The Special Learner :Concepts, Needs

and Facilitation Strategies

"Only the brave dare look upon things wliicli can't be explairied easily.. .. ..upon the
things wliicli often engender mistakes.. ...And tlius only tlie brave look upon difference
witliout flincliing."
Adaptation from Richard H.H~tngerford
In the previous units of tliis block, you were acquainted with the concept and theories of
learning, and the factors influencing it in the context of nortnal, average learners. In tliis
unit, tlie focus will be on enabling yo11to understand the exceptional or special learner.
The s t ~ ~ of
d ythe exceptio~ialor special learner is the study of differences, for tliis learner
is different from tlie average leanier in many ways. Let 11stry to understand wlio the
special learner is. Wliat makes himlher so special or exceptional? Is Iielslie really
I~andicappedor cliallenged, suffering froni adisability or living with special abilities? The
current unit seeks to examine and understand exceptio~iallearners in great detail and
also shed light on the teaching - learning strategies specifically designed for tlietn. As
you read through this unit, you will begin to appreciate the importance of knowing about
special leartiers and their context. Altliough you liiay not directly come in contact with
many of tliem, it is itiiportant.for you as part of your knowledge in psycliology to have a
conceptual understanding of them and also an attitude of empathy and concerti for them.
This unit has beeti specially iticluded and designed, keeping these aspects in mind.

Learn irzg o zdtco~tzes

Afterst~tdyingtliis unit, you will be able to
~~nderstand
the concept of special education;
conceptualize the different kinds of exceptional learners;
dcfi~iethe role of the comtiiunity and society in dealing wit11 the special learner;
understand the various teacliing strategies, evaluation criteria and facilitative
tnetliodology for tlie special learner;
relate exceptionality to special needs;
build up a meaningfit1 cogtiitive and attitudinal perspective towards special education.

Special education :issues and trends

Let us begin by trying to find answers to the following questions:
Wliat is this brancli of education that we call 'special'?
Why does it exist?
How does it deal with individuals wlio are exceptional?
By definition, special education is instruction designed for students with disabilities or
gifts arid talents, wlio also have special learning needs. Some of these students have
so tliey need specia1 education provisions to function in
difficulties in formal i~istitutio~is
.,
I n w r r d s [ ndrrstrnding their ~laSSr00nlS.Otllers generally do well in regular c~assrooms.but they also nccd
thc Processes o f Traching
and Lcarning i n Higher special educational provisions to realize their full potential.
Educntion
Students are exceptional when tliey
Meet certain specified criteria of deviation from what is excepted in a regular
classrootn
Require modification of scliool practices or special services to develop to an
optimum level so as to maximi~etheir potential.
Statistically speaking, the probability of exceptionality can be depicted 011 a Norrnal
Probability Curve as shown below :

Figure 1 Normal probality c u w e

In this curve, the shaded portion at +25D and -25D and beyond at either end denotes
exceptionality.
Special educators use these n ~ ~ ~ n e r istandards
cal to define exceptionality, focusing upon
the small percentage of the cases at either end of the curve. Otherwise, common labels
used by professionals to describe physical and behavioral differences include disorder.
disability, and handicap. However, It must be understood that these ternis are not
synonymous. Disorder, the broadest of the terms, refers to a general malfunction of a
mental, physical or psychological process. A disability is more specific than a disorder
and results from loss of physical functioning (e.g. loss of sight) or from difficulty in
learning and social adjustlne~itthat interferes witli normal growth and development. A
handicap is a limitation irriposed upon the individual by tlieenviro~i~nental demands and is
related to the individual's ability to adjust or adapt to thosc demands.
Labeling of i~idividualsis however u~iliealtliyand can cause the persoti to feel unworthy
and be viewed by society as deviant. These i~idividualsoften grow with a poor self
concept atid low self esteem. Since disability is a socially created construct (i.e.,
what is considered as a disability is a matter of social perceptions and values and not
i~ilierelitcharacteristics) it gives rise to unnecessary prejudices and stereotypes.
Consequently, the advocates for people witti disabilities suggest either using different
labels (e.g. visually challenged instead of blind) or doing away witli the labels altogether.
The cotiteniporary view and practice is to use the term challenged to connote
exceptionality or special needs.

History of special education

There have always bee11exceptiotial children, but there have not always been special
educational services to address tlieir needs. In the pre-revolutiona~yera, tlie niost society
had offered children witli disabilities was protection - asyluni from a cruel world into
wliich they did tiot fit in or survive witli dignity. But as tlie ideas of democracy, individual
freedom and egalitarianis111swept USA and France, there was a change in attitudes.
 Political reforms and leaders in medicine and education began to champion the cause of The Special Learner :
Concept Needs and
children and adults with disabilities, urging that these "imperfect" or "incomplete" Strategies
individuals be taught skills that would allow them to become independent and productive
citizens. These humanitarian sentiments went beyond a desire to protect and defend
people witli disabilities. The early leaders sought to normalize exceptional people to the
greatest extent possible and confer upon them the human dignity which they presumably
lacked.
Jean-Marc-Itard (1775-1838) a French physician is the person to whom most people
trace the beginning of special education, as we know it today. He was responsible for
educating Victor - a 12-year-old "hopeless idiot" through systematic and patient educative
procedures. Among the other thinkers who made a mark on special education was Samuel
G. Howe (I 801 -1876) - a social and political reformer who was instrumental in
emancipation of the deaf and blind.
I Special education did not suddenly spring up as a new discipline nor did develop in isolation
with other disciplines. The emergence of psychology, sociology and especially the beginning
of rnerital testing had enonnous irnplications for the growth of Special Education. Moreover,
anthropologists and social workers drew attention to the ways in which exceptional
, children's families and communities responded to them arid affccted their learning and
I adjustment.

Current trends in special education

t The trend towards integration of people with disabilities into the larger society began in
I
tlie 1960s and continues unabated. Much of tlie philosophical rationale for integration
colnes fro111the principle of normalization. Nornialization is a philosopl~icalbelief in
special education which asserts that every individual, even tlie mostdisabled, should have
an educational and living environment as close to norrnal as possible. Two important
movements in tlie drive towards more integration and nor~nalizationhave been de-
institutionalization and the Regular Education Initiative (REI). Started in the 1960s,
De-institutio~ializationis a trend to niove people with disabilities into closer contact with
the community and home, thus acting as a nlajor catalyst for integrating persons with
disabilities into tlie larger society.
I
In the 1980s, the U.S. government began the Regular Education Initiative, a loosely defined
movement that emphasized upon general education rather than special education, to be
& the foci~sfor edi~catingchildren witli special needs along with mainstreaming which is
the practice of placing students with disabilities in general classes and scl~ools,witli their
no11disabled peers, for all or a part of the day and yet identifying them as special
education students. Advocates of RE1 saw mainstreaming as only a half hearted effort
and tlii~scame in tlie era of full inclusion, which contends that all students witli disabilities
slioi~ldbe placed in general education classrooms, living up to tlie Snlamenka spirit of
ed~~cation (witli dignity) for all.
Special education may be provided under a variety of administrative plans. So~iie
exceptional students are served in tlie regular classroom by their regular classroom
teacher, so~netinlesin consultation with other p~.ofessionalssuch as psychologists and
teachers witli &re experiencc. Some are served by an itinerant teacher who moves
from institution to institution, or by a resource person. Sometimes, st~~dcnts are placed
in a cliagnostic perspective center so that their special needs can be determined.
tlospital and ho~neboundinstruction are provided only when the student is unable to go to
regular classes. Finally, the residential school provides educational services and
management ofthe daily living environment for students witli disabilities who must receive
full time care.
The Current trends in tlie education of learners with special needs are presented in figure 2
given below.
 -
Towards Understanding
the Processes o f Teaching
and Learning i n Higher
p z z q
Education (A philosophical belief in special education that all individuals should have an
educational and living environment as close to normal as possible.)

i
[F
De-institutionalization
(A social movement wherein persons (Based on the principle
with disabilities were moved from of normalization)
large asylums or institutions to small
community homes)

~'TiGGq pzzq
('The placement of learners with (A movement in which all
disabilities in general classes for all/ students with disabilities are
part ofthe day yet still identifying placed in general classroom
them as special education students). for the entire day).

Figure 2 Current trends in education of learners with special needs

Let us also try to identify some of the concerns and challenges which teachers and other
significant adults need to address when dealing with special learners. These are presented
as the expectations fro111teachers dealing with special learners i n the figures given below.

Expectations from teachers dealing with special learners

Make maximum effort to accommodate individual students' needs
Evaluate academic abilities and disabilities
Network for further referral
Participate in writing an Individualized Education Plan
Counsel and communicate with parents
Collaborate with otlier professionals in making optimum utilization of exceptional
student's abilities.
Help special learners acquire Life Skills to lead a qi~alitativelyenriched life and
enipower them to beconie fi~llyfunctioning independent citizens.
Figure 3 Showing the concerns for children with special needs
The provisions made by tlie Govern~nentof India are given in figures4 and 5 given below.

@ Setting up of Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) in 1992 by tlie Ministry of

Social Justice and ~ ~ n ~ o w e r ~to<nionitor,
e ~ i t regulate and standardize the training
program for the rehabilitation professionals.
O Setting up various lion governmental organizationsto help individuals with special
needs like Arpan, Tammana, Amar Jyoti, etc., to name a few.
O The Government of India has also undertaken special legislative measures like
the People with Disabilities Act, 1995, to guaranty privileges like better facilities
for education and job opportunities for those in need.

Figure 4 Provisions for Special Education in India

 'Tl~cSpecial I>c;lrner :
VISION 2000 [ ' o n c e p t Neccls aacl
S t r a tcpies
a 1.000 special scliools to be set up in tlie nest 20 yrs.
a Parity i n education oftlie disabled.
a Research should be undertake11to improve the qnality of Special education in
India.
a Provideeqital opportunities to people witli disabilities.

Fignl-e 5 Highlighting maill provisions of Vision 2000, (Document rcleased by

RC I)
Clnss~jicatio~l
of learners wit11 specinl needs
Who is considcred as a learner with special needs'? Learners labeled as exceptional in
toclay's classroom are those witli differential gifts and cliallenges. Given below are
descriptions of some learners, categorized on the basis of their special needs and the
natnre of cliallcnges faced :
Sensory disabilities arc of two types. i) Visi~alimpairmcnts : Tliese individuals have
special learning needs in areas requiring the fi~nctioliali~scofvision.

i i ) I learing impairments : l'liese individuals liave special learning needs in areas reqitiring
tlie fi~nctionalitsc of hearing.

Orthopaedic iml)airments : These individuals have special learning needs in areas

~-cqi~iri~lg
tlie fi~nctionaluse of lia~ids,arms, legs, and other body parts.

Autism :l'liis is a specific development disability that signiticalitly affects communicatioti

and social inleraction.
Learning rlisablity :Tliesc individuals liave special learning needs in areas requiring the
fi~nctiolialuse of speaking. writing and arithmetic skills.
Giftctl and talented : Tliese individuals liavc special learni~igneeds in areas requiring
the fi~nctionaluse of intelligence and artistic ability and creativity.
E ~ ~ ~ o t i o disturbances
nal :These individi~alsliave special learning needs in areas reqi~iritig
the functional use ofsocial and emotional skills.

Specch or language impairmcnts : Tliese individuals liave special learning needs in

areas requiring tlie functional use of language and communication skills.

I n the subsequent sections, some of these categories will be discussed in greater detail.

Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and non-

verbal comnlu~~ication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, tliat
adversely affects educational performance. The word autism comes from tlie Crcek
word autos which means self to indicate tlie extreme sense of isolation and detachment
from the world around them. tliat characterizes tliose individuals who are autistic.

Autism is one oftlie most disruptive cliiIdliood disabilities, resulting in varying degrees of
d c f i c i e ~ ~ ciuy language, interpersonal skills, emotional or affective behavior and
i~~tellectual functioning. It is a disability tliat impairs the nornial development of many
areas of fitnctioning, debated to be caused by genetic factors (Fragile X syndrome) or
damage to tlie central nervous syste~iiin tlie prenatal, or postnatal stages.

Autism is often characterized by irregularities and impairments in communication,

engagement in repetitive activities, stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental
change in daily routine and i~nusualresponses tb sensory experience. I~idividualsmay be
Towards Understanding unresponsive to physical affection, avoid eye contact and avert thin gaze rather than
tlic Processes of Teaching
and Learning in lligher
looking directly at another person. Relating to other people is extremely difficult for thcm,
Education thus they often prefer inanimate objects.
Learning characteristics
Jndividuals with autism are usually not able to generalize already learnt skills to other
settings or topics. They are often impulsive and inconsiste~ltin their responses. Being low
on I.Q. (70 units or less) such children have difficulty with abstract ideas and information
processing and may focus on one or more select stimuli while failing to understand the
general concept.
They etijoy routine tasks and encounter cognitive shifting difficulties in shifting attention
to the next topic.
Alternatively, it is also seen that some iridivid~ralswitli autism seen1 to have relatively long
term memory skills, particularly for factual information.
Strategies for facilitation
Development of an Individual Educational Plan (IEP) tailor made for a specific
individual learner keeping in mind, his needs, and his special requirements.
Promote involvement of the individual in social activities, which enhance
interpersonal interaction like liobby clubs.
Avoid abstract ideas and be as concrete as possible.
Use task analysis i.e. break down a difficult problem into a series of non-complicated
su btasks.
Develop peer assistance programs where older friends can help tutor and model
appropriate behavior for individual witli autism.
Encourage the developlnent of a strong, ongoing, school-parent relationship and
support groups working together to meet the individual needs.
Emotionally, be supportive of the individual. Do not ridicule him and exercise:
patience and empathy; Don't take misbehaviors perso~ially- the individual isn't
trying to make your life difficult.
Concentrate on one behavior as a target for change, work on the positive, increasing
appropriate behavior rather than focusing solely on iriappropriate behavior.
Seek out medical intervention in the form of drugs and medication like tlie use of
anti psychotic drugs etc., which help to reduce self injurious behaviors and unusual
speech patterns.

Visually clzallenged learners

Individuals with visual impairme~itsare generally assigned on a functional basis to two
groups : the partially sighted and tlie blind. Tlie first group co~isistsof those who are
able to use their sight in some way to read (e.g. using special glasses); those classified as
blind are unable to read by means of vision and thereby liave to use their fingers to rea~d
Braille, or liave to use tapes or audio books. From a medico-legal standpoint, individuals
are defined as blind if tlie central visual acuity in the better eye is less than 201200.
Ilidividuals with visual acuity ranging from 201200 to 20170, are defined as partially sighted.
Tlie causal factors for visual impairme~itsmay range froni prenatal factors (like genetic
disorders, infection, etc) to periliatal and post~iatalconiplicatio~is(injury, accident, toxic
inlialatio~ietc). I~idividualswith visual impairment may freque~itlyliave associated problems
lika mental retardation, other sensory defects, motor impairment, learning disability, etc.
1 Read the figure given below which sliows the warning signs for visual problems. The Special [.earner :
Concept Needs and
Strategies
Behavior Appearance

Rubs eyes excessively Crossed eyes

Has difficulty in reading Red-rimmed or swollen eyes
Blinks more frequently than others Inflamed or watery eyes
Holds books close to one's eyes Recurring styes
Squints eyelids together or frowns

Complaints

eyes itch, burn

can't see well
dizziness or nausea following close eye work/headaclies
double vision

I Figure 6 Warning signs for visual problems

1 Most visual problems are the result of errors of refraction. The most co~nlnonvisual
1 impairments are myopia (near siglitedness), hypermetropia (far sightedness) and
astigmatism (blurred vision). Eyeglasses or contact lenses can usually correct these
, problems. More serious impairments include glaucoma, cataracts, diabetic retinopathy
etc., some of wliicli are due to hereditary factors.
1
t Learning characteristics

i Most authorities believe that visual impairment may result in a fey subtle language
i differences, but not deficient language skills. Also, blindness does not result in i~itellectual
i retardation. There are some differences in conceptual developrnent because children
witli visual impairment rely more on touch to learn about tlie world. They also need to be
more vigilant to pick LIP inforniation from tlieir enviroiiment. Research has shown tliat
early training in the use of strategies helps children who are blind, use their sense of
touch more efficiently.
I
d Comparing the academic achievement of students with visual impairment to that of students
who are sighted is difficult because tlie two are tested under different conditions. Evidence
suggests, however, tliat students witli visual impairnient are behind tlidir sighted peers in
r+ achievement.

Personality problems are not an inherent condition of visual impairment. Any social
adji~stmentproble~iisthat students witli visual impairment have are usually due to society's
reaction to blindness. Tlie stereotypic behaviors (e.g., eye pokingand body rocking) exhibited
by a few persons, wlio are blind can be an impediment to social acceptance, but researchers
are working 011 developi~~g tecliniques to di~ninislitheir occurrence.
A vely importa~itability for the successful adjustment of people with visual impairment is
niobility. However, there is no one-to-one relationsliip between the age at onset and the
- degree of visual loss and mobility skills. l'liose wlio are able to concepti~alizetheir
environments as cognitive maps liave better mobility skills than do those who process
tlieir environments seqi~entially,since mobility skills largely depend on spatial ability.
People wlio are blind do not, as is commonly thought, liave an inherent obstacle sense.
But some call develop the ability to detect obstacles by detecting changes in tlie pitches
of echoes as they approach obstacles. Anotlier myth is tliat people who are blind
auto~~iatically develop better acuity in otlier senses. What they actually do is become
adept at picking LIP other sensory cues in tlieir surroundings, thus making better use of '
tlieir intact senses.
Towards Understanding
the o f Teaching Strategies for facilitation
and L e a r n i n g i n l l i g h e r
Education Educational experiences in regular classroo~nsare frequently visual. But with some
modifications, teachers can usually apply tlie same general principles of instruction to
both students with and without visual impairment. Since the mid-1960s there has been a
sharp decline in the use of Braille. Many professionals are now decrying this decrease
because they believe it has led to a high rate of illiteracy. The National Federation of
the Biind has lobbied for Braille bills to increase the availability of Braille and to establish
Braille competency for all teachers of students witli visual impairment. Braille is now also
being recommended for tliose witli low vision as it might worsen over tlie years.
In addition to Braille, large-print books and audio tapes are available. Also, scientists
are developing a number of technological devices; examples are the Optacon, the
Kurzweil Reading Machine, and the PCIKurzweil Personal Reader. Various PC-based
reading machines are becoming available, as well. In order to give mobility training tlie
use of tlie long cane, guide dogs, and electronic devices can be used. Most mobility
instructors recommend the long cane for the majority of individuals wlio are blind. At one
time, mobility i~istructionfor children did not begin until elementary or seco~idaryschool.
Now, most authorities iecommend that mobility instruction slio~~ld begin in preschool.
Educatio~~for the adolescent and adult stresses independent living and employment ski 11s.
Indepe~ldenceis a particularly important area because society often mistakenly treats
people with visual impair~nentas helpless. Many adults with visual impairment are
u~iemployedor overqualified for their jobs. Professio~ialsare attempting to overcome tlie
bleak u~iemploymentpicture by using iririovative approaches.
The four basic educational placements for students witli visual impairment from most to
least segregated, are residential school, special class, resource room, and regular
class with itinerant teacher services. Residential placement, at one time tlie most
popular alternative, is now recommended much less freq~~ently than regular classroo~iis
with itinerant services. Tlie relatively low incidence of visual impairment makes tlie use
of resource rooms and special classroo~iisless practical.
A uditory inzpairment
Individuals witli auditorylliearing impairmelit are also generally classified into two groups.
namely the deaf and tlie hard of hearing. Tlie deaf are tliose individual whose auditory
channel fails to serve as a means of processing speech. Tlie individual wlio is hard of
hearing is one whose auditory cliannel is viable at some level of amplification for receiving
speech. Pre and post natal visual infections (rubella, ~neningitis)and genetic factors are
among the most sig~iifica~it casual factors leading to hearing impairment. Other causes
include toxic agents, and trauma.
l~npairmentof hearing ability can liave a profound effect on people, largely because of
tlie emphasis on spoken language in our society. In tlie past, because they held tlie notion
that language is the equivalent of thought, professionals believed that deafness led to
intellectual inferiority. Researchers now question tlie theory that thought is dependent on
language Furthennore, authorities now recognize that sign language is as true a language
as spoken language. They recommend that people who are deaf be tested in la~igi~age
andlor with non verbal tests of intel Iigence.
Learning characteristics
The academic acliieve~i~ent of students with hearing impairment is very low. Even in
math, their best academic area, they de~no~istrate
severe u~~deracliieve~iie~it.
Several studies
have sliown that individuals who are deaf and liave parents wlio are deaf liave higher
reading achievement than individuals wlio are deaf and liave hearing parents. This is
probably because parents who are deaf are able to co~ii~iii~~iicate
more easily with their
children through sign language.
 Because of problems of finding people with whom to communicate, lear~ierswho are T h e Special Learner :
Concept Nectls r o d
cleaf are at risk for loneliness. Tliis problenl is particularly acute in mainstream settings, in Strategies
whicli there are few stiiderits with liearing i ~ n p a i r ~ i ~witli
e ~ iwlio~n
t to com~nunicateSome
autliorities also believe that students who are deaf. wlio liave hearing parents may
experience more u~iliappinessbecause of tlie difficulty they liave in communicating with
their parents.
On account oftliese problems in communicating witli tlie larger society, Inally people wlio
are deaf socialize almost exclusively witli other-swho have hearing impairlnent. At one
time, many professionals viewed this tendency toward isolatio~ias negative. Today Inore
and more authorities are poi~itiligout the potential benefits of a deaf culture, namely a
I sense of belonging to a group and positive self-image by belonging to the group.
Strategies for facilitation

I For 1na11~ years, there were two basic approaches to teaching students with hearing
impairment: oralism and manualism. Today, most educators of students who are deaf
favour total comnlunication, a blend of oral and manual tecliniques. Most educators
who use total comlliunication stress tlie autlitory-verbal approach, speech reading,
sign systc~nsand finger spelling.
Use of sign language : Proponents of American Sign Language (ASL) argue that it is 21
g~.ammaticallysophisticated, highly evolved larig~~age
of its own. and is of immense
impel-tance in ecl~~cating
the hearing impaired.
Construction of an IEP can lielp tlie learner learn more effectively, adjust better to his
surroundings and empower him to be an independent member of the society.
Numerous tecllnological advances are helping pcrsolls with hearing loss. These
innovations are occurring primarily in the areas of hearing aids, television, telephones,
computer-assisted instruction (CAI), and thc information supcrhighway.(refer to
tlie figure given below)
Students witli hearing impail-ment can be Sound in a variety of settings, ranging from
inclusion in general educatioli classrooms to residential settings.
Various institutions liave been set up by tlie Govern~iientof India to facilitate educational
and employment opportunities for liearing impaired individuals (e.g., National Technical
ll~stitirtefor the Deaf) in order to lielp them overcome these challenges and be fi~lly
assimilated in society.

E-mail : It allows people to communicate witli one another. Deaf people niay
also subscribe to the orili~ielists arid newsgroups devoted to deafiiess along with
a multimedia of different subjects.

WWW : The world wide web allows such individuals acces. to a varirty of
information sources.

Figure 7 information superhighway : a boon for the deaf

-

1,inguistic differentiation

Attitudinal deafness

Wliat makes Behavioral norms

up a deaf Endogamous marriage patterns
culture?
IHistorical awareness

Voluntary organizations / networks

Figure 8 Features of the deaf culture

Towards Understanding Ortlt opaedically clzallenged learners
the Processes o f Teaching
and Learning in Higher
Education In our culture, people are obsessed with their bodies. Everyone wants to be beautiful and
well formed -attractive to others. Its not surprising then that people with disabilities must
fight two battles - the battle to fight their ailments and the battle to be accepted by others.
Individuals with physical disabilities have physical limitations or health problems that
interfere with attendance or learning to such an extent that special services, training,
equipment, materials, or facilities are required. These individuals may also have other
disabilities, such as ~nentalretardation and emotional or behavioral disorders. Even so, the
medical nature ofthe problem highlights the need for interdisciplinary cooperation in special
education. Today, because of advances in medical technology, more individuals with severe
disabilities are surviving and many more are living with disease or injury with mild
impairments, such as hyperactivity and learning disabilities. Technically, orthopaedic
impairments may be defined as impairments caused by congenital anomaly, impairment
caused by disease (polio, bone TB, etc) and impairments from neurological causes
(cerebral palsy, TBI) and musculo skeletal causes.

An increasingly frequent cause of neurological impairment is traumatic brain injury

(TBI), which may range from mild to profound. Medical and educational personnel must
work together as a team to provide transition from the hospital or rehabilitation center to
school. Frequent edi~cationalproblems are focusing or sustaining attention, remembering,
and learning new skills. Emotional, behavioral, and social problems may also be apparent.
Because of its nature, traumatic brain injury became a separate category of disability
under IDEA, in 1990.

Cerebral palsy (CP)-a condition characterized by paralysis, weakness, poor coordination,

and/or other motor dysfi~nctionis yet another widespread problem which accounts for a
majority of individuals with physical impairments. It is no11progressive brain damage that
occurs before or during birth or in early childhood. Classification of CP is generally made
according to the limbs involved and the type of motor disability. The educational problems
associated with CP are varied because of the multiplicity of symptams; a careful cI inical
appraisal must be made of each individual to determine the type of special education
needed.

Recurrent seizures (partial or generalized) caused by abnornial discharges of electrical f

energy in the brain are referred to as epilepsy. Most individuals with seizure disorders
are able to function normally, except when having seizures. However, intelligence is not
directly affected by a seizure disorder, so educational procedures consist chiefly of attaining ,
knowledge of the disorder and how to manage seizures, as well as com~nitmentto help
dispel the ignorance and fear connected with them.

A number of physical disabilities derive from ~nusculoskeletal conditions, in which there

are defects or diseases of the muscles or bones. Individuals with such disabilities have a
range of difficulties in walking, standing, sitting or using their hands. Muscular dystrophy
(one such disease) is a degenerative disease causing a progressive weakening and wasting
away of muscle tissues. Progressive physical i~n~nobility and the prospect of total disability
or death make this condition especially difficult to manage. However, intellectual capacity
is not affected, and with proper motivation and educational procedures, most children
with muscular dystrophy can benefit from regular or special education programmes.
Arthritis is another disease that cause acute inflammation around the joints; its symptoms
vary from mild to profound, and it affects children as well as adults. l'hese and other
rnusculo skeletal conditions do not cause lower intelligence, so educational considerations
include overcoming the child's limited mobility so that he or she can continue learning in
as normal a way as possible.

Individuals with neurological impairments have experienced damage to, or deterioration

of the central nervous system. Their behavioral symptorns include mental retardation,
 learning problems, perceptual-motor dysfunction, paralysis, seizures, and emotional or The Special Learner :
Concept Needs and
behavioral disorders. The causes of neurological impairments include infections, diseases, Strategies
hypoxia, poisoning, congenital malformations, accidents, and child abuse.

Congenital malformations may involve any organ system and may range from minor
to fatal flaws in structure or function. Some malformations are genetic (caused by faulty
chromosomes), but the causes of many remain unknown. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS),
which is now one of the most common causes of malformation and mental retardation, is
caused by the mother's abuse of alcohol during pregnancy.

Accidents that bring about neurological impairment, disfigurement, or amputation are

also an important cause of physical disabilities among children and youths.

Strategies for facilitation

Many physical disabilities, including those that result from accidents, substance use, and
poisoning are fully preventable. Preventing adolescent pregnancies also would reduce
the n'umber of children born with disabilities. Teenage mothers are more likely than older
woman to give birth to premature or low birth weight babies, and the babies of teens,
remain at risk for developing a range of physical and psychological problems when they
reach scliool age.

The reactions ofthe public, family, peers, and educational personnel, as well as the individual's
own reactions to the disability are all closely interwoven in thedetermination ofhis or her
personality, motivation, and progress. Given ample opportunity to develop educationally,
socially and emotionally in as normal a fashion as possible, many individuals with
physical disabilities are able to make healthy adjustments to their impairments. So a healthy
interface between the teacher, parent and the community is needed.
Many individuals with physical disabilities use prosthetics, orthotics, and other adaptive
devices to improve functioning. A prosthesis replaces a missing body part. An adaptive
device aids a person's daily activity. Important considerations to be made in choosing
prostheses, orthoses, and adaptive devices are simplicity, reliability, and the use of residual
function.
Education for students with physical disabilities must focus on making the most oftheir
assets. The student's individual characteristics (intellectual, sensory, physical, and
emotional) must be considered when developing educational plans. Plans for young adults
? must include services for the family.
I Along with scholastic education, the individual may need special assistrnce in daily
I living, mobility, and occupational skills. Consequently, many other disciplines may be
involved. The major considerations are to help each individual become as independent
arid self-sufficient in daily activities as possible, to provide basic academic skills, and to
prepare him or her for advanced education and work.
Career choice and sexuality are two primary concerns of youth with physical disabilities.
Career considerations must include careful evaluation of the young person's intellectual,
emotional and motivational characteristics, as well as physical capabilities. Young people
with physical disabilitieshave the right to social relationshipsand modes of sexlial expression
afforded to others in society.
Academically cltallenged learners
These are those individuals, who have difficulties remaining in the mainstream,
unless the curriculum and pedagogy is modified for them. They include.
Slow learners,
Under achievers and
Lear~iingdisabled.
Towards Understanding Let us now study about them in greater detail.
the Processes o f Teaching
and Learning in Higher
Education
Slow learners
The slow learner is distinct from the mentally handicapped learner though he is often
mistaken for it. A slow learner is an individual whose mental ability is high enough to
justify keeping him in the regular classroom but low enough to give him considerable
difficulty in keeping up with the average speed of the class. His I.Q. range falls into the
70-90 range, making him a border line case.
Characteristics of slow learners
Slow learners, because of their mental slowness sither ask too many questions or withdraw
completely from academic activities. They also become social isolates as their peers find
them dull and boring. Slow learners, research has indicated, are slow in practically all
aspects of development. They verbalize information in a diffuse manner, have poor co-
ordination and get poor grades. They tend to lack self-reliance and their physical and
social development is also inferior to that of their peers.
Strategies for facilitation
DeveIopment of an IEP for the individual based upon complete information gathered by
the teacher is warranted. In fact, mainstreaming or integrating the individual in all
other activities except academic activities is found to be beneficial.
The slow learner has difficulty in generalizing and transferring information from one
lesson to another, thus if task analysis is used i.e. the subject matter to be learnt is
broken down into small units and presented sequentially, it facilitates learning.
Furthermore, the individual's mental age rather than his I.Q. should be used to plail a
special curriculum for him. The M.A. (mental age) allows us to know the age level at
which the individual is operating intellectually.
The attitudinal acceptance of the teacher is a must. The teacher must realize that this
mental insufficiency is not his fault. Similarly many of the problems that be manifests
behaviarally result from his compensation for his disability.
Teachers should also help the individual's peers to accept him. Together they have to
learn to lay emphasis on what the individual can do and not upon what he can't do.
Use of criterion - referenced evaluation, coupled with innovative teacl~ing
methodology keeps the child motivated and eager to learn. Provision of remedial
teaching or special coaching to the slow learner helps him a great deal.

Underachiever
Broadly speaking, underachievement is defined as a large discrepancy between the
child's performance (at school) and his innate ability. When a child with a high 1.Q.
level is performing poorly, he is said to be an underachiever. Similarly a child who is
average intellectually, but whose performance is below average is also said to be an
i~nderachiever.

Ability > Performance

The equation of u~iderachievement
Learner characteristics
Research studies and teachers' observations indicate that underachievers lack clear goals,
and values. They lack motivation, they are uninterested in work, have poor study habits,
lack concentration, tend to day dream, fail to complete assignments in time, are unable to
have consistent and dependable interpersonal relationships and may compensate for their
inadequacy by being aggressive or timid.
r1
i
Strategies for facilitation T h e Special Learner :
Concept Needs and
3 It is usually seen that an emotional reason underlies underacliievement, thus such an Strategies

individual needs love, patience and care. Individualized attention and counseling has
to be given to this child in order that lie verbalizes his feelings and instills a sense of
security aiid self worth in himself.
A healthy aiid conducive classroom atmosphere should be created which doesn't impose
on or make excessive demands on the student - which gives him freedom to explore and
space to grow and develop into afully functioning individual.
Cognitive restructuring strategies can be used successfully with these students like
count your blessings, thought stopping, negotiation etc.
Lenrrlitrg disabled
I n tlie early 1960s, parents and professionals advocated a new category of special
education - learni~igdisabilities, to describe individuals who, in spite of normal or near
nonnal ititel ligence, have a puzzling array of leanling problems. What prompted the creation
of this area was the realization that niany children with learning problems were not
receiving the needed educational services. The three niost common factors in the definition
of learning disabilities are
IQ-achievement discrepancy,
presumption of central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction,
psychological processing problems, not due to environmental disadvantage, mental
retardation, or e~notio~ial
disturbance.
TheNational Joint Con~~nittee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) made up of representatives
of several professiotlal organization, has issued an alternative definition :
Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders,
~ilanifestedby significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening,speaking, reading,
writing, reasoni~igor lnatlielnatical abilities. Tliese disorders are intrinsic to tlie individual,
presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfuilction and may occur across the life
span. Altliougli learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with otlier lialidicapping
co~iditions,they are not the result of those conditions.
Tlie prevalerice of students identified as learliing disabled has increased dramatically,
more than doubled since 1976-1977. Some believe this growth indicates tliat teachers are
too quick to label students as learliing disabled; otliers argue tliat social-cultural factors
(e.g., increased poverty, increased stress on families) have contributed to tlie growth of
learning disabilities. Boys out number girls in tlie learning disabilities category by tliree is
to one.
Causal factors for learning disabilities fall into organic and biological, genetic, and
environment related categories. More and more evidence is accumulatirig that marly
persolis with learning disabilities have CNS dysfutlctioll. Also, evidence is accruing that
some cases of learning disabilities are attributable to genetic factors. Environmental causes
have been more difficult to pinpoint, although some professionals believe that poor teaching
can lead to learning disabilities.
Practitio~iersuse tests of four general types to access students with learning disabilities:
standardized achievement tests, informal reading inventories, formative
evaluation measures, and authentic assessment. Curriculum-based assessment
is one such type of for~iiativeevaluation while authentic assessment methods, such as
portfolios, evaluate students' critical-tlii~iking and problem-solving abilities in real-life
situations, ofleli help in identificatio~iof learning disabled.
Towards Understanding
the Processes of Teaching Learning characteristics
and Learning in Higher [
Education Persons with learning disabilities exhibit a great deal of inter-and int~aindividual variation
1
in their psychological and behavioral characteristics. The inter individual variation is reflected
in the heterogeneity ofthis population. Intra individual variation means that persons with
learningdisabilitiesoften have uneven profiles ofabilities. if
Academic deficits are the hallmarks of learningdisabilities. Reading disabilities are often
related to poor phonological skills. Students with learning disabilitiescan also have proble~ns
in written or spoken language and math.
Some bersons with learning disabilities have problems in perceptual-motor, or general
coordination. Research has not documented the claim of early tlieorists that training in
these skills would help resolve reading problems.
Between one-third and one-fifth children with learning disabi lities have a liiglier prevalence
of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There has been considerable
controversy over whether the federal government should recognize ADHD as a separat~
category or whether the needs of students with attention deficits wlio have educational
problems are met by existingcategories such as learning disabilities. It is now recognized
that ADHD can continue into adulthood.
Many individuals witli learning disabilities also denionstrate memory deficits. They have
cognitive problems that lead to a disorganization and metacog~iitiveproblems that interfere
with their awareness of learning strategies and tlie ability to regulate their use.
Persons with learning disabilities tend to be rejected by their peers and to have poor self-
concept. In addition, they can have motivational problems as demonstrated by an external
locus of control and learned helplessness.
Some experts believe that a composite of many of the preceding cliaracteristics indicate
that many students witli learning disabilities are passive rather tlian active learners. Many
of their problems, such as a prope~isityto have problenis with homework, may be due to
this inactive approacli of leaming.
Strategies for facilitation
Educational methods for alleviating the academic problems of students with learning
disabilities include cognitive training and direct instruction.
Cognitive training focuses on (1) changing thougllt processes, (2) providing strategies
for learning, and (3) teaching self-initiative. Self-instruction, inne~iionickeyword method,
and scaffolded instruction, are all examples of cognitive training.
Direct instruction focuses even more directly on academics than does cognitive training.
It concentrates on instructiorial processes and a systematic analysis of tlie coiicept to be
taught, rather than on cllaracteristics of tlie student.
Methods for the attention problems of students with learning disabilities are structure
and stimulus reduction, behavior modification, cognitive training, and medication.
A structured and stimulus reduction approach, e~npliasizesa highly teacher-directed
approach combined with a reduction in extraneous simulation. I n beliavior modification,
the student's attention is rewarded and his or her inatte~itionis ignored or punished.
Cognitive training for attention proble~nsass~~mes that students can regulate their impulsive
and inattentive behavior, by thinking about their beliavior more carefully. An example ofa
cognitive training technique for attention problems, is self-monitoring, self-evaluation
and self-recording of 'on-and-off' task beliavior.
Medication can be highly effective for i~icreasiiigtlie concentratio~iof persons with
ADHD, including adults. Because tlie medication is powerful, with some possible side
effects, teachers, parents, and physicians need to work together to monitor its effects.
 The resource room is the most common placement for students with learning disabilities. The Special Learner :
Concept Needs and
Cooperative teaching, in which regular and special education teachers work together Strategies
in the regular classroom, is gaining in popularity. Students with learning disabilities are
often seen as the most likely candidates for full-inclusion programmes, although many
professionals and parent organizations have resisted overuse of this approach.

Exceptionality and the family

Nowhere is the impact ofchild who is exceptional felt more than in the family ofwhich he
is a part. The birth of an infant with disabilities may alter the family as a social unit in a
I variety of ways. Family and the society at large react with shock, disappointment, guilt,
anger and even depression, further debilitating the individual by making him feel unwanted
and uncared for. Family being the most important institution in one's life can help provide
him with an emotional insulation -a buffer to safeguard his self concept and enable him
to reach above, realize his potential and touch the stars as it were..
REACTIONS INTERVENTIONS
-

Shock, disbelief and denial Empathic understanding + active

listening
1
Anger and resentment
1
Open communication

1
Bargaining
1
Positive parent- child relationship

1
Depression and discouragement
1
Honest acceptance

1
Acceptance
1
Encourage comfort from other parents

1
Awareness at a societal level
6
I
Figure 9 Potential parent reactions to exceptional children and possible
interventions
Interventions in the social support system of an exception?l individual aim to provide a
IV. network with professionals who train them, enhance the care giving capacity ofthe family,
I
bring about attitude reconstruction ofthe extended family, concerned neighbors and friends,
deal effectively with the stresses of having an exceptional individual in the family and
develop a support network with better quality of life for all family members.

Current family intervention practitioners advocate a family focussed or family centered

approach in which the professionalswork for families helping them to obtain nonprofessional
(friends and families) as well as general sources of support. Two educational approaches
for families to consider are :

Family systems approach : This model suggests that the disability as well as the impact
ofthe family on the individual are determined by the complex interaction between factors
such as the type of problem, severity ofthe problem faced, socio economic and educational
' status of the family, emotional stability of the family, psychological hardiness and
collesiveness of the family, determine how the family dedls with the disability.

The social support systems approach : It stresses the importance of broader societal
influence on family functioning. It emphasizes the role of informal sources of social support
like extended family, religious groups, friends and neigllbors upon family dynamics.
Towards Understanding A particularly effective social support is that of parent support groups -groups made
the Processes o f Teaching
and Learning i n Higher up of parents who have children with similar disabilities. Today, the Internet has also
Education grown into an excellent resource for parents as well. A social systems program is built on
the assumption that its better to enable families to help themselves than to provide only
direct services to them.

Yet another approach to dealing with exceptionality in the family is the IFSP or the
individualized family service plan - a plan for services for young children
with disabilities under three years of age and their families drawn up conjointly by
professionals and parents. It is similar to an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) for
older children.

Enhancing the care giving capacity of the family.

Giving parents and other family members respite from the demands of caring for
the individual with a disability.

Assisting the family with persistent financial demands related to the individuals
disability.

Providingvaluable training to families concerned, neighbours and friends.

Improving the quality of life for all members ofthe family.

Figure 10 Goals of family support system

Summary
Some individuals in one or more ways are different from the normal, average individuals,
who account for most of our population, thus making them 'special' owing to their I
differential needs. Special education seeks to provide specially designed instruction to tI
meet the unusual needs of an 'exceptional' learner using specially designed materials,
teaching techniques and facilities. An ongoing attempt is made to align special education i
into the mainstream, highlighting integration and enhancing inclusion of such children into
the larger society. rl

This unit also showcases the different types / categories of special needs' learners like
visually challenged, academicallychallenged etc. and spells out their defining characteristics
and facilitation provisions.

The role of the family, as it tries to deal with the exceptionality of a child is of immense
importance. The attitude of the family determines whether exceptionality is seen as
stressful and humiliating, or a potential to be realized or a challenge to be overcome. As
is rightly said - Its All in the Mind that matters.

Unit. end exercises

1. Imagine that you are a teacher working with a visually challenged learner. What
decisions would you make for this individual to be successful ? What instruction and
strategies would you use ?

2. Interview a special learner. Ask him about his experiences in college and society.
Draw up a list of attitudes which need reconstruction.

3. Classify the following as myths or facts regarding special education and give reasons
for your argument :
 People witli disabilities are just like everyone else. T h e Special Learner :
Concept Needs and
Strategies
Mainstreaming is effective for special learners and special classes are
ineffective.

Deafness is not as severe a disability as blindness.

Parents are to be blamed for many of tlie proble~nsof their children witli
disabilities.

All cliildren witli Learning disabilities are brain damaged.

Children with AIDS do not fall in tlie category of special learners.

+

Suggested readings
Hallahan, D.P.; Kauffinan, J.M. (1997) Exceptional Learners - An Ititroduction to
Special Education, (71h Edition), Bosto~i: AIlyn and Bacon.
Hardman, M.L., and Drew, C.L. (1996) Human Exceptionality Society, School and
Farrtily, (5'hEdition),Bosto~i: Ally11and Bacon.
Ranganatlian, N . (2000) The Primary School Child : Development and Educufion,
(ISt Editioi~),NewDelhi : Orient Longman.
Yesseldyke, J.E.; Alozzine, B. (1 998) Special Education :A Practical Approach for
Teachel; (1" Edition), New Dellii : Kanishka Publishers.