishment)
5. Peaceful: He was a sound
sleeper. (Sleeping deeply
and undisturbed)
root:
1. Plant part: These plants
produce a number of thin
roots. (Underground plant
structure)
2. Cause: The love of money
is the root of all
evil. (Underlying source)
3. Origin: Jazz has its roots in
the folk songs of the
southern states of the
US. (Source of
development)
4. Ancestry: Alex Haley's
story about his search for his
roots became a
bestseller. (Family history)
5. Morphological unit: The
word 'coldness' is formed
from the root 'cold' and the
suffix 'ness'. (Base element
of a word)
6. Mathematical term: 2 is
the fourth root of
16. (Number that, when
multiplied by itself a certain
number of times, equals
another number)
to perform:
1. Present: The children
perform two plays each
school year. (Act
out, showcase)
2. Carry out: Surgeons
performed an emergency
 operation. (Execute, complet
e)
3. Achieve: The party had
performed poorly in the
elections. (Achieve a certain
result)

5. Which of the following

words are monosemantic
(use a dictionary)?
abandon, abdicate, aphorism,
apathy, application, arch, band,
behold, bronchitis, central,
denture, divide, measure,
memorial, mischance, prominent,
promise, promote, prompt,
sinecure, xenophobia.

Monosemantic words have only

one meaning. Here are the
monosemantic words from your
list:
Aphorism
Application
Denture
Memorial
Sinecure

6. What linguistic
phenomenon are the
following jokes based on?
Determine the role of
context in each situation:
a) Diner: Do you serve fish
here?
Waiter: We serve anyone, sit
down.
Context Role: The humor here
comes from the double meaning of
"serve." The waiter takes it in the
sense of serving a person, while
the customer meant serving fish as
a dish.
b) It’s tough to pay forty cents
a pound for meat. – But it’s
 tougher when you pay only
twenty.
Context Role: The humor relies on
the dual meaning of "pay" –
paying a price and paying
attention. The context of
purchasing meat creates a play on
these two interpretations.
c) Allow me to present my
wife to you. – Many thanks,
but І have one.
Context Role: The joke plays on
the ambiguity of "present." The
person presenting their wife thinks
of introducing her, while the other
person interprets it as a gift.
d) Hotel keeper: Here are a few
views of our hotel for you to
take with you, sir.
Guest: Thanks, but I have
my own views of your hotel.
Context Role: The ambiguity of
"views" is exploited here. The
hotel keeper offers pictures, but the
guest interprets it as opinions or
perspectives.
e) Customer: I would like a
book, please.
Bookseller: Something
light?
Customer: That doesn't
matter. I have my car with
me.
Context Role: The humor arises
from the double meaning of
"light." The bookseller interprets it
as a book with an easy reading
level, while the customer thinks of
the weight of the book.
f) The critic started to leave in
the middle of the second act
of the play.
"Don't go," said the
manager. "I promise there's
 a terrific kick in the next
act."
"Fine," was the retort, "give
it to the author."
Context Role: The joke involves
the double meaning of "kick." The
manager means an exciting
element in the play, while the critic
interprets it as a negative
experience and suggests giving it
to the author.