17

THE REVOLUTION OF 1911

By 1911, the Manchu dynasty had ruled China for two hundred and
sixty seven years. While the dynasty displayed dynamism and vigour
during a greater part of its life, it became comparatively weak and
inefficient in its closing phase. By the middle of the 19th century, the
Manchus had to face several problems. There was economic díslocation
and bureaucratic inefficiency at home; there were the inroads being made
by the foreign Powers. These conditions called for radical adjustments
in China's political, economic and social structures. The Manchus were
unable to make these adjustments. In the face of the impending disaster,
the aging empress Dowager tried to seek refuge in reform. But it was
already too late. The collapse of the dynasty became inevitable.
CAUSES OFTHE REVOLUTION OF 1911
o l. Economie Causes. (The basic causes of the Revolution of 1911
were economic. During the twenty five years preceding 1911, there was
aphenomenal growth of population. Erom 377 million in 1885, the
population rose to 430 million in 1911.
This increase in population was
not matched by any increase in food supply. In 1910-11normal conditions
of food production were disturbed by floods in the central provinces.
There were droughts in some seven provinces. Millions of people were
actually starving and dying. Naturally, there was widespread discontent
among the masses of people. The situation was only relieved to a very
smallextent by migration to Manchuria and other thinly populated areas
of the empire. But the famine conditions were acute enough to provide
material for a widespread revolt.
Another economic factor was finance, The expenditure of the
government steadily increased because ofthe réorganisation of the army.
the construction of the railways, and the establishment of new ducational
the
institutions.In addition, the government had to meet payments ou
Indemnities arising out of the Sino-Japanese War and the Boxer UprisMg
charges
As a consequence, the taxés became increasingly heavy and new adding
had to be levied, making the tax burden, altogether unbearable, and
to the discontent and dissatisfaction with the dynasty.
 HISTORY OF CHINA
86
2, Rise of Revolutionary ideas. The economic unrest created a
receptive state of mind among the people for revolutionary ideas. There
was already a revolutionary party since the time of the Hundred Days
of Reform. This party operating from Tokyo was headed by Kang Yu
wei and his disciple Liang Chi Chao. They preached the doctrine of
constitutional monarchy. There were then the anti-dynastic revolutionaries
led by Dr. Sun Yat Sen. In 1905, Sun organised his Tung Meng Hui
(Alliance Society)which was responsible for many outbreaks. Sun travelled
extensively preaching the doctrines of his society. He affiliated many of
the secret societies that had a permanent existence South of the Yangtze
to his cause. Anew model army was organised, consisting of anti-Manchu
elements. The role played by Dr. Sun Yat Sen in the revolution was
truly great. It was he who transformed the mass discontent into a successful
revolution. Another centre of revolutionary propaganda was among the
new student class. After 1900, a large number of students went abroad
to study. These students on return usually found that there were no
government positions open to them. They were naturally aggrieved and,
because of their foreign experience and training provided active leadership
tothe revolt.
3. Growth of Revolutionary Parties. The Anti-Manchu sentiment
never disappeared throughout the 268-year dynasty. The germ of revolution
was kept alive in underground organization and secret societies, which
aimed at the over-throwing of the Manchu dynasty.toto
(i)The revolt of the Three Feudatories,og enutonsig &
(ii) The rising of Heaven and Earth
Society,sd batan
(ii) The White Lotus Rebelion andbstow noiDubog b001 20
(iv) The Taiping Rebellionog nsvse tnoz i aldguctb s T
were some of the popular uprisings against the Manchus.
4. Role of Missionaries. In this connection, mention should be made
of influential role played by the missionary schools in providing converts
to the cause of revolution. These schools provided Western democratic
ideas and created a new generation of students imbued with a progressive
outlook. Some of the brilliant students went abroad and came in contact
with liberal Westem institutions. These contacts and the resulting influence
had a tremendous significance in the context of the prevailing conditions
in China.
5. The works of Chinese Immigrants. The Chinese immigrants who
were going to the West had difficulties. In 1880 and 1890, the United
States passed the exclusion acts by which America closed its doors to
the Chinese immigrants. Denied admission to the United States, the Chinese
 REVOLUTION OF 1911 87
THE

turnedto Hawaii, the Philippines, Malay States, etc. These Chinese

numbering about two and half million sent home large remittances and
subscribed to the cause of the revolution. Those of the Chinese who
returned after staying in the Western countries
brought with them Western
countrymen, thus awakening them
ideas andpropagatedthem among their
consciousness,
to a new means
6. Modern Communication System and Press. The improved helped
and railways
of comunication, the cxtended posts, telegraphsthe empire. Added to
the rapid spread of revolutionary ideas throughoutincluded a number of
now
this was the Chinese vernacular press which ferment far and
reformist and revolutionary papers, carrying the new
wide.
attitude of the provinces
7. Indifference of Provincial Authorities. The
provincial chiefs asserted
was one of non-co-operation with the centre. The the central government.
their powers, taking advantage of the weakness of
and provincial authorities.
There was constant friction between the central contracts that were being
One of the sources of friction was the new
assigned toforeigners for the construction of the railways. The provincial
authorities wanted to have a voice in the centre's decision relating to
irresponsive to the activities of
their area, when they found the centre
the revolutionaries.
8. The Superiority Complex. The Chinese generally considered
themselves as the only civilisedpeople in the whole world and on the
this logic, all outsiders were barbarians. The Manchus had this
basis of
superiority complex even in a larger measure. This complex prevented
refused to adapt themselves
them from learning from experience. They military matters. The result
also in
to new ideas not only in civil but
the Western forces successfully.
was that the Chinese armies could not face
less similar background learnt
In contrast, Japan which had a more or power and thereby earned the
from the West, built herself into a strong
countries.
respect and admiration of the Western
territorially decentralised.
9. Weakness of the Centre., China was
The regional
Thís territorial decentralisation weakened the centre greatly. did not co
authority and
and provincial .chiefs asserted themselves in For instance, at the
operate with the centre. even in times of emergency.
provinces
time of the Opium Wars, there was no unified military.effotThe
remained aloof, and did
that were not directly affected by the hostilities Likewise during the
not contribute their shares to the conmon cause.
treated the War
Sino-Japanese War, the provinces not directly affected,
Thus, each region and province
as the personal affair ofLi Hung Chang.
without concern for the integrity of
tried to look after its own interests
SS HISTORY OF CHINA
the country as a whole. The later Manchus were weaklings and could
not check the growth of regionalism. They were more interested in the
pleasures of the palace life than properly administering the country.
n 10. Poor System of Administration. The Manchu rulers did not
introduce any sound system of civil administration. The writ of imperial
authority did not run throughout the country. In the first place, there
was no c0-ordination between the centre and the province. In the second
place, there was no co-ordination between the provinces and the local
administration. The result was cach local unit behaved as if it were an
independent entity by itself. At the centre the officials wereutterly corrupt
and inefficient. The provincial chiefs were interested only in
strengthening
their position. The system of checks and counter-checks that once restrained
the provincial administrators were no longer being enforced. The financial
administration was unscientific. The local authorities were allowed to
squeeze as much as possible so long as they contributed their quota of
revenues to the centre. The dynasty failed to check all these evils with
the result that the people desired to overthrow it.
lsio 11. Indifference to Reforms. The Manchus wanted to be absolute
monarchs and were unwilling to share their power with other parliamentary
institutions. The Manchus showed an utter disregard to all progressive
reforms. By means fair or foul, they foiled all reformist movements in
the country. The Taiping Rebellion, the Hundred Days Reform and the
Boxer Uprising indicated the new consciousness that was awakening among
the people. The Manchus suppressed all the movements ruthlessly and
did not realise that the time had come for popular reforms. When the
reforms came, they were too late in coming and too inadequate to meet
the needs of the situation.
lt 12. Manchus as Foreigners. All though the 18th century, the secret
societies in the South were agitating for the overthrow of the Manchu
dynasty. The Manchus were not strictly speaking Chinese, but belonged
to the ethnic group of Mongols. They never identified themselves with
the aspirations of the Chinese people. Therefore, the people regarded
the Manchus as foreigners and usurpers. Thus, there was already a latent
hatred among the people against the Manchus.
o 13. The Western Impact. The most significant factor which wàs
responsible for the collapse of the Manchus was the Western impact on
China. The Chinese-hated-the Western "barbarians';_at. the. same time
they were profoundly impressed by their military efficiency and by their
liberal ideas.and-institutions. The western ideas of democracy,
independence, human rights and freedomi excerterd a profound influence
upon the Chinese. Atthe treaty ports, the Western settlements served to
 1911
THE REVOLUTION OF 89

Aisseminate Western ideas and practices. These liberal influences weakened

the tradition of the emperor's mandate from heaven. The Confucian code
of filial piety, the division of classes, etc., were seriously undermined.
The Manchu rulers who were conservative and reactionary in their outlook
could not bring about the necessary adjustments to meet the needs of
the changing times. Their repeated defeats at the hands of the foreigners
exposed their utter weakness providing the necessary temptation for
rebellion, 8
14. Economic Domination of the West. The country was partitioned
into so many spheres of influence by the Western Powers. In their
respective spheres of influence each of the Powers opened mines,
constructed railways, etc., and started exploiting the region as if it were
a colony. This economic domination of the West resulted in the
impoverishment of the handicraft industries as the respective spheres of
influence were used by the Powers as their market for their mass-produced
goods. The Manchu government did not take steps to industrialise the
country in a manner that would absorb the displaced artisans. Not only
did they fail to industrialise the country, but they freely allowed the
foreigners to exploit the economic resources of the land.
15. The Death of Dowager and the Loss of Leadership. At a time
when the country was in need of strong and efficient leadership, the
Empress Dowager died, and left a vacuum in the political leadership of
the country. The Empress, in spite of her many
and forceful personality who managed to keep thedrawbacks, was a strong
as long as she was alive. The puppet prince also revolutionaries at bay
died more or less
simultaneously making the situation further worse. Along with these royal
personages, many of the important and capable leaders who guided the
destinies of the Manchu dynasty also disappeared from the scene. So
the dynasty which was bereft of leadership succumbed before the rising
tide of revolution.
16. The Defeat of China at the hands of Japan. The Sino-Japanese
War delivered a death-blow to the absolutist monarchy of China. The
victory of a tiny country like Japan over China proved the efficiency
and effectiveness of constitutional government. Japanese example clearly
showed that parliamentary from the government necessarily meant strong
and capable government. So it was not without reasons that China modelled
her constitution after Japan. Since the Manchus had set their face against
all reforms, it became clear that constitutional reforms could be carried
out only when the Manchus were overthrown.
17. Humiliating Defeats and Imposed Treaties. The Manchus
suffered defeats in the hands of Westerners. These defeats not only brought
90 HISTORY OF CHINA

national humiliation but also forced her to submit to the dictated terms
of the Westerners. As the result of these imposed treaties, China lost
her teritorics, control over her tariff system, and sovereign powers, These
treaties proved as iron bars that encircled her frecdom. Hence, the Manchu
govermment foreited her right to rule as well as the confidence of the
people.
18. Russo-Japanese War. When the Chinese saw that the Japanese
scored a brilliant victory over the Russians in 1905 they also wanted to
follow the path of Japan. They saw that the conservative Manchus were
the only obstacles in their progressive path. The Japanese victory not
only infused national spirit but also strengthened the Anti-Manchu element.
Immediate Causes of the Revolution
The railroad nationlisation by the government provided the
necessary
spark to an already explosive situation. From 1905, Chinese financiers
were forming combines for building railroads, side by side with foreigners.
In 1911, the government nationalised the private railway building rights.
The purpose was to mortgage these rights to raise a foreign loan of six
million pounds. This was construed by the revolutionaries and the provincial
authorities as a bid to crush the revolt with foreign money. When a
protest march was in progress, the viceroy ordered the arrest of the leaders
and firing on the mob. On October 10, 1911 an accidental explosion at
Hankow in the house of a Russian revealed the activities of the
revolutionaries. Fearing repression the revolutionaries broke out into open
rebellion.
Significance and Character of the Revolution
The important characteristics of the Revolution lay in the fact that
it was anti-Manchu, anti-traditional and anti-foreign with a strong dose
of nationalistic ferment.
The Revolution of 1911 brought the Manchu rule in
end. Obviously the dynasty had lost its moral basis to rule China to an
was but inevitable that an incompetent, corrupt and China. It
like that that of the Manchus should sooner or later decadent dynasty
was however hastened by the mounting Western impactcollapse. Its end
and the national
spirit that came in its wake. The political transition from the anarchical
Manchu misrule to Republic was deceptively peaceful. The Republic
had a constitution, parliamentary procedures, codes of law but only on
paper. The constitution was not understood, the parliamentary
were not followed and the law codes were ncver enforced. procedures
The result
was the Republic opened on an era of disorder and turmoil.
In the early Republican years, China was faced with internal chaos,
THE REVOLUTION OF 1911 91

increasing foreign economic pressure and the tyranny of the provincial

war-lords. Although the Revolution of 1911 did not bring in the promised
bright era for China, it had immense significance for the future. The
Confucian order was discarded once and for all. The old moorings to
which China had clung for about two thousand years were cut loose.
modern
The old barriers were broken and China launched herself into the
world. Dr. Sun Yat-Sen's Tung Ming Hui was converted into Kuomintang
under
which consolidated the greater part of China into integrated unit
the leadership of Chiang Kai-Shek.
handiwork of one of the
The bloodless revolution of 1911 was the
Democracy,
China's greatest leaders Dr. Sun Yat-Sen.His three principles,
foundation for China's
Nationalism and Socialism provided the ideological
future.
an end the discredited Manchu
The Revolution of 1911 brought to constitutional
dynasty and inaugurated the Republic. It provided thus a
government, by replacing absolutist monarchy. It proclaimed
form of though it was long before the, implications
the sovereignty of the people, Revolution was anti
worked out. Socially, the
of this sovereignty were cut loose and China embarked
on
traditionalist. The old moorings were and traditional loyalties which
Confucian codes
her modern era. The account of foreign influence and Western
remained much croded on fundamental feature
clean sweep. Another
education was now given aemergence of the spirit of nationalism. The
the
of the revolution was exploitation of China had already created a strong
foreign penetration and Revolution provided a focal point for the
anti-foreign sentiment. The sentiment.
expression of the nationalist
 THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD, I9II-I949
effective, but (at least in theory) centralization prevailed, and
been continued to rule
have

dynasties
from capital, generally in Beijing. The
the
abdication in 1912 could and did lead to disruptions. Six centu-
not
d
sUCCeSsive
gmav
emperork
ofunityhad prevented the country's dismemberment. However, the
oiag symbol,of unity, cast China into uncharted waters, creating
s eo

emperor,a
sr S O

ofan
conditions. Although a central government was established in Beijing
lack
wastable and in Nanjing and Chongjing from 1928 to 1949, neither
I916
to entire country. Japanese encroachment starting in r915 and cul-
the
controlled
Japanese attack of 1937 contributed to disunity and chaos.
in
minating
the

1911
REVOLUTION AND ITS AFTERMATH
THE
theleader most often associated with the 19II revolution, although,
Sun
Yat-sen
is
downfall of
he. scarcely played a role in the events leading directly to the
fact,
in His
encomium as Father of the Chinese Republic may be somewhat
the
Qing.
misleading.He became a national figure and even anational hero, but he hardly
H
wielded much
authority over China during his own lifetime. He never
ever
country's chief executive and played an entirely different role.
becamethe
had disadvantages as a political leader in China. Although he was
Sun was
bornin
Guangdong province, he spent most of his life outside China. He
in Hawaii and attended medical school in Hong Kong.
Perhaps
educated

Figure IL.I Sun Yat-sen in 1912. Photo: akg-images /Interfoto

CHINA IN GLOBAL HISTORY
Christianity. Thus, he
even more significant, Sun had been converted to religious views and his
differed considerably from most Chinese because ofhehisremaincd abroad and
residence abroad. When he turned to politics,financial support from over-
devoted most of his time and efforts to obtaining
separated fromthe vast majority
be
seas Chinese communities. Sun seemned to hand, this could also have been an
of the Chinese population. On the other civilization may have appreciated
asset. Chinese who were entrancedlby WesternHe wore Western clothes, at least
Sun's apparent identification with theandWest.
sought assistance from the Japanese,
in most of his photos. He identified educational and banking systems
and
who had modernized their economystructure differed from that of the West.
expeditiously, although their political Chinese would appear to have been lim-
Westernization
His ability to connect with ordinarymodernization and possibly
ited, but his appeal to advocates of
support among the general population. vague and
helped him to gain
derived from the West but were
program also nationalism,
Dun's 1deas and so-called Three People's Principles of views con
difficult to identify. His livelihood were ill defined because his People's
democracy, and people's unsystematic reading in Western sources.
capitalism.
SIsted of a mélange of his either socialism or a kind of people'snationalism
to
livelihood could refer anti-Manchu of
beliefs or a modern form favor
Nationalism could be
definitions may actually have worked in his
unclear different
for the Chinese. The different peoples or groups, who represented
because a variety of ideology proved to
movement. A lack of a more focused
policies, could join his rigid criteria for membership in his Tongmenghui
be aboon because he had no founded in Japan in I905. Travel
the movement he
(or Revolutionary Alliance),
efforts to organize a
or a
tightly knit political party com
outside China impeded him the leverage he needed
to deal with
military force that could offer China. Indeed, he did not turn out to
be a
manders and warlords throughout
prevented him from
administrator or an adept military leader, which
skilled
sizable domain in China.
assuming power over any early 1912), Sun had no choice
other than
When he returned to China (by China. Sun
with Yuan Shikai, the dominant military figure in north
negotiate if he
to and to support Yuan as president
agreed to resign as provisional president permitted political parties, and sanc
abided by the provisional constitution,
parliament. By the time of the election in
tioned an election for the Chinese
January of1913, the Tongmenghuihad become the loosely organized Guomindang
Nationalist Party), a political party. Despite itsnewness, the Guomindang
(or and Sun's young protég
won the largest number of seats in the parliament,
was poised to become the
Song Jiaoren (1882-1913), the leader of the party, Yuan could not tolerate
premier and to limit the president's power. However, prompted several of his
the threat of the erosion ofhis presidential power. This guilt for
underlings to assassinate Song, although Yuan himself escaped official
involvement in the plot. Without Song in opposition, Yuan compelled the parliaa
ment to name himn president for five years. When the parliament proved to be
nuisance late in 1913, the Yuan abolished it. Sun, fearing for his life, fled to Japan.
Yuan set about shredding his commitment to Sun, gradually assuming an
imperial role and ultimately weakening himself and China, thereby making the
 THE REPUBIICAN PERIOD, 1911-1949

vulnerabletoforeign incursions and demands. He had grand visions

ountr
's dynastic structure, with himself as the new emperor, and,
China
trstoring
(instigated| by his underlings and allies) to takethe throne, he
c
i
allkeged calls emperor as of January i, 1916. However, there was little sup-
become
stier reestablishmentof
ito the imperial system, leading many commanders in
forprovincesto detach themselves from the central government.
Provincial
the
sarious gained power before 1916, but the pace of such challenges to
governmentaccelerated after Yuan's attempt at imperial restoration.
narlords had
Beijing,
same
time, Yuan faced another quandary. In 1915, capitalizing on the
Ar
the involvement in the First World War and the attendant focus on
so-called Twenty-One Demands to the Chinese gov
pouers
great Japan sent the
Europe, most controversial of these
demands was Chinese recognition
ernment. The
dominance over Shandong province, a
dominance it achieved by
I890s.
Japan's
Germany, which had maintained a concession there since the could
of War and
expelling
was using nearly
all its resources for the First World
Germany
defend its preeminent position in Shandong. Japan
also sought
to Inner Mongolia, and
not received greater economic concessions in Fujian,
afford
assur-
and leverage over important iron and steel companies, thus any
Manchuria and countervailing force from
access to these resources. With no demands, which
ngitself
of
power, Yuan had to acquiesce to nearly all the
other foreign
alienated the population. His death
in I916 ended his aspirations
governmental
further ushered in a chaotic period, with a decline in central
greater the
but also
an increase in warlord power. It turned out that, the establish
authorityandl the opportunity for
warlords to
Beijing, the greater
disrance fromregions.R
autonomous

WARLORDS IN POWER
Xinjiangillustrates the potential for dismemberment
The northwest province of by the Qing in themiddle ofthe eighteenth century
of the country. Conquered throughout the nineteenth century, Xinjiang
had, in
and riveted by rebellion mostly non
connections with China. The Qing had ruled awho engaged
any case, loose composed of pastoralists and oasis-dwellers
Chinese population Turkic
Although the vast majority of the people were
n subsistence farming. warlord named Yang Zengxin (1867-1928) took power
and Muslim, a Chinese revolution. A tough-minded,
oppressive, and
n the aftermath of the r9II well-organized military force. He
advantage of a
Snrewd leader, he had the
the local, non-Chinese inhabitants with
combined ruthless suppression of from exploitative Chinese merchants. His
protection
ne relief measures and (including secret societies
forces dealt harshly with both Chinese dissidents who demanded inde-
autonomy) and Turkic governors but in
who sought greater agreements with some non-Chinese governors, successful
pendence. He devised recalcitrant chieftains. One of his from
SOme cases duped and murdered them and thus prevent them
tactics was to generate conflicts among he had enforced a certain stability
few years,
allying with each other. WVithin aremained and would, on
in beneath the surface
although tensions
Xinjiang,
337