CHAPTER FIVE

INTRODUCTION Coastal erosion triggered by human activity is

also evident in many other countries of the region.
The oceans and coastal resources of the Asian In Malaysia, for example, coastal erosion has affected
and Pacific Region are currently facing three separate, every state of the country and by 1998, of a total
but interactive threats. The first is pollution from shoreline of 4 809 km2, some 1 400 km2 or 29 per cent
both land and sea based sources, which causes was eroded.
direct damage to specialized ecosystems (such as
mangroves, coral reefs and seagrasses), whilst B. Pollution of Coastal and Marine
weakening the ability of marine plants and animals Environment
to survive fluctuations in their environmental 1. Marine Pollution: Status and Trends
conditions. The second is a direct threat to the Coastal and marine water pollution has
biomass and ecological balance of the marine increased throughout the region, mainly due to
environment through overfishing and unsustainable domestic and industrial effluent discharges,
extraction of resources and, the third, direct physical atmospheric deposition, oil spills and other wastes
damage to coastal and marine ecosystems from urban and contaminants from shipping. Most of the
and tourist related development. pollutants entering the marine environment come
This chapter examines the major environmental from land based sources and comprise sand/silt,
issues facing the coastal and marine environment of nutrients, toxic chemicals and oil. The suspended
the region and highlights the current and planned load (primarily silt) per km2 of drainage basin in the
response to these challenges. region is three to eight times higher than the world
average and contributes to the high turbidity of
coastal waters. Two thirds of the world’s total
STATE OF THE COASTAL AND MARINE sediment transport to oceans occurs in South and
ENVIRONMENT East-Asia, due to a combination of active tectonics,
heavy rainfall, steep slopes and erodible soils,
A. Damage to Coastal Zones and Habitat disturbed by unsound agricultural and logging
Direct physical loss of, or damage to, coastal practices (UNEP 1999). These sediments impact upon
habitats arise from a range of development activities. not only the shallow inshore water habitats, but also
Dredging of harbours and shipping channels, the on the wider oceanic ecosystem.
construction of embayment (harbours) and marinas, The urban and agricultural areas of the region
and the reclamation of coastal wetlands for produce significant quantities of organic wastes in
development purposes have each had a profound such concentrations that the nutrient filtering
effect upon the ecological resources of the estuarine mechanisms of the coastal zone are unable to
and coastal systems of the region. For example, New neutralize their effects. Rivers running through
Zealand has reclaimed more than 85 per cent of its Cambodia, People’s Republic of China, Malaysia,
wetlands, mostly to create new pastureland, but also Thailand and Viet Nam deliver at least 636 840 tonnes
for housing and industrial sites. Many of the of nitrogen to coastal waters overlying the Sunda
remaining wetlands have been degraded by drainage, Shelf. Of these, People’s Republic of China
pollution, animal grazing and the introduction of new contributes at least 55 per cent, Viet Nam and
plant species (Government of New Zealand 1996). Thailand, contribute 21 and 20 per cent, respectively
In addition to the direct physical damage to a (Talaue-McManus, L. 2000). The issues associated
range of in-shore, littoral and shoreline habitats, with the discharge of pollutants to inland waters are
development within the coastal zone has also affected discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4.
the geomorphological processes associated with Industry, and commercial agriculture,
accretion and deposition of coastal sediments. In contaminates the flow of natural wastes with a wide
order to guard against local coastal erosion, high cost range of materials that include persistent organic
sea walls and groynes have been constructed with pesticides, heavy metals like mercury and lead,
significant impacts on the wider patterns of erosion plastics of all kinds, and a cocktail of hazardous
and deposition. For example, a government industrial chemicals. The relative contribution of
quarantine facility, built in the 1940s on Makaluva various sources of oil pollution varies and
Island in Fiji, now lies beneath the sea, some comprehensive and strategic management initiatives
100 metres offshore. The construction of the coastal are necessary in its monitoring and control (Box 5.1).
defences around the quarantine facility accelerated The factors affecting oil pollution include population
the erosional processes such that the island has density, extent of shipping and mineral exploration,
shrunk in size (United Nations 1995). and the degree of industrialization of littoral

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 COASTAL AND MARINE

Box 5.1 Australia’s National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil

Australia’s National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil is managed by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority
(AMSA) and funded by a levy on the shipping industry. The National Plan is a collaborative arrangement between AMSA, the
States and Northern Territory governments, the shipping, oil and exploration industries and the Australian Marine Oil Spill Centre,
at Corio Quay, Victoria. The Centre was established by the oil industry to assist in responding to major oil spills around the
Australian coast and in adjacent areas where Australian-based companies operate.

Under the Plan, pollution-response equipment is stockpiled at strategic ports and oil terminals, with a response capability for
an oil spill of up to 10 000 tonnes. Whilst fully laden tankers typically carry 60 000 tonnes of oil, the result of most collisions is the
rupturing of only one or two internal tanks, such that any oil spill is typically much less than the tankers’ fully laden capacity.
Furthermore, in most cases oil is lost progressively such that the amount of oil that needs to be managed in a spill increases over
time. The Kirki oil spill, for example, happened over a two-week period. If a spill larger than 10 000 tonnes occurs, Australia may
need to seek international assistance through arrangements under the international Oil Pollution Response and Cooperation
Convention. Australia has concluded a memorandum of understanding with New Zealand under this Convention, by which
assistance will be provided to each other in cases of pollution incidents in either country. Similar agreements are currently being
negotiated with Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.

Australia has been at the forefront of regional initiatives to protect the marine environment through the regulation of international
navigation. In 1990, the Great Barrier Reef was the first area in the world designated as a ‘Particularly Sensitive Area’ by the
International Maritime Organization requiring all vessels of more than 70 metres in length or those carrying oil, chemicals or
liquefied gas to carry Australian-licensed pilots when using the designated routes within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Zann
1995). In addition, Australia and Papua New Guinea are co-operating in the development and provision of specific preventive and
response measures to protect the Torres Strait area from oil spills. In support of these two specific initiatives, Australia is currently
upgrading existing navigational aids and charts and establishing protocols for the management of ship passages through the Torres
Strait and the Great Barrier Reef areas.
Source: CSIRO 1996 and Zann, L. 1995

countries. In the South China Sea, with the China’s State Oceanographic Administration reported
intensification of these factors absolute oil inputs are five major episodes (with two in 1998), each affecting
likely to increase. A study of the South China Sea more than 500 square kilometres of coastal waters.
(Talaue-McManus 2000) identified pollution hotspots; In 1992, red tides, caused by outbreaks of
the locations of these are shown in Figure 5.1. massive numbers of toxic dinoflagellates, occurred
The quality of marine water is not monitored in New Zealand and caused massive contamination
in many countries of the Asian and Pacific Region. of seafood resources. Over 200 cases of food
Where monitored, the results are far from satisfactory. poisoning were reported with symptoms ranging
For example in People’s Republic of China, a 1997 from diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, muscular aches
study found that only 19 per cent of China’s coastal and weakness to dizziness, loss of memory, tingling,
waters met Grade I water quality standards, and by numbness and respiratory problems. (Government
1999, this had reduced to 15 per cent, with the most of New Zealand 1996). In addition to the human
severe sewage and agricultural pollution in coastal health impacts, toxic blooms have caused tremendous
areas of the Pearl River Estuary. Of China’s four economic losses to countries in the region. For
major sea areas, the East China Sea was the most example, in 1997, a red tide outbreak in Kerala, India
polluted, followed by the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea forced the closure of shellfish beds, leaving nearly
and the South China Sea. (Government of China 1 000 families without work. In Hong Kong, China,
1997 and 1999). toxic blooms wiped out US$10 million worth of fish
As pollution intensifies, the destabilized coastal in 1997 and another US$32 million worth of high
and estuarine systems undergo wild gyrations in value fish in 1998 from its mariculture industry. In
population densities – some species dying off while the Republic of Korea, 126 incidences of red tides
others bloom in huge numbers. were reported in 1996 alone, with losses to
aquaculture estimated at US$ 10 million (Table 5.1).
2. Blooms and Diebacks It may also be noted that when the blooms of
Over the last twenty years, toxic blooms algae use all available nutrients and die, the organic
(or “red tides”) have become increasingly common, enrichment of sediments cause long-term changes in
with major outbreaks in Australia, People’s Republic benthic habitats, populations, and community
of China, Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand and structure. Increased sedimentation and nutrients
the Republic of Korea. Since 1986, for example, from catchments have been linked with massive

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CHAPTER FIVE

dieback of seagrasses in many areas. New South 3. Increased Dissolved Carbon Dioxide
Wales, for example, lost half of the Zostera seagrass Observations showed that levels of dissolved
in its estuaries and the seagrass die-off in Queensland carbon dioxide were abnormally elevated in seawater
resulted in mortalities of endangered dugongs (Zann in the early 1970’s, although no ill effects were
1995). detected. However, in 1998, researchers found that
elevated dissolved CO2 was slowing down calcium
carbonate deposition in coral communities and
possibly, by inference, in other marine organisms that
Figure 5.1 Distribution of Pollution “Hot Spots” In secrete calcium carbonate in the formation of shells
South China Sea and exoskeletons. Elevated dissolved CO2 was raising
the acidity of seawater and thereby making carbonate
formation more difficult.
Currently, the oceans absorb about two billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide a year, about one third of
the carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil
fuels. If the normal process of binding carbon into
calcium carbonate is impaired, less carbon dioxide
will be removed from the atmosphere causing an even
faster rise in both atmospheric and dissolved CO2.
(Langdon et al 1999).

C. Specialized Ecosystem and Resources Status

and Trends
1. Mangroves
More than 40 per cent of the world’s currently
estimated 18 million hectares of mangrove forest
occur in South and Southeast Asia. These subregions
also have the highest diversity of mangrove species
in the world. The South Pacific subregion provide a
further 2 million ha of mangroves or some 10 per
cent of the total mangrove areas in the world.
The resource needs of the region’s growing
population have exerted considerable pressure on the
mangrove ecosystems. Large areas of mangrove have
been removed for industrial, residential and leisure
Source: Talaue-McManus 2000 developments and, in particular, for the establishment
of ponds for fish and prawns aquaculture. It is
estimated that over 60 per cent of Asia’s mangrove
forests have already been converted to aquaculture
ponds (Figure 5.2) equivalent to losses of 11 million
Table 5.1 Economic Losses from Red Tides in
ha. More than 3 million ha of mangroves have been
Fisheries and Aquaculture Facilities in
converted to aquaculture ponds in Southeast Asia
Selected Countries of the Region
alone.
Agriculture has also affected mangroves both
Loss (million
Country Year Species
US dollars)
directly through landtake and indirectly through
freshwater diversion for irrigation and through the
Japan 1972 Yellowtail 47 addition of agricultural residues in the run-off.
1977 Yellowtail 20 Freshwater interceptions for agricultural schemes
1978 Yellowtail 22
have severely affected mangroves in the Indus delta
1987 Yellowtail 15
of Pakistan and Ganges delta in the western part of
Rep. of Korea 1978 Oyster 4.6 Sunderbans.
1981 Oyster >60
1991-92 133
2. Coral Reefs
1996 10
Although coral reefs occupy less than one
Hong Kong, China 1998 Farmed fish 32
quarter of one per cent of the marine environment,
Source: Brown, L. R. et al eds. 1999 they are home to more than a quarter of all known

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 COASTAL AND MARINE

Figure 5.2 Estimated Loss of Original Mangrove including coastal development, over exploitation and
Areas in Asia and the Pacific destructive fishing practices, as well as land and
marine based pollution. An extensive study by the
Brunei Darussalam WRI has categorized the threat to the coral reefs of
Malaysia the region (Table 5.2). In 1998, coral bleaching, which
Indonesia is a phenomenon associated with global warming
Myanmar
killed large areas of coral reef within the region
Viet Nam
(see Chapter 16, Box 16.2).
The coral reefs of Indonesia and the Philippines
Bangladesh
are noted for their extraordinarily high levels of
Singapore
diversity, each containing at least 2 500 species of
Pakistan
fish, although, at present, only 30 per cent of these
India reefs are in good or excellent condition. Due to the
Thailand richness of these reef areas, the coastal zone policy
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
and management decisions made by these two
Per cent of total
countries will have a major impact on the global
heritage of coral reef diversity (Bryant, D. et al 1998).
Source: Global Aquaculture Alliance 1998
In comparative terms, the reefs of the South
Pacific subregion are under less immediate threat than
Figure 5.3 Distribution of Coral Reefs in the Asian those of Southeast Asia (WRI 1999j). Forty-one per
and Pacific Region cent of the Pacific reefs are classified as threatened,
and just 10 per cent face a high risk. Those near
Indian Ocean
18% population centres face significant human pressures
including the reef communities off southeastern
Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu,
and Fiji. Fiji’s reefs are an important tourist draw
Pacific
49% and, according to a 1992 estimate, a major source of
food for local people, generating close to $200 million
annually in fisheries and tourism revenues alone
Southeast Asia (Bryant, D. et al 1998).
33%

3. Seagrasses
Source: Bryant, D. et al 1998
Seagrasses are common throughout the tropical
and temperate coastal waters of the Asian and the
Pacific Region. Often associated with mangrove
marine fish species and have been termed the habitats in coastal waters and with coral reefs in
“rainforests of the marine world” (Bryant, D. et al deeper waters, seagrasses perform the crucial
1998). Coral reef systems also provide a useful ecological function of trapping fine sediments that
indicator of marine biodiversity and ecological health remain suspended after passing through estuarine
(Box 5.2). About four fifths of the world coral reefs and mangrove areas. Typically, therefore, seagrass
are in the Asian and Pacific Region, approximately beds are depositional areas, providing a mechanism
half of these are in the Pacific, one third in for clearing waters of sediment – particularly
Southeast Asia and the remainder in South Asia important to the survival of sun-loving corals.
(Figure 5.3). Coral reefs and their associated plants Seagrasses provide important habitats and food
and animals provide human populations with sources for a range of marine fauna including
seafood, medicine and other products. In developing commercially important species, such as the tiger
countries, coral reefs contribute about one quarter of prawns of Northeast Australia. The generic richness
the total fish catch and provide food, according to of seagrass beds is centred in the Indo-West Pacific
one estimate, for one billion people in Asia alone Region (Heck and McCoy 1978), whilst species
(Jameson S.C. et al 1995 and Hinrichsen D. 1997). diversity is highest in the area defined by Indonesia,
Coral reefs also act as buffer zone to break the Borneo, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia.
intensity of wave action and impact of storms and Northeast and Southeast Asia harbours the second
provide recreational resources to the tourism industry. highest number of sea grass species at 20 of the
However, in the Asian and Pacific Region, coral 50-recorded species worldwide (Fortes 1994 and 1995;
reefs are threatened by a range of human activities Sudara et al 1994).

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Table 5.2 Status of the Coral Reef in the Asian and Pacific Region

Reef Area in Km2 Percentages (%) Coastal Marine

Population Protected Areasc
By Threat Categorya Densityb
Region Total Low Medium High Low Medium High (pp/km2) Number Area (km2)

Indian Ocean 36 100 16 600 10 500 9 000 46 29 25 135 66 15 100

Southeast Asia 68 100 12 300 18 000 37 800 18 26 56 128 57 36 263
Pacific 108 000 63 500 33 900 10 600 59 31 10 98 92 372 809
Global Total 255 300 108 400 79 000 67 900 42 31 27 101 367 475 298

Selected Country and Geographic Grouping Statistics

Region Total Low Medium High Low Medium High (pp/ km2) Number Area (km2)

Australia 48 000 33 700 13 700 600 70 29 1 12 12 374 967

Fiji 10 000 3 300 4 800 1 900 33 48 19 91 1 1
French Polynesia 6 000 4 900 1 100 0 82 18 0 38 1 124
India 6 000 1 400 500 4 100 23 8 68 412 2 288
Indonesia 42 000 7 000 14 000 21 000 17 33 50 93 26 30 405
Lesser Antilles 1 500 0 300 1 200 0 20 80 159 2 253
Maldives 9 000 7 900 1 100 0 88 12 0 n.a. n.a. n.a.
Marshall Islands 6 000 5 800 200 0 97 3 0 n.a. 2 163
New Caledonia 6 000 5 000 800 200 83 13 3 6 5 530
Papua New Guinea 12 000 6 000 4 500 1 500 50 38 13 7 8 2 149
Philippines 13 000 50 1 900 11 050 0 15 85 174 12 458
Solomon Islands 6 000 3 000 2 500 500 50 42 8 8 0 0

Source: Bryant, D. et al 1998

a
Reef Area Estimates by Region and Threat Category (sq km) and percentages
Reef area estimates are based on WCMC’s dataset Shallow Coral Reefs of the World and Spaiding and Grenfell (1997).
Estimates of shallow reef area for Australia, Indonesia and the Philippines are significantly smaller than other published estimates.
b
Average Coastal Population Density (pp/sq km), Statistics are for populated areas within 60 kilometres of the coastline. Population data
come from Gridded Population of the World data set from the National Centre for Geographic Information and Analysis-Global
Demography Project.
Data are unavailable for some small island areas.
c
Marine Protected Areas (Number and Area Estimates)
Marine protected area counts and area estimates are summaries of the WCMC dataset Marine Protected Areas of the World, and are
incomplete for some countries. Area statistics for protected sites are for the entire protected area, which include non-reef.

Box 5.2 REEF CHECK – A Global Coral Reef Monitoring System

In 1997-1998, the Institute for Environment and Sustainable Development of the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology,
designed and implemented the REEF CHECK programme as a means of gaining a global assessment of the health of surviving coral
reef systems.
Co-ordinating the efforts of marine scientists from more than 40 countries, REEF CHECK was able to derive snapshot assessments
of the biodiversity and state of health of over 400 reef systems. The results also provided a basis for tracking changes to coral reef
systems (at the individual reef level or at national, regional and global scales) in response to specific events, such as the 1998 coral
bleaching (see Chapter 16, Box 16.2), or processes, such as overfishing or coral mining. REEF CHECK was very effective in building up
community support for the conservation and management of reefs and many user groups, including SCUBA diving clubs and
dedicated REEF CHECK associates, are requesting advice on how to use the method for repeated monitoring of reef health.
The methods employed proved to be flexible and robust, allowing modification for specific local circumstances, such as the
addition of specific indicator organisms of local economic or social significance. For many areas of the world, the ideal monitoring
programme will include a large number of broad-brush surveys carried out by the local community and using standardized
methods, such as those developed for REEF CHECK, as well as a smaller number of more focused, specialized surveys using methods
such as those in GCRMN’s Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources.
Participants in the REEF CHECK/GCRMN network can compare their results locally, regionally and globally via the Internet. By
increasing the number of sites surveyed using a standard methodology, there is a proportional increase in the chance of detecting
subtle changes in the health of reef systems at the local, regional and international levels.
Source: Hodgson, G. 1999

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 COASTAL AND MARINE

It has been estimated that between 20 and poor and management actions taken have usually
25 per cent of seagrass areas in Indonesia, Malaysia, been on an ad hoc basis, in most cases with little or
Philippines and Thailand have been damaged by a no scientific rationale. India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
combination of coastal development, elevated Myanmar and Thailand accounted for some 90 per
sedimentation, destructive fishing methods and land cent of the total catch in 1994. Whilst Australia caught
based pollution, thermal discharge, petroleum only 3 per cent of the total by weight, the economic
product spills, dredge and fill operations. value of the Australian catch represented a much
higher proportion.
D. Food Resources Most of the catch from the coastal fisheries was
1. Fisheries used for local consumption, whilst shrimp and tuna
Fish catches in the Asian and Pacific Region were the main export commodities. Over exploitation
continue to increase. The scale and range of the of shrimp resources in coastal waters reduced the
region’s fisheries vary significantly with countries, amount of exports from capture fisheries, although
such as People’s Republic of China, Japan, Thailand, there is a continuing trend towards the exporting of
Indonesia, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and shrimp from the aquaculture sector in almost all
the Republic of Korea, engaged in large-scale countries in the region. While the majority of tuna
industrial fishing, often venturing to distant waters catches were from coastal fisheries, these were
to catch fish, whilst the small island states and the supplemented by offshore catches of skipjack and
highly populated, least developed Asian states, yellowfin tuna.
concentrate on local food production from small (but
numerous) coastal fisheries. (b) The Western Indian Ocean
The comparison between estimated potential The Western Indian Ocean offers considerable
and average landing from various fishing grounds potential for fisheries development, although lack of
in the region by FAO is given in Table 5.3. Of all the data on fish stocks and on the current levels of fishery
fisheries in the world, the Indian Ocean fishery is activity are hampering the management of the sector.
believed to have the most potential for future Rapid shifts in productivity (in part associated with
development, but the data are unreliable and may the cycles of the monsoon seasons) and fluctuations
not have taken into account natural population in phytoplankton productivity are other factors that
fluctuations (FAO 1997). hinder a clear understanding of the long term
potential of the fishery industry.
(a) The Eastern Indian Ocean However, given the scarcity of alternative
The Eastern Indian Ocean extends from the Bay employment, fishing intensity is expected to remain
of Bengal in the north, the Andaman Sea and northern high, increasing whenever the catch rates and
part of the Malacca Straits in the east, to the waters economic conditions will allow.
around the west and south of Australia. The main
fishing areas are on the continental shelves of the (c) Northwest Pacific Fisheries
Bays of Bengal and Martaban and the narrower shelf The Northwest Pacific is the second most
areas on the western and southern sides of Indonesia productive fishery area in the world and is endowed
and Australia. Knowledge of fish stocks is generally with a broad continental shelf and high natural levels

Table 5.3 Comparison Between Estimated Fisheries Potentials and Average Landings of the last 5 years
(1990-1994) in Million Tonnes in Various Parts of the Marine Environment in Asia and the Pacific

Estimated Year Potential Subjective Degree Landings Difference Status2

Marine Areas
Potential (A) Reached of Reliability1 1990-94 (B) (A-B)

East Indian 10 2037 Unreliable 3 7 I

West Indian 13 2051 Unreliable 4 9 I
Northwest Pacific 26 1998 ** 24 2 I
Southwest Pacific 1 1991 ** 1 0 O
Central-Western Pacific 11 2003 ** 8 3 I
WORLD 82 1999 ** 83 -1

Source: FAO 1997a

1
**Reasonably reliable regression
2
Overfished, Increasing (when rate of increase = zero)

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CHAPTER FIVE

of nutrients. Although the sector has been heavily had reached full levels of exploitation. The second
fished for many centuries, modern industrial fishing study (Table 5.5), on a habitat division basis, showed
has had a significant impact on the marine resources that only a few sections of the shelf can sustain further
of the area. expansion.
Currently, the largest fish catches in the Countries in the region have introduced
Northwest Pacific are Alaskan pollock, with the various conventional management measures such as
largest portion being taken by the Russian fishery, closed seasons, closed areas or zoning, mesh-size
which landed 1.75 million tonnes in 1994. All the
major stocks are believed to be currently at Table 5.4 Small Pelagic Fisheries in the South
substantially lower biomass levels than existed in the China Sea, 1978-1993
1980s and there are forecasts of catch trends
continuing downwards for several years into the Group Peak landings (mt) Peak year
future.
The fishing capacity of the Northwest Pacific Round scads 596 000 1991
Selar scads 229 000 1990
fleets continued to rise, despite falling catches.
Jacks, cavalla and trevallies 147 000 1993
China’s fishery capacity grew rapidly between 1980
Indian mackerel 357 000 1992
and 1997, with their fleet of decked fishing vessels Indo-Pacific mackerel 212 000 1993
increasing from about 60 000 to 460 000 vessels and Spanish mackerel 114 000 1993
the numbers of full time fishermen increasing from Kawakawa 283 000 1992
2.9 million to 5.3 million. The amount of fish caught Frigate and bullet tunas 128 000 1992
per unit of effort declined over the same period by a Sardines 716 000 1993
factor of 3. Other indications of overfishing, Anchovies 419 000 1993

especially in coastal areas of the East China and Source: Yanagawa, H. 1997
Yellow Seas, was a shift in catches from large high-
valued fish to lower-valued smaller fishes, from Table 5.5 Fisheries Potential of the South China Sea
demersal and pelagic predator fishes to pelagic
plankton-feeding fishes and from mature fish to Area Primary Potential Actual
Subdivision (103/km2) Production catch catch
immature fish (FAO 1997a).
(tonnes/km2/ 103/tonne/ 103/tonne/
year) year year
(d) Central Western Pacific
The Central Western Pacific extends from the Shallow areas 172 3 650 No estimate 1 046
to 10 m but fully
coast of Southeast Asia down to north and east exploited
Australia and further eastwards to the smaller island Reef flats and 21 4 023 No estimate 275
countries of the South Pacific. Much of the seagrasses but fully
continental shelf in this area lies within the Exclusive to 10 m exploited
Economic Zones of Southeast Asian countries and is Gulf of Thailand 133 3 650 No estimate 1 242
rich in demersal resources, including penaeid to 50 m but fully
exploited
shrimps, and small pelagic resources, while the
Viet Nam & 280 3 003 1 860 453
oceanic waters have rich tuna resources.
PR China shelf
Total catches in the area have increased almost to 50 m
continuously since 1950, although the rate of increase Northwest 28 913 No estimate 315
slowed in the 1990s. Unlike temperate fisheries where Philippines.
single species dominated the catch, tropical fisheries to 10 m
were a composite of many species. In 1994 seven Bornean shelf 144 913 257 105
to 10 m
species groups accounted for 87 per cent of the total:
miscellaneous fishes, tunas, jacks, herrings, redfishes, Southwest 112 2 433 No estimate 962
shelf to 10 m but fully
mackerels, shrimps. The multispecies nature of exploited
tropical coastal resources is reflected by the high Coral reefs, 77 2 766 295 291
proportion of the miscellaneous group and the 10-50 m
relatively even spread of catches between the other Deep shelf 928 730 1 688 176
groups. 50-200 m
Two studies in the South China Sea indicate Open ocean 1 605 400 1 686 80
that most of the conventional small pelagic species 200-400 m

are already fully exploited. The first study Total South 3 500 Mean = 1 143 5 786 4 945
China Sea
(Table 5.4) covered the period from 1978 to 1993,
during which peak years were identified. It noted Source: Pauly, D. and V. Christensen 1993
that after 1987, most of the 12 small pelagic fisheries

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 COASTAL AND MARINE

regulations etc. to control fish decline. However, The orange roughly fishery provides a typical
fishing pressure kept increasing despite attempts by example: in 1979, the first catches of orange roughly
some countries to reduce fishing pressure in coastal (5 000 tonnes) were reported in New Zealand and
areas. The use of explosives to capture fish caused by the early 1980s catches had climbed to around
widespread damage to coral reefs. Fishing with 40 000 tonnes before peaking, in 1990, at around
cyanide for live food fish from the coral reefs resulted 90 000 tonnes. Since this peak, catches have declined
in severe reductions of juvenile and prey fish on coral by over 50 per cent and catches in 1993/94 were
reefs as well as over exploitation of target species. back at around the 40 000 tonnes level. Stocks of
orange roughly continue to decline, but this decline
(e) The Pacific Islands has been offset to some extent by the continuing
There are three main types of fisheries in the discovery of new stocks.
Pacific islands: industrial fisheries (mainly tuna); Other species have shown similar drastic
coastal fisheries for export, mother-of-pearl shells; and declines. For example, landings of greenback horse
coastal fisheries for domestic consumption. mackerel dropped by 90 per cent between 1991 and
Tuna is the target of the only significant 1992 and catches of snoek declined by 40 per cent
industrial fisheries (purse seine, longline, pole and from their 1993 peak and by 1996 had declined to
line, and troll) off small islands in the South Pacific. their lowest level since 1979. Harvests of squid
They are especially abundant in the Exclusive started in 1972, and catches of Wellington flying squid
Economic Zones (EEZs) of Papua New Guinea, the collapsed in 1981 (from 63 000 to 1 000 tonnes) before
Solomon Islands and Kiribati, but are also taken off picking up again and increasing, albeit with large
the other Pacific island nations. Large-scale fishing variability, reaching a new peak of 58 000 tonnes in
is carried out by distant water fishing nations like 1994.
People’s Republic of China, Indonesia, Japan,
Republic of Korea, Philippines, and the USA, which E. Aquaculture
pay fees to gain access to South Pacific islands’ EEZs. The Asian and Pacific Region accounts for
In the 1970s and 1980s, few Pacific island nations 87 per cent of the total world production of marine
were fishing for cannery-quality skipjack and aquaculture. The top 10 Asian aquaculture producers
albacore. Recently, their participation in tuna fishing are People’s Republic of China, India, Japan, Republic
has increased with the advent of small-scale longline of Korea, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand (also
fisheries for sashimi-quality yellowfin and bigeye the top seven producers in the world), Bangladesh,
tuna. These fisheries operate mainly off Federated Viet Nam and Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea.
States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, In 1997, the production of 22 Asian countries and
Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Palau, Samoa and territories alone was 30.7 million metric tonnes (mt)
Tonga, although these island fleets still take only valued at US$ 37.7 billion, an increase of 11.2 per
6.5 per cent of the weight of tuna caught in the sector. cent and 10.6 per cent in weight and value
About 80 per cent of fish captured in the Pacific respectively compared to 1995 when Asia accounted
islands, estimated at around 100 000 tonnes annually, for 90 per cent of world aquaculture production. By
is consumed or bartered locally. Some remote atolls comparison, figures for the whole of Asia show that
have a per-capita fishery product consumption of aquaculture production in the region has been
over 250 kg annually. Most Pacific islanders live growing more than 4 times faster than landing from
within the coastal zone and in rural areas, and many capture fisheries with aquaculture’s share of total
people fish, mostly for subsistence purposes. A great fisheries landing in the region increasing by nearly
variety of marine organisms are consumed. For two fold from 20.7 per cent in 1984 to 38 per cent in
example, over 100 species of finfish and 50 species of 1995 (FAO 1997).
invertebrates are included in the fish market statistics In terms of species, freshwater finfish, in
in Fiji, and the number of species consumed in the particular Chinese and Indian carp, account for the
subsistence fishery is nearly twice this. greatest share (42 per cent) of total aquaculture
production. Aquatic plants production is valued at
(f) Southwest Pacific nearly US$ 5 billion, 70 per cent of which comes from
The fisheries area of the Southwest Pacific, People’s Republic of China. Successful hatchery
including New Zealand and Southern Australian operations is key factor in the rapid production
waters, has been heavily fished since the 1970s and growth of aquaculture.
the stocks declined fairly rapidly in response. Thirty- While finfish make up almost the total volume
seven species were under quota management in the of freshwater aquaculture, they represent less than
1995/96 fishery season, which has been success in 10 per cent of salt-water aquaculture. Seaweed,
curbing some of the overfishing of the past. especially kelp, was the most commonly grown

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marine organism, followed by oysters, carp, and countries in the region have sought to exploit the
scallops. Oysters were grown on wooden or net tourist potential of their coastal areas through the
structures in shallow, estuarine tidal flats and were development of seaside resorts, sport fishing and
most valuable in temperate climates. Australia and scuba diving capacity, sailing, whale watching and
New Zealand have extensive oyster farms and have other ocean recreational activities. Tourism
also been increasingly successful in farming finfish, developers and governments have been quick to
especially salmon. recognize the importance of preserving the major
In terms of value, the most important attractions of the coastal areas, including beautiful
aquaculture species was the giant tiger prawn, worth beaches, vibrant coral reefs, lively fisheries and
nearly US$ 4 billion in 1996, followed by oysters at natural scenic splendour. Concepts of “eco-tourism”
slightly over US$ 3 billion. Prawns and shrimps are and “environmentally sustainable tourism” have been
especially important to Asian countries, as they are the focus of much debate within the international
tropical species and are grown in large tidal ponds, tourism industry and, in a number of cases, have led
generally excavated in mangrove areas. With a 1997 to formal partnerships between tourism and
output of some 175 000 tonnes, Thailand continued conservation interests to protect ecologically valuable
to be the world’s main supplier of cultured shrimp. and interesting sites. Tourism, for example, is often
Mangrove clearance for shrimp culture cited as a justification for the creation of parks and
development has been discussed earlier. The reserves, compensating local people and fishing
additional environmental concern associated with communities for the loss of potential earnings and
aquaculture is the potential hazard posed by the promoting sustainable management practices.
accidental release of exotic species (particularly However, “eco-tourism” remains a relatively
predator species) or the spread of diseases from the small, niche market (albeit one with significant
aquaculture facility to the surrounding natural growth potential) and the demands of the mass
environment. tourism market within the region (which primarily
comprises intra-regional holidaymakers) remains
F. Other Marine Resources driven by cost and by a demand for comfort levels
that can only be provided through significant resource
1. Mineral
consumption and infrastructure provision.
More than 4 billion tonnes of oil and 5.8 trillion
cubic metres of natural gas reserves have been found
on the continental shelves of the Asian and Pacific CAUSES OF COASTAL AND MARINE
Region. Offshore oil and gas production is ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
developing rapidly on the west coast of India, the
Gulf of Tongking, the Gulf of Thailand, East of
A. Disruption and Modification of Habitats
Malaysia, West of Borneo and Palawan, West of Japan,
in the Celebes Sea, off the North West and the South 1. Physical Habitat
coast of Australia, the West coast of New Zealand Physical modifications to habitats by natural
and Papua New Guinea. Mining activities in the forces or by human influence threaten the physical
coastal zone include the extraction of sands, gravel integrity of many coastal ecosystems in the region.
and rock, whilst each year more than 6 millions Modification may result from: major storms or
tonnes of salt is extracted from seawater in the region. earthquakes; filling of intertidal or subtidal habitats
The vast quantities of sand, gravel and rock during coastal development; loss of tidal wetlands,
quarried from the region’s coastal areas are used for submerged aquatic vegetation or coral reefs due to a
infilling, road building and as aggregate in decline in water quality or changes in sedimentation;
construction concrete. Coral mining represents one or changes in the hydrodynamics of coastal systems.
of the few sources of building materials in the smaller The human activities that contribute to the loss and
islands of the region. In Tahiti (French Polynesia), degradation of mangrove, coral reefs and seagrass
for example, 3.2 million tonnes of coral were taken habitats were discussed earlier.
from the fringing reef during dredging and filling More subtle changes, such as the increasing
operations for the airport and the port (Gabriel et al, plastic burden on the ocean floor, can also damage
1995). Elsewhere, corals are mined for the coastal habitats. While some of these modifications
manufacture of agricultural and construction lime. are reversible over time (by clean-ups, revegetation
of submerged aquatic vegetation or restoration of
2. Tourism salinity conditions), the likelihood of recovery for
The region’s coastal areas are one of the major many modified habitats is uncertain. Modification
attractions of the tourism industry, which is the fastest of shallow water habitats, including coral and other
growing sector in the regional economy. Many reefs, wetlands, and seagrass beds, pose perhaps the

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greatest threat to the biological diversity of marine deposition. Table 5.6 shows fluxes from rivers in
and other aquatic organisms and can have significant seven selected countries bordering the South China
consequences on the production of species that Sea. Fluxes, obtained by multiplying average
depend on these habitats for shelter or food at critical concentrations with annual discharge rates, indicate
life stages. the amount of material conveyed by river systems to
the sea, as a combination of load from all sources
2. Hydrologic and Hydrodynamic Disruption (agricultural, domestic and industrial).
The hydrology of watersheds draining to the Land based sources also contribute litter,
coast has been significantly altered as a result of plastics pathogens and hazardous waters including
landscape changes, dredging and damming, pesticides to the coastal and marine water. For
consumptive water uses and diversion to other example, the increased use of chemicals in agriculture
drainage basins. Such hydrological changes can alter is leading to the transport of an estimated 1 800 tonnes
salinity patterns and circulation within coastal of pesticides into the Bay of Bengal where they
systems and the delivery of nutrients, toxicants, and reappear as toxic residues in finfish and shellfish
sediment to the coast by enhancing their (Holmgren 1994). The liberal use of agricultural
concentrations. fertilizers, on the other hand, enhances the
The consequences of such changes may be productivity of coastal waters, favouring nuisance
profound. For example, an increase in the supply of organisms such as phytoplankton species that cause
fluvial sediments as a result of land clearing, mining red tides and other similar problems.
or agricultural practices caused decreased light Litter, especially plastics, is also a major
availability and the smothering or shoaling of benthic problem in the coastal and marine environment and
habitats in Papua New Guinea, Fiji, New Caledonia, may endure for decades once submerged. Pathogens
New Zealand, Australia, and the Philippines. enter the natural environment, both from
inappropriately managed hospital wastes and from
B. Land and Sea Based Pollutants aquaculture . Surface pollutants from atmospheric
1. Land Based Sources deposits are also impacting fish eggs and plankton
Much of the pollution affecting the marine species which occupy surface waters, in addition to
environment derives from land-based human increasing the level of UV-B penetration. Aquaculture
activities and enters the oceans and coastal zones of has also contributed to the discharge of nutrients and
the region as either direct discharge, via the outflow other wastes, introduction of exotic species, the use
of the region’s rivers or through atmospheric of chemicals such as pesticides, antibiotics and

Table 5.6 Pollutant Fluxes from Rivers of Selected Countries to the South China Sea

Biological
Country/River Catchment Area Annual Oxygen Total Total Total Oil (t/y)
(km2) discharge Demand Nitrogen Phosphorus Suspended
(km3) (BOD) (t/y) (IP) (t/y) (t/y) Solid (t/y)

Cambodia
Tonle Sap Lake-River System 69 355 36.45 6 022 1 084 303 13 250 No data
Coastal rivers 13 406 21.79 No data No data No data No data No data
Mekong River, Cambodia Section 72 060 128.38 4 964 894 255 10 950 No data
PR China
Guangdong:
Han, Rong, Pearl, Moyang, Jian 488 802 422.2 566 385 (340 050) (3 768) (58 531 000) 9 698
Quanqxi:
Nanliu, Qing, Maoling 14 051 24.9 57 668 (8 602) (507) No data 823
Hainan:
Nandu, Changhua, Wanquanhe 15 865 31 140 No data No data No data 368
Thailand
Central, Eastern, Southern rivers 320 553 144.2 299 224 130 044 7 137 12 587 No data
Total South China Sea for continental 1 015 936 636 840 58 202 58 642 827
countries

Source: Talaue-McManus, L. 2000

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CHAPTER FIVE

hormones. In addition, there has been an overall was banned by the IMO in 1998. Vessels also require
deterioration of water quality and hindrance to access regular painting and utilize a wide range of highly
posed by extensive pond systems (Barg 1992). toxic paints, paint removers, solvents, degreasers, and
other compounds.
2. Pollution from sea based activities
The sources of marine pollution from sea-based C. Global Climate Change
activities are related to fishing, recreational boating, A rise in sea temperature has already been
marine transportation and offshore mineral linked to the extensive bleaching of coral reefs in the
exploration and production activities. Accidental oil Pacific and Indian Oceans. A more detailed
spills have been frequently reported along oil discussion on global climate change, and its
transport routes or at the points of discharge and implications for the ecosystems of the region, is
loading for oil carriers. In the Straits of Malacca provided in Chapter 6.
alone, 490 shipping accidents were reported during
the period from 1988 to 1992, resulting in a D. Unsustainable Exploitation of Resources
considerable amount of oil spillage (Straits Times
1. Overfishing:
1993). Although accurate data for the total amount
Overfishing can cause serious, long-term
of oil spills are not available, their frequency and
damage to fish resources and the targeting of
distribution has led to the development of strict
particular species can disrupt the ecological balance,
control regulations in many countries of the region
depleting the prey of other species and reducing
(see Figure 5.4)
populations of top predators.
Organotin antifouling, which is used for the
Attempts to control overfishing result in
keels of ocean-going vessels, is especially toxic to
considerable economic conflict as livelihoods are at
marine molluscs and their larvae. Unlike copper
stake. In New Zealand, for example, government
antifouling, organotin toxins become trapped in
attempts to reduce inshore commercial snapper
biological food chains and cause cumulative pollution
fisheries were immediately challenged in
of harbours and marinas. In consequence, organotin
court-leading to prolonged discussions and high legal
costs for the government (Box 5.3). An FAO
Figure 5.4 High Risk Areas for Oil Pollution in the investigation (FAO 1998) revealed that in spite of the
South China Sea overexploitation of fisheries resources, most marine
capture fisheries remain economically viable,
generating sufficient income to cover costs-including
allowances for depreciation as well as the opportunity
cost of capital, with adequate levels of remuneration
to the owners and crews and a surplus remaining for
reinvestment.
Subsidies provided by governments have
sometimes contributed to overfishing. Diesel fuel
tax exemptions are common fishing subsidies in the
Region. In Australia, and Japan, diesel fuel used in
fishing and shipping is exempt from standard fuel
taxes. However, a FAO study (1998) found that the
number of subsidies in developing countries has been
greatly reduced in recent years and the remaining
subsidies are for offshore fishing, artisanal fisheries
and fisheries co-operatives as well as for fishing
operations in remote and underdeveloped areas.

2. Poor Integration and Coordination of Stakeholders

Government sectors that interact with fisheries
were (and remain) largely excluded from the fisheries
development process. There is, for example little, if
any, communication between fisheries agencies and
tourism (sport fishing, diving, resorts, parks),
environment (parks and habitat protection), planning
(macroeconomics and finance), agriculture and
Source: Talaue-McManus 2000 forestry (responsible for water siltation and

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Box 5.3 The Evolution of Fisheries Management in New Zealand

Capacity problems in New Zealand’s inshore fisheries began to manifest themselves in the 1960s. Local fishermen complained
that the government was licensing foreign offshore fishing vessels, whilst restricting access to domestic vessels. Consequently, in
1963 the government removed the restrictions on fishing effort applied to local fishermen and, in 1965, provided guarantees on loans
for fishing vessel purchases. Through these measures the government established both an open access policy with regard to fishery
resources and provided mechanisms to aid a marked increase in the capacity of the country’s fishing fleet.

While the intention was to base fisheries development on the offshore resources, the fishing effort in the prime inshore fisheries
also expanded rapidly. By the early 1980s, overfishing of species in these zones and overcapitalization within the inshore fleets were
rapidly depleting fish stocks. In response, the government (i) set up controlled inshore fishing zones, a new licensing regime that
limited vessel numbers and prohibited new entrants to the inshore fisheries; (ii) removed “part-time” fishermen from the inshore
fisheries; (iii) enabled regulation of fisheries using management plans formulated after extensive public consultation on the resources
to be managed and the regulatory controls (on fisheries inputs) to be applied.

During the lengthy consultation and planning process, overfishing and overcapitalization intensified. By 1984, the inshore
harvesting sector was over capitalized by an estimated NZ$28 million and correction would mean the retirement of 44 per cent of the
existing fishing capacity. Ultimately, Government and industry agreed to introduce total allowable catches (TACs) to ensure stock
conservation, and individual transferable quotas (ITQs) to facilitate industry restructuring. Both parties agreed the initial TACs and
ITQs would be set so as to effect a reduction in fishing activity. The main elements of the scheme were: (i) the allocation of a case
history to each fisherman, on a national basis (with case history defined as the fisherman’s catch in two of the three years between
1981 and 1983); and (ii) the buy-back of case histories to a level that is equivalent to the TAC for each fishery.

The government ultimately spent over NZ$45 million in legal fees and in buying out 15 800 tonnes of fishermen’s case
histories. The important outcome was that a viable and more sustainable future was secured for the affected fisheries and the
industry in general. The remaining fishermen could buy, sell or lease their entitlements without undue government restrictions or
the requirement of consent. In addition, they could shift their vessels throughout the year between different fisheries for which they
had quotas. The government benefited by being able to purchase case histories at prices that did not reflect their full value, owing to
the absence of an established ITQ market at the time.

The extensive consultation with fishing industry representatives in the planning, development and implementation of the
quota management system was an important element in the successful introduction of ITQs. ITQ management was established for
29 species, including 21 inshore and eight deep-water species. By 1996, 33 species were managed under ITQs, representing some
80 per cent of the total commercial catch from New Zealand’s EEZ.

There are approximately 117 species currently outside the quota management system and these are being managed by a system
of permits and regulations. The government intends to bring additional species into the quota system and, at present, a moratorium
has been placed on the issuance of new permits for non-ITQ species as a means of controlling the fishing effort prior to these species’
inclusion in the quota management system.

The introduction of ITQs, together with the financial assistance in restructuring, retired 15 800 tonnes of catch from New
Zealand fisheries. The reduction in the size of the fleet, whether it was due to this assistance scheme or to the subsequent
introduction of ITQs, was dramatic. The number of vessels dropped by 22 per cent between 1983/84 and 1986/87 and there was a
further 53 per cent reduction resulting from the use of ITQs between 1986/87 and 1994/95. However, as this rationalization
primarily occurred in the country’s inshore fisheries, it helped their conservation and redirected investment to harvest deep-water
fisheries.
Source: Ministry of Fisheries, New Zealand

subsequent damage to inshore fishery habitats), lands discards from the world’s fisheries were estimated to
and survey (responsible for filling of mangrove and be about 20 million tonnes, or about 25 per cent of
coastal areas) or public works (responsible for the annual production from marine fisheries.
building waste dumps, coastal roads and causeways Catch quotas increase the incentive to discard,
that diminish fish nursery areas, cut off fish migration especially in mixed species fisheries where several of
routes, and disturb water flows in bays and estuaries). the species are subject to a quota. Fishermen, required
to discard that proportion of the catch taken in excess
3. Damaging and Destructive Fishing Techniques of the quota, sort the most valuable specimens and
Commercial fishing gear and practices are not discard the smaller or damaged specimens of the
always selective for the species and sizes being quota species as well as lower value species.
targeted and fishermen discard a wide range of Discarding by-catch has long been recognized as a
species with little or no commercial value. Annual wasteful, but inevitable feature of commercial fishing

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as it constitutes a loss of valuable food, has negative legislation. In recent years, significant progress has
consequences for the environment and biodiversity been made in the development of coastal zone
and can be aesthetically offensive. By-catch attracted management plans for Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
considerable public and political attention in reaction Pakistan, Philippines, Tonga, Indonesia, Singapore,
to the incidental capture of dolphins in tuna purse Thailand and Malaysia.
seine nets, turtles in shrimp trawls and marine A key factor in the successful implementation
mammals, birds, turtles and fish in high seas squid of such management plans has been the extent of
driftnets. However, most measures aimed at reducing community participation as demonstrated by the
the quantities being discarded carry substantial experience of the Philippines, which was one of the
implementation costs. first countries to experiment with community
In the subsistence fisheries that dominate much partnerships (Box 5.5).
of Asia and the Pacific islands, especially in highly In Malaysia, the most recent initiative towards
populated, undeveloped and rural areas, almost integrated coastal zone management is the pilot
everything caught is either consumed or used as feed project being undertaken in Sabah, Sarawak and
or fertilizer and little is discarded. Pulau Pinang to formulate integrated coastal zone
Physical damage to marine ecosystems from management plans at the State level.
fishing derive from three activities: (i) damage from The core of an Australian initiative is a
fish capture gear, such as trawls; (ii) damage by programme to develop integrated coastal area
fishers during capture of sea foods such as walking management strategies and programmes (referred to
on corals, breaking coral or rocks using iron bars or as Coastcare) based on partnerships (and shared
explosives; (iii) damage by anchors, ship groundings, funding) between the Commonwealth, State and
propeller washes, and dredging and filling associated Local governments, the community and industry.
with vessel movements and construction of port Coastcare provides opportunities and resources
facilities. Some forms of fishing also disrupt the (including federal grants of about US$ 82 million per
physical habitat. For example, bottom trawling can year) for community, business and interest groups to
change the physical habitat and biological structure become actively involved in coastal management
of ecosystems and accidentally capture and destroy and decision-making (Australia Department of
a large number of non-target species. Trawl fishing Environment 1997).
inshore of the Great Barrier Reef in Australia is New Zealand completely revolutionized the
reported to have changed the physical character of process of decentralization of government with its
the seafloor, increased turbidity, and removed key Resource Management Act of 1991, which required
microhabitats for coral reef juvenile fish (Zann 1995). the formation of a New Zealand Coastal Policy
In the last decade, the live fish industry has Statement 1994 to provide a policy framework for
expanded throughout Asia and the Pacific. Wide the sustainable management of the natural and
use of chemical toxins, such as cyanide, has had physical resources of the coastal environment
serious impacts on juvenile fish and other reef (NZMFE 1996).
creatures. Collection of tropical fish and other marine Remote sensing and GIS databases for marine
creatures for the aquarium trade is common in the resource and coastal zone management are becoming
tropical areas of the region and the recent more important in the region. India and Japan both
phenomenon of the “live rock” trade involves the have ocean satellites that provide data to fishers
taking of coral rock from reefs to be used as showing likely spots for fishing. Satellites provide
decorative and biologically active components of salt enforcement of fishing agreements in offshore waters.
water aquaria. Remote sensing techniques provided important
base-line information of ecosystem conditions in the
coastal zone and marine environment. In New
POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
Caledonia, for example, satellite images were used
to detect changes in coral reefs over a ten-year
A. National Initiatives
interval, proving the effectiveness of a marine park
1. Country Experiences in Coastal Zone in the territory and the vulnerability of coral reefs to
Management local development activities (Bour 1990). In 1998,
While some countries, such as Sri Lanka satellite images tracked the movement of hot surface
(Box 5.4) began active coastal zone management in water in the Indian Ocean to predict where coral
the late seventies, most started in the mid to late reefs would dieback and thus provide conclusive
eighties with the formation of committees and the proof that coral bleaching was associated with
preparation of reports, recommendations and localized increases in sea level temperatures.

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Box 5.4 Coastal Zone Management in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka’s 18 million people share 1 562 km of coastline and increased migration to coastal areas since Sri Lanka’s independence
in 1948 has created a range of consequences including coastal erosion, degradation of valuable coastal habitats and resource use
conflicts. A realization of the conflicts and challenges associated with the management of coastal resources in the late 1970s led to
the establishment of the Coast Conservation Department (CCD) within the Ministry of Fisheries and the enactment of the 1981 Coast
Conservation Act.

In 1986, the CCD began a programme focused on the management of four key issues in the narrowly defined coastal strip:
shorefront development, coastal erosion, habitat loss and the decline of recreational and cultural sites. The first outcome was a
regulatory programme designed to reduce coastal erosion through a coastal permit applications system (primarily for house
construction and sand mining), an extensive programme of public education and the construction of some specific coastal protection
works. The second outcome was the development of provincial-level Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Implementation Plans and,
in 1995, a series of local-level Special Area Management Plans. Local communities were encouraged to become actively involved in
the formulation and implementation of the coastal zone management programme and this bottom-up approach enabled the local
community to be “fully aware of and integrated into the planning effort so that it is truly participatory.”

The strategic Coastal 2000 Plan recommended a second-generation coastal resources management programme with
a “twin-track” approach, in which plans are implemented simultaneously at both the national and local levels. One of the initiatives
of Coastal 2000 was the Special Area Management (SAM) Plan; in the early 1990s, two locations were chosen for the development of
SAM Plans: Hikkaduwa, a small town on the west coast known for its coastal tourism and marine sanctuary; and Rekawa Lagoon,
important for its local fisheries, mangroves, beaches and agriculture.

In 1992, CCD staff and representatives from the Coastal Resources Management Programme (CRMP) began the process of SAM
planning at both locations. Government officials in selected agencies at the national level were contacted, and their interest and
support was solicited. At the same time, CCD and CRMP staff began to work with community organizations to identify appropriate
groups to be consulted in identifying community perceptions of resource management problems and priorities. Over the next three
years, government officials, community groups and interest group representatives identified priority resource management issues
and technical questions. Special Area Co-ordinating Committees, comprising both community representatives and government
officials, were established and technical studies were commissioned, including environmental profiles for each Plan area. Resource
management issues and strategies were identified and compiled. The SAM Plans for Hikkaduwa and Rekawa Lagoon were adopted
by their respective co-ordinating committees in 1996.

The SAM planning process at Hikkaduwa facilitated the effective management of the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary, heightened
awareness amongst tourists and residents of the need to protect and manage the coastal environment, initiated a waste management
strategy and encouraged a glass-bottom boat owner association. In management of Rekawa Lagoon, habitat, fishery and livelihood
issues have taken highest priority.

In late 1996, the SAM planning and management processes were evaluated to determine the degree to which coastal management
efforts integrated multiple agencies and programmes, levels of government and technical analysis. The evaluation indicated that as
the two plans were developed by multidisciplinary teams working with community groups and national, provincial and local
government officials, overall integration was excellent. The plans are based on regulatory activities, coastal development projects,
research, monitoring and organizational efforts undertaken by both government agencies and community groups. Coordinating
committees at both sites are working to maintain a comprehensive approach to improving resource conditions.

SAM plans are a bottom-up strategy for managing coastal resources that complements the existing top-down regulatory
approach in Sri Lanka. They allow for intensive, comprehensive management of coastal resources in a well defined geographic
setting (as contrasted with a use-by-use regulation-by-permit approach). Participation by community residents or stakeholders in
planning and management is central to the SAM concept. Government agencies serve as catalysts or facilitators to help organize
communities for resource management. Government provides technical support, and acts as mediators to help balance competing
demands in resource management and as partners of communities engaging in co-management with community groups.
Source: Dr Ampai Harakunarak, Centre for the Study of Marine Policy

2. Pollution Abatement and Control reducing industrial wastes in Australia, People’s

Republic of China, Republic of Korea, Japan, and New
(a) Land Based Sources
Zealand. Pollution from smaller, more scattered
Pollution abatement and control varies
industries has proven more difficult to control as such
considerably within the region. A number of
industries often lack the capital or expertise to achieve
developed countries have enacted and enforced
pollution abatement and under such circumstances,
regulations for point source discharges into rivers
enforcement of regulations is often arbitrary and
and harbours, particularly from large industrial
ineffective.
sources. These regulations have been effective in

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Box 5.5 The Bantay Puerto Programme in the Philippines

Community participation has played an important part in coastal zone management in the Philippines. The City of Puerto
Princesa on the island of Palawan provides a representative example of the Philippines’ approach to resource management. The
forests and coastal resources of Palawan had become severely degraded by both commercial activities and the rapid increase in both
population and poverty. The City government developed and implemented the Bantay Puerto Programme in an effort to protect,
conserve and rehabilitate the city’s forest and marine resources so as to improve the residents’ quality of life and to increase the city’s
economic contribution to the country by utilising its resources in ways that are ecologically sustainable, socially equitable and
economically viable.

Through the mobilization of the local community action groups, the Bantay Dagat (dubbed “Baywatch”) and Bantay Gubat
(“Forest Watch”) programmes proved extremely successful in curbing forest destruction and coastal resource degradation.

The Programme’s key management concept is simple: protect what is there, rehabilitate what has been destroyed or damaged
and plan for the management of resource utilization that is environmentally sustainable. Rehabilitation included replanting mangrove
trees and setting aside marine conservation areas.

The success of the project was noted by the national government and the 1987-1992 National Development Plan adopted a
community-based approach to resource management. Under this approach, local communities were empowered to manage the
resources, whilst government provided the necessary enabling conditions, including the provision of appropriate incentives and
expertise to properly manage resources. The efficacy of the community-based approach to resource management may be seen from
the success of a number of subsequent initiatives anchored to such an approach.
Source: Piedad S. Geron 1998

A number of countries have implemented shipping and promotion of international action

comprehensive programmes and subregional policies through the International Maritime Organization.
aimed at reducing pollution entering inland Two major strategies being used are: to encourage
waterways in addition to addressing the impacts to ships to exchange ballast water in the ocean or flush
inland and marine habitats caused by transboundary it en route; and to set up quarantine inspection of
pollution (see Chapter 4). ballast water prior to discharge. Scientists at CSIRO’s
recently established Centre for Research on
(b) Sea Based Sources Introduced Marine Pests (CRIMP) are investigating
Australia and New Zealand have developed various options to reduce and manage marine pests.
impressive oil spill response capabilities. For The recently formed Australian Ballast Water
example, oil from a break in a coastal oil transfer site Management Council will coordinate these activities
in South Australia in June 1999 was sprayed with oil and implement principles to ensure adequate
surfactants by air within hours and oil protection quarantine and to reduce the risk of the accidental
booms set in place to protect nearby beaches well displacement of species.
before any oil washed ashore.
As with control of industries, pollution control 3. National Experiences with Restricting Fishing
agreements and legislation is effective for large ships, Capacity
but in many Asia and Pacific countries, smaller Fisheries governance has traditionally been
fishing vessels and houseboats are difficult to control based on command and control, with a variety of
or monitor. In Australia and New Zealand, legislation regulations based on catch limits, seasons, closed
controlling recreational and fishing boats is more areas and size limits for individual species. While
effective. For example, organotin antifouling is this is marginally effective for commercial fisheries
prohibited and most marine repair yards now and in countries with strong enforcement capability,
incorporate catch basins to prevent paint scrapings it is ineffective for subsistence fishing, particularly in
washing into the coastal water. Sewage pump-out countries with poor enforcement capabilities. All too
stations have been set up in many marinas and in often, command and control of ocean fishing
some ports, such as Sydney, it is illegal for people to generated increasing levels of conflict and
live aboard their boats for more than three days. non-cooperation. Starting in the early 1980’s some
Within the region, a number of steps have also governments began a new approach to resource
been taken to prevent the introduction of marine management that incorporated the views of the
exotic species. These include increased training and stakeholders in management decisions and conferred
regulations for quarantine officers, research into rights to the resource users. In New Zealand, control
potential routes of entry, voluntary controls on of industrial fisheries at the national level was based

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on conferring rights to trade (buy, sell or lease) the achieving their conservation objectives, but also in
entitlement to fish in a particular managed fishery. improving the long-term productivity and
The rights were generally provided in the form of sustainability of the local fishery, even though the
individual transferable quotas (ITQs) or as a limited area available for fishing was reduced (Russ and
number of licences to fish. Internationally, institutions Alcala 1988). This partnership principle has now
such as the World Bank are also encouraging the been applied elsewhere and small-protected marine
adoption of rights-based management. areas managed by the local community are becoming
In subsistence, recreational, and small-scale increasingly common in the region (Box 5.6).
artisanal fisheries, rights are based on recognition of In the late 1990s, the World Bank, in association
community control over particular territories. For with the IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and
example, in the Pacific Islands, governments formed Protected Areas (CNPPA), prepared a database
partnerships between national fisheries institutions containing the location of every marine protected area
and community stakeholders. Traditional marine in the world, including those in the Asian and
tenure and resource allocation mechanisms have been Pacific Region (Table 5.7). The database included
legally and politically recognized in Fiji, Samoa, background information on site characteristics,
Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and other Pacific biodiversity, key species, etc. as a basis for
island nations. Participatory fisheries governance has determining future priorities for conservation
proven successful, especially in the small states where investment.
community ties remain strong (see Chapter 18). There Amongst the countries of the region, about four
is an emerging consensus that establishment of per cent of the coastal waters of New Zealand are
specific use or property rights will improve included within marine reserves where no fishing
community interest in sustainable management. This activities are allowed. The remote Kermadec Islands
has proved difficult after long standing open access Reserve, with 748 000 ha makes up nearly 75 per
approach to sea resources, but early indications from cent of the total area, with the rest scattered in six
Sri Lanka were that the formal allocation of user smaller reserves and two marine parks. The
rights that give communities greater control over the Department of Conservation and other groups are
factors affecting their well-being is a successful considering some 24 additional sites to provide
solution (UNDP/Government of Sri Lanka 1991). protection for a selection of New Zealand’s marine
habitats.
4. Conservation of Coastal and Marine Resources Australia’s Marine Policy includes plans to
Throughout the region, scientists and resource expand the existing network of coastal and marine
managers have recognized the importance of parks and reserves to provide protection for a
including key coastal and marine habitats within cross-section of habitats around the entire Australian
designated conservation areas. Ideally, the protected coastline. Unlike New Zealand’s marine reserves,
zones within a particular area should enable Australian marine parks and reserves allow a range
representative habitats to be preserved and should of activities, including commercial fishing, in some
focus, in particular, on habitats that play a key role or all parts of the reserves. Zoning is a prime
in the early life stages of marine, estuarine and coastal management tool for the Great Barrier Reef Marine
species. As the vast majority of these species begin Park Authority, and parts of the World Heritage Site
their life-cycle as free-swimming larvae and/or spend are closed to everyone, even scientists, while other
their juvenile life stages in “nursery” areas, the areas are essentially open to all use, except mining
conservation strategy should provide protected areas and drilling for oil.
that support and maintain the replenishment of The countries of the South Pacific subregion
populations in the wider marine and coastal have actively promoted the establishment of parks,
environment. reserves and conservation areas and collectively
The most successful conservation strategies for established the Convention for the Protection of the
preserving key marine and coastal habitats are those Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific
that have been implemented as partnerships between Region (SPREP Convention) (Noumea 1986). Since
resource managers and local communities. The 1992, when the SPREP focus for conservation shifted
Philippines played a leading role in establishing the to community involvement, the SPREP South Pacific
principle of community involvement in the Biodiversity Conservation Programme (SPBCP) has
management and maintenance of with marine assisted 12 Pacific island countries with the
reserves. By the late 1970s, marine reserves development of 17 conservation areas, almost all
established and managed by villagers were of which have a coastal or marine component
demonstrating their effectiveness not only in (see Chapter 18).

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5. Harmonizing Aquaculture and Environment Table 5.7 Marine Protected Areas in the Asian and
Some progress is being made in the Pacific Region
establishment of appropriate legal and regulatory
frameworks for aquaculture in a number of the No. of No. of
region’s countries, including Malaysia, Papua New Country/Area Protected Country/Area Protected
Guinea, India, Sri Lanka, the Republic of Korea Area Area

(Box 5.7) and Thailand. American Samoa 2 New Caledonia 17

The Government of India has set up an Australia 244 New Zealand 14
Aquaculture Authority to regulate the adoption of Brunei Darussalam 4 Palau 1
new technology and the establishment of new farms PR China 41 Papua New Guinea 6
within and outside the Coastal Regulation Zone. Cook Islands 1 Philippines 19
French Polynesia 1 Samoa 60
At the State level, the Tamil Nadu Aquaculture
Guam 1 Singapore 1
(Regulation) Act of 1995 sets out conditions to India 11 Sri Lanka 4
improve the siting and management of aquaculture Indonesia 30 Thailand 15
facilities and establishes an Ecorestoration Fund, Islamic Rep. of Iran 1 Tonga 6
supported by deposits from aquaculturists, to remedy Japan 113 Tuvalu 1
environmental damage caused by aquaculture farms. Kiribati 1 Vanuatu 1
In mid 1998, Thailand’s Ministry of Agriculture, Rep. of Korea 6 Viet Nam 2
Malaysia 38* Total 477
recognizing the accelerated loss of valuable
agricultural land to aquaculture, has banned the Source: WRI and United Nations Earthwatch website 1999
conversion of rice paddies to shrimp farms. * Statistics provided by the Government of Malaysia

Box 5.6 The Funafuti Conservation Area Project in Tuvalu

Since Tuvalu separated from Kiribati as an independent nation, the population tripled and unregulated use of the atoll
environment led to a marked decline in the quantity of avifauna and marine life on the atoll. Commercial over exploitation of
lagoon fisheries undermined the sustainability of important subsistence and local artisanal fisheries. The abandonment of traditional
taboos, marine tenure systems and fishing regulations, which were responsible for relatively sustained-yield production over thousands
of years, coupled with widespread use of dynamite, pesticides and small mesh gillnets degraded important fisheries resources. By
1992, species of particular nutritional and cultural importance showing evidence of over exploitation included a range of groupers
and snappers, emperors and rabbitfish, giant clams, spider conch, lobsters and crabs.

In October 1995, the people of Funafuti, the capital island of Tuvalu, launched the Funafuti Conservation Area Project (FCA).
The Government of Tuvalu and the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) supported the people’s initiative
through the provision of the technical assistance and material resources that the project needed. The project objective was to
conserve the biodiversity of Funafuti atoll through the sustainable use of natural resources for the benefit of the community and
their descendants.

The project conception was developed in the traditional government maneapa after lengthy discussions between the community
elders and officials from the national and regional environment organizations. The designated conservation area covers an oblong
shaped area of 150 square kilometres or one-third of the total lagoon-fringed island. The conservation vision of the maneapa was
based upon the elders’ recollection of the abundance of marine and bird life on Funafuti in the 1950s and 1960s.

Three years after the project was launched, there was a marked increase in the abundance of marine and bird life in the
conservation area. The area was patrolled daily and scientific assessments were carried out by visiting conservation scientists from
SPREP. Offenders of the conservation rules have been dealt with in and according to maneapa rules and also mentioned in
parliamentary exchanges.

In 1997 a Tuvalu Tourism Marketing and Development Action Plan offered the Marine Conservation Area as the cornerstone
for the development of a small-scale eco-tourism business. The project funded SCUBA diving courses with certification to provide
the human resources and interest for a Dive Operation. A Tourist information centre, the Funafuti Interpretative Centre, was
constructed in 1998 and buoys were deployed marking the boundary of the marine reserve. Community workshops discussed
community involvement in resource management, the role of protected areas, and the results of the coral reef baseline survey. A
pamphlet on management practices for the Funafuti Conservation Area was produced in Tuvaluan and English and several radio
talk shows were aired.

The FCA is a success story to the extent that the community has been fully involved in all stages of the project’s planning and
implementation. The conspicuous return to the abundance of marine and bird life that existed thirty years ago has served to
heighten interest and awareness in the benefits and value of conservation. The project is being replicated in other islands in Tuvalu.
Source: 1. SILIGA A. KOFE, ESCAP POC, Port Vila, and Vanuatu
2. UNCED 1992

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Box 5.7 Aquaculture and the Environment in the Republic of Korea

In the Republic of Korea, marine aquaculture expanded rapidly from its start in the mid-1960s such that by 1996 the country’s
aquaculturists produced 538 990 tonnes of seaweed, 306 738 tonnes of molluscs, 11 402 tonnes of finfish and 382 tonnes of crustaceans.
The laver culture is carried out by means of a pole and floating net system, while sea mustard and kelp are cultured by long-line
systems. Molluscs are farmed using a long-line system for oysters and mussels and a bottom planting system for clams and
arkshells. Most of the culture of finfish is carried out in floating net cages, while the culture of prawns is done in embanked ponds.

All aquaculture farms in the country require licensing by municipal authorities. Additionally, all cage culture and other
aquaculture involving more than 1 000 m2 in surface area must be registered with the Ministry of Environment and operated
according to the Aquatic Environment Protection Law. Provisions seeking to minimize the pollution from cage culture include:
the use of low-phosphate foods with a sinking rate that does not exceed 10 per cent within a two-hour period and the installation of
feed fences with a height of 10 cm above the sea surface to prevent the dispersal of food outside the cages. Aquaculturists are also
required to prevent the difference in oxygen levels within and outside the cages exceeding 20 per cent and to remove dead fish
immediately and report incidences of diseased fish to the local fisheries administrations. The use of antibiotics and drugs for the
control of fish diseases is regulated under the Aquatic Environment Protection Law, whilst licensing provisions require that the
seabed under and immediately adjacent to farms is cleaned of debris with dredges more than once every three years.

The Regulations Governing Sanitary Control of Shellfish and their Growing Areas, administered by the Ministry of Maritime
Affairs and Fisheries, provide for the administration of water quality standards and the control of water pollution from aquaculture.
The National Fisheries Research and Development Institute monitors water quality within the shellfish culture areas as well as the
incidence of contaminants in the flesh of the aquaculture products. This entails routine sampling of sanitary indicator bacteria,
nutrient salts (to assess eutrophication levels), pesticides and heavy metals. The median coliform most probable number (MPN) of
the water should be less than 70/100 cm3, and not more than 10 per cent of the samples taken should have an MPN greater than 230/
100 cm3 during the most unfavourable hydrographic and pollutant conditions. The incidence of red tides is also monitored in
association with the early warning of aquaculturists when toxic species are identified.

The Environment Impact Assessment Law requires the preparation of an environmental impact assessment (EIA) prior to the
construction of city and industrial complexes, port development, land reclamation and water resource development. The establishment
of aquaculture ventures is not currently subject to EIA, although this is planned in the near future. The transport of aquatic animals
and plants, including the introduction of new species, the quarantining of imported species and the prevention of infected or
recessive exotic species into Korean waters, are all subject to regulation by the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. Regulations
under the Marine Pollution Control Law provide for government compenzation to aquaculturists in the event of economic loss
owing to abnormal environmental changes such as harmful algae blooms. Compenzation may also be sought from private entities
and public utilities arising from pollution (including oil spills), reclamation and industrial activities.

Major pollution control and abatement measures under way or planned since 1991 include: the classification of coastal areas
according to intended use (fisheries, recreational, agricultural and industrial); the strengthening of water quality standards and the
control of industrial and municipal effluent into coastal waters; a national seawater quality monitoring system (for which 280
sampling sites were designated in 1996); investment in treatment facilities for sewage, industrial wastewater and excretion (for the
equivalent of US$3.1 billion during the period 1992-1996); the requirement to undertake EIA for all coastal development activities;
and the designation of special conservation areas in which most development activities would be prohibited.

These efforts in the Republic of Korea have greatly helped in the promotion of sustainable aquaculture in the country.
Source: Hak Gyoon Kim 1995

Elsewhere within the region, certain states and B. International Initiatives

some NGO’s, including producer groups, have
developed and implemented codes of conduct and 1. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the
practice for particular aspects of aquaculture. Sea (UNCLOS)
Examples include the Code of Practice for Mangrove Amongst its various provisions, UNCLOS
Protection by the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA); provides a legal foundation for the sustainable
the Code of Practice for Australian Prawn Farmers; development of coastal and marine resources. Most
the codes of practice for cage culture of finfish and coastal countries have signed the Convention,
pond culture of shrimp in Malaysia; and guidelines primarily in order that they might benefit from the
for sustainable industrial fish farming (Anon 1997). provisions relating to the national ownership of

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fishing and mining rights extending 200 nautical of the Sea, the London Convention and International
miles from their coasts. Through the allocation of Maritime Organization regulations.
exclusive rights for a large portion of the world’s
oceans, the Convention has curtailed the “free for 3. Support to Coastal Zone Management
all” approach that had previously encouraged In the Asian and Pacific Region, ESCAP, the
maximum capacity exploitation and had prevented International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources
individual nations from implementing conservation Management (ICLARM) and SPREP have been
and resource management strategies. actively involved in the promotion of sustainable
Although the implementation and maintenance coastal management and have prepared a range of
of the UNCLOS provisions has been slow and management guidelines and studies including EIA
problematic, the Convention has fostered the tools for industrial and urban development in coastal
development of national policy and legislation for areas, port infrastructures, tourism development,
protection of the coastal and marine environment. hazardous waste management and industrial
In 1998, for example, Australia became the first pollution control. In addition, UNCED’s Agenda 21
country in the world to establish a national ocean and the FAO (Clark 1992) have provided guidelines
policy and New Zealand is expected to introduce on the integrated management of coastal resources,
similar provisions in the near future (Michaelis 1999). including coastal fisheries (Scura 1994).
To assist with the implementation of the The 1996 International Workshop on Integrated
provisions of the Law of the Sea, the twenty-eighth Coastal Management in Tropical Countries reviewed
session of the FAO Conference formulated a Code of regional progress in the formulation, design,
Conduct for Responsible Fisheries that provided implementation and extension of integrated coastal
guidelines for sustainable fishing activities. The Code management (ICM) and produced a set of Good ICM
of Conduct also recommended a regional approach Practices (IWICM 1996). In addition, there has been
to: (i) the strengthening of scientists’ and recent assessment of the current objectives and
administrators’ capacities; (ii) the development of methods for evaluating internationally funded coastal
timely and reliable fisheries information and statistical management projects (Sorensen 1997).
data as well as the setting up of a regional network; In its efforts to strengthen the capacity of
(iii) research and management considerations for governments, NGO’s and the private sector in coastal
shared or transboundary fish stocks; (iv) the zone management, the FAO has collaborated with a
development of methodologies for stock assessments; range of institutions, including ICLARM, NACA, the
the prevention and control of degradation; and the United Nations Statistics Division, IUCN and other
monitoring of large ecosystems such as the South United Nations agencies sponsoring ICM activities.
China Sea or the Gulf of Thailand (FAO 1999). These international efforts have included pilot project
to test alternative management approaches and the
2. Regional Seas Programme publication of guidelines on managing the
The action-oriented Regional Seas Programme environmental impact of aquaculture. Table 5.8
was established more than 20 years ago and now illustrates the range of regional organizations that
encompasses a large number of discrete regions provide support to the sustainable management of
worldwide, including five regions that include coastal and marine resources within the South Pacific
ESCAP member countries of Asia and the Pacific; subregion.
the East Asian Seas; the North West Pacific; the South
Pacific; the Kuwait region (including the Islamic 4. Control of Pollution from Ships
Republic of Iran); and the Mediterranean Seas Region The control of maritime pollution is primarily
(including Turkey). founded on three international agreements: (i) the
The activities of the individual Regional Seas International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil
Programme are endorsed by each of the member Pollution Damages; (ii) the International Convention
countries and have typically included joint relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of
approaches to environmental assessment and Oil Pollution Casualties; and (iii) The International
management, legislation and institutional and Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution
financial arrangements. National institutions within by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (the London
each of the regions are responsible for implementing Convention). The United Nations International
agreed actions with the main funding being provided Maritime Organization (IMO) administers these
through trust funds provided collectively by the agreements and was responsible for introducing
region’s governments. The long-term goal is the subsequent safety and environmental regulations for
implementation of relevant global environmental the oil tanker industry to prevent ocean dumping,
conventions and other agreements, including the Law ship-based discharges and accidental spills. The new

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rules required double-hulled construction, improved previous decade. This had come about as a result of
cargo handling procedures and more cautious less fishing effort, time and area closures of fishing
operations in port and at sea. As a result, the volume grounds, the use of more selective gear, the utilization
of oil spilled into the oceans has dropped by 60 per of previously discarded by-catch, enforced
cent since 1981, even though the amount of oil prohibitions on discarding and consumer-led actions.
shipped has almost doubled (Zann 1995). Some types of fishing gear, especially long drift
IMO also works closely with a range of other nets, had such extensive and damaging effects on
international and regional organizations in the target and non-target species that they were banned,
development and implementation of new maritime either nationally or regionally. For example, the
pollution control initiatives including the Regional countries of the South Pacific joined together to
Programme for the Prevention and Management of successfully ban long drift nets from the entire South
Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas, a programme Pacific subregion, even on the high seas beyond
to raise the safety standards of small ships, craft and national EEZs (see Chapter 18).
passenger ferries which are not within “Convention Public concern over by-catch of marine
size” and, in conjunction with the ESCAP and with mammals, especially dolphins, resulted in public
funding from the Netherlands, IMO has been boycotts of tuna and the initiation of a “dolphin safe”
conducting workshops on the adoption of the labelling programme. This, in turn, resulted in the
Convention on the Facilitation of International development of purse seines and fishing techniques
Maritime Traffic. that minimized by-catch of dolphins.
IMO’s Pacific programme assists with legal,
port and safety issues related to maritime transport 6. International Conventions on Marine Wetland
and has been focussed on upgrading the South Pacific The only international convention to focus
Maritime Code and on the implementation of the specifically on wetlands is the Convention on
1993 Strategy for the Protection of the Marine Wetlands of International Importance (The RAMSAR
Environment prepared jointly with the South Pacific Convention 1975) (see Chapter 3). Member
Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and the governments undertake to; (i) designate at least one
Marine Division of the South Pacific Forum. wetland for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of
International Importance; (ii) promote wise use of
5. Regulating By-catch wetlands; (iii) consult with each other on
The 1995 United Nations Agreement for the implementation obligations arising from the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Convention, especially, but not exclusively, in the case
Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks seeks to of a shared wetland or water system; (iv) create
minimize pollution, waste, discards, catch by lost or wetland reserves. The Convention fosters
abandoned gear and catch of non-target fish and international cooperation for shared water resources
non-fish species. These objectives were reiterated in and shared species and provided for the
the Plan of Action produced by the International establishment of a Wetland Conservation Fund to
Conference on the Sustainable Contribution of provide assistance to developing countries for
Fisheries to Food Security, held in Kyoto, Japan, in wetland conservation activities. To date, 67 countries
1995 (FAO 1999). have signed the Convention and 66 have ratified it.
The FAO’s Code of Conduct for Responsible There are 106 RAMSAR wetlands in the Asian
Fisheries requires: “States, with relevant groups from and Pacific Region, totalling some 9 698 000 ha.
industry, should encourage the development and Australia, a founding member of RAMSAR, has
implementation of technologies and operational designated 40 wetlands, totaling 4 481 346 ha, under
methods that reduce discards. The use of fishing the Convention. Other countries that have designated
gear and practices that lead to the discarding of catch wetlands under the RAMSAR Convention include
should be discouraged and the use of fishing gear the Islamic Republic of Iran (18 designated wetlands),
and practices that increase survival rates of escaping Japan (nine), Pakistan (nine), India (six), People’s
fish should be promoted. Where selective and Republic of China (six) and New Zealand (five).
environmentally safe fishing gear and practices are The Convention for the Protection of the World
used, they should be recognized and accorded Cultural and Natural Heritage (1975) has designated
priority in establishing conservation and management 36 World Heritage Sites within the region. Of these
measures for fisheries.” (FAO 1999). sites, five are coastal or marine areas: (i) The Great
The Technical Consultation on the Reduction Barrier Reef (Australia); (ii) Fjordland National Park
of Wastage in Fisheries, held in Japan in October 1996, (New Zealand); (iii) Sundarbans National Park
concluded that there had been significant (India); (iv) Lord Howe Island (Australia); and
improvements in reducing discarded by-catch in the (v) Henderson Island (United Kingdom).

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Table 5.8 Regional Organizations for the Sustainability of Coastal and Marine Resources in South Pacific

Primary activities related to marine

Regional Organization and member states and coastal issues

Coastal Zone Pollution Marine Conservation

Management Resource Use

SOPAC The South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission

Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, X X
Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu

SPC – Secretariat of the Pacific Community

Australia, American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, X
Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam,
Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Palau,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu,
Wallis and Futuna

SPF – South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency

Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, X
Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu

SPREP – South Pacific Regional Environment Programme

Australia, American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, X X X
Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam,
Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Palau,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu,
Wallis and Futuna

Source: IWICM 1996

7. Ocean Monitoring rapid access to the world’s knowledge of the ecology,

The International Oceanographic Commission biology and use of fish resources (Froese and Pauly
(IOC) has established the Global Ocean Observing 1997).
System (GOOS) to provide information in support of The revolution in ocean monitoring, combined
oceanic and atmospheric forecasting, ocean and with the facilitation of information exchange over
coastal zone management and research into global the Internet, assists collaboration between developed
environmental change. The system will also serve and undeveloped nations. For example, the Hong
the needs of the Framework Convention on Climate Kong University of Science and Technology initiated
Change, by underpinning the ability to forecast and coordinated a global “Reef Check” project over
changes in climate. the Internet to ascertain the current state of 400 coral
The GOOS also includes an integrated, multi- reefs in over 40 countries. The Internet not only
disciplinary, coastal observing system for detecting helped test and standardize ways to identify and
and predicting change in coastal ecosystems and measure important indices of ocean ecology, but also
environments including eutrophication due to enabled the participation of more scientists, and even
nutrient enrichment, toxic contamination, habitat loss, non-scientists, in the monitoring process.
saltwater intrusion, flooding and storm surges,
harmful algae blooms and sea level rise. CONCLUSION
Databases and sampling methods are gradually
becoming standardized for a wide range of coastal The vulnerable coastal and marine ecosystems
and marine ecosystems. More than 230 ichthyologists of the Asian and Pacific Region provide major
from 54 countries assembled key information on all resources to the region’s peoples supporting a diverse
species of fish in the world into a single “FishBase” and stabilizing natural system. However, the pace
now available on the Internet (www.fishbase.org) and of coastal development and increasing pollution loads
on annually updated CD-ROMs. FishBase eliminates threaten the sustainability of the marine and coastal
confusion over taxonomic identification of species resources and the continued exploitation of the
between scientists from all countries and provides significant reserves of offshore oil and gas provide

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the potential for both economic prosperity and an of marine and coastal resources involving
increased risk of environmental degradation. coordination among national government sectors,
Coastal wetlands, seagrass beds, coral reefs and ministries and departments (fisheries, forestry,
the sea surface microlayer are key habitats that are agriculture, environment, etc.) as part of a
especially vulnerable to physical damage and co-operative network of national, state, and local
chemical pollution. The reproductive cycles of marine management with active participation of the civil
organisms, including finfish, are linked to these key society. Typically, this involves the national
habitats and damage to the habitats reduces the government preparing common guidelines and
ability of fish and invertebrates to withstand fishing standards and then supporting implementation
pressure. Many of the region’s major fishing areas through the provision of technical and financial
are showing signs of overfishing; for example, the assistance to local state, regional or provincial
key species of the Northwest Pacific fishery, the government. Local government then works directly
second largest fishery in the world, are currently with community members to design long-term coastal
fished at maximum capacity, rather than at plans and to establish community supported
sustainable levels, and, as a consequence, stocks are monitoring and enforcement activities. This combines
declining. Although reducing fishing capacity has both top-down and bottom-up elements with a
proved to be a lengthy and politically unfavourable willingness to form mutually advantageous
issue, governments have begun the process by partnerships between all levels of governance. As
reducing fishing subsidies and regulating fishing success depends on an understanding of the
access rights. The South Pacific Tuna Fishery offers biological necessities of maintaining coastal and
a model of international cooperation for open sea marine ecosystems, this approach to integrated
fishing that may prove to be the first sustainable, management is typically supported by an open
multi-national ocean fishery in the world. system of education and communication.
International agreements and treaties calling The control of marine pollution and the
for protection of the marine and coastal environments, establishment of integrated coastal management
such as Agenda 21, the United Nations Convention programmes are legally and institutionally complex
on the Law of the Sea, the FAO Code of Conduct and progress has only been possible through
for Responsible Fisheries, have forged a new international cooperation and, at the local level, the
international awareness of the need for ocean active involvement of key stakeholders and
conservation. Although countries in the region are particularly locally affected communities. Future
making progress in meeting their obligations under programme success will require the evolution
these international agreements, progress is slow and of new mechanisms of open communication and
many countries may find the requirements beyond education to enable partnerships between the civil
their economic or political reach. society and government for the protection and
A new consensus seems to be emerging with sustainable development of the coastal and marine
regard to institutional approaches to the management environment.

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