AND (NIGTIMOLOGY . ba PSUPT WILLIAM A. REVISA, (Ret) PhD., CSP, CST é : MMU RMA Ome es ess ar Cac Nasa waaayLIST OF CONTENTS Topics Page Preface i List of Contents ii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR SEGMENT 1. OVERVIEW ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT What is Behavior? What is Human Behavior? What is Human Development? Four Pillars of Human Development Theories of Child (Human) Development Personality Theory Psychoanalytic Theory Levels of Awareness Freud’s Model of Personality Development Trait Theory Kinds of Trait by Allport Kinds of Trait by Goldberg Personality Trait by Eysenck What is Temperament? Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency Psychosocial Theory of Development Erikson’s Stages of Human Development Cognitive. Development Theory Socio-Cultural Theory Bio Ecological Theory Moral Development Theory COCMmeINEABWHWLMYNH AIGBSBHssS SEGMENT 2. ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR What is Abnormal Behavior? 20 What is Psychopathology? 20 The 4 Ds 20 Models of Abnormality 21 Identification of Abnormal Behavior 24 Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior 26SEGMENT 3. MENTAL DISORDER What is a Mental Disorder? What is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders? What is American Psychiatric Association (APA)? Relationship between Mental Disorder and Crime What is Mental Retardation? Four Different Degrees of Mental Retardation Causes and Symptoms of Mental Retardation Prevention of Mental Retardation SEGMENT 4. CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR AND. INTELLIGENCE What is Criminal Behavior? Theories on Criminal Behavior Intelligence and Criminality What is Human Intelligence? Criminal Law and Intelligence What is the McNaughton (M’Naghten) Rule? What is the Durham Rule? What is ALI “Substantial Capacity” Test? Insanity and Criminal Law in the Philippines The Revised Penal Code PROGRESS CHECK REFERENCES CHAPTER II HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND COPING MECHANISMS SEGMENT 1. EMOTION Emotion Theories of Emotion What is Emotional Intelligence? Five Components of Emotional Intelligence by Goleman Emotional Intelligence and Criminal Behavior SEGMENT 2. CONFLICT Conflict Types of Conflict 51 52 54 54 55 56 56Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict Crime and Conflict SEGMENT 3. DEPRESSION Depression ; Causes of Depression Symptoms of Depression What are the Different Forms of Depression? How to Battle Depression Depression and Criminality SEGMENT 4. STRESS Stressor What is Stressor? Types of Stress Three Stages of Stress Types and Categories of Stress How does Stress Affect Human Behavior? Stress and Criminality SEGMENT 5. FRUSTRATION Frustration? What is External Frustration? What is Internal/Personal Frustration? Is Anger a Source of Frustration? Common Responses to Frustration What is the Frustration Aggression Theory? What is Frustration—induced Criminality? What is the Hypothesis of Catharsis? SEGMENT 6. COPING vs. DEFENSE MECHANISM Coping Mechanism Defense Mechanism List of Coping Mechanisms PROGRESS CHECK REFERENCESCHAPTER HI MENTAL DISORDERS AND CRIMINALITY SEGMENT 1. MENTAL DISORDERS What is Mental Disorder? 91 Causes of Mental Disorder 92 Neurosis and Psychosis 92 What is Neurosis? 92 What is Psychosis? 93 SEGMENT 2. ANXIETY DISORDER Anxiety Disorder 95 What is the difference between Anxiety and Fear? 95 What are the symptoms of an Anxiety Disorder? 95 Types of Anxiety Disorder 96 Three Types of Anxiety According to Freud 99 Anxiety Disorder and Criminality 99 SEGMENT 3. DELUSIONAL DISORDER: FALSE BELIEF Delusional Disorder 100 Types of Delusional Disorder 100 Types of Delusional Disorders not Included in the DSM-IV-TR 102 What causes Delusional Disorder? 103 Delusion and Criminality 104 SEGMENT 4. MOOD DISORDERS Mood Disorder 105 Types of Mood Disorder 105 Mood Disorder and Criminality 106 SEGMENT 5. PERSONALITY DISORDER Personality Disorder 107 Ten Types of Personality Disorder (Clusters A, B,& C) 107 Personality Disorder and Criminality lll Violent Recidivism 113 SEGMENT 6. SOMATOFORM DISORDER Somatoform Disorder 114 Six (6) Major Types of Somatoform Disorder 114Difference between Factitious Disorder and Malingering? _7ae somatoform Disorder and Criminality SEGMENT 7. DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER issociative Disorder . our Kinds of Dissociative Disorder Dissociative Disorder and Criminality SEGMENT 8. IM PULSE CONTROL DISORDER Impulse Control Disorders Types of Impulse-Control Disorders Impulse Control Disorder and Criminality SEGMENT 9. SLEEP DISORDERS Sleep Disorder Types of Sleep Disorders What is Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep Behavior Disorder? Sleep Disorder and Criminality SEGMENT 10. SCHIZOPHRENIA Schizophrenia Categories of Schizophrenic Hallucinations Characteristics of Schizophrenia Kinds of Schizophrenia How does Schizophrenia Develops? Schizophrenia and Criminality SEGMENT 11. SEXUAL DISORDER/SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION Sexual Dysfunctions What are the Symptoms of Sexual Dysfunction? What is the Human Sexual Response Cycle? Major Categories of Sexual Disorder Sexual Dysfunction Paraphilias Gender Identity Disorder (Transsexualism) Sexual Abnormalities As to the Choice of Sexual Partner As to Instinctual Strength of Sexual Urge vi ls 116 17 117 118 119 119 120 121 121 122 123 124 124 124 126 127 128 129 129 129 131 131 133 136 137 137 138As to Mode of Sexual Expression or Sexual Satisfaction 138 As to the Part of the Body 139 As to Visual Stimulus 139 As to Number of Sex Partner 140 As to Sexual Reversal 140 What is Intersexuality? 140 Classification of Intersexuality 141 Sexual Disorder and Criminality 141 SEGMENT 12. RESPONSE OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM CIS and the Mentally Disorder 142 PROGRESS CHECK 144 REFERENCES 147 CHAPTER IV VICTIMOLOGY SEGMENT 1: INTRODUCTION TO VICTIMOLOGY Victimology 161 Who is a Crime Victim? 162 History of Victimology 162 Victimology vs. Criminology 163 Victimity vs. Victimizer 163 Theories of Victimization 164 First Generation: Early Victimologists 164 Second Generation: Theories of Victimization 165 Third Generation: Refinement and Empirical Tests of Opportunity Theories of Victimization 167 Fourth Generation: Moving Beyond Opportunity Theories 168 Theories of Victimization 168 SEGMENT 2. VICTIM AND VICTIMIZATION Who are Victims? 172 Effects and Consequences of Victimization 172 Physical Consequences 172 Psychological/Emotional and Mental Consequences 173 Financial Consequences 174 Trauma in Victimization 175 viiin 175 Primary Injuries, Is Secondary Injuries i 177 n Injuries Saar Trauma Recovery 177 Common Victim Behaviors 1p 1s of Victimization wrote of Crime Model (Man-made Cause) 181 Victim of Disaster Model (Natural Cause) 18] Kinds of Crime Victim 132 What is Victim Impact Panel? 182 What is the Purpose of Victim Impact Statements? 182 Mendelsohn’s Types of Victim 184 Hans Von Hentig’s Taxonomy of Murder Victims 184 Von Hentig’s Classes of Victim 185 SEGMENT 3. RIGHT OF VICTIMS What are Victims’ Rights? 185 Who May Exercise Victims’ Rights? 186 United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power 189 Access to Justice and Fair Treatment 189 Restitution 190 Compensation 191 Assistance 191 1987 Philippine Constitution (Bill of Rights) 192 PROGRESS CHECK. 194 REFERENCES 197 ViliCHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR This chapter presents an introduction to human behavior, theories on human behavior, abnormal behavior, criminal behavior, and intelligence and crime. Expected Outcomes: At the end of this topic, the learners could be able to: a. understand the concept of human development, abnormal and criminal behaviors, and mental disorder; compare criminal behavior from abnormal behavior; explain the relationship of mental disorders to crime; outline the relationship of intelligence to criminal behavior or criminality; and evaluate or critique the application of intelligence in the administration of criminal justice. Segment 1. Overview on Human Development What is Behavior? Behavior refers to the actions of an organism or system, usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other organisms or systems around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the organism or system to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. Behavior can also be defined as anything that you do that can be directly observed, measured, and repeated. Some examples of behavior are reading, crawling, singing, holding hands and the likes. eee Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 1Mh va) yep? mt i) ( ( i is Human Behavior . wet — Behavior is the range of an and Mannetisms ibited by humans in conjunction wi eir environment ext ni to various stimuli or inputs, whether intemal “g. ea enecious Or subconscious, overt or covert, and Voluntary extivolumtary. Human Behavior is influenced by many fag,” tors, including: a. attitudes, h. beliefs, b. emotions, i, reasoning, c. culture, je values, d. ethics, k. religion, e. authority, L rapport, f. motivation, m.persuasion, and g. coercion, n. genetics. What is Human Development? Human development is the process of a Person’s growth and maturation throughout their lifespan, concerned with the Creation of an environment where people are able to develop their full potential, while leading productive and creative lives in accordance with their interests and needs, Development is about the expansion of choices people have in order to lead lives they value. Four Pillars of Human Development 1, Equity - It is the idea that €very person has the right to an education and health care, that there must be fairness for all. Sustainability - It enco: has I mpasses the view that every person s the right to earn a living that can sustain him or het, while everyone also has the right to access to goods more evenly distributed among populations, 3. Production - It is the idea that people need more efficient social programs to be introduced by their governments. Empowerment-Itis the view t such as women, need to be giv 2 hat people who are powerless, ‘en power. Human Behavior and VictimologyTheories of Child (Human) Development A. Personality Theory I. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud) The Structure of Personality (Tripartite Personality) The structure of personality, according to Sigmund Freud, is made up of three major systems: the id, the ego and the superego. Behavior is always the product of an interaction among these three systems; rarely does one system operate to the exclusion of the other two. 1. Id - Id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on the pleasure principle i.e. it wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. Id refers to the selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification. Freud called the id the “true psychic reality” because it represents the inner world of subjective experience and has no knowledge of objective reality. Ego - As the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego’s job is to meet the needs of the id, whilst taking into account the constraints of reality. The ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the id must be constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator between the id and superego which seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as our “sense of time and place”. Superego (Conscience of Man) - The superego develops during the phallic stage as a result of the moral constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally believed that a strong superego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the id (resulting in a high level of guilt), whereas a weak superego allows the id more expression-resulting in a low level of guilt. Superego internalizes society and parental standards of “good” and “bad”, “right” and “wrong” behavior (Figure 1).°) Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 3igh = alytic Theory’s Cor Personality Struct |e Personality | structure cE Ts ne -Id i Ge sy | * Pleasure tS a Principle L BEN Ses —Ego + Reality principle — Superego ~ ‘conscience | > _ . is i Figure 1, Freud’s Personality Structure and Levels of. Awareness." Levels of Awareness (Topographical Model by Sigmund Freud) 1. The Conscious Level - It consists of whatever sensations and experiences you are aware of at a given moment of time. 2. The Preconscious Level - This domain is sometimes called “available memory” that encompasses all experiences that are not conscious at the moment but which can easily be retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with a minimum of effort. Examples might include memories . everything you did last Saturday night, all the towns you ever lived in, your favorite books, or an argument you ha with a friend yesterday. 3. The Unconscious Level - It is the deepest_and. mai stratum of the human mind. It is the storehouse for Pe 30 instinctual drives plus emotion and memories that ane! threatening to the conscious mind that they have ious repressed, or unconsciously pushed into the uncon: our mind. Examples of material that might be found in ¥' | 4 Human Behavior and Victimologyunconscious include a forgotten trauma in childhood, hidden feelings of hostility toward a present, and repressed sexual desires of which you are unaware (Figure 1). Freud’s Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages) 1. Oral Stage (0-18 Months) This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s source of id gratification is the mouth, Infant gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing. Later when he has tecth, infant enjoys the aggressive pleasure of biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated at this stage may develop an adult personality that is characterized by pessimism, envy and suspicion. The overindulged child may develop to be optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for others. 2. Anal Stage (18 Months-3 Years) When parents decide to toilet train their children during anal stage, the children learn how much control they can exert over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can have the immediate pleasure of expelling feces, but that may cause their parents to punish them. This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of bodily wastes, and the super-ego which represents external pressure to control bodily functions. If the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized, reckless and defiant, Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents, and may develop an anal retentive character which is neat, stingy and obstinate. 3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years) Genitals become the primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on masturbation, that is, on self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex; boys develop unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals with their father for her affection. Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 5SS This reminiscent with Little Hans’ case study, g boys develop a fear that their father will punish thee, these feclings (castration anxiety) so decide to identify him rather than fight him. As a result, the boy devehl®™ masculine characteristics and represses his sexual feelin towards his mother. This is known as: ings a. Oedipus Complex - This refers to ai in boys build up a warm and loving mothers (mommy’s boy). b. Electra Complex - This refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense emotional attachment for their fathers (daddy’s girl). Note: The Oedipus Complex is named for the king of Thebes who killed his father and married his mother, n instance where relationship with ad Latency Stage (6-11 Years) Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this Stage, i h Sexual energy is going through the process of sublimation and is being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles playing house and sports. Ge Genital Stage (11 Years on) This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is renewed interest in obtaining sexual pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and leads to orgasm for the first time. Sexual and romantic interests 1 others also become a central motive. Interest now turns to heterosexual relationships The lesser fixation the child has in earlier stages, the ae chances of developing a “normal” personality, and e develops healthy meaningful relationships with those o opposite sex (see table 1).! aaa a Human Behavior and VictimologyTable 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages. 1. Oral (0-18 months) > Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing). > Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder 2. Anal (18-36 months) climination; coping with demands for control. L > Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping 3. Phallic (3-6 years) with incestuous sexual feelings. 4, Latency (6 years to puberty) 5. Genital (puberty on) > Maturation of sexual interest. A phase of dormant sexual feelings. Freud Psychosexual Theory believes that we are born with two basis instincts: 1. Eros - This is named after the Greek god for love. Eros includes the sex drives and drives such as hunger and thirst. 2. Thanatos - This is named after Greek god for death. This includes not only striving for death but also destructive motives such as hostility and aggression. These drives highly influence the personality of a person. IL. Trait Theory Trait approach identifies where a person might lie along a continuum of various personality characteristics. Trait theories attempt to learn and explain the traits that make up personality, the differences between people in terms of their personal characteristics, and how they relate to actual behavior. , Trait refers to the characteristics of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling. Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior| Kinds of Trait by Allport 1, Common Traits - These are personality traits that by most members of a particular culture. are shareq 2. Individual Traits - These are personality traits that defi person’s unique individual qualities. = Cardinal Traits - These are personality traits that are basic that all person’s activities relate to it. It is a powerful and dominating behavioral predisposition that provides the pivotal point in a person’s entire life. Allport said that cay few people have cardinal traits. 4 4. Central Traits - These are the core traits that characterize an individual’s personality. Central traits are the major characteristics of our personalities that are quite generalized and enduring. They form the building blocks of our personalities. 5. Secondary Traits - These are traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial, less generalized and far less enduring that affects our behaviors in specific circumstances.®*! » Kinds of Trait by Goldberg (Big Five or Five Factor Theory) Extraversion - This dimension contrasts such traits as sociable, outgoing, talkative, assertive, persuasive, decisive, and active with more introverted traits such as withdrawn, quiet, passive, retiring, and reserved. 2. Neuroticism - People high on neuroticism are prone, to emotional instability. They tend to experience negative emotions and to be moody, irritable, nervous, and prone to worry. 3. Conscientiousness-This factordifferentiatesindividuals who are dependable, organized, reliable, responsible, foe hard-working, and preserving from those undepen\ aa disorganized, impulsive, unreliable, irresponsible, care!ess negligent and lazy. on of 4. Agreeableness - This factor is composed of a collection : traits that range from compassion to antagonism ail others. A person high on agreeableness would be ap ee person, good-natured, warm, sympathetic, and coopera ad 8 Human Behavior and Victimology 1.5. Openness to Experience - This factor contrasts individuals who are imaginative, curious, broad-minded, and cultured with those who are concrete-minded and practical, and whose interests are narrow!" Personality Trait by Eysenck 1. Extrovert - It refers to a person that is sociable, out-going, and active. Introvert - It refers to a person that is withdrawn, quiet, and introspective. 3. Emotionally Unstable - It is a trait that is being anxious, excitable, and easily disturbed." - Eysenck theorized that criminality and antisocial behavior are both positively and causally related to high levels of psychoticism, extroversion and neuroticism.('3“l The theory says that in extroverts, and possibly also in people high on the psychoticism scale, biologically determined low degrees of arousal and arousability lead to impulsive, risk-taking and sensation-seeking behavior that increase the level of cortical (brain) arousal to a more acceptable and enjoyable amount.!"7) Eysenck did find that extroverts experience cortical under arousal, prefer higher levels of stimulation, and are less responsive to punishment — they therefore do not learn behavioral alternatives with the use of disciplinary action.') What is Temperament? Temperament refers to the fundamental groundwork of character, generally presumed to be biologically determined and existent early in life, inclusive of traits like emotional reactiveness, energy level, reaction tempo, and motivation to explore.!'4! Four Types of Temperament Melancholic - sad, gloomy Choleric - hot-tempered, irritable Phlegmatic —- sluggish, calm Sanguine - cheerful, hopeful!?! Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 9ugh wees iat ane Psychological 10 » Studies in Relation to Crime and Pelingueney August Aichorn / Aichorn in his book entitled Wayward Youth ¢, i i d_delinquency j 95 said that the cause of crime an UCNCY is the ) development of the child during the first few year, (tulty fs r S of life. The child as a human being normally follows Gal , his pleasure impulse ins is tinctive. Soon he (child) grew Upang some restriction to these pleasure impulses which hy fing control, Otherwise, he suffers from faulty ©g0-develop, ust and become delinquent. He then concluded that man, Ment Ofienders with whom he had worked had underdeyeys consciences. Aichorn identified two further categorige criminal: S of a. those with fully developed consciences but identitig with their criminal parents, and b. those who had been allowed to do whatever they like b over-indulgent parents.("*) yy Cyril Burt (Young Delinquent, 1925) Burt gives the theory of General Emotionality According to him many offenses can be traced to either j, excess or a deficiency of a particular instinct which accounts for the tendency of many criminals to be weak willed or easily led. Fear and absconding may be due to the impulse of fear. Callous type of offenders may be due to the deficiency in the primitive emotion of love and an excuse of the instinct of hate." William Healy (Individual Delinquency, 1916) He claimed that crime is an expression of the mental content of the individual. Frustration of the individual causes emotional discomfort; personality demands removal of pain and pain is eliminated by substitute behavior, that is, crime delinquency of the individual. Healy and Bonner (1936) conducted a study of 105 pairs of brothers where one was a persistent offender and the other a non-offender. It was found that only 19 of the offenders and 30 of the non-offenders had experienced good quality family conditions. These findings suggested that — Human Behavior and Victimologycircumstances within a houschold may be favorable for one child but not the sibling. It then proposed that the latter had not made an emotional attachment to a “good parent”, hence impeding the development of superego, |") 4. Walter Bromberg (Crime and the Mind, 1946) . He noted that criminality is the result of emotional immaturity, A person is emotionally matured if he has leamed to control his emotion effectively and who lives at peace with himself and harmony with the standards of conduct which are acceptable to the society. An emotionally immature person rebel against rule and regulations, engage in usual activities and experience a feeling of guilt due to inferiority complex.) B. Psychosocial Theory of Development (Erik Erikson) Erikson’s Stages of Human Development Developmental psychologist Erik H. Erikson was best known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for coining the phrase identity crisis (see figure 2). ‘autonomy vs. shame and doubt initiative vs. guilt trust So ae Ui industry wine (gee 5) uadcay a / Stages of Psychosocial mene Mt Spe eae Ty j generativity vs. stagnation intimacy vs. isolation a Figure 2. Erikson’s Stages of Human Development.) Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior nT- weTtate “i through which a heat; The theory describes Si infancy to late adyip ily et il ae confronts, and hopefully mastery 2 In each eh stage builds on the successful completion Of early Calne challenges of stages not successfully completed may he eopecte to reappear as problems in the future! C. Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget) - avet’s theory of cognitive development suggests th, Jean Pinget’s fon ent stages of mental development ildr ve through four differ s r Gena ce not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence (se¢ table 2). Table 2. Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development. 1. Sensorimotor -The child learns by doing: looking, (birth to 2 years) .| touching, sucking. The child also has a primitive understanding of cause-and-effect relationships. Object performance appears around 9 months. 2. Preoperational -The child uses language and symbols, (2 years to 7 years) including letters and numbers. Egocentrism is also evident. Conservation marks the end of the preoperational stage and the beginning of concrete operations. 3. Concrete Operational | -The child demonstrates conservation, (7 years to 11 years) reversibility, serial ordering, and a mature understanding of cause-and-effect relationships, Thinking at this stage is still concrete, 4. Formal Operational -The individual demonstrates _ abstract (12 years and up) thinking, including logic, deductive reasoning, comparison, and classification. Human Behavior and Victimology_ Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.4 D. Socio-Cultural Theory (Lev Vygotzky) : Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky’s work was largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky's theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three, major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development. Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior. Social Interaction Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)”. Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher (see figures 3 & 25) 4). Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 13(oe Mave} veal ences cere ensue) ithin a cultural context, have on So ute Teal Se area see eno IU Figure 3. Social Development Theory (Model 1). Social isicccionl with parents, siblings, peers, teachers pon won Zz ates, soem F eles, trations skills child Figure 4. Social Development Theory (Model 2). i 14 i H Human Behavior and VictimologyE. Bio Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner) This is knownas the Human Ecology Theory, the Ecological Systems theory states that human development is influenced by the different types of environmental systems. Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory helps us understand why we may behave differently when we compare our behavior in the presence of our family and our behavior when we are in school or at work, The Five Environmental Systems . The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the micro system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro system, and the chronosystem. is The Micro System - The micro system’s setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents. The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but we are contributing to the construction of such environment. 2. The Mesosystem - The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one’s life. This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates. 3. The Exosystem - The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behaviorta! LTTE we we y child’s social relationship, or on the other hand, this may result to a tighter bond between the mother angst child. e The Macrosystem - The macrosystem setting is the act culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involye it socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a thieg world country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day. The Chronosystem - The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifis in one’s lifespan. This may also involyg the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person (seg figure 5). Macrosystem Exosystem Figure 5, Bioecological Model One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple’s relationship but also their children’s behavior. According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years Human Behavior and Victimologyafter it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable,!241 F. Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg) . The Theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean Piaget’s theory of moral reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory made us understand that morality starts from the early childhood years and can be affected by several factors. Kohlberg ideas started from the research he performed with very young children as his subjects. He found out that children are faced with different moral issues, and their judgments on whether they are to act positively or negatively over each dilemma are heavily influenced by several factors. In each scenario that Kohlberg related to the children, he was not really asking whether or not the person in the situation is morally right or wrong, but he wanted to find out the reasons why these children think that the character is morally right or not. Levels of Moral Development Level 1: Preconventional Morality The first level of morality, preconventional morality, can be further divided into two stages: obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange. Stage 1: Punishment - Obedience Orientation - Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail. Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation - In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer. Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 17ps mth oh wt Level 2: Conventional Morality moral development. Conventional mors societal roles in judging the morality ©! 1 of moralit involves the stages 3 and 4 ‘The second level of or iworality includes the society any an action. Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation - In this sta 2, area judges at action based on the societal roles na social expectations before him. This is also known as the “interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice. Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation - This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a person’s duty. The society is the main consideration ofa person at this stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order. Level 3: Postconventional Morality The post-conventional morality includes stage Sand stage 6, This is mainly concerned with the universal principles that relation to the action done. Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation - In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before coming up with the decision on the morality of the action. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation - The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers universally accepted ethical principles. The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles of justice (figures 6 & 7).?7! Human Behavior and VietimologyIll: Posteonventional I: Conventional |: Preconventional i ————y / SY + Self chosen principles of justice * Good citizen + aware of diversity + Lawand order = contingency approach *Follow rules to avoid ——* Soial expectations halance individual and social punishment, concerns + Acts in own interest. * Obedience for its own sake. Figure 6. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (Model 1) Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment — Avoid getting in trouble Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange — What's in it for me? (J Pain & T Pleasure) Stage 3: Good Boy / Good Girl —Makes me look good / Gain approval of others Stage 4: Law & Order — Because that’s the rule. Because it’s the law. Stage 5: Social Contract — For the common good & the welfare of others Stage 6: Principled Conscience — Personal integrity, no matter the price level 1 Preconrentional level 2; Conventional 5 & Postconventional, Figure 7. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (Model 2) Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 19pe! » we) or gl Segment 2. Abnormal Behavior What is Abnormal Beha ior? —s - jor is ething deviating from th Abnormal Behavior is som 1g de - 1 differing from the typical, is a subjectively defined beh ia characteristic, assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional condi font It may be abnormal when it is unusual, socially unacce| table, Re defeating, dangerous, or suggestive of faulty interpretation Of real, or of personal distress!. / y Abnormal Behavior is behavior that is deviant, Maladaptyg or personally distressful over a long period of time." . The American Psychiatric Association defines abnormal behavior in medical terms as a mental illness that affects Or is manifested in a person’s brain and can affect the way a Person thinks, behaves, and interacts with people.?*) What is Psychopathology? Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including efforts to understand their genetic, biological, psychological, and social causes; effective classification schemes (nosology); course across all stages of development; manifestations; and treatment. It is also defined as the origin of mental disorders, how: they develop, and the symptoms they might produce in a person. The 4 Ds A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality: 1, Deviance - This term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors and emotions are considered deviant when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviant just because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an individual’s actions as deviant or abnormal when his or her behavior is deemed unacceptable by the culture he or she belongs to. 2. Distress - This term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. He or she may feel deeply 20 Human Behavior and Victimologytroubled and affected by their illness. Dysfunction - This term involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual’s ability to perform normal daily functions, such as getting ready for work in the morning, or driving a car. Such maladaptive behaviors prevent the individual from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However, dysfunctional behavior is not always caused by a disorder; it may be voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike. 4. Danger - This term involves dangerous or violent behavior directed at the individual, or others in the environment. ‘An example of dangerous behavior that may suggest a psychological disorder is engaging in suicidal activity.”*! 3. Models of Abnormality 1. Behavioral Behaviorists believe that our actions are determined largely by the experiences we have in life, rather than by underlying pathology of unconscious forces. Abnormality is therefore seen as the development of behavior patterns that are considered maladaptive (i.c. harmful) for the individual. Behaviorism states that all behavior (including abnormal) is learned from the environment (nurture) and that all behavior that has been learnt can also be ‘unlearnt’ (which is how abnormal behavior is treated). The emphasis of the behavioral approach is on the environment and how abnormal behavior is acquired, through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning. Classical conditioning has been said to account for the development of phobias. The feared object (e.g. spider or rat) is associated with a fear or anxiety sometime in the past. The conditioned stimulus subsequently evokes a powerful fear response characterized by avoidance of the feared object and the emotion of fear whenever the object is encountered. Learning environments can reinforce (re: operant conditioning) problematic behaviors. E.g. an individual may be rewarded for being having panic attacks by receiving attention from family and friends — this would lead to the behavior being reinforced and increasing in later life. Our society can also provide deviant maladaptive rr Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 21models that children identify with and imitate (eso, Iearning theory) (Figure 8). ci . Cognitive itive a h assumes that The cognitive approacs n a thoughts are responsible for their behavior. The moet sos with how information is processed in the brain a, (ds impact of ‘this on behavior. The basic assumptions are: the Maladaptive behavior is caused by faulty ang fa cognitions. ho 7 Fs way you think about a problem, rather tp, i ti ee itsolit ‘that causes mental disorders, a the . Individuals can overcome mental disorders by lea, use more appropriate cognitions. d. The individual is an active processor of informa, How a person, perceives, anticipates and evaluates evens rather than the events themselves, which will have an impact on behavior. This is generally believed to be . automatic process, in other words we do not Teally think about it. a, ional ° Ting ty In people with psychological problems these thought processes tend to be negative and the cognitions (j.¢. attributions, cognitive errors) made will be inaccurate: These cognitions cause distortions in the way we see things; Ellis suggested it is through irrational thinking, while Beck proposed the cognitive triad (see figure 8). 22 Thinking Unconscious Processes Processes Learned \ Jf Biological Behaviors Processes. 301 & Bee eC O “O69 Js Figure 8. Causes of. Abnormality. Human Behavior and Victimology3. Medical / Biological . The medical model of psychopathology believes that disorders have an organic or physical cause. The focus of this approach is on genetics, neurotransmitters, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, biochemistry etc. For example, in terms of biochemistry — the dopamine hypothesis argues that elevated levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of schizophrenia. The approach argues that mental disorders are related to the physical structure and functioning of the brain. For example, differences in brain structure (abnormalities in the frontal and pre-frontal cortex, enlarged ventricles) have been identified in people with schizophrenia. 4. Psychodynamic The main assumptions include Freud’s belief that abnormality came from the psychological causes rather than the physical causes that unresolved conflicts between the id, ego and superego can all contribute to abnormality, for example: a. Weak Ego - Well- adjusted people have a strong ego that is able to cope with the demands of both the id and the superego by allowing each to express itself at appropriate times. If, however, the ego is weakened, then either the id or the superego, whichever is stronger, may dominate the personality. b. Unchecked Id Impulses - If id impulses are unchecked they may be expressed in self-destructive and immoral behavior. This may lead to disorders such as conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic [dangerously abnormal] behavior in adulthood. Too Powerful Superego - A superego that is too powerful, and therefore too harsh and inflexible in its moral values, will restrict the id to such an extent that the person will be deprived of even socially acceptable pleasures. According to Freud this would create neurosis, which could be expressed in the symptoms of anxiety disorders, such as phobias and obsessions. c. Freud also believed that early childhood experiences and unconscious motivation were responsible for disorders." Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 23Cah aye Identification of Abnormal Behavior Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the following: 24 1 rp Deviation from Statistical Norm The word abnormal means ‘away from the norm: Many population facts are measured such as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are abnormally stupid. But according to this definition, a person who is extremely intelligent should be classified as abnormal. Examples are: a. Intelligence - It is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on an IQ test or to get a score below 55, but only the lowest score is considered abnormal.) b. Anxiety - A person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and someone who almost never feels anxiety are all considered to be abnormal. Deviation from Social Norm Every culture has certain standards for acceptable behavior; behavior that deviates from that standard is considered to be abnormal behavior. But those standards can change with time and vary from one society to another. . Maladaptive Behavior This third criterion is how the behavior affects the well-being of the individual and/or social group. A man who attempts suicide or a paranoid individual who tries to assassinate national leaders are illustrations under this criterion. The two aspects of maladaptive behavior are: a. Maladaptive to One’s self - It refers to the inability ofa person to reach goals or to adapt the demands of life. b. Maladaptive to Society - Itrefers toa person’s obstruction or disruption to social group functioning. Personal Distress The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the individual’s subjective feelings, personal distress, rather than his behavior. Most people commonly diagnosed — Human Behavior and Victimologyas ‘mentally ill’ feel miserable, anxious, depressed and may suffer from insomnia.) 5. Failure to Function Adequately . Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. They may be unable to perform the behaviors necessary for day-to-day living e.g. self-care, hold down a job, interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood etc. The following characteristics that define failure to function adequately: a. suffering, b. maladaptiveness (danger to self), vividness and unconventionality (stands out), unpredictably and loss of control, irrationality/incomprehensibility, causes observer discomfort, and g. violates moral/social standards.) me po a Deviation from Ideal Mental Health Under this definition, rather than defining what is abnormal, we define what normal/ideal is and anything that deviates from this is regarded as abnormal. This requires us to decide on the characteristics we consider necessary to mental health. The six criteria by which mental health could be measured are as follows: positive view of the self, . capability for growth and development, autonomy and independence, accurate perception of reality, positive friendships and relationships, and environmental mastery (able to meet the varying demands of day-to-day situations). mone sp According to this approach, the more of these criteria are satisfied, the healthier the individual is.°4! Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 25Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior | 1. Long Periods of Discomfort - This could be anything as simple as worrying about a calculus test or grieving the death of a loved one. This distress 1s related to a real, related, or threatened event and passes with time. When such distressing feelings, however, persist for an extended period | of time and seem to be unrelated to events surrounding the person, they would be considered abnormal and could suggest a psychological disorder. 2. Impaired Functioning - Here, a distinction must be made between simply a passing period of inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems unexplainable. For instance, a very brilliant person consistently fails in his classes or someone who constantly changes his jobs for no apparent reason. 3. Bizarre Behavior - Bizarre behavior that has no rational basis seems to indicate that the individual is confused, The psychoses frequently result in hallucinations (baseless sensory perceptions) or delusions (beliefs which are patently false yet held as true by the individual). 4. Disruptive Behavior - Disruptive behavior means impulsive, apparently uncontrollable behavior that disrupts the lives of others or deprives them of their human rights on a regular basis. This type of behavior is characteristic of a severe psychological disorder. An example of this is the antisocial personality disorder.) | 26 Human Behavior and VictimologySegment 3. Mental Disorder What is a Mental Disorder? Mental Disorder refers to the significant impairment in psychological functioning. : A mental disorder, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. : According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM)-IV, amental disorderisa psychological syndrome or pattern which is associated with distress (e.g. via a painful symptom), disability (impairment in one or more important areas of functioning), increased risk of death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy; however it excludes normal responses such as grief from loss of a loved one, and also excludes deviant behavior for political, religious, or societal reasons not arising from a dysfunction in the individual.67) In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) redefined mental disorders in the DSM-5 as “asyndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.”°") What is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders? It is better known as the DSM-IV; the manual is published by the American Psychiatric Association and covers all mental health disorders for both children and adults. It also lists known causes of these disorders, statistics in terms of gender, age at onset, and prognosis as well as some research concerning the optimal treatment approaches. Mental Health Professionals use this manual when working with patients in order to better understand their illness and potential treatment and to help 3rd party payers (e.g., insurance) understand the needs of the patient. The book is typically considered the ‘bible’ for any professional who makes psychiatric diagnoses in the United States and many other countries. Much of the diagnostic information on these pages is gathered from the DSM IV." Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 27an Psychiatric Association (APA)? ' rica : ; What is Ame! ; cialty society with oy, APA is a medical SP ans who “work (ey and international 1 nd effective treatment for al] pore the, “S e care an A Ons y,.0 sure humane care a ental retardation and sub, mental disorder, including me Stance.rg the voice and conscience of modern Psychisr lat . rs. It is the voice and cor 7 Psychiat, ted disorders. society that has available, nuceeible quality Psyop: Ih vision ee and treatment.” APA is the oldest natignay Mevttc jiagnos id tr fa ha see society in the US.! Relationship between Mental Disorder and Crime he relationship between mental disorder and crime ; issue of eiznicant empirical complexity, I 7 been subj © extensive research, using both ee ‘ional and longituding designs and including samples - 0 ‘ le general Populating birth cohorts, psychiatric patients, an incarcerated offend Nevertheless, findings have been equivocal. i On the one hand, the following are several results of Studies that have found a relationship between mental disorder and crime: 1. The risk of criminal behavior ‘was significantly higher among subjects with mental disorders, regardless of the socioeconomic status of the childhood family. In Particular the higher risk for violent behavior was Associated with alcohol-induced psychoses and with schizophrenia with coexisting substance abuse.!] 2. A review on the five epidemiological investigations of post. Second World War birth cohorts, came to the conclusion that persons who develop major mental disorders are at increased risk across the lifespan of committing crimes. However, this increased risk may be limited to generations of persons with major mental disorders born in the late 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, as they do not have received appropriate mental health care,3) 3. After examining data from national hospital and crime Tegisters in Sweden, researchers found that the overall population-attributable risk fraction of patients was 5%, indicating that patients with severe mental disorder commit one in 20 violent crimes, *4I 28 Human Behavior and Victimology4. A comparison on Swiss in-patients with the general population and came to the conclusion that patients were more frequently registered in all crime categories, although there were differences between the diagnostic groups: while alcoholics and drug users of both sexes had a significantly higher criminality rate, a higher rate was found among female, but not male, patients suffering from schizophrenia or related disorders.'*5! Finally, homicidal behavior appears to have a statistical association with schizophrenia and antisocial personality disorder. On the other hand, there are also studies that discard any relationship between mental disorder and crime. They are as follows: 1 In a study which examined the ability of personal demographic, criminal history, and clinical variables to predict recidivism in mentally disordered offenders in the United Kingdom, researchers found that reconviction in mentally disordered offenders can be predicted using the same criminogenic variables that are predictive in offenders without mental disorders.” Researchers analyzed the relationship between violence and substance abuse among patients with chronic mental disorder and found that major mental disorder alone with no“history of alcohol or drug abuse was associated with a considerably lower risk of violence. Overall, the study showed no difference in the rate of violence between patients with major mental disorders and patients with other diagnoses.) Other studies suggest that the diagnosis of schizophrenia and delusional disorder, contrary to previous empirical findings, do not predict higher rates of violence among recently discharged psychiatric patients. Along the same lines, researchers found that the crime rate among male schizophrenic patients was almost the same as that in the general male population. However, the crime rate among females was twice that of the general female population, so the overall results of the study were mixed.'*°) Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 29=e vmlel | i What is Mental Retardation (MR)? on which MR is a condition of limited ability in which an individyay has a low Intelligence Quotient 19), ae ay 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has di ae an i oe everyday life; he/she first exhibited these characteristics ig the so-calleq developmental period — by age 18. seats eqren ea «developmental disability that Mrst appears tn ¢| ildren, under: ea isnot defined as a level Sarre functionin, (as m by standard. intelligence tests) tl v is well below average and results in significant limitations ne person’s daily living skills (adaptive functioning). Adaptive a il s are a term that refers to skills needed for daily life. Such skills inc! a le the ability to produce and understand language (communication); home-living skills; use of community resources; health, safety, leisure, self-care, and social skills; self-direction; functional academic skills (reading’ writing, and arithmetic); and job-related skills. Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation 1. Mild Mental Retardation - Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50-70, and they can often acquire academic skills up to about the sixth-grade level. They can become fairly self-sufficient and, in some cases, live independently, with community and social support. 2. Moderate Mental Retardation - About 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded. Moderately retarded persons have IQ scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully within the community in such supervised environments as group homes. 3. Severe Mental Retardation - About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely retarded persons have IQ scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are able to live in a group home 30 Human Behavior and Victimology4. Profound Mental Retardation - Only |-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under 20-25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying neurological disorder, Profoundly retarded people need a high level of structure and supervision.) Causes and Symptoms of Mental Retardation Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of mental retardation. Aggression, self-injury, and mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity of the symptoms and the age at which they first appear depend on the cause. Children who are mentally retarded reach developmental milestones significantly later than expected, if at all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often apparent from infancy. If retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were once easy may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master. In about 40% of cases, the cause of mental retardation cannot be found. Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation include: 1. Genetic Factors About 30% of cases of mental retardation is caused by hereditary factors. Mental retardation may be caused by an inherited genetic abnormality, such as fragile X syndrome. What is Fragile X Syndrome? It is a defect in the chromosome that determines sex, is the most common inherited cause of mental retardation. Single-gene defects such as phenylketonuria (PKU) and other inborn errors of metabolism may also cause mental retardation if they are not discovered and treated early. An accident or mutation in genetic development may also cause retardation. Examples of such accidents are development of an extra chromosome 18 (trisomy 18) and Down syndrome. Down syndrome, also called mongolism or trisomy 21, is caused by an abnormality in the development of chromosome 21. It is the most common genetic cause of mental retardation. Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 3132 2. Prenatal Illnesses and Issues Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) affects One in 3 children in Western countries. It is caused by the moi heavy drinking during the first ie weeks (ttimegi pregnancy. Some studies have shown f at even m a alcohol use during pregnancy may cause earning disabjyia" in children. Drug abuse and cigarette smokin, i pregnancy have also been linked to mental Tetardation, "8 Maternal infections and such illnesses as sland disorders, rubella, toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalo, ine (CMY) infection may cause mental retardation, When, he mother has high blood pressure (hypertension) or bloog poisoning (toxemia), the flow of oxygen to the fetus may. reduced, causing brain damage and mental retardation, Birth defects that cause physical deformities of the head, brain, and central nervous system frequently Cause mental retardation, Neural tube defect, for example, is a bin, defect in which the neural tube that forms the spinal cor, does not close completely. This defect may cause children to develop an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid inside the skull (hydrocephalus). Hydrocephalus can cause leaming impairment by putting pressure on the brain. w . Childhood Inesses and Injuries Hyperthyroidism, whooping cough, chickenpox, measles, and Hib disease (a bacterial infection) may cause mental retardation if they are not treated adequately. An infection of the membrane covering the brain (meningitis) or an inflammation of the brain itself (encephalitis) can cause swelling that in turn may cause brain damage and mental retardation. Traumatic brain injury caused by a blow to the head or by violent shaking of the upper body may also cause brain damage and mental retardation in children, * Environmental Factors Ignored or neglected infants who are not provided with the mental and physical stimulation required for normal development may suffer irreversible learning impairment. Children who live in poverty and suffer from malnutrition, unhealthy living conditions, abuse, and improper of inadequate medical care are at a higher risk. Exposure to lead Human Behavior and Victimologyor mercury can also cause mental retardation. Many children have developed lead poisoning from eating the flaking lead- based paint often found in older buildings.) Intelligence Tests to Measure Learning Abilities and Intellectual Functioning 1. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 2. Wechsler Intelligence Scales 3. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence 4. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children’) Prevention of Mental Retardation Immunization against diseases such as measles and Hib prevent many of the illnesses that can cause mental retardation. In addition, all children should undergo routine developmental screening as part of their pediatric care. Screening is particularly critical for those children who may be neglected or undernourished or may live in disease-producing conditions. Newborn screening and immediate treatment for PKU and hyperthyroidism can usually catch these disorders early enough to prevent retardation. Good prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant women should be educated about the risks of alcohol consumption and the need to maintain good nutrition during pregnancy. Such tests as amniocentesis and ultrasonography can determine whether a fetus is developing normally in the womb.'*) re Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 33 aaSegment 4. What is Criminal Behavior? Criminal Behavior refers to a behavior which is criminal j nature; a behavior which violates a law. Thus, the moment a person violates the law, he has already committed [exhibited] criminal behavior.) Criminal behavior refers to conduct of an offender tha eads to and including the commission of an unlawful act.©5) : According to Goldoozian, for human behavior to pe considered a crime, three elements are necessary: 1. Legally, the criminal act should be prohibited by law, 2. Materially, the criminal act should be executed or realized 3. Spiritually, the criminal act should be accompanied by criminal intention or guilt. These three elements must be present for an act to be labeled as a crime.!9) Origins of Criminal Behavior 1, Biological Factor Heredity as a factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable, inevitable consequences of the bad seed or bad blood. It emphasizes genetic predisposition toward antisocial and criminal conduct. The following are some studies and theories related to biological causes of crime: a. Born Criminal (Cesare Lombroso) b. Physique and Somatotype (Ernst Kretschmer & William Sheldon) c. Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard) 2. Personality Disorder Factor Personality disorder factor refers to an act that exhibits a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood such as Anti-Social Personality Disorder (Psychoanalytic Theory-Sigmund Freud) 34 ior and Victimologyy 4. Learning Factor Learning factor explains that criminal behavior is learned primarily by observing or listening to people around us. The following are related learning theories, to wit: a. Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland) b. Imitation Theory (Gabriel Tarde) c. Identification Theory (Daniel Classer) Biological Approach Biological approach points to _ inherited predispositions and physiological processes to explain individual differences in personality. It is a perspective that emphasizes the role of biological processes and heredity as the key to understanding behavior. Humanistic Approach Humanistic approach identifies personal responsibility and feelings of self-acceptance as the key causes of differences in personality. This perspective focuses on how humans have evolved and adapted behaviors required for survival against various environmental pressures over the long course of evolution. Behavioral/Social Learning Approach Behavioral/Social Learning approach explains consistent behavior patterns as the result of conditioning and expectations. This emphasizes the role of environment in shaping behavior. What is Behavioral Personality Theory? - It is a model of personality that emphasizes learning and observable behavior. What is Social Learning Theory? - It is an explanation of personality that combines learning principles, cognition, and the effects of social relationships. What is Self-reinforcement? - This is the praising or rewarding oneself for having made a particular response. Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 35 a anification? - It is a fecling from \). hat is Identification: Whig . paral connected to a pom ae & Way of teat i veeaif.as himself or herself. The child a MICS adutis cere , d care for him/her and this encourages IMitatigy, Wh lov 2 . itive Approach 7. Cogn Cognitive approach looks at differences in 4, way people process anformaton to explain dittren : behavior. This perspective emphasizes the role of men processes that underlie behavior: Intelligence and Criminality What is Human Intelligence? man intelligence generally points to at least thre haters First, intelligence is best understood asa compilatig of brain-based cognitive abilities. According to 52 eminen intelligence researchers, intelligence reflects “a very general ment) capability that, among other things, involves the ability to Teason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas learn quickly and learn from experience.” Table 3: Binet Scale of Human Intelligence.{**) Below 20 Idiot Profound 20 to 49 Imbecile Severe 50069 | Moron/Feebleminded Moderate 70t079 | Borderline Deficiency Mild 80 to 89 Dull Dull Normal 90 to 109 Normal or Average 110 to 119 Superior 120 to 139 Very Superior Overl40 Genius or Near-Genius The earliest causal ex i ing the eatly cal planation, popular during 1900s, portrayed criminals as so “feebleminded” and “mental! 36 Human Behavior and Victimologydeficient” that they could neither distinguish right from wrong nor resist criminal impulses. This feeblemindedness hypothesis, however, lost favor long ago as it became clear that few criminals are actually mentally deficient and most recognize, though may not follow, behavioral norms. A more recent, and more compelling, causal explanation.emphasizes the importance of intelligence— especially intelligence—during childhood socialization. The socialization of children involves constant verbal communication and comprehension of abstract symbols; therefore, children with poor verbal and cognitive skills have greater difficulty completing the socialization process, which puts them at risk of under controlled, antisocial behavior. Empirical studies overall have supported this developmental hypothesis, and it fits with the especially strong correlation between verbal IQ and crime.) A final causal explanation links IQ to crime through school performance. Less intelligent students do less well in school, which results in academic frustration. This frustration, in turn, weakens their attachment and commitment to schooling, and a weakened bond to school, as per social control theory, allows for more criminal behavior". This school-performance hypothesis has received strong support from empirical studies, and it is probably the most widely accepted explanation of the IQ-crime correlation.'59) Criminal Law and Intelligence What is the McNaughton (M’Naghten) Rule? In 1724 an English court maintained that a man was not responsible for an act if “he does not know what he is doing, no more... a wild beast”. Modern standards of legal responsibility, however, have been based on the McNaughton decision of 1843.!" The formal insanity defense has its beginnings in 1843, when Daniel McNaughton tried to kill Robert Peel, the British prime minister (he shot and killed his secretary instead). At his trial, McNaughten testified that he believed that the British government was plotting against him, and he was acquitted of murder. The McNaughton Rule requires that a criminal defendant (a) not know what he was doing at the time or (b) not know that his actions were wrong (because of his delusional belief, McNaughton thought he was defending himself. Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 37seated a presumption of sanity, unless th The Rule cern committing the act, the accused was jen, ved eH a defect of reason, from disease of the mind, a wing know the nature and quality of ite act a a doing or, j¢ th sw it, that he did not know what he was doing was wrong ld me adopted in the us, and the cence of knowing This ‘orn wrong remained the basis for most decisions of legal insane [ol] pro’ under su‘ What is the Durham Rule? i d is not crim; Durham rule states that, ‘an accuses crimin, The lawful act is the product of mental disead onsible if his un! t or mental defect.” Some States added to their statutes this doctrine which is also known as “jrresistible impulse” recognizing some i individuals may respond correctly but may be unable to contro] their behavior. : : In the United States, the next advance in the insanity defense was The Durham Rule or “product test” adopted in 1954, which states that “... an accused is not criminally responsible if his unlawful act was the product of mental disease or defect”. This “product test” was overturned in 1972, largely because its ambiguous reference to “mental disease or defect” places undue emphasis on subjective judgments by psychiatrists, and can easily lead to a “battle of the experts”.(*) Many states now adopt a version of guidelines set out by the American Law Institute in 1962, which allows the insanity defense if, by virtue of mental illness, the defendant (a) lacks the ability to understand the meaning of their act or (b) cannot control their impulses. This is sometimes known as the “irresistible impulse test”! What is ALI “Substantial Capacity” Test? ______ The Test was integrated by the American Law Institute (AL!) in its Model Penal Code Test, which improved on the M’Naghten and irresistible impulse tests. The new rule stated that a person is not responsible for his criminal act if, as a result of the mental discs? oa nee he lacks substantial capacity to appreciate the criminality econ or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law , this test has been criticized for its use of. ambiguous words like 38 H uman Behavior and Victimology“substantial capacity” and “appreciate” as there would be differences in expert testimonies whether the accused’s degree of awareness was sufficient. Objections were also made to the exclusion of psychopaths or persons whose abnormalities are manifested only by repeated criminal conduct. Critics observed that psychopaths cannot be deterred and thus undeserving of punishment. In 1984, however, the U.S. Congress repudiated this test in favor of the M’Naghten style siatutory formulation, It enacted the Comprehensive Crime Control Act which made the appreciation test the law applicable in all federal courts. The test is similar to M’Naghten as it relies on the cognitive test. The accused is not required to prove lack of control as in the ALI test. The appreciation test shifted the burden of proof to the defense, limited the scope of expert testimony, eliminated the defense of diminished capacity and provided for commitment of accused found to be insane.'*) Insanity and Criminal Law in the Philippines In the Philippines, the courts have established a more stringent criterion for insanity to be exempting as it is required that there must be a complete deprivation of intelligence in committing the act, i.e., the accused is deprived of reason; he acted without the least discernment because there is a complete absence of the power to discern, or that there is a total deprivation of the will. Mere abnormality of the mental faculties will not exclude imputability. The issue.of insanity is a question of fact for insanity is a condition of the mind, not susceptible of the usual means of proof. As no man can know what is going on in the mind of another, the state or condition of a person’s mind can only be measured and judged by his behavior. Establishing the insanity of an accused requires opinion testimony which may be given by a witness who is intimately acquainted with the accused, by a witness who has rational basis to conclude that the accused was insane based on the witness’ own perception of the accused, or by a witness who is qualified as an expert, such as a psychiatrist. The testimony or proof of the accused’s insanity must relate to the time preceding or coetaneous with the commission of the offense with which he is charged.!) Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 39The Revised Penal Code Article 12 of the Code: exempts a person from crim: liability in consideration of intelligence: Mina Paragraph 1: Any person who has committed a crime while said person was imbecile or insane during the commission, the When the imbecile or an insane person has committeg act which the law defines as a felony (delifo), the court shal] ord his confinement in one of the hospitals or asylums established fe persons thus afflicted, which he shall not be permitted to leave without first obtaining the permission of the same court. 7 Suggested Readings: 1. People of the Philippines vs. Tibon, G.R. No. 188320, June 29, 2010. 2. People of the Philippines vs. Roger Austria Y Navarro (alia; Bernie), G.R. No. 111517-19, July 31, 1996. 3. People of the Philippines vs. Fernando Madarang Y Magno, GR. No. 132319. May 12, 2000. 4. People of the Philippines vs. Celestino Bonoan Y Cruz, G.R. No. L-45130, February 17, 1937. Paragraph 2: A person over nine years of age and under fifteen, unless he has acted with discernment, in which case, such minor shall be proceeded against in accordance with the provisions of Ar. 80 of this Code (Revised Penal Code). Paragraph 3: Any person having an age of 9 years old and below (64) Suggested Reading: 1. People of the Philippines vs. Morales, G.R.No. 148518, April 15, 2004. Note: In connection to paragraph 2 and 3, Republic Act 9341 otherwise known as Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, as amended by Republic Act 10630, raised the criminal exemption from 9 to 15 years old. In addition, a person this age is totally exempted, whether he/she acted with or without discernment during the commission of crime. 40 Human Behavior and VictimologyWhy raise the age of criminal exemption from 9 to 15 years old? Fifteen (15) years old is within the stage of adolescence — the transition age which is characterized by curiosity, tryouts, and identity crisis. These circumstances expose them to risky and delinquent behavior. At this age, children are not yet emotionally stable and their social judgment has not yet matured. End of Chapter I. Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 41ee be) 4 Ca wrvewe. I. Definition of Terms: Del each) 42 NN PROGRESS CHECK fine the following: (15 points, | 5S Doig | 1. Abnormal Behavior 3. Mental Retardation1]. Enumeration: Give what is asked below. (10 points) a. Give the three Structures of Personality by Sigmund Freud. 1G 2. 3. b. Give the five traits by Allport. 1. 5 2. 5. 3. c. Give at least two Kinds of Trait by Golgerg. ie 2. ILL. Essay: Explain the statements below. (50 points) 1. Discuss the relationship of mental disorder to crime or criminality. (10 points) $e 2. Discuss how intelligence is associated to crime or criminality. (10 points) Chapter I: Introduction to Human Behavior 43i icati Naughton Ru] xplain the application of Mc! ule, ® ares Pad ALI Test in our criminal law (Revise, d Penal Code. (15 points; 5 points each) 4. Write your observation or evaluation regarding how our criminal justice s ystem or process applies or appreciates intelligence in the administration of justice. (15 points) ” Wumabaggeeee— ‘uman Behavior and VictimologyCHAPTER II HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND COPING/DEFENSE MECHANISMS This chapter presents the selected factors affecting human behavior such as: emotion, conflict, depression, stress, frustration, and coping mechanisms. Expected Outcomes: At the end of this topic, the learners could be able to: a, recall and describe the selected factors affecting human behavior; b. explain and analyze how emotion, conflict, depression, stress, and frustration contribute to criminality; c. differentiate coping mechanism from defense mechanism; and d. assess or critique the roles and relations of defense and coping mechanisms towards internal crime control and criminality. Segment 1. Emotion ' Emotion refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal, thoughts and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression. It is a state characterized by facial expressions, gestures, postures and subjective feelings." Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition. The English word emotion is derived from the French word émouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- (variant of ex-) means ‘out’ and movere means move. The related term motivation is also derived from movere.”! Chapter II; Human Behavior and Coping/Defense MechanismsTheories of Emotion 4 1, James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange James-Lange theory states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the thee emotion occurs afier physiological reactions. This theo and its derivatives states that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says “the perception of bodily changes as they occur is the emotion. James further claims that “we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither have we cried, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.” The James- Lange theory has now been all but abandoned by most scholars (see figure 9). 2. Cannon-Bard Theory by Philip Bard and Walter Cannon This suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon them. This is a theory that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. These actions include changes in muscular tension, perspiration, etc. The theory was formulated following the introduction of the James-Lange theory of Emotion in the late 1800s, which alternately suggested that emotion is the result of one’s perception of their reaction, or “bodily change.” Example: [ See a man outside my window. I am afraid. I begin to perspire, The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion i hi premise that one rea ry ‘motion is based on the f > reacts to a Specific stimulus and experiences ¢ corresponding emotion Simultaneously, Cannon and Bard Posited that one is able to react to a stimulus only after gy onencing the related emotion and experience (see figureEmotional expression (somatic, visceral response) Cannon-Bard’ theory Yss &. Figure 9. James-Lange and Cannon-Bard Model.1 Sensory stimulus 3. Two Factor Theory - 1 This theory was provided by Schachter & Singer, in which they posited that emotion is the cognitive interpretation of a physiological response. For many, this remains the best { formulation of emotion. Most people consider this to be the “common sense” theory to explain physiological changes; : their physiology changes as a result of their emotion (figure 4 10). | } Fear @ vw, (emotion) = Two-factor theory » Schachter-Singer AB . Sight of oncoming * Pounding heart (arousal) car Cognitive (perception of label stimulus) a a => Figure 10. Two Factor Model." “I'm afraid” Chapter Il: Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanisms 53What is Emotional Intelligence (EI)? Elis the area of cognitive ability that facilitates interpersona, behavior. The term emotional intelligence was popularized jn 1995 by psychologist and behavioral science journalist Dr. Danig] Goleman in his book, Emotional Intelligence. Dr. Goleman describeq emotional intelligence as a person’s ability to manage his feelings So that those feelings are expressed appropriately and effectively. understand and manage emotion; EI is the capacity to d Avan of this construct remain however, the content and boundaries unsettled.! Mayer and Salovey, the who originally used the term, defined Elas, The ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth."* Five Components of Emotional Intelligence by Goleman L ‘Self-awareness - A person has a healthy sense of emotional intelligence self-awareness if they understand their own strengths and weaknesses, as well as how their actions affect others. A person with emotional self-awareness is usually receptive to, and able to learn from, constructive criticism more than one who doesn’t have emotional self-awareness. 2. Self-regulation - A person with a high emotional intelligence has the ability to exercise restraint and control when expressing their emotions. 3. Motivation - People with high emotional intelligence are self-motivated, resilient and driven by an inner ambition rather than being influenced by outside forces, such as money or prestige. 4, Empathy - An empathetic person has compassion and is able to connect with other people on an emotional level, helping them respond genuinely to other people’s concerns. 5. Social Skills - People who are emotionally intelligent are able to build trust with other people, and are able to quickly gain respect from the people they meet.!*! a 54 Human Behavior and Victimologymotional Intelligence and Criminal Behavior (Research- Based) 1. Chapter II: Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanisms The group of convicted offenders obtained significantly lower scores on all the domains of MEII (Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory) such as intrapersonal awareness (own emotions), interpersonal awareness (others emotions), intrapersonal management (own emotions) and interpersonal management (others emotions), and aggregate emotional quotient in comparison to their normal counterparts. Researchers concluded that, the convicted offenders?’ group had significantly lower EI compared to normal subjects. Starting EI enhancement program in prison can help the inmates better understand their feelings and emotions. . Emotional intelligence is deeply related to aggression and offending. "8127 . Persons with high EI levels are more able to moderate their emotions and are less impulsive. On the other hand, individuals with low EI levels are more prone to risky behavior. They also have a hard time understanding situations from the perspective of others and, therefore, tend to be less empathetic." A reduced capacity to regulate emotions could possibly maintain offending pattern of behavior in criminals. For example, internet child sexual abuse is often preceded by unregulated negative feelings."4) . A reduced capacity to regulate anger, desire, and sexual arousal may result in an assault, theft, and sexual assault, respectively."'51 Some recent studies, consistently report EI deficits in criminals." In addition, some studies indicate that offenders are deficient in subcomponents of EI such as social problem- solving,!' empathy,!'*! social competency," flexibility," impulse control,2" and self-regard.) 55 Vance _ is.Segment 2. Conflict Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs Ma 4 persy must choose between incompatible or contradictory @ rermative, It is a negative emotional state caused by an a ae choose between two or more incompatible goals or impw . fi Conic ‘ the state in which two or more motives cannot be satisfied becays, they interfere with one another.) Types of Conflict . b 1. Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict) Psychological conflict could be going on inside the person and no one would know (instinct may be at odds with values). Freud would say unconscious id battling superego and further claimed that our personalities are always in conflict. 2. Social Conflict The different kinds of social conflict are: a. Interpersonal Conflict; b. Two individuals me against you; c. Inter-group Struggles -us against them; d. Individual Opposing a Group - me against them, them against me; e. Intra-group Conflict - members of group all against each other on a task. 3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict can be described as having features of approach and avoidance: approach-approach, avoidance- avoidance, and approach-avoidance. Approach speaks to things that we want while Avoidance refers to things that we do not want. Kinds of Approach-Avoidance we a. Approach-Approach Conflict - In Approach-Approach conflict, the individual must choose between two positive a 36 Human Behavior and Victimologygoals of approximately equal value. In this, two pleasing things are wanted but only one option should be chosen. Examples: Choice between two colleges, two roommates, or two ways of spending the summer. b, Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - Avoidance-Avoidance conflict involves more obvious sources of stress. The individual must choose between two or more negative outcomes. Examples: Study or do the dishes. I don’t want this and Idon’t want that. A woman with an unwanted pregnancy may be morally opposed by abortion. Approach-Avoidance Conflict - Approach-Avoidance conflict exists when there is an attractive and unattractive part to both sides. It arises when obtaining a positive goal necessitates a negative outcome as well. Examples:Gina is beautiful but she is lazy. “I want this but I don’t want what this entails”. Another is the dilemma of the student who is offered a stolen copy of an important final exam. Cheating will bring guilt and reduced self-esteem, but also a good grade. c. Multiple-Approach-Avoidance Conflict - This refers to conflict with complex combinations of approach and avoidance conflicts. It requires individual to choose between alternatives that contain both positive and negative consequences,”4) = Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict a. Dysfunctional Conflict - There is dysfunctional conflict if conflict disrupts, hinders job performance, and upsets personal psychological functioning. b. Functional Conflict - There is functional conflict if conflict is responsive and innovative aiding in creativity and viability. Chapter II: Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanisms 37 maeCrime and Conflict Criminal behavior as an person, emphasizing either: a. failure to resolve tensions generated in the course " interaction between the organism and human figures jn it environment; and b. tensions generated by person’s inability to satisfy th. contradictory expectations of others, or else to mobilize the resources needed to perform a role assigned to him.” indicator of conflict within the Segment 3, Depression ? Depression is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time. It is different from normal feelings of sadness, grief, or low energy. Anyone can have depression. It often runs in families. But it can also happen to someone who doesn’t have a family history of depression. You can have depression one time or many times. Causes of Depression a. Major events that create stress, such as childbirth or a death in the family. b. Illnesses, such as arthritis, heart disease, or cancer. c. Certain medicines, such as steroids or narcotics for pain relief. d. Drinking alcohol or using illegal drugs. Symptoms of Depression a. Think and speak more slowly than normal. b. Have trouble concentrating, remembering, and making decisions. c. Have changes in their eating and sleeping habits. d. Lose interest in things they enjoyed before they wer depressed. | Oe 58 Human Behavior and VictimologyHave feelings of guilt and hopel ing i eH feeling Pclessness, Wondering if life is ‘Think a lot about death or suicide, Complain about problems that don’ i & Sich as headache and stomachache to" EE 4 AS pifferent Forms of Depression . Major Depressive Disorder - This j i : depression. Itis characterized oe Sta that interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep saya and enjoy once-pleasurable activities. Major depression ig disabling and prevents a person from functioning normally, An episode of major depression may occur only once in a person’s lifetime, but more often, it recurs throughout a person’s life. 2. Dysthymic Disorder (or also referred to as Dysthymia) - The symptoms do not occur for more than two months at a time. Generally, this type of depression is described as having persistent but less severe depressive symptoms than Major Depression. Manifest nearly constant depressed mood for at least 2 years accompanied by at least two (or more) of the following: a. Decrease or increase in eating; b. Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping; c. Low energy or fatigue; d. Low self-esteem; e. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions; and f. Feeling hopeless. ‘e depressive Psychotic Depression - This occurs when a severe such as a illness is accompanied by some form of psychosis, break with reality, hallucinations, and delusions. » - This is a major depressive having a baby. A new mother isode within one month after rcent of women 4. Postpartum Depression episode that occurs after develops a major depressive ep’ delivery. It is estimated that 10 to 15 pei Chapter II: Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanisms 5960 8. - experience postpartum depression after giving birth. In ra cases, a woman may have a severe form of depression Calle, postpartum psychosis. She may act strangely, see or hea things that aren’t there, and be a danger to herself and hep baby. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) - This is characterizeg by the onset of a depressive illness during the winter months when there is less natural sunlight. The depression generally lifis during spring and summer. SAD may be effective} treated with light therapy, but nearly half of those with SAD do not respond to light therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and psychotherapy can reduce SAD symptoms, either alone or in combination with light therapy. . Bipolar Disorder - This is also called manic-depressive illness, is not as common as major depression or dysthymia, Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical mood changes. from extreme highs (e.g., mania) to extreme lows (e.g., depression). . Endogenous Depression - Endogenous means from within the body. This type of depression is defined as feeling depressed for no apparent reason. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression - This is also known as Adjustment Disorder with Depressed Mood. Depressive symptoms develop in response to a specific stressful situation or event (e.g. job loss, relationship ending). These symptoms occur within 3 months of the stressor and lasts no longer than 6 months after the stressor (or its consequences) has ended. Depression symptoms cause significant distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g. relationships, work, school) and do not meet the criteria for major depressive disorder. Agitated Depression - This kind of major depressive disorder is characterized by agitation such as physical and emotional restlessness, irritability and insomnia, which is the opposite of many depressed individuals who have low energy and feel slowed down physically and mentally inappropriate social behavior.*5) a Human Behavior and VictimologyHow to Battle Depression? a. Socializing - catin; friends. b. Helping others in need - volunteer i homeless, etc. er work, feeding the 8 out, movies, ballgames with family or ¢, Praying - works for all moods, especially depression,2"1 Depression and Criminality People with depression might be more likely to commit a violent crime than those without depression, a new study suggests. Researchers analyzed data from more than 47,000 people in Sweden who were diagnosed with depression and followed for an average of three years. They were compared to more than 898,000 gender- and age-matched people without depression. People with depression were five to six times more likely than those in the general population to harm others or themselves, according to the researchers at Oxford University in England. One important finding was that the vast majority of depressed persons were not convicted of violent crimes, and that the rates reported are below those for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and considerably lower than for alcohol or drug abuse. Specifically, almost 4% of depressed men and 0.5% of depressed women committed a violent crime after their depression diagnosis, compared with slightly more than 1% of men and 0.2% of women in the general population. “Quite understandably, there is considerable concern about self-harm and suicide in depression," Chapter II: Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanisms 61Segment 4, Stress JY Stress refers to the consequence of the failure ofan organism _ human or animal — to respond appropriately o a qty i threats, whether actual or imagined. Stress Le eatin ttn le Enelish destresse, derived via Old Tench fom the Latin stringer, to raw tight. The term stress was first employ’ Bical 0s. context by the endocrinologist Hans Selye a ae ' 2s, SIE cn thought of as any event that strains oF exceeds ity to cope.) What is Stressor? ech se i i i jolo: ces Stressor is anything (physical or psyco? roduc stress (negative or positive). For example, getting 3 er i. a positive event, but may also produce a great deal of stress with all the new responsibilities, work load, etc. Two Types of Stress 1. Eustress (Positive) - Eustress is a word consisting of two parts, The prefix derives from the Greek eu meaning either well or good. When attached to the word stress, it literally means good stress. It is a stress that is healthy or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other positive feelings. Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains. A stress that enhances function (physical or mental, such as through strength training or challenging work) is considered eustress. Examples of positive personal stressors include: . receiving a promotion or raise at work, . starting a new job, marriage, . buying a home, having a child, moving, taking a vacation, holiday seasons, retiring, and taking educational classes or learning a new hobby™ rae me ao gp 62 Human Behavior and Victimology2, Distress (Negative) ~ Distress is known as the negative stress. Persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, decmed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior!) Effects of distress are: a. ineffectiveness at tasks, ing behavior, c. transitional suicidal behavior, d. anxiety and fear, ec, loss of interest and initiative, f poor decision - making, ngcrous action, cidents, and i, apathy and cynicism, Examples of negative personal stressors include: a. the death of a spouse, b. filing for divorce, losing contact with loved ones, |. the death of a family member, ' hospitalization (oneself or a family member), | injury or illness (oneself or a fami ly member), being abused or neglected, t . Separation from a spouse or committed relationship partner, 4 conflict in interpersonal relationships, i" bankruptcy/Money Problems, W . unemployment, sleep problems, “ . Children’s problems at school, and 1 . legal problems,/! Ba mo ao Para Three Stages of Stress (General Arousal [adaptation] Syndrome/ GAS) 1, Alarm - Alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body’s stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage adrenaline will be produced in order to bring about the fight-or-flight response. 2. Resistance - Resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of Chapter II: Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanisms 68