HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

➢ It is a process of learning through physical activities

SPORT

➢ It is designed to improve fitness, develop motor skills, knowledge and behaviour of healthy and active
living
➢ In ancient Greece, it was the responsibility of the state to educate every child

History of P.E in Sparta

➢ In Sparta, the state had full control of every new born baby
➢ Children born with disabilities were exposed to harsh weather conditions in the mountains and left there
to die.
➢ Boys stayed at home up to the age of 7 years, doing state monitored activities
➢ At 8 years they were assigned to the state-operated training institutes where they were trained strictly in
war and state tasks
➢ They were trained in the gymnasium, the training was meant to groom qualities of soldiers in every boy
child
➢ School was very painful and hard as it involved brutal training
➢ At the age of 18, the boy joined another group for military training up to 20 years
➢ After military training, a vow was made to serve the state up to 30 years upon passing a fitness test that
tested military ability and leadership skills
➢ None was allowed to get married during the period of service to the state
➢ The girl child stayed with parents from birth to 20 years doing household chores and taught other
activities meant to make them strong so that they can bear strong children
➢ Sometimes girls were given the same training as boys and sometimes did gymnastics, wrestling and
combat skills together
➢ Strengthening the body and preparing for war was their main priority in accordance with the military
character of Spartan state
➢ At the age of 18 girls went for fitness test. If one passes the test a husband would be assigned to her
➢ Spartan education provided an extremely paternalistic education, which provides the attributes of
courage, complete obedience and physical perfection
➢ In Sparta the most important attributes were discipline, military proficiency, strictness and absolute
obedience
➢ The most prominent activity being girls and boys doing gymnastics
➢ Although physical training and music education were included, reading writing and arithmetic were barely
included in Spartan education

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History of P.E in Athens

➢ Athenian education was democratic

➢ Athens had an advanced trade and industry
➢ Parents had a contribution to the education of their children
➢ They were two groups of training i.e. one group was trained in military tactics and the other group did
other courses to improve communication for trade, as well as military training
➢ Learning was given great importance so as to match other trading state
➢ Their education system focused on grammar to improve communication skills for trade, music education,
arithmetic, gymnastics training in Palestrae
➢ A palestrae was a building used for training, which were built and controlled by the state
➢ Athenians education insisted on the aesthetic and emotional aspect of education resulting in the best
artworks of the ancient world being created in this country
➢ Physical education became common in the curricular of the renaissance than years before
➢ Boys were taught by their mothers up to 6 years. Primary education started at the age of 6 to 14 years
➢ Military training started from 18 years for army or navy
➢ Boys practiced wrestling, jumping, running, throwing discus and they played hockey.
➢ Girls were initially taught at home by their mothers, they learnt motherhood and housekeeping skills
➢ Girls were not allowed to part in sports like wrestling and their parents felt if they learnt to read they
would be spoiled

➢ In the ancient world the greatest success an athlete could achieve was to win the Olympiad crown and
this crown was won when one came out first in the Olympic Games
➢ The Olympic Games were held every four years for a thousand years from 776 BC until 393 AD in honour
of god Zeus
➢ In Olympic Games rewards were symbolic
➢ In ancient Greece, the Hera Games were organised for women and took place every four years
➢ The Heraean Games were the first recorded sporting competitions for women, held in Olympia as early
as the 6th century
➢ Only young girls, not married women, were allowed to participate in these competitions. The girls were
rarely married before the age of twenty
➢ Physical beauty did not refer just to the external appearance, it also referred to mental health
➢ To achieve the ideal athlete three conditions were required which were nobility, correct behaviour and
careful teaching
➢ The children were prepared for various sport competitions under the supervision of a paidotribes
➢ A paidotribes was a physical education teacher. He carried a forked stick as a symbol of his power to
inflict punishment on boys who misbehaved. The boys in Athens exercised naked
➢ They learnt horse riding, long jumping, discus, javelin throwing, running, wrestling and boxing
➢ The aim of sports was to strengthen and develop the body
➢ The Olympic Games had an important of uniting the ancient Greeks culturally, but this ended when the
games were banned by Emperor Theodosius 1st in 393-4 A.D

History of P.E in ROME

➢ For Romans, body movements served the purpose of preparation for war and the military.
➢ Roman youth received physical training as war exercises
➢ Activities suitable for Romans’ war ambitions were used to create their ideal human type who was a
strong, hugely muscled man

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➢ The Romans had a special need for spectator orientated activities, such as chariot racing at the circuses
and gladiatorial battles in the amphitheatres
➢ The education system was “scholastic”. During this age women were excluded and physical activities
were out in the name of recreation not sport
➢ The purpose of the education system was to raise a good citizen such that each person had a skilled,
righteous and steady character
➢ Physical training was provided in addition to courses such as mythology, history, geography,
jurisprudence, arithmetic, geometry and philosophy
➢ The training was provided in Grammar schools, where basic teaching covered the seven free arts
➢ History of sport
➢ Military training involved vigorous exercises meant to strengthen the body
➢ They also believed in a strong body as well as a sound mind
➢ In Egypt wrestling and weight lifting were part of their lives
➢ The Egyptions also took part in long jump, javelin throwing, high jump, discus, boxing, archery, camping,
wrestling, horse riding, swimming, rowing, shooting, fishing and athletics
➢ Various ball games were also well-developed and regulated in ancient Egypt
➢ In Africa sport was part of life
➢ People have always been walking, running, throwing things
➢ Team sports may have developed to train and to prove the capability to fight and also to work as a team
(army)
➢ The history of sport can teach us about social changes and about the nature of sport itself
➢ In Zimbabwe, modern activities came as a result of the colonisation as well as movements by soldiers who
were using the activities for the military training
➢ The games at Olympia were established according to tradition in the year 776 BC and were held every
four years.
➢ At the beginning this was a one-day athletic meeting with a single competitive event
➢ The entire day was taken up with heats for a running race
➢ In later years more events were added to the schedule, events like discus throw, javelin throw, long jump,
boxing, wrestling, chariots, horse racing, and a challenge to test all-round ability, the pentathlon
➢ The pentathlon actually started with contest in four events which were running, jumping, throwing the
discus and the javelin
➢ The winners from these encounters have to meet in fifth and exclusive contest, wrestling.
➢ The winner received a simple token of their victory, garland of fresh olive to wear on the head. There was
no second place
➢ The winners were called Olympionics
➢ There were separate men’s and boy’s division for the events
➢ Women were not allowed to compete in the games themselves
➢ Peasant workers had their own types of sport they took part in whilst the working class had their own
➢ In schools’ sport was limited largely to drills and gymnastics
➢ Football continued to increase popularity and by 1930s, it was the most popular sporting activity
➢ There was also little government involvement in sport, apart from physical education in schools
➢ Sport has become a way of life as well as a well-paying career to talented athletes

History of sport in Africa

a) Ngolo and Capoeira – capoeira is a popular Afro – Brazilian sport that combines elements of dance,
martial arts and music
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b) Senegalese Wrestling ( laamb) – the sport began as recreation for fisherman and farmers
c) Donkey raccing – this sport requires a great amount of skill, when racing with well-trained donkeys
without saddles. it is popular in Kenya
d) Dambe boxing – this type of boxing was mainly practiced in Nigeria
The dorminant hand of the fighter is wrapped with rope and dipped in resin and shards of glass before
the practice was banned
The contestant’s goal is to strike his opponents with punches and kicks until he drops to the floor, known
as killing over the course of three rounds
e) Nguni stick fighting – this martial art has been among the pastimes of teenage Nguni herders of South
Africa for a long time
It’s a stick battle that can last up to five hours where the opponents take turns at playing offense and
defence, scoring points based on which part is struck
Despite being banned in parts of South Africa, it’s still played in some townships to this day
f) Savika
g) Ta kurtom el mahag

Questions
1. Define physical education
2. Define sports
3. Give any 3 benefits of physical education
4. What are the major two cities of Greece practiced ancient physical education
5. In ancient Greece who took part in the Hera Games
6. A paidotribe in ancient Greece referred to…………………
7. In sports history a ……………….. event included running , jumping, throwing discus and javelin. A. pentathlon
B. decathlon C. triathlon D. heptathlon
8. Dambe boxing is an African traditional game which originated in which country?
9. ………………. was a kind of martial arts common in the herders of South Africa A. Nguni stick fighting B.
donkey racing C. capoeira D. savika
10. The Olympic Games were once banned by ………. A. god Zeus B. Romans C. Emperor Theodosius 1 D.
Emperor Theodosius ii
11. An international ………….. among the Greeks was declared to enable athletes to travel safely. A. agreement
B. consensus C. truce D. census
12. The …………….. was a special building within the ancient gymnasium were wrestling and physical training
were practiced A. paidiotribe B. gymn C. palaestra D. Olympia
13. List the events which make up a Pentathlon
14. The first ancient Olympics were done in which year
15. Give 4 physical activities which were done in ancient Egypt
16. The Romans had a special need for………………….. activities
17. Fill in the table below showing the differences between the two cities
Sparta Athens

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NUTRITION, DIET AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Nutrition

➢ It is the intake of food, considered in relation to the body’s dietary needs.

➢ Good nutrition consists of an adequate, well balanced diet.
➢ It is the intake of adequate food, containing the essential nutrients, to satisfy the body’s dietary needs

Diet

➢ It is the kind and amount of food prescribed for a person or animal for a special reason
➢ It could be to gain, loose or maintain a certain weight.
➢ Dietary requirements for an individual can be affected by age, sex and activity
➢ A good diet supports intensive training through the provision of fuel needed to work.

A balanced diet

➢ It is the consumption of the right nutrients in their correct quantities.

Weight control

➢ It is the management of one’s weight, owing to a healthy lifestyle.

How to control one’s weight

• Having a meal plan will help in weight control.

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 • Knowing what to eat before, during and after an activity.
• Regular exercises –having at least 30 minutes a day, five days a week
• Eating foods highly in fibres as fruits, vegetables, lean foods etc
• Monitors calories intake versus calories output.
• Knowledge of one’s BMI (body mass index) is essential in order to maintain it at acceptable levels

Physical performance

➢ This refers to participation in physical activities.

➢ It enhances physical fitness and a reliable way to maintain and control weight

Nutrients

➢ It is any substance that can be metabolized by animals to give energy and build tissue
➢ For the body to perform well it needs the following nutrients:
i) Carbohydrates i v) Mineral salts vii) fats
ii) Vitamins v) Roughage
iii) Proteins vi) Water
➢ All of the above nutrients are required by the body to enable it to function well and to withstand the
demands of physical activity.
➢ The amounts of each food group are also determined by the nature of the activity to be done
1. Carbohydrates
✓ These are the body’s main source of fuel.
✓ They provide the energy to all cells in the body, required for physical activity
✓ They are found in starches, fibres and sugars.
✓ They are energy givers
✓ They supply the muscles with the fuel required to meet the stress posed by training and competition
✓ Food rich in carbohydrates are sadza, rice, potatoes, bread etc
2. Vitamins
✓ They are required by the body to regulate internal chemical reactions.
✓ They protect the body against diseases
✓ Vitamins can be classified into water soluble and fat-soluble
✓ Water soluble vitamins are…….vitamin B-complex and vitamin C
✓ Fat-soluble vitamins are……vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K
Vitamin Found in Why is it needed
Vitamin A Fats, milk, eggs, cheese, Eyesight, healthy skin
vegetables
Vitamin C Fruit( citrus fruits) and vegetables Healthy teeth and gums, avoiding
scurvy
Vitamin B1 Whole grain foods, nuts and meat Breaking down carbohydrates
Vitamin D Animal products. Also made in the Absorbing calcium and
body when the sun shines on the phosphorus, avoiding rickets
skin

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Vitamin C

✓ Its chemical name is ascorbic acids.

✓ It also increases the resistance of our body to infection and help fight diseases
✓ It is a water soluble vitamin

Vitamin D

✓ Its chemical name is calciferol.

✓ It is responsible for normal growth of bones and teeth because it increases absorption of calcium and
phosphorus into the body
✓ It is a fat-soluble vitamin

Vitamin E

✓ Its chemical name is tocopherol.

✓ It responsible for normal functioning of muscles and protection of liver
✓ The sources are green leafy vegetables, milk, butter, tomatoes and wheat germ oil.
✓ It is a fat-soluble vitamin

Vitamin K

✓ It is responsible for the clotting of blood and preventing haemorrhage.

✓ Haemorrhage is a serious bleeding inside a person’s body
✓ The sources are green leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage, tomatoes and soybeans
✓ It is a fat-soluble vitamin

3. Proteins
✓ They are responsible for repairing worn out tissues and tissue growth and maintenance.
✓ They also provide antibodies to protect the body
✓ The sources are meat, milk, eggs, beans
4. Fats
✓ It helps the body to maintain its core temperature and provide future energy.
✓ It contains the fat soluble vitamin such as A, D and E
✓ Excessive intake of fats can result in obesity.
✓ They provide warmth to the body
✓ The sources are butter, milk, eggs, cooking oils, fatty meat/ food
✓ They are also used for energy, but only when stores of carbohydrates run low
✓ Fats supply energy we need for endurance activities
5. Mineral salts
✓ They maintain the correct balance of body fluids and also facilitate homeostasis
✓ Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant body temperature
✓ E.gs. of minerals are calcium, zinc, iodine and iron
✓ They help in the formation of strong bones and teeth
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 mineral Found in Why is it needed
Calcium Vegetable products, dried fish, Keeping bones and teeth hard
dairy products
Iron Red meat, liver, beans, lentils, Making blood , preventing
green vegetables tiredness and anaemia
Iodine Seafood and dairy products Maintaining the thyroid gland

6. Roughage
✓ It is also significant for swift bowel movements in athletes
✓ It is not food and it does not give anything to the body like other nutrients do but it is important
✓ The sources are salad, fruits with a skin, vegetables like cabbage
✓ It helps in digestion
7. Water
✓ It assists in regulating body temperature through sweat and it is a key to rehydration.
✓ It also assist with the efficiency of metabolism
✓ The sources are drinking it as it is, milk, tea, coffee, watery fruits

Anorexia nervosa

➢ It is a serious disorder in eating behavior primarily of young women in their teens and early twenties that
is characterized especially by a pathological fear of weight gain leading to faulty eating patterns,
malnutrition and usually excessive weight loss
➢ -A self-induced aversion to eating or excessive dieting.
➢ -It affects more females than males
➢ -It can be triggered by inability to adjust to adulthood and severe emotional upset.
➢ -They are incapable of eating and become extremely underweight.
➢ -It is extremely important to realize that slimming is designed only to lose excess weight, and once this
has been achieved, and maintained through a sensible dieting and or exercise, then normal eating habits
should be resumed.

Bulimia nervosa

Obesity
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➢ It is a condition characterized by the excessive accumulation and storage of fat in the body.
➢ It also refers to a state of being overweight

QUESTIONS

1. What is a balanced diet?

2. Define the following terms. a) diet b) nutrition

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3. Energy from carbohydrates is converted to a substance called……… A. kilojoules B. glycogen C.
kilocalories D. calories
4. Calcium helps an athlete by…….. A. strong bones and teeth B. strong muscles C. good eyesight D. long
hair
5. Which vitamin do we get when our body is exposed to sunlight?
6. Describe the importance of the following in maintaining health i) fibre ii) water iii) minerals iv) vitamins
7. What is glycogen?
8. Which of the following food constituent is responsible for the repair and maintenance of worn out
tissues? A. minerals B. fats C. proteins D. vitamins
9. Starches and sugars belong to which food group?
10. Define weight control
11. List the seven essential nutrients that should make up an athlete’s diet [7]
12. State any five practical ways of weight control [5]
13. Explain briefly how exercise can be useful in weight management [5]
14. Calculate your BMI

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EXERCISE AND FITNESS
➢ Exercise is the activity of exerting your muscles in various ways to keep fit
➢ It also refers to any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness, overall health and wellness.

Types of exercises

1. Aerobic exercise – it means doing exercises with oxygen e.g. brisk walking, swimming, basketball,
jogging, soccer and also cycling.
- Regular aerobic workouts improve the efficiency of the cardio-respiratory system.
- This will enable the heart and the lungs to withstand the body’s demands for freshly oxygenated blood.
- Aerobic exercise also affects body weight composition, by burning excess calories.
2. Anaerobic exercise – this means performing exercises without oxygen.
- These exercises increases increase the force your muscle contractions can generate.
- Weight lifting, sprinting and plyometrics are examples of anaerobic exercise.
- Strength training will be developing muscle strength and muscle endurance.
3. Flexibility exercise – they enhance the range of motion of your muscle and joint movements.
- Stretching and yoga poses are forms of flexibility exercises.
4. Stability exercise – they help improve your ability to maintain body alignment while resisting unwanted
bone and joint movements.
- Balance and agility training include stability exercises.

Why do we exercise?

• Weight loss and maintenance

• Enjoyment
• Strengthening muscles and the cardio vascular system
• To boost fitness level
• Reduce body fat
• Keeps bones strong
• Minimize chances of getting injured in sport

Benefits of exercise

• Exercise lowers the risk of such conditions like diabetes, heart disease among others
• It adds years to your life and your life expectancy increases.
• It protects and strengthens bones as it an ideal way of building bone density and reduce the risk of
fractures
• It helps to boost fertility
• It improves self-esteem
• Helps you deal with stress and anxiety

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 • It helps you sleep well
• Makes young look younger
• Exercise blasts excess fat.
• It can help cure irritable bowel movement
• It prevent insomnia
• Improves your body shape, posture and muscle tone
• It soothes sore muscles.
• Boosts fitness levels and athletic performance

Fitness

✓ It is the condition of being physically fit and healthy.

✓ The quality of being suitable to fulfil a particular role or task.
✓ Physical fitness is a state of health and well being, enabling one to perform aspects of sports, occupations
and daily activities.
✓ The capacity to carry out everyday activities (work and play) without excessive fatigue and with enough
energy in reserve for emergencies.

Fitness components

➢ Fitness components are found in two categories which are skill-related and health related
components of fitness

Skill-related fitness components

• Speed
• Agility
• Balance
• Coordination
• Reaction time
• Power

Health related components

• Strength
• Flexibility
• Endurance ( muscular & cardiovascular )
• Body composition

Health related components of fitness

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 a) Strength
✓ It is the ability to withstand great force or pressure due to the physical energy that you have, which allows
you to perform various actions.
✓ Also a state of being physically strong with the capacity to resist force or pressure
✓ There are three different types of strength namely, Dynamic strength, Explosive strength and Static
strength.
1. Dynamic strength – this is used when you try to move an immovable object or carry a heavy object.
2. Explosive strength – it refers to an individual’s ability to exert a maximal amount of force in the shortest
possible time
3. Static strength – this means the force a muscle can apply to an immovable object without shortening
the length of the muscle
b) Endurance
✓ It is one’s ability to withstand long periods of work without getting fatigued.
✓ There are two forms of endurance namely cardiovascular endurance and muscular endurance
1. Cardiovascular endurance – it refers to the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels to deliver
oxygen to your body tissues.
- The more efficiently your body delivers oxygen to its tissues, the lower your breathing rate.
2. Muscular endurance – It is the ability of a muscle or a group of muscles to repeatedly exert force
against resistance.
- If you are able to perform multiple repetitions of an exercise, you will be exhibiting muscular endurance.
- Muscular endurance is one of the most important components for athletes
c) Flexibility
✓ It is the range of movement in joint or series of joints.
✓ The range of motion allowed around a joint is flexibility
✓ Stretching exercises are ideal for flexibility training
d) Body composition
✓ It describes the percentages of fat, bone, water and muscle in human bodies.
✓ A healthy body composition is one that includes a lower percentage of body fat and a higher
✓ It is found by calculating your Body Mass Index {BMI} and is done by dividing weight in kilograms by height
in meters squared.
✓ percentage of fat free mass, which includes muscle, bones and organs

Skill related components of fitness

➢ They are mostly determined by performance, as they are evidently noticed when one is performing the
more technical aspects of sport or physical activity.
a) Balance
✓ It is one’s ability to maintain steadiness while controlling his/her body’s position in space
✓ That ability to maintain equilibrium can either be from a stationary position or when moving
✓ Balance is essential in dance, gymnastics and in some contact sports where it may be an advantage in the
face of a tackle
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 ✓ Balance can be divided into (i) static balance (ii) dynamic balance
i) Static balance – you are in control of your body, without any movement
ii) Dynamic balance – you are simultaneously controlling your body, at the same time moving.
b) Agility
✓ It refers to one’s ability to change direction during a physical activity, with speed and accuracy.
✓ It is one’s ability to perform power explosive movements quickly while changing directions in an efficient
way.
✓ Agility can be developed by zig-zag drills.
c) Speed
✓ It is the ability to execute a specific activity in the shortest possible time, at an explosive pace.
✓ It also applies to moving a body part so quickly and efficiently during a physical activity.
✓ In a sprint events, speed is a must have.
✓ Even in endurance running , speed is important especially for the final lap to the finish
d) Reaction time
✓ It refers to the ability to respond to a given stimuli quickly and correctly.
✓ It shows how fast you can respond once a stimulus is initiated.
✓ Reaction time is key in most sports including swimming and athletics. E.g. in athletics once gun is shot the
athlete has to come out of the blocks immediately.
✓ In soccer the goal keeper facing a penalty needs to react as quickly as possible in the direction of the ball.
e) Coordination
✓ It is the ability to use different body parts in synchronisation ( movement of different body parts at the
same time )
✓ With coordination the movements are fluid like and show no difficulty in the execution of the skill or
activity.
✓ In some sports , there is need to have hand eye coordination for example tennis
✓ In running events, it is the arm leg coordination
f) Power
✓ It is a result of strength and speed combined in physical performance.
✓ Executing a skill quickly and forcefully is evidence of power.
✓ It is the ability to exert maximum force in a quick and explosive burst, such as in the shot put and javelin
throw.

Principles of training

• Principle of specificity
• Principle of overload
• Principle of reversibility
• Principle of adaptation
• Principle of progression
• Principle of variation

Types of training methods

• Continuous training
• Plyometric
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 • Fartlek training
• Circuit training
• Interval training
• Weight training

Continuous training

➢ It is as continuous as the name suggests.

➢ No periods of rest are given during training
➢ It is an aerobic training method which improves aerobic fitness
➢ It suits long distance runners, road cyclists as well as trio athletes, swimmers and rowing athletes

Advantages of continuous training

• It is very cheap
• It can be done both as an individual or group type of training
• Improves aerobic fitness
• It improves health and fitness in general
• It can be adapted to suit individual differences and needs
• The Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type (FITT) principle can be employed quite easily with this method of
training

Activities done in continuous training

• Running
• Brisk walking
• Cycling
• Swimming
• Rowing

Weight training

➢ It develops three fitness components, these are power, strength and muscular endurance
➢ In weight training sets, repetitions, weights and recovery must be applied

Weight training for power

✓ Power is generally working close to maximum effort

✓ Power training aims at developing the type IIb muscle fibre

Weight training for strength

✓ This is a maximal activity in which weight training must be carried close to the maximum
✓ To improve strength high weight should be used, with repetitions carried out as fast as possible, together
with recovery periods
✓ Fast twitch muscles will be at work

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Weight training for muscular endurance

✓ This is meant to improve muscle tone

✓ Both slow and fast twitch muscle fibre will be at work

Advantages of weight training

• It develops muscular endurance, strength and power

• It is easy to monitor on athlete’s progress and overload
• A variety of exercises can be used in working on different muscle groups in weight training

Plyometric training

➢ It can also be referred as to jump training

➢ It is meant for an intense workout for explosive strength building
➢ It is best suited for the development of speed, agility and power
➢ It can be done using hurdles of different heights, ladders and gymnastics boxes
➢ It is a maximum intensity activity, over a very short period of time

QUESTIONS

1. Athletes lacking certain fitness components in various sporting disciplines

Name of athlete situation Missing component of

fitness
1. Dewah Poor start in 100m ………………………………………….
2. Dinkie Fails to accelerate ……………………………………….
3. Jenah No leg arm fluid action in sprints …………………………………………….
4. Nicky Poor shot put throw …………………………………………
5. Kensoh Failed to complete 10 000m ………………………………………………
6. Blah Joe Cannot stand in an equilibrium ………………………………………………
position
7. Eddy Failed to do hop step and jump in triple jump ………………………………………..
8. Fungie Cannot stop a penalty in time ………………………………………….
9. Cassey Failed to lift some weights …………………………………………….
10. Cassandra Failed to complete a gymnastics routine ………………………………………… [10]

2. Which one is skill related component of fitness? A. power B. endurance C. strength D. flexibility
3. Which are the two subdivisions of fitness?
4. Agility is…………………………
5. Speed can be defined as ……………
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 6. The response to a given stimuli, very quickly is………………….
7. Zig-zag runs can be used to develop……………………….
8. In which sporting discipline is balance very important? A. chess B. archery C. gymnastics D. darts
9. Briefly explain what fitness means [2]
a) Define the following components of fitness:
i) Endurance
ii) Speed
iii) Coordination
iv) Power
v) Strength
vi) Agility
vii) Reaction time
10. Balance can be divided into (i)……………………………… (ii) …………………………………………. [2]
11. In which athletics events is power essential? Give three examples. [3]
12. List any four health related components of fitness
13. If an athlete can withstand prolonged periods of exercise, we say they have …………
14. An individual’s ability to exert a maximal amount of force in the shortest possible time is A. strength B.
coordination C. agility D. reaction time
15. State any 5 reasons why you should exercise
16. Give any 5 benefits of exercise that you know
17. Define exercise
18. Distinguish aerobic from anaerobic exercise
19. Flexibility refers to…………………..

DRUGS AND ANTI - DOPING

-A drug is a substance that can be taken in a variety of ways to produce expected and welcome physical and
psychological effects on the person taking it, but may also cause some effects that are both unpleasant and
unwanted.

-Doping-the use of drugs to enhance performance.

-Historically athletes have always wanted to improve their performance through drugs.

-Because of this, certain classes of drugs are prohibited by sporting governing bodies.

-Such drugs can be dictated by urine testing at competition.

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WHY DRUGS ARE PROHIBITED

# they give an unfair advantage to athletes.

# they contravene the ethics of fair play.

# may cause due risk or side effects on the body systems.

# may provoke allergic or immunological reactions in the body.

# may perpetrate aggressive behaviour.

# doping is dangerous and can be addictive

Why some sportspersons abuse drugs

-to increase muscle size and strength

-speed up recovery period after a strenuous activity

-to enable them to train harder without getting fatigue

-to stimulate the production of natural hormones

-to increase the production of red blood cells

-to hide their use of banned substances

-to improve their performance especially in endurance activities

-to help reduce and mask pain from a previous injury or illness

-to enable themselves to remain calm

Old ways of doping

Greeks used to eat lamb testes, it was believed that they would provide special strength and increase muscle size

Greek soldiers used to eat special mushrooms for endurance and courage

SOURCES OF DRUGS

-(a)Animal drugs-insulin

-(b)Plants-mbanje / marijuana
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-(c) Laboratory synthesis-antihistamines

-(d)Micro- organisms-penicillin

CLASSES OF PROHIBITED DRUGS

STIMULANTS

-these are a group of drugs that boost alertness and physical activity by increasing heart and breathing rates as
well as brain functions.
- they also improve reaction time of an athlete and boosting confidence.
-they act on the Central Nervous System ( CNS) and stimulate the body mentally and physically
-they are found in amphetamines, coffee and tea

BENEFITS

-Increase concentration

- Mental alertness

- Decrease sensitivity to pain

- Increased endurance.

RISKS

-Elevation of blood pressure and heart rate

- Stress on cardiovascular system

- Trigger cardiac arrest

- Death

- Addictive

-Nervous and anxious

- Lack of sleep (insomnia)

-Aggressive behaviour.

ANABOLIC ARGENTS/STEROIDS
- these are synthetic versions of the hormone called testosterone,
-it is a male hormone but found in fewer women
-they are not allowed in and out of competition

BENEFITS / ADVANTAGES

-Increase lean body mass

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- decrease fat

- allow greater volumes of training at greater intensities

-Increase motivation

-Decrease feeling fatigue

-Facilitates speedy recovery from exhaustive training bouts.

- enhance performance

RISKS / DISADVANTAGES

-If used by young immature people can lead to the closure of epiphyses of the long bone.

-They suppress hormones which control development and functions of gonads.

-Cause a decrease in the secretion of testosterone.

- Reduction of sperm count.

-Affect menstrual cycle in women.

-Lead to masculinisation in women.

- Cause breast regression.

-Cause deepening of voice in women.

- Cause growth of breasts in men.

- Growth of facial hair.

- Liver damage and cardiovascular diseases.

DIURETICS -
they act as masking agents that is , they hide the presence of a banned substance in an athlete’s urine or any
other sample
-they assist athletes to cover up the use of drugs
-boxers use diuretics more, prior to the weighing session

BENEFITS

-Used to control weight.

- Get rid of excess body fluid.

-To mask the use of banned drugs.

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RISKS

- May impair performance in events that require moderate to high endurance due to loss of extra cellular fluids,
this may cause electrolyte imbalances which cause electro-cramping and fatigue.

-Can cause cardiac conduct problems.

-Affect kidneys.

NARCOTICS/ANALGESICS

-they help an athlete with pain relief, enabling them to return to play quickly after an injury
-they are illegal in majority of countries -
examples of narcotics are morphine, heroine and codeine

BENEFITS -
Reduction of pain sensitivity.

RISKS

-Can cause respiratory depression.

-Cause addiction and drowsiness.

BETTA-BLOCKERS

- they slow the heart rate and breathing rate

-they normally used for patients with blood pressure and are prohibited in golf, gymnastics, shooting, wrestling
etc

BENEFITS

-reduce heart rate.

- control anxiety

RISKS

-Cause pronounced fatigue.

-Decrease motivation.

-Can lead to heart block.

- Cardiac failure.

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ALCOHOL -
it is used by athletes to reduce stress, anxiety and hand tremors

BENEFITS

-Improves self- confidence.

- Improves alertness.

- It calms the nerves.

RISKS

-thinking is impaired.

-Reaction time and co-ordination is affected.

-Dulls pain causes more injury.

- Result in water loss.

- Decreases blood pressure.

- Causes dilation leading to heat loss

CANNABINOIDS

-
this is the plant family where marijuana falls under
-athletes use them to enhance their recovery time after an activity, they increase the heart rate and they help
reduce tension.

BENEFITS

-Similar to alcohol, stimulant and depressant effect.

RISKS

-Impairs performance that requires co-ordination.

- Fast reaction and perceptional accuracy.

- Leads to personality changes.

- Cause shot memory impairments.

-Cause hallucinations.

- When smocked it raises risks like lung cancer.

-Discoloration of lips and triggers asthma.

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PEPTIDE HORMONES

-these are substances that are produced in the body

-once they circulate thru the blood they can affect other body organs, tissues and their functions

-they act as messengers between organs and help stimulate bodily functions

-Examples are insulin, growth hormone and stimulating agents

Benefits

-they improve the production of naturally occurring hormones

-they increase muscle growth and strength

-they increase the production of red blood cells

Risks

UNBANNED SUBSTANCES

-it is important to note that while there are banned substances, there are some that are permitted in, out and
during competition. These include:

For pain

Paracetamol

Aspirin

Codeine

For antidiarrhoeal

Loperamide
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Electrolyte replacement agents

For vomiting

Metoclopromide

Proclopromide

For anti-acids

MMT ( magnesium trisilicate)

For asthma

Oral theophylline

Ipratropium

For hay fever

Antihistamines

Xylometazoline

For haemorrhoids

All non-steroid containing are drugs are permitted

For contraception

All are permitted

-athletes who take regular medication for any type of condition should declare the drugs on the doping form
prior to competition

- If they happen to be travelling abroad, they should not carry more than three months’ supply

Anti-doping

➢ Opposing or prohibiting illegal doping e.g. the use of anabolic steroids or growth hormone to improve
athletic performance

Substance abuse

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 ➢ Long term, pathological use of drugs characterized by daily intoxication, inability to reduce consumption
and impairment in social or occupational functioning due to drug addiction

QUESTIONS

WADA stands for………………………….

a) Why is doping not allowed in sport? Give three reasons

b) State any one effect of using peptide hormones
c) Give any three examples of unbanned substances in sport
d) Where is nicotine found?
e) Why do weight lifters use steroids?
f. Define the following terms
i) Doping
ii) Substance abuse
iii) Drug
iv) Unbanned substances
v) Testosterone
vi. Give five reasons why athletes use drugs in sport
vii) List any five substance that are banned in sport
outline any three strategies to prevent substance abuse
explain the role of WADA in anti doping
why is doping not allowed in sports
give any three reasons why athletes use drugs in sports
list any five substances that are banned in sports
Where is nicotine found?
WHO stands for………………..
Once an athlete has been found guilty of substance abuse, what measures should be taken [10]
Mention how steroids enhance performance [5]

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INJURIES AND FIRST AID

Injury

➢ Any physical damage to the body caused by violence or accident or fracture etc
➢ An accident that results in physical damage or hurt

Environmental injuries

➢ These are injuries sustained owing to environmental factors.

➢ They occur due to certain external conditions
➢ These factors include :
• Harsh weather conditions
• Negligence
• Accidents
• Incorrect use of equipment
• The absence of effective warm up

Injuries that may occur at home, school, recreational areas and work places

• Burns
• Scalds
• Food poisoning
• Asphyxiation ( death due to lack of oxygen)
• Smoke inhalation
• Electrical injuries
• Pesticide poisoning
• Stab wounds
• Drowning
• Choking
• Falls from roofs, trees, staircases, ladders, bunk beds
• Heat exhaustion/ heat stroke

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 • Frostbite
• Cuts
• Grazes

Environmental injuries at home

• Negligence
• Poor parenting skills
• Accidents
• Exposure to air pollution

Environmental injuries at workplace

• Negligence
• Physical and chemical risks to the workers
• Unsafe behaviour

Environmental injuries at recreational and leisure centres

• No safety practices
• Improper and careless use of equipment
• Unprotected water bodies

Effects of environmental injuries

• They may actually lead in permanent disabilities and even the loss of life

Prevention against environmental injuries

✓ Change of habits like littering e.g. throwing banana peels into bins than on the ground
✓ Wiping or drying wet floors
✓ Keeping the swimming pool fenced and covered with a net
✓ Avoid playing risky games as wrestling

Common injuries in sport

Soft tissue injuries

➢ They result from the overuse and trauma on the working muscles, tendons and ligaments.
➢ They are injuries that are soft and minor in nature, caused by unexpected or uncontrolled movement like
stepping awkwardly off a kerb, thereby rolling over your ankle.
➢ The damage in soft tissue injuries can also be from the overuse of already fatigued muscles

Examples of soft tissue injury

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 ➢ Rapture-complete tearing of the muscle or ligament(potentially carrier ending)
➢ Deep bruise-occurs in large bulk muscle and usually accompanied by bleeding resulting in pain and
swelling.
➢ Cuts-break in the skin.
➢ Punchers-pierced by a dart arrow.
➢ Strain
➢ Sprain

Signs and symptoms of soft tissue injuries

✓ Immediate pain and delayed swelling

✓ Stiffness due to the trauma and swelling
✓ Bruising

Classification of injuries

TRAUMATIC
✓ Accidental
• (e.g.) pulled muscle.
• Ruptured tendon.
• Fracture
• Hit by a cricket ball

OVERUSE
✓ Develop out of too much use of a particular part of body.
• E.g. stress of tibia.
• Achilles tendonitis.
• Blisters on hands and feet.

Sports injuries

a) Sprains f) shin splints

b) Strains g) concussions
c) Fractures h) tennis elbow
d) Dislocations i) knee injury
e) Achilles tear j) back injury

1. Sprains
➢ They are a result of the over stretching of the ligaments.
➢ They occur when ligaments are overstretched and get torn.

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 ➢ They occur around a joint for example sprained ankle
➢ They can be managed well using the RICER method
2. Strains
➢ These come when there is trauma on the working muscles or tendons.
➢ Occurs when a muscle or tendon is over stretched and gets torn for example strained hamstring or a
pulled muscle.

NB: sprains and strains are a common feature in sports that involve running, jumping, using the shoulders

3. Fractures
➢ These are normally experienced in rough and tumble games and the end result is a broken bone.
➢ It is a break or crack in a bone.
➢ There are three types of fractures namely:
• Greenstick fracture – this occurs to young children with soft bones when there is pressure or impact that
bends and partially breaks a bone
• Stress fracture – is a rather incomplete fracture caused by repeated stress.
• Spiral fracture – it is a fracture which occurs when a long bone is torn in half by a twisting force or impact.

4. Dislocations
➢ They are joint injuries which occur when bones of a joint are wrenched apart or separated
➢ It is when a joint is displaced
5. Achilles tear
➢ It is common in sports that involve running and jumping for example Achilles tendon
➢ Happens when the tendon gets inflamed and painful from overuse
6. Groin pull
➢ It is a tear or rapture in the adductor muscle.
➢ It normally posses a very sharp pain in the groin, affecting performance
7. Shin splints
➢ These are lower leg pains, felt below the knee.
➢ They usually occur to those athletes who are not seasoned trainers or those who do not follow a
consistent workout routine
8. Concussions
➢ They occur when an athlete suffers a brain injury, having been hit or bumped at
➢ They are quite common in sports like soccer, hockey and boxing
9. Tennis elbow
➢ This is when a tendon suffers damage due to overuse
10.Back injuries
➢ Characterized by pain in the lower back area, for example slipped discs
11.Knee injuries
➢ Normally affects the complex knee.
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 ➢ Affects those athletes in contact sport
12.Bruises
➢ These refer to when areas are damaged causing blood to leak out surrounding tissues.
➢ Can also be called contusions.
➢ Some occur just beneath the skin while others in the underlying muscles.

How to prevent injuries

• Start with a warm up always

• Stretching
• Do not rush into challenging activities too soon
• Keep yourself physical conditioned
• Keeping yourself strong
• Allow your body to recover
• Cool down after an activity
• Allow no pain ( it’s a sign for you to stop)
• Getting injured is no option in the first instance( practice safety always)

Management of minor sports injuries

➢ During 72 hours you can apply the RICE, RICER and PRICE methods
➢ They help in the management of sports injuries like sprains, strains and severe bruises or bumps

RICE method

Rest - the injured athlete is recommended to rest and avoid further activities that can cause pain.

- This is meant to allow sufficient rehabilitation time for even small injuries

Ice – you wrap ice cubes in damp towel/cloth or use ice packs to apply on the injured part for 15 – 20 minutes
every 3 – 4 hours

- It is very useful even beyond the 72-hour period as it helps to reduce swelling and controls pain

Compression – you apply a bandage firmly, in such a way that does not restrict blood circulation or cause
additional pain.

- The bandage should cover the whole joint

Elevate – you should raise the limb above the level of your heart, in order to reduce swelling.

- Ensure you support the limb, with comfortable cushions or a sling to keep it raised

PRICE method

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 ➢ It not very different from the RICE method
➢ It stands for Protect, Rest, Ice, Compress and Elevate

Protect – you are urged to protect the injured part by avoiding, using the injured area

RICER method

➢ The procedure is similar to the other two except that the last R stands for Referral i.e. recommending
seeking specialist attention

Use of anti-inflammatory drugs

➢ These can be used to reduce inflammation of the injury

Immobilization

➢ It is recommended to keep the injured part from much movement, as this will help reduce chances of
worsening the injury
➢ The splints and slings will aid in reducing movement of the injured part

Surgery

➢ It is the treatment of injuries or disorders of the body by incision or manipulation, especially with sharp
instruments
➢ In very rare circumstances, some sports injuries may require minor surgery as a corrective measure

Rehabilitation

➢ Exercise may be very important for full recovery, prior to getting back to physical activity

Rest

➢ It is also very important as it promotes full recovery from the injury

Prevention of injuries

• Use correct and age appropriate equipment

• Wear correct clothing and footwear
• Competing with the opponents of the same age group
• Ensure you employ correct techniques of the game
• Do not over-do it
• Allow your body to recover
• Know your safety precautions
• Pre-participation examination-It is important to ensure that all those with medical or other problems that
predispose them to injury are stopped from active sports participation.

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 • Physical Conditioning-A high level of fitness for the sport to be undertaken is essential. Different sports
require different levels of fitness.
• Proper matching of athletes-According to their age and physical maturation.(particularly in contact
sports)
• Protective equipment-Equipment should be of proper size.
• Proper skills coaching and supervision of athletes
• Fair umpiring
• Warm up and stretching exercises

Tendon

➢ It is a flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone.

WHAT IS FIRST AID

➢ -Immediate care that is given to a person who is injured or fallen ill.

➢ - Treatment given to a casualty to sustain life.

Knowledge and skill of first aid often means:

➢ [a] the difference between life and death.

➢ [b] the difference between temporary and permanent disability.
➢ [c] the difference between rapid recovery and long hospitalization.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF A FIRST AIDER

➢ Assess the situation.

➢ Arrive at a diagnosis for each casualty.
➢ Give immediate adequate treatment bearing in mind the casualty may have sustained more than one
injury.
➢ Arrange without delay removal to hospital.

Levels of unconsciousness for injured

They are four types:
(1) Full consciousness - casualty is able to speak and answer questions.
(2) Drowsiness-casualty can be easily aroused but lapses into unconsciousness.
(3) Stupor - someone is aroused with difficulty and is aware of painful stimulus.
(4) Comma - cannot be aroused by any stimulus.

Procedure for a conscious casualty

➢ Ask where pain is and examine that part first.

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➢ Examine casualty methodically running your hand gently but firmly over the parts of body from head to
lower limbs.
➢ Check skin for paleness check lips for redness.
➢ Check inside eyelids and face for blueness.
➢ Check nature of breathing particularly rate and depth.
➢ Count the pulse, strength and rhythm.
➢ Determine by touching whether the body is hot or cold.

Procedure for an unconscious casualty

➢ If not breathing check if airway is clear and administer artificial respiration.

➢ Examine over and under casualty for dampness which may indicate loss of control of bowl and bladder.
➢ Stop any serious bleeding before proceeding with further examination.
➢ Study the ears, eyes, nose and mouth for blood, other fluids and foreign bodies.

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 QUESTIONS

1. What are environmental injuries?

2. RICER method can be used to…………….. A. manage fractures B. manage strains and sprains C. manage
frost bites D. manage heat strokes
3. ……………………. Are caused by friction and rubbing A. cuts & grazers B. grazers & blisters C. strains &
sprains D. burns & scalds
4. A small tear of the ligament tissue is called ……… A. tendon B. a ligament sprain C. a ligament strain D. a
ligament fracture
5. Immobilization refers to……………A. a little movement B. just walking and no running C. resting and
disallowing any movement D. playing less vigorously
6. A sling can be used to manage which of the following injuries? A. elbow dislocation B. neck injury C. knee
dislocation D. head injury

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THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

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The skeletal system

➢ It is the framework of the human body, which consist of bones and other connective tissues
➢ It consists of a total of 206 named bones in an adult
➢ At birth one has 270 bones but an adult has 206
➢ A bone is a rigid connective tissue that makes up the skeleton of vertebrates
➢ All bones start as hyaline cartilage and gradually turn into bone
➢ The human skeleton has two main divisions, namely the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton
➢ The human skeleton consists of:
i) The skull
ii) Pectoral girdle
iii) Pelvic girdle
iv) The vertebral column
v) Arms and hands
vi) Legs and feet

The appendicular skeleton

➢ These are limbs and bones that connect to pectoral girdle (shoulders) and the pelvic girdle (hips)
➢ It consists of the arms, legs and supporting structures in the shoulders and pelvis
➢ They are 126 bones on the appendicular skeleton

The axial skeleton

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 ➢ It forms the longitudinal axis of the body.
➢ It can be divided into skull, vertebral column and the thorax.
➢ It has 80 bones including the head, neck, trunk, skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, sternum and the
thoracic cage.
➢ The skull is composed of more than 2 dozens bones (more than 24) most of which are fused together to
form a solid unit around the brain and special sense organs.

Classification of bones

➢ Bones can be classified using shape and tissue

i) Long bones
ii) Short bones
iii) Flat bones
iv) Irregular bones

Classification of bones by shape

1. Long bones
✓ They are mostly compact and longer than they are wide
✓ All bones of the limbs are long bones except the wrist and ankle
✓ Examples of long bones are femur, tibia, humerus, ulna, fibula
✓ The longest bone is femur, which is almost one quarter of one’s total height

2. Short bones
✓ They are mostly spongy and cube shaped
✓ They are found in the wrist and ankle of the limbs
✓ Examples of short bones are patella, carpals, metatarsals

3. Flat bones
✓ These are thin and flattened although usually curved
✓ They have thin layers of compact bone with spongy bone in between
✓ Examples of flat bones are some skull bones, ribs, sternum

4. Irregular bones
✓ They are neither long, short nor flat
✓ Examples of irregular bones are vertebrae and hip bones

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Classification of bones by tissue

There are two types of bone tissue namely: a) compact bone tissue b) spongy bone tissue

✓ The compact bone tissue is dense, smooth and homogeneous.

✓ It is also very strong such that it can endure great stress and impact
✓ The spongy bone tissue has small or slender bone pieces within open spaces, that is they are found in
the interior of normal bone.
✓ They are strong and yet light weight

Sesamoid bone

✓ Although a sesamoid bone is not a category based on shape, it tends to be short

✓ It is a bone that develops within a tendon
✓ The knee cap or patella is an example of a sesamoid bone

The structure of a long bone

✓ The longest bone is the femur

✓ It is about 1/4 of an adult’s height
✓ The femur is the strongest bone
✓ A long bone has two parts namely the diaphysis and epiphysis
✓ The diaphysis is the tubular shaft between the ends of the bone
✓ The hallow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity and is filled with yellow marrow
✓ The epiphysis is the rounded end of a long bone

Functions of the skeletal system

• Support
• Protection
• Movement
• Blood cell formation
• Endocrine regulation
• Storage of minerals

1. Support
✓ The skeleton forms the internal framework that supports and anchors all soft organs
✓ This framework supports the body and maintains its shape
✓ The bones of the legs support the body torso when standing erect
✓ The rib cage supports the thoracic wall, without it some organs would collapse on their own weight

2. Protection
✓ It protects vital soft body organs which are delicate in nature, from getting damaged.
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 ✓ The fused bones of the skull protect the brain
✓ The vertebrae column protects the spinal cord
✓ The rib cage, spine and sternum protect the thoracic organs including the heart and the lungs and major
blood vessels

3. Movement
✓ It facilitates movement using bones as levers to move body and its parts
✓ The joints allow movement

4. Blood cell formation

✓ The formation of blood cells occurs in the red marrow cavities of certain bones, usually spongy bones
✓ In children blood cell formation occurs in long bones
✓ In adults blood cell formation occurs in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae and sternum

5. Endocrine regulation
✓ Bone cells release a special hormone which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar and fat
deposition

6. Storage
✓ Calcium, iron and phosphorus are stored in the skeleton.
✓ Fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones

Joints

➢ It is an articulation on the skeletal system, where one, two or more bones meet.
➢ It can be referred to as the union between two or more bones

Classification of joints

➢ They can be classified as follows:

a) Immovable joints – these are fixed joints hence no movement can take place between the bones
- They are fibrous in nature
- Examples of fixed joints are the flat bones of the skull as well as the bones on the pelvic girdle
b) Slightly movable joints – these are linked with cartilage, which facilitates the slightly movement
- They can be called cartilaginous joints and include those joints of the vertebrae column
c) Freely movable joints – these are the most common type of joints
- They allow a variety of movements that are very important to sports people
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 - Movement is made possible with these synovial joints because of the lubricating fluid provided for the
joint
- Examples of synovial joints are the knee, hip and shoulder

Synovial joint

➢ They move freely and it is made easy by a fluid called synovial fluid

Types of synovial joints

Gliding joints – allows smooth movement called flexion and extension

- The movement comes in several directions along a smooth surface

- The small bones of the hands ( carpal bones of the wrist) are examples of gliding joints

Hinge joints – these are hinged joints formed between two bones

- They allow movements called stable flexion and extension

- They have a limited amount of rotation
- Two main examples of hinge joints are the knee and the elbow joint
- Between the humerus and ulna is a hinge joint also
- They work similarly to a door hinge

Ball and socket joints – these allow the greatest range of movement.

- The ball and socket joint have on one end of the bone a ball like shape, while on the other there is a hallow
socket.
- It allows the free movement upwards and downwards and from side to side as well as around
- Bending is easy with the ball and socket joint
- The examples are shoulder joint and the hip joint
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Pivot joints – they only permit rotation

- The joint allows us to turn, raise and lower our heads

- Example of pivot joint is at the top of the spinal column

Condyloid / ellipsoid – it is quite similar to the gliding joint

- Its surface area is not regular, bones move past one another
- The radio carpal joint on the wrist is an example of a condyloid joint

The movable joints are held together by ligaments and tendons

• Tendons attach muscles to bones

• Ligaments are bands of connective tissue between bones. The ligaments prevent too much movement

Some of the bones are protected from knocking each other by a cartilage, which forms a smooth coat for the
synovial joints

Movements made possible by synovial joints

Flexion – bending usually forward and backwards

Extension – straightened or bending backwards

Rotation – movement right round the axis of a bone

Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body

Inversion – turning the sole of the foot inwards

Eversion – turning the sole of the foot outwards

Circumduction – combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction

Supination – turning the palm of the hand up

Pronation – turning the palm of the hand down

Type of joint Movement allowed Examples of joint Sporting skill

Hinge Flexion, extension Elbow joint, knee joint ………………………………
Ball and Flexion, extension, rotation, Hip joint, shoulder joint Spin bowling in cricket
socket adduction, abduction,
circumduction
Pivot Rotation Joint between radius Tennis, squash,
and ulna badminton
Gliding Flexion, extension Carpals, tarsals ……………………………..

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QUESTIONS

1. One example of a hinge joint is………………. A. hip B. knee C. ankle D. elbow

2. A pivot joint……………… A. allows flexion B. allows rotation C. allows movement in two planes D. allows
circular movement
3. Which one is the most common type of joint? A. fixed joint B. synovial joint C. gliding joint D.immovable
joint
4. What is a joint?
5. ……is when the bone turns right round its axis A. flexion B. adduction C. rotation D. abduction
6. How many types of joints are there? A. five B. four C. two D. three
7. …………..protects bones and stops them from knocking against each other. A. tendon B. ligaments C.
cartilage D. synovial
8. Which bone is located in the knee joint? A. tibia B. ulna C. patella D. fibula
9. List the six types of synovial joints
10. Explain briefly on what is each of the following:
i) Synovial joint
ii) Cartilaginous joint
iii) Fibrous joint
iv) Gliding joint
11. What is a fixed joint?
12. Which two synovial joints allow bending in several movements?
13. How many bones are there in the human body?
14. The study of human body systems and their functions is called…. A. physiology B. anatomy C. anatomy
and biology D. anatomy and physiology
15. Bones are classified according to…… A. shape only B. shape and type of tissue C. shape and size D. type of
tissue only
16. In children, where does blood cell production take place? A. bone marrow of long bones B. marrow of
vertebrae C. marrow of short bones D. marrow of the pelvic girdle
17. The …………protects the spinal cord A. vertebral column B. skull C. rib cage D. pelvic girdle
18. Which of these is a sesamoid bone? A. cranium B. patella C. carpals D. femur
19. Define the following terms: a) joint b) skeletal systems
20. Name the longest bone on the human skeleton
21. Give any two bones on axial skeleton
22. State five functions of the skeletal system
23. Give one example of each of the following classes:
i) Irregular
ii) Short
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iii) Long
iv) Flat
24. The total number of bones on an adult skeleton is………………

25. The human body has how many bones in total.

A) 106
B) 206
C) 306
D) 406

26. The cranium bone protects which internal organ.

A) Teeth
B) Spinal cord
C) Brain
D) Heart

27. In terms of range of movement, the fibrous is which type of joint.

A) Immovable
B) Slightly movable
C) Freely movable
D) Synovial

28. The knee joint is in which class of levers.

A) First class lever
B) Second class lever
C) Third class lever
D) Fourth class lever

29. Which description best describes a saddle joint?

A) Spool in half moon
B) Cone in depression
C) Round headed of bone fit into cup shaped depressed
D) A concave surface meets convex surface

30. The intervertebral discs of the spine are part of which type of joint?
A) Ligament
B) Synovial
C) Fibrous
D) Cartilaginous

31. -------- facilitates movement on the skeletal system

A) Bones only

B) Joints and muscles

C) Bones and muscles

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 D) Tendons and ligaments

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

➢ It is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles

➢ It permits movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates the blood throughout the body
➢ The human muscular system is made up of a complex network of soft tissues which are called muscles
➢ The muscular system has more than 600 skeletal muscles in the body

A muscle

➢ It is a band or a bundle of fibrous tissue in the body

➢ It has the ability to contract and relax thereby producing movement
➢ A soft tissue muscle provides power, motion, generates heat and also make breathing, circulation and
digestion possible

Voluntary muscles

➢ These muscles are generally under the direct control of the will of a person
➢ An individual willfully controls contraction of the muscle
➢ They are attached to the major parts of the body around the skeleton

Involuntary muscles

➢ These muscles work independently, away from the direct control of an individual
➢ They are found in the walls of the blood vessels and hallow organs like the stomach and intestines

Types of muscles

a) Cardiac muscle – it is a heart muscle and is found only in the heart. It contracts regularly, continuously
and without tiring. It works automatically but is under constant nervous and chemical control. They are
striated in appearance and have one nucleus
b) Skeletal muscle – they are voluntary muscles and they work as we instruct them, they are under our
control. They make our bodies move. We use them for everyday and sporting activities such as running,
jumping and walking
c) Smooth muscles – they are involuntary muscles and they work automatically. They are not under our
conscious control. They work our internal organs such as the stomach, gut and bladder

Muscle groups

• Biceps -are 2 headed muscles that lie on the upper arm between shoulder and elbow
• Triceps -situated on the upper arm
• Hamstrings -they are a group of three muscles on the back of your legs or thighs
• Quadriceps-these are a set of four large muscles on the front of your legs
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 • Calf muscles-made up of 2 powerful muscles on the legs
• Deltoids-these are shoulder muscles
• Abdominals-muscles running vertically on either side of the anterior wall of the human abdomen
• Latissimus Dorsi-is a stronger shoulder muscle that acts as an adductor when the shoulder is rotated
• Pectorals-the thoracic muscles, found on the chest or breast
• Gluteals-comprise of three muscles that form your butt
➢ The largest group of muscles is the gluteus maximus.

Functions of muscles

➢ Movement – the skeletal muscles enable quick response and expression of emotions. -People
have over 30 facial muscles that create looks like happiness, sadness and frowning. - It takes more
muscles to frown than to smile. -smooth muscles force
substance to move. -cardiac muscles circulate blood and
maintain blood pressure
➢ Maintaining posture – they overcome gravity effects when sitting or standing
➢ Stabilising joints – keeping joints in place
➢ Generating heat – when they contract, and this plays a pivotal role in maintaining normal body
temperature at 37 degrees Celsius

Muscle fibre

➢ There are 2 types of muscle fibre i.e. a) slow twitch b) fast twitch
a) Slow twitch – they are red in colour – they work
more efficiently over long periods – long distance runners
rely more on the slow twitch – they are also called type I
– they have a good oxygen supply – they work
for long period of time without tiring – are not as strong as fast
twitch fibre – they take long to contract
– they are used in all types of exercise – they are
mostly used in aerobic exercises
b) Fast twitch oxidative – they are also called type II (a) – they are also
red in colour – they contain more myoglobin
and mitochondria – they are more prone to fatigue
– they produce fast, strong muscle contractions – they
generate an explosive burst of power for a short period of time – they are more
suitable for sports like basketball, soccer, weightlifting, hockey and track and field events
c) Fast twitch glycolytic – they are also called type II b – they are
white in colour because of low myoglobin content – they have fewer
mitochondria – they are generally the weakest
in resisting fatigue among all the muscle fibres – they are found in the muscles of the arms
– these fibres are only recruited in activities that only require a burst of power and only act for a very
short period of time – the slow twitch are
recruited first followed by type IIa and the type IIb fibres are taken to produce maximal strength.

What determines the type of muscle fibre

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 ➢ There are 3 main factors that determine an individual’s muscle fibre namely: genetic factors, hormone
levels in the blood, training undertaken

Characteristics of muscles

➢ Excitability – muscle respond to stimulation and become active

➢ Contractility – a muscle shortens beyond its normal resting length by pulling from both ends towards the
centre
➢ Extensibility – capable of expanding or stretching
➢ Elasticity – the tendency of returning to its original shape after it has been stretched or compressed

Muscle contractions

➢ Refers to the activation of tension

➢ These are generating sites within muscle fibre
➢ A muscle can contract in two 2 different ways namely: isometric and isotonic muscle contractions
a) Isometric contractions
➢ Occurs when the muscle contracts but there is no movement
➢ They generate force without changing the length of the muscle
➢ Muscles stay the same way as they contract
➢ Shoulder muscles work in this way when we pull in a tug of war
b) Isotonic contractions
➢ Occurs when the muscle shortens especially when the body is working
➢ It generates force by changing the length of the muscle
➢ There are 2 types of isotonic muscle contractions namely: concentric and eccentric
i) Concentric contractions
✓ Occurs when muscles shorten as they contract
✓ Muscle shortens in length in order to make the bone move
✓ The ends of the muscle move closer together
✓ Biceps work in this way when we do a pull up
ii) Eccentric contractions
✓ When the muscle contracts it increase in length
✓ They cause the muscle to elongate in response to a greater opposing force
✓ The ends of the muscle move further apart
✓ Biceps work in this work in this way when we lower our body from a pull-up position
✓ Plyometric exercises uses eccentric contraction

How muscles work together

✓ Flexors – contracting to bend our joints

✓ Extensors – contracting to straighten our joints
✓ Prime movers – (or agonists) contracting to start a movement
✓ Antagonists – relaxing to allow a movement to take place
✓ Fixators – contracting to steady parts of the body to give the working muscles a firm base
✓ Synergists – reducing unnecessary movement when a prime mover contracts. They can also fine tune
movement

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 a) Muscle fatigue – it is a temporary inability of the muscular system to perform work or a decrement in
performance
b) Muscle soreness – it is a muscular pain or stiffness, due to accumulation of fluid or water in the muscles,
which develops edema. It is due to prolonged or intensive muscular activity
c) Muscle sprain – it is a partial or complete tearing of ligaments, which binds joint
d) Muscle strain – it results in tearing and disruption of the muscle fibres, connective tissue and blood
vessels
e) Muscle tone – it is the constant continuous partial contractions of muscles even at rest

Tendon – it is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone

Ligament – it is a fibrous connective tissue which attaches bone to bone

QUESTIONS

1. Muscles are made up of……………. A. silica B. polyester C. calcium D. fibres

2. The muscular system comprise of more than………….muscles A. 700 B.500 C. 600 D.300
3. The set of four large muscles on the front of your legs are called…… A. calves B. quadriceps C.
hamstrings D. deltoids
4. Define the muscular system [2]
5. Briefly explain how the muscular system works with the skeletal system [3]
6. Name the three types of muscles [3]
7. Give any 2 functions of the muscular system [2]
8. The cardiac muscle is a………….muscle [1]
9. Involuntary muscles are…………………… [1]
10. State the four characteristics of muscles [4]
11. List any five muscle groups that you know [5]
12. In what parts of the body are these muscles found (i) triceps (ii) trapezius [2]
13. Name two major muscles of the leg [2]
14. The following are types of muscles except……….. A. biceps muscles B. smooth muscles C. cardiac muscles
D. skeletal muscles
15. Slow twitch muscles fibre are……. A. type I B. type II C. type IIa D. type IIb
16. How many types of muscle fibre? [1]
17. Type IIb fibres are…………….. in color A. red B. pink C. white D. brown
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 18. Define the following terms a) cardiac muscle b) smooth muscle c) skeletal muscle
19. Muscles are made up of …..A. fats and water B. calcium and water C. vitamins and water D. proteins
and water
20. Actin and myosin filaments are types of………. A. sarcolema B. sarcoplasma C. myoglobin D.
myofilaments
21. Give an example of sporting discipline where athletes have the following muscle fibre types (i) type I (ii)
type II a (iii) type II b [3]
22. Explain what happens to our muscles as we exercise. Give 6 changes [6]

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

➢ It also referred to as the circulatory system

➢ The circulatory system is made up of blood, blood vessels, pulmonary circulation, systematic circulation
and the heart
➢ It transport oxygen and nutrients to every cell
➢ It removes carbon dioxide and other waste products from every cell
➢ It carries hormones from the endocrine glands to different parts of the body
➢ It maintains temperature and fluid levels
➢ It prevents infection from invading germs

Pulmonary circulation – it carries deoxygenated blood from our heart to our lungs, here carbon dioxide is
exchanged for oxygen. Oxygenated blood is then carried back to the heart

Systematic circulation – it carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body

Components of the circulatory system

a) The heart
b) Blood
c) Blood vessels

The heart

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 ➢ It is a muscular organ responsible for the pumping of blood to the whole body
➢ It is also referred to as the body’s engine
➢ It is made up of special cardiac muscles which contracts regularly, without tiring
➢ It pumps blood first to the lungs, to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen

Three stages of heart action

a) Cardiac cycle – is one complete cycle of these three stages

b) Heartbeat – is one complete contraction of the heart
c) Heart rate ( pulse) – is the number of heart beats per minute

Blood

➢ It is a red fluid that is pumped through the body by the heart and contains plasma, blood cells and
platelets

Components of blood

• Plasma
• Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• White blood cells (leukocytes)

Plasma

✓ It is a watery liquid
✓ It is pale yellow in colour
✓ It contains dissolved substances: salts and calcium, nutrients including glucose, hormones, carbon dioxide
and other waste products from body cells

Platelets (thrombocytes)

✓ They are made in bone marrow

✓ They stick to each other easily
✓ They produce clots when a blood vessel is damaged
✓ They work with fibrinogen to make blood clot

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

✓ They are made in the red marrow of long bones, sternum, ribs, vertebrae
✓ They are extremely numerous
✓ They give blood its colour
✓ They can contain haemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to all body cells
✓ They have no nucleus and last for about 120 days
✓ They are replaced in very large numbers

White blood cells (leukocytes)

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 ✓ They are made in our bone marrow, lymph nodes and spleen
✓ They are far fewer than red blood cells
✓ They are three times the size of red blood cells
✓ They are a mobile guard system to deal with infection and disease: some eat up germs, some produce
antibodies to destroy germs

Functions of blood

➢ Transportation – carries nutrients, oxygen and hormones to body cells and carries carbon dioxide, other
waste from body cells and excess water from the kidneys
➢ Protection – carries white blood cells to sites of infection, carries antibodies to destroy germs and also
carries platelets to damaged areas to form clots
➢ Temperature regulation – carries heat away from working muscles and centre of body to skin. It also
maintains temperature within the body
➢ Maintaining body’s equilibrium – reduces the effect of lactic acid produced in the working muscle. It
regulates fluid balance. It also enable hormones and enzymes to work

Blood vessels

➢ They are defined as networks of hallow tubes that transport blood

➢ There are three major blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries

Arteries

✓ They carry blood away from the heart to body parts

✓ They carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery
✓ The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for re-oxygenation
✓ They branch into smaller tubes called arterioles
✓ They are muscular and elastic such that they must transport blood under a high pressure from the
pumping action of the heart

Veins

✓ They carry blood towards the heart from body parts

✓ They return deoxygenated blood to the heart except pulmonary vein
✓ They are thin walled and non elastic because the blood is under low pressure
✓ They branch into smaller tubes called venules
✓ They have valves to stop blood flowing backwards

Capillaries

✓ They are the smallest blood vessels that connects arterioles and venules

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 ✓ They help enable exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide as well as nutrients and waste products that is:
it allows food and oxygen to pass out to body tissues and allows carbon dioxide and wastes to pass into
the blood from body tissues

Heart rate

✓ It is the number of times the heart beats per minute

✓ At each heartbeat the blood is pumped out of the heart into the arteries
✓ Arteries are then forced to expand and then contract which is the pulse
✓ The number of pulses in one minute is the heart rate
✓ For a normal adult when resting this will be about 70 beats per minute
✓ A pulse can be felt at points in the body where arteries are near to the skin

Stroke volume

✓ It is the amount of blood pumped by the heart in each beat

✓ During exercise stroke volume increase for a number of reasons: working muscles squeeze blood in our
veins, forcing more blood back to the heart. The heart stretches as it fills up with the extra blood and in
turn it contracts more strongly, this results in more blood being pumped out of the heart for each beat

Cardiac output

✓ It is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per minute

✓ It is controlled by both heart rate and stroke volume
✓ Heart rate X stroke volume = cardiac output

Blood pressure

✓ It is the force of the blood against the walls of the blood vessels
✓ The instrument used to measure blood pressure is called sphygmomanometer

What affects blood pressure?

✓ a) Age – blood pressure increases as we grow older because our arteries are less elastic
✓ b) Exercise – BP increases when we exercise but returns to normal after exercises. Regular exercise helps
lower resting BP and prevent cardiovascular disease
✓ c) Stress – stress causes hormones to be released into the blood which increases BP
✓ d) Smoking – it increases BP because nicotine reduces the efficiency of capillaries
✓ e) Diet – a diet high in fat or salt may lead to increase in BP. This is because fatty deposits may block up or
harden arteries. Excess salt intake may lead to an imbalance in the body’s chemistry
✓ f) Weight – being overweight puts an extra strain on the circulatory system and so raises BP

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 QUESTIONS

1. ………….carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart A. arteries B. veins C. ventricles D. atrium
2. The volume of blood pumped from the heart with each beat is called…… A. heart rate B. stroke
volume C. heart volume D. stroke rate
3. In an organ what reflects its metabolic activity? A. quantity and volume B. quantity and volume of arteries
C. quantity and volume of veins D. quantity and volume of arterioles
4. Pulmonary arteries……………. A. carry blood from the heart B. carry blood to the heart C. carry
deoxygenated blood to the heart D. carry oxygen to the heart
5. Red blood cells are produced in the………… A. capillaries B. platelets C. synovial fluid D. bone marrow
6. Which vessels receive blood straight from the heart? A. capillaries B. bronchioles C. arteries D. veins
7. Give the definitions of the following (a) blood (b) plasma (c) veins (d) arteries (e) platelets [10]
8. Explain briefly how capillaries work [3]
9. State the functions of the following (a) veins (b) arteries [4]
10. Name the four chambers of the heart [4]
11. Briefly outline how the cardiovascular system works [3]
12. The heart muscle is made up of which type of muscle? [1]
13. Describe the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system [6]
14. Describe the effects of exercise on blood pressure [2]
15. Describe how the cardiac output increase with exercise [2]
16. How does exercise affect the cardiovascular system over a long period [3]
17. What is meant by: a) heart rate b) stroke volume [4]
18. Name 2 functions of the circulatory system [2]
19. Name the components of blood which: a) help clotting b) carry oxygen [2]
20. Give any 3 functions of blood [3]
21. Suggest two ways in which the pulse can be used to show our level of fitness [2]
22. Describe the difference between the systematic and pulmonary circulation systems [4]
23. Explain why an efficient circulatory system is important for sportspeople [4]
24. Give the components of the cardiovascular system [3]

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

➢ It is a process of taking in oxygen and expelling of carbon dioxide into the air

Breathing / Respiration

➢ It is the process of the inhaling and exhaling air through the nasal and oral passage
➢ It is the process of taking in oxygen from the air and releasing carbon dioxide into the air

Respiration occurs in two ways, that is (a) aerobic respiration (b) anaerobic respiration

a) Aerobic respiration – can be defined as a process where food is oxidised in order to form energy through
the use of oxygen, thereby releasing carbon dioxide and water. - This process entirely relies
on oxygen. - The process of aerobic respiration
takes place in the mitochondria – it is active in activities like jogging, and long
distance running, where an athlete needs more endurance
b) Anaerobic respiration – this process is possible in the absence of oxygen – it
produces less energy when compared to aerobic respiration – it happens
when the body needs more energy, and there is not enough oxygen to oxidize the glucose
– it occurs during vigorous activities, if oxygen is not available, the cells can produce extra energy, but
then lactic acid is formed. – in sprinting
events, in athletics and swimming, the body depends on anaerobic respiration

Breathing in/ inspiration/ inhalation

➢ Refers to the intake of oxygen when breathing in

➢ The diaphragm contracts and flattens when air is inhaled
➢ The ribs move outwards while the volume of the thoracic cavity increases
➢ Through the air pressure the lungs are enlarged

Breathing out/ expiration/ exhalation

➢ Refers to the release of carbon dioxide when breathing out

➢ The diaphragm arches upwards when air is exhaled
➢ The ribs move downwards while the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases.
➢ The lungs are compressed as the air pressure inside them increases

There are three essential processes for the transfer of oxygen from the outside air to the blood flowing through
the lungs. These are ventilation, diffusion, and perfusion
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 a) Ventilation – it a process whereby air moves in and out of the lungs. – pulmonary ventilation provides air
to the alveoli for the gas exchange process
b) Diffusion – it refers to the spontaneous movement of gasses, without the use of energy or effort by the
body
c) Perfusion – it is the process by which the cardiovascular system pumps blood throughout the lungs. It is
the passage of fluid through the circulatory system or lymphatic system to an organ or tissue

Functions of the respiratory system

• Breathing
• Gas exchange in the lungs
• Gas exchange at tissue level
• Causing sound through the larynx
• The sense of smell

Breathing – it is the process of inhaling air through the nasal cavity and oral passages, pharynx, the larynx, the
trachea and the lungs. The diaphragm, the intercostals muscle and the rib cage also take part in the breathing in
and out of air

Gas exchange – external respiration occurs between the lungs and the bloodstream. This involves the passage of
oxygen from the air in the alveoli / air sacs – internal respiration
occurs between the bloodstream and the body tissues. This involves the transportation of oxygenated blood
from the heart to all body parts of the body. Oxygen is delivered to the transportation to the body tissues and
cells for energy and metabolism. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by the blood

Sound – in order to produce sound, there is vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx. This is rather more
specialized a function in which air passing over the vocal cords is modulated by special laryngeal muscles
pushing the vocal cords together, so they vibrate thereby creating sound

The sense of smell – it occurs when air passes over some fibres in the nasal cavities that sense certain chemicals
in the inhaled air. A signal is then sent to the brain, in order to identify what has been smelt

Respiratory organs

• Nose
• Mouth
• Larynx
• Pharynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Bronchioles
• Lungs
• Alveoli

Functions of respiratory organs

Nose

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 ✓ It is made up of cartilage, bone muscle and skin
✓ The nasal cavity is a hallow space within the nose, which is lined with hairs and mucus membrane
✓ It is the first section of the body’s airway
✓ It is a respiratory tract through which air passes
✓ When we breath in the air is filtered, moistened and warmed in the nose

Mouth

✓ It is also known as the oral cavity

✓ It can be used to supplement breathing, though it does not warm, filters and moistens the air
✓ Breathing through the mouth gives an advantage because it is shorter a distance, hence more air quickly
enters the body

Larynx

✓ It contains the vocal cords, whose vibration produces sound or the voice
✓ It connects the laryngopharynx and the trachea

Epiglottis

✓ It is a flap of elastic cartilage that acts as a switch between the trachea and the esophagus
✓ It prevents choking, by disallowing food from entering the trachea during swallowing
✓ It also ensures that air passes into the trachea by covering the opening of the esophagus

Wind pipe/ trachea

✓ It provides a clear airway for air to enter and exit the lungs
✓ The lining in the trachea produces mucus that traps dust and other contaminants, preventing them from
reaching the lungs

Pharynx

✓ It is also referred to as the throat

✓ It is a muscular funnel that extends from nasal cavity to the esophagus and the larynx
✓ It provides a passage for the inhaled air from the nasal cavity
✓ It also used to swallow food

Bronchi

✓ At the end of the trachea, the airway splits into two left and right braches
✓ The two runs into each lung before branching further into smaller branches called bronchioles that
spread through the lungs

Bronchioles

✓ These are finer branches of the bronchi whose function is to provide passage of air between the bronchi
and the alveoli
✓ They are different from bronchi because they do not contain any cartilage at all
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Lungs

✓ They are a pair of spongy organs found on the left and right side of the thorax
✓ They are slightly different in size and shape, due to the heart pointing to the left side of the body
✓ The left lung has two lobes while the right lung has three lobes
✓ Inside the lungs there are many capillaries and air sacs/ alveoli
✓ It is in the alveoli where gaseous exchange take place

Respiratory rate

➢ It is how many breath we take in one minute

Tidal volume

➢ It the amount of air we can take in or out with one breath

Minute volume

➢ Is the amount of air we can breathe in, in one minute

➢ The formula is minute volume = tidal volume x respiratory rate

Vital capacity

➢ Is the largest amount of air that we can force out of our lungs after breathing in as deeply as possible. It is
usually about 4.8 litres in adults

Residual volume

➢ Is the amount of air left in the after breathing out as hard as possible. W e need some air in our lungs to
prevent them collapsing. It usually about 1.2 litres

Total lung capacity

➢ Is vital capacity added to residual volume

QUESTIONS

1. Which gas is expelled by the respiratory system during respiratory process? A. oxygen B. gas C. carbon
dioxide D. carbon monoxide
2. During the respiratory process, the ……………….collects carbon dioxide and transport it to the lungs. A.
heart B. red blood cells C. capillaries D. bronchi
3. Where does gaseous exchange occur? A. heart B. lungs C. alveoli D. larynx

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 4. Which part of the respiratory system connects with the mouth cavity, nasal cavity, the larynx and the
esophagus A. lungs B. trachea C. pharynx D. bronchi
5. What is the other name for the voice box A. larynx B. pharynx C. ciliated epithelium D. alveoli
6. The body’s ability for oxygen consumption during maximal activity is tested using…….A. bleep test B. VO2
test C. Illinois test D. broad jump test
7. Which exercise does not improve the respiratory system functioning? A. jogging B. rowing C. biking D.
sprinting
8. The alveoli are surrounded by A. capillaries B. arteries C. veins D. plasma
9. Air is filtered, moistened and warmed in the……………
10. The……………..prevents choking by food
11. Outline the functions of each of the following i) nose ii) lungs iii) alveoli
12. Draw and label the respiratory system diagram [10]
13. State the three processes involved in gaseous exchange [3]
14. What is the importance of blood to the respiratory system [3]
15. What are the significance of exercise on the respiratory system [2]
16. Define a) oxygen b) carbon dioxide [4]
17. State how sound is produced in the larynx [3]
18. Define a) respiratory rate b) VO2 max [4]
19. Distinguish aerobic respiration from anaerobic respiration [5]
20. Describe the effects of exercise on the respiratory system [4]
21. Outline 3 activities that can be done to improve the respiratory system [3]
22. Give any 2 long term effects of exercise on the respiratory system [2]
23. Expired air contains about 79% nitrogen. What is the percentage of: i) oxygen ii) carbon dioxide [2]
24. What is meant by a) vital cavity b) residual volume [4]
25. Explain why an efficient respiratory system is vital for some sports people [2]
26. Explain what is meant by a) tidal volume b) minute volume c) respiratory rate [6]

MARKETING IN SPORT

➢ It is defined as the specific application of marketing principles and processes to sport products and to the
marketing of non-sport products through association with sport.

Funding models

➢ Funding simply means “sponsoring”

➢ When related to sport it means the sponsoring of a sporting event, sport clubs, or individual athlete.

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Sport funding in Zimbabwe

• Sponsorship
• Funds from media rights
• Funds from the social responsibility and donations
• Funds from the public sector that is from the Ministry of Sport and Recreational and local authorities
• Funds from levies and charges on State Lotteries, betting and gambling operations

Funds from sponsorship

➢ Sponsorship is responsible for 70% of the income of most professional sports club in Zimbabwe and the
world over
➢ The relationship between the club being sponsored and the sponsoring organization should be a
symbiotic one (win-win) relationship.
➢ Clubs and individual rely on corporate organizations for financial and material support. At the same time
the corporate organizations will have marketing benefits, for example, a brand logo on the clubs uniforms
as a marketing strategy

Sport sponsors

➢ Heineken and Amstel companies are funding football in Europe

➢ Castle lager a beverage brand of Delta Beverages is sponsoring football in Zimbabwe
➢ Banc ABC is sponsoring Dynamos and Highlanders
➢ Croco-Motors is sponsoring cricket

Funds from media rights

➢ These funds include those coming from television and media houses through broadcasting rights fees to
televise a sporting event
➢ The state owned media houses include the Zimpapers where find The Herald and The Sunday Mail. The is
also the state owned television and radio stations
➢ Private owned media houses include the Daily News and the News Day newspapers. There is also
supersport and kwese sport as television stations.

Funds from the corporate social responsibility and donations

➢ These funds are realised when most organizations want to reach out to communities through sport
➢ A good example is the partnering of the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) with FC-Barcelona, a
Spanish based football club
➢ Zimplats is another corporate sponsoring Platinum FC based in Zvishavane and Ngezi platinum based in
Mhondoro and both teams are in local Castle premier Soccer League

Funds from the public sector

➢ These funds come from the local authorities, that is, council and also from the government through the
Ministry of sports and recreation

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 ➢ The Zimbabwean government funds grass roots sport through schools and mass sport through
recreational facilities.
➢ Professional sport is funded mostly by the corporate organizations. The government of Zimbabwe only
supports professional sport through adhoc funding as per request through Sports and Recreation
Commission (SRC)

Local authorities or city council

a) Provision of sport facilities

➢ They most of the sport facilities such as, NSS, Rufaro, Mucheke, Chipadze, Rudhaka, Barbour fields and
Chikondoma stadiums, aquatic complex for swimming in Chitungwiza
b) Provision of financial support
➢ The proceeds from the rentals of the facilities and the rate payers are channeled towards funding
professional council teams
➢ Examples are Harare City FC and Bulawayo City FC all funded by their respective city councils

Funding from levies on state lotteries, betting and gambling

➢ These are funds from legally registered lotteries, betting and gambling operations in Zimbabwe

The way forward for sport in Zimbabwe

• Improve publicity of various sports

• Improve accountability and transparency in various sporting governing boards and federations
• Improve corporate world and individuals view sport in general
• Government should provide proper funding and not ad-hoc funding
• Persuade everyone that investing in sport is sound and has far reaching outcomes as it cross
boundaries i.e. it is international in nature

MARKETING MIX

➢ It refers to a unique blend of product, place, promotion and pricing strategies put to produce mutually
satisfying exchanges with a target group
➢ Sport marketing mix includes the 4Ps that is:
• Product
• Price
• Place (distribution)
• Promotion

a) Sport product
➢ It can be defined as a good, a service or any combination of the two that is designed to give benefits to a
sport spectator, participant, or sponsor.

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 ➢ The core product – this refers to the participation of sport teams or individuals. Spectators pay a ticket
charge
➢ Product extensions – these include related activities such as the appearance of the sport facility, video
screens, half-time entertainment, consuming food and beverages merchandise
b) Price
➢ Reflection of price value – sport users are willing to spend part of their disposable income if live
attendance holds more value than watching the sport on television.
• For example the national soccer team matches are which are failing to attract large numbers of
spectators due to the Warrior’s poor performances since early 2000 to date
➢ Price can be presented differently – price can be substituted by the following examples as marketing
tactics:
• Licence fee
• Ticket charge
• Admission fee
• League fee
• Sponsorship fee
• Salary
➢ Price is market sensitive – e.g. a highly priced boxing match will unlikely attract spectators if there is a
football match with lower prices
c) Place
➢ This refers to how the sport products reach the targeted consumer and goods.
➢ Intangible sport product – sport as an intangible product or service is uniquely distributed, for example
when attending a cricket match at Harare Sports Club there are encompassing support service that must
be at the venue and these include the following:
• Ablution facilities
• Type of seating
• Ticket distribution
• Media coverage distribution
• Related services such as number of entry gates
• Food and beverages
• Accessibility of the facility
❖ The factor of place in marketing mix can be applied in Zimbabwe in the case of the Rufaro stadium and
the NSS. The NSS in outlook is more appealing than the Rufaro stadium but in terms of accessible than
the good looking NSS
d) Promotion
➢ It serves to communicate the sport product’s ability to satisfy the customer through advertising, personal
selling, public relations and promotional licensing
➢ Corporate organizations like Tanganda Tea Company is using sponsorship of netball in secondary schools
as its promotional mix tool. The same is happening in high school soccer where coca cola and proton are
sponsoring the soccer different age groups as their promotional mix tool

MARKETING STRATEGIES IN SPORT

➢ It means creating value for customers

➢ Marketing strategies in sport are as follows:
• Segmentation
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 • Positioning
• Pricing

Segmentation

➢ It allows marketers to effectively increase marketing efforts by knowing who is using their products and
why they are using them.
➢ Benefits of market segmentation are as follows:
• Allowing managers to identify customer groups with the product market (sporting event)
• Having buyers’ similar requirements regarding the sport product
• Giving marketers an opportunity to tailor-make their products and capabilities to the buyers’ value
requirements
• Increasing customer satisfaction

Positioning

➢ It refers to how a sport customer perceives the sport product relative to competitive offerings
➢ When using positioning as a marketing strategy the marketers are:
• Allowing customers to experience life in their own terms
• Motivating customers within group status by avoiding attractions linked to group consumptions as in
segmentation
• Allowing individuals to define sport as unique
• Giving customers a sense of personal accomplishment and excitement

Pricing

➢ This is the most flexible and quickest of all the strategies to change
➢ Customers are concerned about the value they obtain versus the amount they have to spend
➢ Price reflects the value of the product or service. This means if the ticket fee to watch a live hockey
match is perceived too much by customers they will opt other alternatives that can satisfy them e.g. they
can watch them match on TV
➢ There is need for tactical presentation of the price to the consumer e.g. renaming or substituting the
word price with words like league fee, commission, admission fee, registration fee

Definition of terms

a) A licensing fee – the price a sports clothing organization pays to sell a T-shirt with the team’s logo on it
b) The ticket charge – the fee laid down as a requirement to enter a facility and watch a match
c) A membership fee – the price one pays to become a member of an organization
d) Admission – the price to enter into an event
e) A league fee – the amount of money a club has to pay to enter and participate in a league
f) A sponsorship fee – what a corporate organization pays to be the sponsor of a sporting event or team
g) Registration fee – the price paid for an athlete to attend a coaching clinic
h) A signing bonus – is part of the price a professional team pays to assure the services of a player from one
of the feeder unions
i) A salary – money that a club pays for the services of coaches and players

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j) Commission – is the extra bonus-oriented price a sport marketing organization would pay its sales people
for their services

QUESTIONS

1. What makes sport marketing unique? A. sport organization compete against each other but have to work
together B. sport is not a business C. sport is wasteful D. sport does not have universal impact
2. State what percentage sport sponsoring accounts for at professional club level A. 60% B. 70% C. 80% D.
90%
3. From the following sport models below which one is not a sport funding model A. sponsorship B. media
rights C. local authorities D. Coca Cola company
4. In Europe which companies sponsor football league ( EPL) A. castle lager B. Kwese TV C, Multi-Choice TV
D. Heineken and Amstel
5. ………….is a TV house based in Zimbabwe A. SABC-TV B. Super-sport TV C. ZBC TV D. Mbare TV
6. Name the type of fee paid in order for clubs to have the opportunity to enjoy live screening or coverage
of their sporting events A. admission fee B. ticket charge C. broadcasting fee D. league fee
7. Which of the following clubs is owned by a local council A. Dynamos FC B. Hwange FC C.
Highlanders FC D. Bulawayo city FC
8. Which one of the following which does not constitute the 4Ps of the marketing mix A. place B. price C.
people D. promotion
9. Define a league fee [2]
10. Briefly define sport marketing [2]
11. State ways in which sport marketing is regarded unique [2]
12. List benefits of sport marketing to the corporate organization sponsoring sport [2]
13. List any four sport funding models [4]
14. Differentiate marketing mix from marketing strategy [4]
15. Briefly explain segmentation as a marketing strategy [3]

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SPORT ENTERPRISE

What is a club?

➢ It is a organization composed of people who voluntarily meet on a regular basis for a mutual purpose
➢ A club normally promotes good fellowship and social intercourse, based on educational religious,
charitable or financial reasons

The club concept

➢ The essence of having a club is to cultivate social activities interaction, stimulating a positive environment
for sharing developmental ideas for the benefit of society.
➢ Some clubs are formed for profit making while others are non-profit making

Types of clubs

➢ There are several clubs raging from social activities clubs, political, religious, ad sports clubs
➢ Some clubs are operational I school setups while others are community based
➢ Club members often take part in the club activities on a voluntary basis
1. Social activities club
✓ It caters for various social aspects like charity work, fishing and hunting
✓ It hinges upon common interests, hobbies occupation or activities among the club members
2. Political club
✓ Members of a political club are often brought together by virtue of belonging to the same political party
or interest in the leadership of a particular political leader
3. Religious club
✓ This is a club whereby members meet to pray, praise and share the Word. This is because they share the
same beliefs
✓ For example, a Christian union club may be formed by virtue of believing in the same God
4. Sports clubs
✓ This is a sporting club, formed for the purpose of playing sport.
✓ Members may play together or engage similar clubs in competitively sport occasionally
5. Service club
✓ It aims at promoting community welfare and goodwill
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Reasons for forming sports clubs

• To bring together people with a shared interest, so they can achieve their dreams together
• To help develop and nurture sporting talent
• For community development
• To provide essential social services
• For entertainment purposes

Basic requirements of a club

• A club name
• A physical address
• A constitution
• A mission statement
• A list of members
• An organogram

Steps to follow when forming a club

i) Identify the club’s objectives

ii) Determine the club’s structure
iii) Define your membership clearly
iv) Outline the financial structure
v) Design a periodic strategic plan, for example five year strategic plan
1. Identifying the club’s objective
• Why form a club?
• What are your long-term goals for the club?
• Will you hold events?
• Will you raise funds?
• Will you offer services or resources to members?
• Will you be charging membership fees?
2. Outlining the leadership structure
• Chairperson
• Vice – chairperson
• Treasurer
• Secretary
• Committee members

Duties of leadership members

a) The chairperson
✓ Stands as the key leader or representative who can lead the club and act as a spokesperson
✓ Can be called president, board chair or resolving meeting leader
b) Vice – chairperson

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 ✓ This person holds a supportive role that offers back up for the chairperson. In the absence of the chair,
he/she takes over his/her leadership role
c) Treasurer
✓ Responsible for keeping track of club moneys, fees, expenses, payment of bills.
✓ It is also their duty to keep all the financial records of the club
d) Secretary
✓ This is the communications manager
✓ Their role is to write meeting minutes, draft objectives, keeping track of goals for activities, dates for
gatherings, sending out meeting reminders and invitations and many other duties assigned by the chair
e) Committee member
✓ They often come in to assist with other operations of the club

A club organogram

➢ It is a club’s hierarchy or committee structure that is set to ensure the club is run smoothly and effectively

Sport and recreation

➢ Sport is any physical activity demanding physical exertion and skill, while recreation is an activity of
leisure.
➢ Recreational activities are usually done for enjoyment, amusement or pleasure and are considered to be
fun.

Organization of the Sports and Recreation in Zimbabwe

➢ The department was formed in 1991 and operates under the then Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture
➢ The ministry appoints the Board of Commissioners in the SRC

SRC mandate

➢ It facilitate the accessibility of sports and recreation programmes to the people of Zimbabwe
➢ In overseeing the running of the sport and recreation programmes in the country

Structure of Administration

➢ At secretariat level, the SRC is led by the Director General who is assisted by three Directors in running
the affairs of the commission

These directors are:

a) Director Sport development

b) Director Business Development
c) Director corporate service

Programmes run by the SRC

• Zimbabwe National Youth Games

• Zimbabwe National Paralympic Games
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 • Youth Education through Sport Initiative
• Community Sport Development Programme
• Sports Governance
• Development and High performance Programmes
• Zimbabwe Sports Hall of Fame

Facilities

➢ The SRC has the responsibility to develop, supervise and manage sporting facilities in Zimbabwe
➢ These are some of the facilities in Zimbabwe, that the SRC is responsible for:
• Magamba hockey stadium
• The national sports stadium
• Chitungwiza aquatic Sports complex
➢ The SRC Commission also works with National Sports Governing Bodies like NAAZ, ZIFA, ZC

Stakeholders in sport and recreation

➢ These are individuals or organizations whose attitudes and actions influence the success of a sports
team, participant or entire sport.
➢ These stakeholders include athletes, sponsors, spectators, media, participants, community, civic and
political leaders as well as businesses.
1. Participants
➢ These are fundamental stakeholders in sport and recreation.
➢ The government even recognizes these participants for they do not only make names for themselves
sometimes but for the nation
2. Spectators
➢ These are uniquely important, for participants and clubs in sports need them.
➢ Clubs and teams raise revenue through these spectators
➢ Players get moral support that motivates them to perform better in sport
3. Governing Bodies
➢ They set rules for different sports and ensure they are followed.
➢ They also train the coaches and officials in their sporting disciplines
➢ They work with SRC towards the development of their respective sports.
➢ They lobby government to attract financial support, negotiate broadcasting rights and also sponsorship
deals on behalf of their teams
4. Community
➢ The community is influential in sport in a number of ways.
➢ Teams aim to attract participants, spectators and volunteers from the community.
➢ The building of new sporting facilities or holding major events calls for community participation and
support
➢ Sport comes in with noise and traffic congestion that may inconvenience a community unless they are
fully understanding and supportive
5. Business and the corporate world
➢ These come in with pivotal sponsorship deals that give a financial boost to sport.
➢ Teams and participants sometimes have to depend on sponsorship in order to fulfill international
competitions

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 6. The government
➢ A government that supports sport is the best for any nation that values fitness and health for its citizens
➢ They budget and provide financial resources for the development of sport infrastructure and
development
➢ The government recognizes the participants , the media and puts in place a sports Commission to ensure
that sport is done in the country and citizens benefit from it
➢ The government makes policies that support sport

The club constitution and the law

➢ A constitution is a body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which an

organization is acknowledged to be governed
➢ A constitution is a law determining the fundamental principles of a club

Steps to follow when forming a club constitution

• Name of the club

• Club purpose and objectives
• Club membership, eligibility, requirements, rights/ privileges
• Club meetings
• The club executive board
• Club elections
• Club finances
• Committees or divisions
• Affiliations
• Coach/ instructor/ resource person
• Ratification – explain how the constitution will be approved by the members of the club
• Amendments
• Rules and regulations

QUESTIONS

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ADVENTURE GAMES: CAMPING

➢ A camp is an outdoor place acting as temporary accommodation. This can be tents or other temporary
structures
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 ➢ There are a number of activities that can be done during camping, for recreational, for fitness or for sport
and these activities include climbing and abseiling

Climbing

➢ It involves balance, movement and efficiency of motion

Effective climbing depends on your ability to:

• Use your feet

• Maintain balance
• Climb efficiently

Climbing techniques

• Edging
• Lay-backing
• Stemming
• Smearing

Edging

➢ It is best used for navigating narrow footholds

➢ You must place the outer or inner edge of your shoe on the clear hold, like a wrinkle, a flake or a nub in the
rock
➢ This position should be used to step off into your next move

Lay-back

➢ It used for climbing up cracks and corners

➢ You should grasp your hands (arms straight) and push against the wall
➢ Keep your hands in place and slowly walk up the surface
➢ Lay-backing is when you pull and lean off one side of flake or crack and push your feet against the other
side

Stemming

➢ It is most effective for manoeuvering up wide crevasses

➢ It is pushing against two opposing surfaces
➢ Press your feet and hands on opposite walls

Smearing

➢ Is best used for scaling a smooth surface

➢ Use the friction between your sticky, rubber-soled shoes and the rock by pushing your toes down against
the wall.
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 ➢ Climbing shoes let you grip a flat wall like a gecko

Indoor climbing

➢ Indoor climbing is done on specially designed walls that have protrusions that aid as holds for the climber

Indoor climbing techniques

• Back step
• Drop knee
• Flagging
• Mantle
• Undercling
• Side pull
• Gaston
• Palming

Abseiling

➢ It is a controlled descent off a vertical drop such as a rock face, using a fixed rope
➢ It is mainly used by climbers when a cliff is too steep or dangerous to descend without protection
➢ It is also called rappelling

Equipment used in abseiling

• Ropes
• Anchors for abseiling
• Descenders – they are also called rappelling devices
• Climbing harness
• Auto block knot
• Helmets
• Gloves
• Boots
• Knee and elbow pads

Techniques in abseiling

• Australian rappel – it involves descending facing down

• Tandem or spider rappelling – it involves two climbers descending on the same belay device. Mainly done
in rescue situations when one climber is incapacitated
• Simultaneously rappelling – it when two climbers descend at the same time using the same rope or using
two ropes tied together
• Counterbalance rappelling – it is used by a leader to reach an injured second
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 • Releasable abseil – it is used with inexperienced abseiler
• Classical abseiling (non-mechanical method) – it involves descending without the aid of mechanical
devices, wrapping the rope around the body. It is dangerous and used only in emergencies when no other
option is available
• Fireman’s belay – a method to backup an abseil by a partner on the ground who is able to pull down the
rope from below to arrest the descent. A safety technique, particularly for inexperienced abseilers

ORIENTEERING

Team building

➢ It is the act of improving and maximizing a group of people who collaborate or work together to achieve a
common goal
Stages in team building
STAGE DESCRIPTION
Forming • Define team, individual roles, task and
strategy
• Develop trust, communication and norms
Storming • Realization of task difficulty
• Fluctuation in attitude about chances of
success and poor collaboration
Norming • Members accepts team and individuality of
fellow members
• Members start helping each other
Performing • Teams are able to function as a unit as they
find ways to get the job done smoothly and
effectively without in appropriate conflict

Factors to consider in successful team performance (SCORE)

S – strategy

C – clear roles and responsibilities

O – open communication

R – rapid response

E – effective leadership

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Team building activities

➢ There are four main types which are communication activities, problem solving and decision making,
adaptability and planning activities and activities that focus on building trust

Activities

Sports relay races

Tug of war

Sports hot potato

✓ Teams must stand in a circle and throw, kick or pass the ball to one another
✓ Every time a pass is complete, they take one step backwards
✓ As the circle gets larger, the game become more difficult
✓ After a couple of minutes, the biggest wins

Human knot

✓ Another exercise that goes big on communication and teamwork, the human knot gets team members
working together to solve problems
✓ With the group standing in a circle, each person grabs a hand across from them.
✓ When all hands are connected, the circle should resemble one big mess of hands that teams must work
their way out of the without letting go.
✓ This activity builds problem solving as a team and relies on communication in a sensible, concise manner

Leadership

➢ It is a process whereby an individual influence a group of individuals to achieve a common goal

Principles of leadership

• Know yourself and seek self-improvement

• Be technically proficient
• Seek responsibilities and take responsibility for your actions
• Make sound and timely decisions
• Set the example
• Know your teammates and look out for their well-being
• Keep your teammates informed
• Develop a sense of responsibility in your teammates
• Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised and accomplished
• Use the full capacity of your team

Collaboration

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 ➢ It is to work together with others to achieve a common goal
➢ In team sports their success is banked on their collaboration skills

Collaboration skills

• Willingness to work together

• Readiness to collaborate through education, maturity and prior experience
• Understand your own limits and boundaries
• There should be effective communication (speaking and listening)
• You should trust one another
• You should be committed to working together

How a team can a develop collaboration skills

• Clarification of values and expectations at the beginning

• Keeping the commitment and activities simple at first
• Prioritise clear communication
• Get to know each other
• Being clear on personal and team needs
• Avoid conflict
• Clearly define the roles of the participants
• It should be fun and interesting

QUESTIONS

1. Which component is crucial for climbers? A. balance B. edging C. smearing D. lay-back

2. Which of the following is not a climbing technique? A. edging B. lay-back C. abseiling D. smearing
3. What is the best technique for climbing up cracks and corners? A. stemming B. lay-back C. edging
D. smearing
4. For climbing smooth surfaces, the best techniques is……….A. stemming B. lay-back C. edging D.
smearing
5. Flagging is ………….. A. counter balancing by using a limb to shift your weight B. when you push down on a
hold and bring feet up to meet hands C. an undercling when you use the underside of a hold D. any hold
that is oriented for a sideways pull
6. What is the inverse of a side pull? A. palming B. gaston C. undercling D. side pull
7. Ropes, descenders, auto block knots and climbing harness are equipment for? A. abseiling B. climbing
C. team building D. sportsmanship
8. ………………..can be used as safety back-up in case the abseiler loses control of the abseil A. boots B.
climbing harness C. auto-block knot D. knee pads
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 9. What is the performing state in team building? A. teams are able to work as a unit B. members
accept team and individuality of fellow members C.realisation of task difficulty D. define team, individual
roles task and strategy
10. A process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal is called………
A. innovation B. collaboration C. leadership D. critical thinking
11. Which one is not a skill for innovation?
I) Subject based
II) Behavioural and social
III) Thinking and creativity
IV) Inference A. i B. ii C. iii D. iv
12. How many skills are needed by an athlete to become a critical thinker? A. 2 B. 6 C. 4 D. 10
13. The ability of a team to work together is called…… A. collaboration B. innovation C. critical thinking D.
team building
14. Define the technique of abseiling which involves descending facing down? A. rappelling B. tandem C.
Australian rappelling D. counter balance rappelling
15. Which aspect is a common team building, collaboration and leadership technique A. skill B. time C.
communication D. balance
16. What are the three determinants of effective climbing? [3]
17. Give four techniques used in indoor climbing [4]
18. Define the following terms a) edging b) abseiling [4]
19. List four items of equipment used in abseiling [4]
20. Define the following terms i) team building ii) innovation iii) collaboration [6]
21. What does SCORE stand for in team building performance [5]
22. Give any two principles of leadership [2]

MASS DISPLAYS

➢ Mass as a terminology suggests a huge gathering or group or a large number.

➢ Display refers to a show or spectacle.
➢ It is an artistic performance in which large numbers of people perform as a unit bringing out the aesthetic
value of sound, movement and art.

Purpose of mass displays

• Fostering a collective spirit in a nation

• Promoting good health for the performers
• Expressing the people’s past and present
• Providing entertainment at gatherings

History of mass displays

➢ The origins of these displays can be traced from as early as 776 BC in ancient Greece when the Olympic
Games began
➢ In these games gymnastics were the main attraction
➢ In ancient African history mass displays were performed in the form of dancing

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History of MDs in Zimbabwe

➢ MDs have been provided for through plays and games that are unique to the diversified cultures in the
country
➢ MDs have provided good health, productivity and entertainment in Zimbabwe
➢ After 54 instructors were trained by experts in Korea in 1982, modern MDs came into form
➢ MDs are now being used in official opening ceremonies at sporting events, traditional ceremonies in
some societies, national days’ celebrations

Components of mass displays

1. Music
➢ It is an art form, created by organizing of pitch, rhythm and sound made by musical instruments and
sometimes singing
➢ Music is used to conduct the gymnastics or dance in an arena
➢ It is also used as background music
➢ Music guides speed and movement of performers
➢ The choice of music in a display is determined by the theme of the event

2. Arena displays or gymnastics

➢ Gymnastics is a performance of sequence of movements requiring physical strength, flexibility and
kinesthetic awareness
➢ The gymnastics performances may include traditional dance, the gymnastics, the aerobics, traditional
games and sport
➢ Some gymnastics are performed using apparatus

Theme Apparatus
Agriculture good harvest Winnowing baskets
Sport excellence Balls, ropes
Liberation struggle Riffle, spears
Culture Bows and arrows
Machinery Cartwheels and human towers

3. Background art
➢ It gives meaning to all other parts of the performance
➢ The main purpose of background art is to interpret and explain the gymnastics and music being
displayed.
➢ There is the use of wording, colours and patterns by artists.
➢ Consider the following: the people’s history, colours, designs, pattern of the society and the type of act
being displayed

THEMES FOR CHOREOGRAPHY

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 ➢ A theme is the main subject of MD performance and it is derived from the type of event for the
performance
➢ In ancient times displays were done at ceremonial celebrations of special functions. Some of the
ceremonies included
• Harvesting ceremonies
• Adulthood initiation ceremonies
• Inauguration ceremonies
• Birth and death ceremonies
• Victory ceremonies
• War preparation ceremonies
• Courtship
➢ A theme was created in accordance to the event to be displayed at or even the audience to be
entertained
Event Theme
Price giving day/ graduation day Education for all or excellence in education
Sports day A healthy body through sport
Inter-schools sports competitions Sports diversified
Community celebrations (independence day) Freedom, peace, work
SASSAF, CASSAF, DASSAF Unpacking learners potential

Choreography

➢ It is the art or job of deciding how dancers will move in a performance and /or the movements that are
done by dancers in a performance

Types of choreography

a) Free style – less complex, generic, looser in structure and more repetitions
b) Structured style – specific structured, sophisticated and complex movements

Factors to consider when choreographing

• Theme of the event

• Gymnastics to be performed
• Apparatus to be used in the act

FORMATIONS

➢ It is the way in which a moving group of people or things is organized into a particular shape or pattern
➢ MD trainers should come up with formations first before gestures
➢ There are types of formations that is simple(basic) and complex(symbolic) formations

a) Simple formations
➢ These include exercise formations, files, columns, oblique, circles and squares
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 i) Exercise formations
✓ It is when the gymnasts are standing at their exercising points.
✓ The exercise point is where the gymnast or performer stands as his/ her starting position
✓ It is 2.5m from the next gymnast either directions
✓ All other formations simple or complex are derived from the exercise formation
✓ Exercise points are arranged in files and columns

Fig. 1 exercise points

b) File formation – these are vertical lines of gymnasts or performers, concentrated one behind the other
c) Column formation – these are horizontal lines of gymnasts or performers, concentrated abreast
d) Oblique formations – these are lines at 450 to the horizontal of gymnasts or performers concentrated in
line of that angle

Fig. 3 an oblique formation

e) Circle formations – this is a circle of gymnasts or performers concentrated along the line of the circle
f) Square formation – these are the square of gymnasts or performers concentrated along the sides of the
square

Symbolic or complicated formations

i) Star formation – this is a combination of columns and obliques

ii) Flower formation – complicated in that most of the participants fall outside datum points

BACKGROUND AND PERFORMING MUSIC

➢ Music is art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organised in time.
➢ Elements of music include: rhythm, pitch, dynamics, sonic qualities of timbre and texture
➢ Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques ranging from singing to
rapping

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 ➢ Rhythm is the aspect of music comprising of all the elements such as accent, meter and tempo that relate
to forward movement

Musical beats and tempo

➢ They indicate change of one formation to the next formation using crotchet or drumbeat
• 2 over 2 is a quick tempo
• 1 to 8 is a full bar
• 1 to 4 is a half bar
• 4 over 4 is normal tempo which is usually used for marching and dancing

Counting beats

64 beat counts

➢ The next step is to divide it into beats for each of the performance from entry to exit. participants will be
aware, e.g. that each bar they should change into another activity which is a progression of what was
happening before the half beat
➢ For example, counts such as: 1,2,3,4 represent a half bar, then 5,6,7,8 represent another bar

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (16 counts)

3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (32 counts)

5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

6 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (48 counts)

7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (64 counts)

Background art

➢ It is the dictionary of the whole performance

Sketch plain paper ………design paper ……… graph extension paper ………Background art book

➢ The artists transfer the picture onto a design paper which a scale drawing of the actual picture
➢ Each box on the graph extension paper represents an art book
➢ The books are numbered so that each performer maintains his/her position

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 ➢ Hundreds of art books with painted themes are mounted in the grand stand behind the gymnasts
➢ The grand stand is the sitting area at a stadium. The books are opened at the same time page by page to
show the painted themes
➢ The music and the arena display correspond with the messages on the background art
➢ The grand finale is the conclusion of the display
➢ For background art, apart from the art books you can also use art boards, manila sheets, or improvise with
banners

Steps in making background art

➢ Sketch on plain paper

➢ Transfer sketch to design paper
➢ Transfer image to extension paper
➢ Finally transfer image to A3 background book

QUESTIONS

1. How many Zimbabwean MDs trainers were trained in Korean A. 24 B. 34 C. 44 D. 54

2. In which year were the Zimbabwean trainers trained in Korea for MDs A. 1980 B.1880 C. 1982 D. 1882
3. Which of the following is not a component of mass displays A. arena B. music C. gymnastics D. art
4. What guides the speed and movement of performers in a display A. calendars B. music C. routine
D. art
5. Motions of limbs or the body are called………………… A gestures B. choreography C. acts D. themes
6. …………………is a unit or complete activity that is found within the country A. routine B. oblique C. motion D.
chapter
7. A routine is………… A. a theme of an event B. a type of choreography used C. a course of action to be
followed regularly D. story line
8. Which one is a characteristic of a free-style choreography A. generic B. specific C. structured D.
sophisticated
9. What are the types of formations A. gestures and acts B. basic and symbolic C. horizontal and vertical D.
stars and circles
10. What is the distance between exercise points A.1.5m B. 2.5m C. 3.5m D. 4.5m
11. …………are lines of gymnasts, concentrated one behind the other. A. oblique B. column C. file D. star
12. Oblique formations have lines at……………to the horizontal of the gymnasts A. 150 B.900 C. 600 D. 450
13. What formations are a combination of columns and obliques A. circle B. file C. square D. star
14. Traditional songs can be used for what type of act A. sports B. culture C. agriculture D.
independence
15. What is a MD A. it is a religious ceremony B. it is a form of feast C. it is an activity which is native to Africa
D. is a spectacular performance conducted to celebrate a particular theme
16. Which country has greatly influenced the introduction of MDs in Zimbabwe A. USA B. China C. Japan D.
Korea
17. What is the basic formation in MD A. circles and squares B. symbols and short columns C. files and
columns D. stars and rectangles
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18. What name is given to the exercise point at which a performer is assigned during a performance A.
exercise point B. linear point C. column point D. performance point
19. Movement in a performance is guided by……….. A. audience B. time C. counts D. performance
20. What name is given to objects that are used in the arena during a performance A. flags B. sticks C.
props D. costumes
21. Background art is usually displayed from the ……. A. podium B. ground C. grand finale D. grand stand
22. Red, blue and yellow are………….. A. bold colours B. simple colours C. secondary colours D. primary
colours
23. The selection of background art is based on….. A. fitness levels B. costumes C. props D. themes
24. Grand finale comes……… A. at the beginning of an act B. before an act C. at the end of an act D. after the
act
25. A grand stand is used for……….A. background music B. arena choreography C. background art D.
gymnastics
26. MDs were introduced in the PESMDs curriculum in………. A. 1980 B. 1975 C.1982 D. 2015
27. Jerusalema and………… are traditional dances A. clucks B. rhumba C. freestyle D. mhande
28. Define MDs [2]
29. State 3 reasons why people participate in MDs [3]
30. Outline the development of MDs in Zimbabwe [2]
31.
Event Theme
Price giving day/ graduation day ……………………………..
Sports day ……………………………
Inter-schools sports competitions …………………………………..
Community celebrations (independence day) …………………………………….
SASSAF, CASSAF, DASSAF ………………………………
Field day ………………………….
ZIMASSET …………………..

32. Give three factors to consider when choosing a theme [3]

33. Define choreography [2]
34. What is an arena [2]
35. What does the acronym BPM stand for [1]
36. Define the following terms i) gestures ii) theme iii) exercise point iv) Act [8]
37. Give 2 factors to consider when formulating gestures [2]
38.

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EDUCATIONAL GYMNASTICS

➢ It is a sport practiced by men and women that requires balance, strength, flexibility, agility, coordination,
endurance and control
➢ Gymnastics evolved from exercise used by the ancient Greeks that included skills for mounting and
dismounting a horse, and from circus performance skills
➢ The world governing body for competitive gymnastics is the Federation of International Gymnastics (FIG)
which was founded in 1881
➢ Women’s events include vault, uneven bars, balance beam, and floor exercise
➢ Men’s events include floor exercise, pommel horse, still rings, vault, parallel and horizontal bars
➢ Gymnastics is a three-pronged competitive discipline which covers artistic, rhythmic and trampoline
➢ Artistic and trampoline gymnastics are a part of male and female competitions
➢ Rhythmic gymnastics is open only to females
➢ Artistic gymnastics – it is divided into men’s and women’s gymnastics
➢ Rhythmic gymnastics – gymnasts compete on a mat about 12.5m2. They perform choreographed
movements set to music, some acrobatic movements are allowed. No flight elements such as flips and
handsprings are allowed
➢ Trampoline – gymnasts bounce up and down while performing somersaults or twists and any other
movements. Gymnasts can bounce up to 9m high, some gymnasts have been known to stay in the air for
up to two seconds

Safety in gymnastics

• Selection of apparatus – proper and best quality equipment

• Care and repair of apparatus – broken & faulty equipment must be repaired
• Use of mats for protection -
• Use of mats for spotting – in dangerous stunts like somersaults

Components of fitness for gymnastics

• Flexibility – the ability to move/ bend joints in wide range of motion with ease and withou t injury
• Strength – is the ability of a muscular unit or combination of muscular units to apply force
• Agility – is the ability to transition between several positions efficiently and quickly
• Endurance – is the muscle’s ability to continuously perform without getting tired
• Body composition – a precise body mass measurement of fat and muscle

Movement patterns in gymnastics

1. Landing
➢ Proper landing technique helps reduce the force of landings
➢ Safe landing techniques include the following:
i) Knees slightly bent to absorb the impact of landing
ii) Straight spine to keep the neck stable and prevent falling forward
iii) Arms extended to the front, straight and level with the heart in order to keep chest up on the landing

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 2. Balancing

Single balances

3. Locomotion
➢ It is the movement from one place to another
➢ This can be achieved using the following techniques:
• Walking leaping frog jumps
• Crawling galloping
• Tip toe walking one leg jumps
• Skipping two leg jumps
• Spinning bear walks
• Walk on your heels cartwheel
• Long jump backward roll
• Tuck jumps forward roll

Gymnastics team composition, judges and scoring

➢ Each team has 7 members. 6 members compete in each event

➢ Judges score each member’s performance using a 10 point scale
➢ A 10 is the highest score a judge can give
➢ For each event highest 5 scores on each team are added together
➢ The team with the highest overall score for all events wins the competition

QUESTIONS

1. ……………is the ability to continuously perform without getting fatigue A. flexibility B. endurance
2. When was the Federation of International Gymnastics formed? A. 1881 B. 1891 C.1981 D. 1991
3. Which one is not a type of balance A. upright B. cartwheel C. inverted D. symmetrical

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 4. Which one is not a type of a spring skill in educational gymnastics A. handspring B. headspring C. elbow
spring D. neck spring
5. Define a hula hoop [2]
6. Describe a trampoline performance [2]
7. How would you describe an acrobatic event [2]
8. Only women can take part in……………..gymnastics [1]
9. Why is warming up before activities important [2]
10. Define the terms: i) stunt ii) dismount [4]
11. Name any three floor exercises [3]
12. List any three the apparatus used in gymnastics [3]
13. Gymnasts apply powder on their hands when performing vaulting stunts. What are the reasons for doing
that
14. Which components are tested in gymnastics

INVASION GAMES

➢ They are characterized by teams scoring when they move an implement into the opposing team’s zone.
➢ They include fast moving activity , frequently involve physical contact

Skills in invasion games

➢ Sending an object
➢ Receiving an object
➢ Dodging
➢ Change of direction
➢ Travelling in multiple directions
➢ Speed and agility
➢ Space awareness
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 ➢ Change of speed
➢ Anticipation
➢ Footwork

Strategies in invasion games

1. Offensive
✓ Maintain possession
✓ Avoid defensive players
✓ Create space for team mates
✓ Create space for your self
✓ Attack goal
✓ Teamwork / cooperation
2. Defensive
✓ Defend goal
✓ Defend space
✓ Gain possession
✓ Defensive positioning
✓ Playing area coverage
✓ Predicting opponents move
✓ Teamwork / cooperation

Common tactics

✓ To create space while invading your opponent’s territory

✓ To contain space while the opposition is invading your territory
✓ To use a net, goal or target for scoring purposes

Safety measures

✓ Ensure playing area is cleared and safe from obstacles

✓ Wear the appropriate clothing
✓ Practice proper techniques of the game
✓ Safe use of equipments
✓ Communicate with teammates to avoid collisions

Types of invasion games

✓ Floor ball
✓ Rugby
✓ Hockey (field & ice)
✓ Handball
✓ Football
✓ Lacrosse
✓ Basketball
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 ✓ Bandy

HANDBALL

➢ It is a team sport which is played by two teams of seven players each

➢ A handball team card has 14 players
➢ Players pass the ball using their hands with the aim of attacking the opponent’s goal to score
➢ A standard match of handball is played two periods of 30 minutes
➢ The team that scores more goals become the winner
➢ The game maybe played as an indoor or outdoor sport
➢ The court measures 40m long by 20m wide
➢ It is a very fast and high scoring game
➢ Body contact is permitted by defenders trying to stop attackers from approaching the goal.
➢ It is played by both males and females in separate teams
➢ The International Handball Federation (IHF) was formed in 1946
➢ The IHF has a membership of over 197 member federation

Playing the game

Player positions:

✓ Goalkeeper Left back

✓ Right forward Pivot
✓ Left forward Center back
✓ Right back

Techniques in handball

✓ They include the following:

Passing, catching the ball, shooting, dribbling, feints, goalkeeping

1. Passing

➢ A pass must be accurate, fast and tactically useful.

➢ The receiving player must not have difficulties in catching the ball

Types of passes

1. Standing 2. Bounce 3. Hook 4.chest 5. Overhead 6. Ground roller 7.

jump (preliminary stride)

Overhead pass

Coaching points
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 ✓ In the over arm pass the angle of the elbow is about 90 degrees
✓ For the right handed players the left foot is in front pointing forward and the passer stands in a broad
standing position
✓ The right foot should point outward causing the body to turn the side against the direction of the pass
✓ The little finger and the thumb are used to direct the ball

2. Side pass
✓ It is important that the player is able to hold the ball with the back of the hand turned upwards
without losing it

Shooting

➢ The objective of attacking the goal is to score

Types of shots
✓ Jump shot
✓ Dive
✓ Underarm shot
✓ Reverse shot
✓ Side throw
✓ Lob shot
✓ Penalty shot

Jump Shot

✓ The thrower receives, takes three steps or without run-up and takes a very strong take off from the left
leg (right hander)
✓ The right hand with the ball is taken very high and far back
✓ At the peak of the jump the upper body straightens up and the body stretches
✓ The throw follows at the peak of the jump
✓ The thrower lands on the left leg

Dive Shot

✓ Straddle position (about shoulder width apart)

✓ Draw back movement of the arm, the knees are bent forward
✓ The body is stretched the forward fall begins
✓ The throwing arm shoulder is brought forward as arm movement follows
✓ After the shot a landing on the chest is performed or both palms cushion the fall

Dribbling /Bouncing

✓ The dribbling hand should be open, the fingers slightly spread

✓ The movement comes from wrist and the lower arm
✓ The hand is moved up and down in such a manner that it adjusts the movement of the ball
✓ The ball is controlled at the side of the body at waist height
✓ The ball is dribbled in a forward direction

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Tactics

➢ They are divided into individual, group and team efforts

Attacking tactics

1. individual tactics
✓ running maneuver
✓ feinting
✓ visual communication with team mates
✓ playing discipline
✓ penalty throws
2. Group tactics
✓ Change of position
✓ Blocking
✓ Free throw
✓ Fast break/ counter attack

3. Team
✓ Order of space
✓ Fast break/ counter attack
✓ Free throw
✓ Substitution

Defending tactics

1. Individual
✓ Readiness for defense
✓ Adapting into the defense formations
✓ Facing opponent disturbing
✓ Blocking and gaining possession of the ball
2. Group
✓ Handing and taking on
✓ Stepping out
✓ Going back
✓ Defense of counter attack
3. Team
✓ Zone defense
✓ Cooperation with the goal keeper
✓ Defense formations ( 6:0, 5:1, 4:2, 3:3)

Fair play in handball

➢ Players are expected to follow codes of fair play that include the qualities listed below

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 ✓ Respect rules of the game
✓ Respecting officials and accepting their decisions
✓ Respecting the opponents
✓ Providing all participants with equal opportunities
✓ Maintaining dignity under all circumstances

Football

➢ In some areas of the world football is referred to as soccer

➢ Football is played on a large field commonly known as a pitch
➢ The maximum football pitch measures 120m long by 60m wide and the minimum pitch measures 90m by
45m
➢ A regulation game consists of two 45-minute periods played between 2 teams of 11 players each
➢ A football team card has 18 players
➢ Each team defends a goal and tries to score in the opponent’s goal
➢ England is regarded as the birthplace of our modern-day football
➢ The world governing body of football is known as Federation International de Football Association (FIFA)
➢ During the colonial period the white community in Rhodesia held football competitions amongst
themselves

System of play

➢ It refers to each player’s role with the team

➢ It is collective organization of 10 field players and a goalkeeper
➢ Field players are identified as :

1. Defenders 2. Midfielders 3. Forwards

➢ System of play also known as formations, the first number refers to the defenders, the second number to
the midfielders and the third to the forwards e.g. 2-3-5 formation

Techniques

Passing

➢ It is the art of kicking or hitting the ball to another player

Qualities of a good pass

✓ Accuracy
✓ Weight or pacing the ball
✓ Timing of the release of the ball
✓ Pass selection
✓ Disguise

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Classes of pass

➢ They are classified into two categories i.e. ground pass and the lofted pass
1. Ground passes
a) Push pass
b) Instep
c) Passing with outside of foot

Push pass

➢ The ball is passed with the inside of the foot.

➢ It is a ground pass that is effective over short distances with accuracy

Coaching points

✓ The kicking foot is turned outward so that the side of foot makes contact with the ball at right angle to the
line of the pass
✓ The angle must be firm
✓ The contact of the foot on the ball should be through the horizontal mid-line of the ball
✓ To keep the ball on the ground, keep your head down, lean over the ball (your weight forward)
✓ Always keep your eyes on the ball
✓ The non kicking foot should be placed on the side of the ball not behind it
✓ Follow through after you strike the ball

The instep pass

➢ It is mainly suitable for medium pass, long pass and shooting

➢ It requires more practice than the push pass

Coaching points

✓ The kicking foot contacts the ball through the mid-line for a straight pass
✓ The toes of kicking foot must point down toward the ground
✓ The non kicking foot alongside the ball
✓ The eyes should be focused on the ball
✓ Arms should be well spread to maintain balance
✓ Make a follow through after striking the ball

Passing with the outside of the foot

➢ It is used to flick the ball over short distances or to swerve the ball over long distances while under
pressure
➢ It is used at high level

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 2. Lofted pass (volleys)
➢ There are three basic techniques for passing the ball in the air namely :
✓ The lofted drive
✓ The volley
✓ The chip

The lofted drive

✓ The kicking foot should make contact with the ball through the mid-line and the bottom half of the ball
✓ The ankle should be extended and firm
✓ The non kicking foot should be slightly on the side of the ball and behind it
✓ Arms should be well spread to maintain balance
✓ The body leans slightly backwards
✓ Make a follow through

The chip pass

Coaching points

✓ The kicking foot should contact the ball on the point where it touches the ground
✓ The heel should be kept down so that the foot is horizontal, parallel to the ground
✓ The non kicking foot should be closely placed on the side of the ball
✓ The eyes should be focused on the

Ball control

➢ It is the receiving or interrupting the trajectory of the ball, but keeping it within playing distance
protecting it from an opponent
➢ The ball can be controlled by any part of the body .i.e. the foot, thigh, chest or head except hands
➢ The ball can be controlled in 2 ways :
1. The wedge- the ball is wedged between the controlling surface and the ground .e.g. when using the sole
of the foot
2. The cushion-the controlling surface is withdrawn on impact

Coaching points

✓ An early decision should be made to select the controlling surface

✓ The controlling should be relaxed as well as the entire body and mind

Shooting

➢ It is the most important aspect of the game

➢ It is initiated from passing as well as controlling the ball
➢ There is preparation, execution and follow through in the shooting action

Coaching points

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 ✓ Observe the position of the goalkeeper
✓ Select the best area of the goal to aim at
✓ Work on accuracy
✓ Maintain the head down and steady for contact on the ball
✓ Strike through the middle or top half of the ball

Heading

✓ It is the propelling of the ball by striking it with head

✓ The technique is divided into:
1. Defensive heading (away from the goal)
2. Attacking heading (towards the goal)
➢ In both cases a player can use a jump header or diving header
➢ Heading skills can be used to pass the ball, score goals and for defensive clearance

Coaching points

✓ Get into position as quickly as possible

✓ Attack the ball at its highest point
✓ Punch the ball with your head
✓ Contact the ball on your upper forehead
✓ Jump and hang
✓ Arch your back and pull your head back
✓ Keep your eyes open all times
✓ Keep your mouth shut when heading the ball
✓ Use arms for balance
✓ Strike the bottom of the ball it will rise
✓ Strike the of the ball it will go down

Dribbling

➢ It is the ability to propel the ball under close control and maintain possession
➢ The objective to create space for a pass to a teammate
➢ It serves to shot at goal and to beat opponents and take them out of the game thus creating space

There are three common methods of dribbling

✓ The Mathews move

✓ The scissors move
✓ The double touch move

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Coaching points

✓ Lower your center of gravity

✓ Body is semi-crouched
✓ The head should be up with vision on surrounding area and players
✓ Change speed and direction
✓ Keep the ball under body and close control of the feet

Tactics in soccer

➢ These are game plans designed to achieve the best results

➢ They can be divided into 2 .i.e. defense and attack

Defending tactics

✓ The main aim is to guard the goal against attack

✓ It is an effort of an individual, group and team altogether
✓ Good defense is based on techniques, tactics, physical conditioning and psychological awareness
✓ Marking can be man- to- man marking or zone marking
✓

Four principles o defense

✓ Delay- to slow the offensive movements

✓ Balance- effective organization or arrangement
✓ Concentration- to concentrate the numbers of defenders in front of the goal
✓ Control- to contain attackers until support is available

Attacking tactics

➢ These are a result of individual, group and team efforts

Four principles of attack

✓ Mobility- to cover more distance at the right time

✓ Width- to expand the area o play from end to end
✓ Improvisation- to be creative and innovative in attack
✓ Penetration- to employ forward and direct play

Fair play in soccer

➢ It is an attitude or way of thinking that can be taught and it can be learnt

➢ It can be guided by principles of :
✓ Integrity
✓ Fairness
✓ Respect

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NETBALL

➢ It is a ball sport played by two teams of seven players each

➢ It is believed that netball is an offshoot of the early versions of basketball in England in the 1890’s
➢ The world governing body of netball is called International Netball Federation (INF)
➢ Netball is played on a rectangular court with raised goal rings on either side
➢ A netball team card has 12 players
➢ Each team attempts to a goal by passing it through the goal ring
➢ The players on the court are assigned specific positions and areas of play.
➢ Each player on court wears a bib, containing letters abbreviation indicating position

The playing area

➢ The court has a side-line 30,5m long and goal line 15,25m wide
➢ The centre circle has a diameter of 0,9m
➢ The radius of the goal circles is 4,9m
➢ The height of the goal post is 3,05m
➢ The goal ring circumference is 380mm

Player positions

➢ C ………………. Centre
➢ GA……………… Goal Attack
➢ GS……………… Goal Shooter
➢ GK…………….. Goal Keeper
➢ GD……………. Goal Defence
➢ WA………….. Wing Attack
➢ WD…………… Wing Defence

Who marks who in netball

✓ C vs C
✓ WA vs WD
✓ GK vs GS
✓ GD vs GA

Equipment and attire

✓ Size 5 ball
✓ Umpire’s whistle
✓ Goal posts and ring
✓ Player’s attire

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Netball skills

• Catching
• Throwing
• Shooting
• Landing
• Attacking
• Defending
• Dodging
• Pivoting

Types of passes

➢ There are long and short passes and these can be one handed passes or two handed passes

Short passes

• Bounce pass
• Chest pass
• Side pass
• Underarm pass

Long passes

• Shoulder pass
• Overhead pass
• Lob pass

Netball skills

❖ Visit page 92 to 95 book 1

Safety in netball

✓ Keep your finger nails short

✓ If you have long hair tie it at the back of the head
✓ Jewellery and any adornments should not be worn except a wedding ring, of which the player is expected
to cover it or tape it
✓ Wear comfortable footwear that does not pose any problems in on landing

Basic rules of netball

✓ No self play, it is a replayed ball when you catch, drop and catch again
✓ Every player should wear a uniform including a bib denoting their position
✓ No lifting, sliding or dragging of landing foot whilst in possession of the ball
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 ✓ No intimidation when marking
✓ Each player should be found in the specific playing areas they are allowed, otherwise they are caught
offside
✓ No obstruction, observe the marking distance of 0,9m allowed
✓ A player has up to three seconds to release the ball upon receiving it
✓ Only GA and GS can shoot for goal
✓ Only the Centre can take a centre pass.

Fair play code

✓ Play for the fun of it

✓ Play by the rules
✓ Never argue with officials’ decisions
✓ Control your temper
✓ Work equally hard for yourself and your team
✓ Cooperate with your coach, teammates and opponents, for without them there is no game

HOCKEY

➢ It is a game in which two opposing teams attempt to drive a ball into the goal of the opponent.
➢ It is played using a stick that is curved or hooked at one end.

Hockey pitch/ the field of play

➢ Field hockey is usually played outdoors on a grass or artificial turf field

➢ The pitch measures 91.44m long and between 50.29m and 54.85m wide
➢ Hockey can also be played indoor on a smaller field

The equipment

The ball

➢ It has a circumference of about 23.5 cm

➢ It has a cork centre wound with twine and a seamless white leather cover
➢ It weighs not more than 163 grams

Hockey stick

➢ It weighs between 340 and 652 grams for women and up to 793 grams for men
➢ The stick is curved at one end and flattened on one side which is the striking side
➢ The head of the stick may not be more than 10.2 cm long

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 ➢ Each player court player carries a wooden stick about 36 to 91 cm long

Hockey attire

➢ Players normally wear shirts, shorts or skirts and mouth and shin guards
➢ Goalkeeper wear protective pads, face guards, and gloves
➢ Male goalkeepers wear a box in the groin area to protect sensitive organs from the impact of the hockey
ball

Officials

➢ They include 2 umpires, and sometimes 2 timekeepers and 2 recorders

Team composition

➢ The team is composed of 11 players, usually 5 forwards, 3 halfbacks, 2 fullback and 1 goalkeeper ( 5 – 3 – 2
formation)

The match

➢ A hockey match is divided into 2 halves of 35 minutes each.

➢ Teams change goals/sides after the end of the first half.
➢ A bully is when one player from each team stands opposite the opponent, the players tap the ground 3
times and the opponent’s stick 3 times before hitting the ball, which is set between them. Other players
must be at least 4.57m from the ball

The objective of playing hockey

➢ It is to pass the ball in order to gain ground and advantage as preparation for scoring a goal
➢ For a goal to be scored, the whole ball must pass over the goal line, between the goalposts, and under the
crossbar

RUGBY

➢ A rugby field measures 100m long and 69m wide

➢ It is divided transversely by two lines 22m from each goal and a halfway line
➢ Not more than 22m behind each goal line is the dead – ball line, beyond which the ball is out of play.
➢ The uprights of the goal are 5.6m metres apart.
➢ They are connected by horizontal crossbar 3m above the ground

Team composition

➢ A rugby team consists of 15 players who are divided into 8 forwards and 7 backs
➢ 7 substitutions of players are permitted during match in addition to injury and replacements
➢ Injured players are not allowed to return to the game once they leave the field of play
➢ A game usually lasts for 80 minutes
➢ The game is divided into two 40 minutes halves

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 ➢ There are no time – outs

COMBAT GAMES

➢ These games are characterized by blows, punches or attacks to the head or to a point of physical injury
that the opponent is unable to continue.

Protective gear or clothing

✓ Gloves
✓ Head gear
✓ Mouth guards
✓ Shin guards
✓ Arm guards
✓ Groin guard
✓ Trunk protector
✓ Wraps

Types of combat games

✓ Boxing Sambo
✓ Judo Taekwondo
✓ Ju-jitsu Wrestling
✓ Karate Aikido
✓ Kendo Wushu
✓ Kick-boxing Fencing
✓ Sanshou Pankration
✓ Mauy Thai Savate

➢ The first world combat games competitions were held 2010 in Beijing.
➢ Over 1000 athletes from five continents participated.

Martial Arts

✓ These are codified systems and traditions of combat practices.

✓ There are a number of reasons why martial arts are practiced :
1. Self defence
2. Military and law enforcement applications
3. Mental and spiritual development

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 4. Entertainment
5. The preservation of a nation’s intangible cultural heritage

Wushu

➢ The term Wushu is Chinese for martial art.

➢ Wushu is divided into two separate forms
➢ Wushu is both an internal and external exercise for body and mind
➢ It is very effective in developing a person physically and mentally, and making them ready for any combat.
➢ The word “Wu” has five meanings .i.e. war, fight, combat, exercise and dance.

Wushu equipment

✓ Boxing gloves
• These are used to attack and defend the opponent
✓ Head gear
• This used to protect the head from the opponent’s attack
• It is a mandatory that Sanshou players wear them
✓ Gum / teeth guard
• This is used to protect the teeth from the opponent’s attack
✓ Chest guard
• It protects the chest since most of the blows target the chest
✓ Shin pad
• It is mainly used during training sessions. By practicing with this equipment, a person / trainee can
improve his power, potential and muscle in his elbow and thigh
✓ Cup protector
• It is a type of athletic supporter to shield the players against severe injuries to the groin area
✓ Kick/ punching bag
• This equipment is made out of leather and nylon.
• It is filled with sawdust or cotton cut piece clothes.
✓ Punching pad
• It is also made out of leather and nylon.
• It is filled with soft sponge

How to play Wushu

➢ It is both an internal and external exercise for body and mind.

➢ It is very effective for the following reasons: 1. It develops a person physically 2. It contributes to mental
development 3. It makes one ready for any combat
1. Maximum strength
➢ It is when performing any kind of workout against the maximum resistance.
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 ➢ This level is very important for Wushu warriors as they need to increase their maximum strength limit as
much as possible
➢ Wushu players need to perform a particular exercise in sets so as to increase maximum strength.
➢ A set must be practiced for 3-7 times and the intensity of performance must vary gradually upwards
from low to medium to high
2. Explosive strength
➢ It is when performing any kind of workout against the maximum resistance with high speed.
➢ It can be divided into three types :
✓ Start strength – the ability to develop a high muscle force during the starting phase of the fight
✓ Speed strength - the ability of a person to overcome lower resistance with high speed.
✓ Strength speed – the ability of an individual to overcome heavy resistance with high speed. It is also
known as power

Basic moves in Wushu

➢ Wushu is the sport of demonstrating graceful movements that require flexibility, strength, perfect leaps,
twists, and flips.

Ma Bu – The horse stance

➢ It provides balance that you require to execute more complicated moves.

➢ Stand with your feet apart slightly wider than your shoulders.
➢ Lower your knees into a sitting position, as if you are straddling a horse.
➢ Keep your upper body posture straight yet not tensed.

Gong Bu – The bow stance

➢ Stand in a forward lunge position, with one foot in front of another in a straight line
➢ Turn your back foot out slightly, with toes pointing outwards
➢ Let both your heels be on the ground
➢ Lower your body, by bending the front leg for about 90 degrees
➢ Extend your back leg
➢ Pull your upper body straight and tall, and look straight ahead

Xie Bu – the rest stance

➢ Cross your right foot over your left foot

➢ Sit comfortably on your left knee, ensuring that there is no space between both legs. Keep good
balance to avoid fall over
➢ As you lower your body lift your left heel off the ground

Ce Chuai Tui – side kick

➢ Stand upright with your hands by your waist and your wrists facing upwards
➢ Make fist and tuck your elbows close to your body.
➢ Placing one foot slightly behind the other, bend a little to gain preparatory momentum
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Hand forms

➢ These are different positions of a hand during a fight

➢ There are various hand forms used in Wushu namely:
a) Hook punch
b) Palm
c) Punch

Rules of the game

❖ Go and research

Roles of referee n martial arts

✓ Give warnings and disqualifications if rules are broken

✓ Stops fight when a fighter cannot defend himself/herself in order to prevent further damage
/injuries
✓ Make sure that submissions are released following a tap out
✓ Pulls fighters off unconscious opponents
✓ Listen to a doctor and assistant referee who sit at the ring side

Boxing

➢ The art of boxing is also known as pugilism

➢ Boxing requires a high level of :
a) Muscular strength
b) Stamina
c) Agility
d) Endurance

➢ Boxing also requires :

a) Powerful punches
b) Quick jabs
c) Slips
d) Blocking

Training in boxing

First step

❖ Visit page 148 bk 4

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Boxing rules

❖ Visit page 150 bk 4

TARGET GAMES

What are target games?

➢ These are games aimed at sending an object, usually a ball, an arrow or other objects usually towards a
target

Types of target games

✓ Croquet
✓ Golf
✓ Archery
✓ Boccia
✓ Curling
✓ Bowling
✓ Knock down
✓ Pinwheel

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Categories of target games

1. Opposed – players can prevent their opposition from scoring by knocking or blocking the opponents ball
or rock to an unfavourable position.

Examples are as follows:

• Lawn bowling
• Curling
• Shuffleboard

2. Unopposed – a player focuses solely on their execution in an attempt to be as close to the target as
possible.

Examples are as follows:

• Golf
• Archery
• Ten pin bowling
• Tactics in target games

Transferable skills

➢ Players must be able to demonstrate hand-eye, foot-eye accuracy

➢ Players aim and shoot/throw/roll for a goal target
➢ Players utilize the synchronization of numerous body parts when releasing the object used in the game
➢ Both gross and fine motor skills are used to alter the flight/path of the released object

Strategies common in target games

➢ In unopposed games it is likely that only offensive strategies will be used

➢ In opposed there is the use of both offensive and defensive strategies

Offensive

✓ Aim and accuracy is the main focus

✓ Goal is to have the final location of the object be as close to the designated target as possible
✓ Thus is achieved by controlling the object’s speed and trajectory
✓ You must plan your path to the target, eg throwing a bulls-eye in darts

Defensive
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 ✓ Blocking your opponent’s path to the target
✓ Using your ability to control aim and accuracy, have your object rest in an area that blocks path and
decreases your opponent’s chances of having their object closer to the target than yours.

Safety in target games

✓ Target size must be appropriate for age and ability of the players
✓ Suitable clothing and footwear must be worn
✓ Targets must be situated away from spectators and other participants
✓ Participants must have room to propel object towards target without hitting a bystander
✓ Be aware of player’s medical condition that may affect participation
✓ Establish procedures to reduce risk to other participants/spectators
✓ Establish a process of safe retrieval of propelled objects
✓ Onsite supervision is required

Archery

✓ It is a sport, practice or skill of using a bow to propel arrows.

✓ It has been used for hunting and combat.
✓ A person who participates in archery is called an archer or a bowman
✓ A person who is fond of or an expert at archery is called a toxophilite

Protective clothing

• Bracer – to protect the inside of the bow arm from being hit by the string
• Chest guard / plastrons

Target skills in archery

❖ Visit page 154 bk 4

Darts

➢ It is a throwing sport in which small missiles are thrown at a circular dartboard fixed to the wall.

Darts equipment

➢ A regulation board is 451 millimetres in diameter and is divided into 20 radial sections
➢ Each section is separated with metal wire or a thin band of sheet metal
➢ The numbers indicating the various scoring sections of the board are normally made of wire

Darts safety rules

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 ✓ Never set up your dartboard at the back of the door – anyone who is not aware that you are playing could
easily be struck if they opened the door
✓ Make sure the dartboard is securely fitted to the wall – darts easily rebound easily if the dartboard is not
secured
✓ Never point, or throw a dart at anyone
✓ Do not stand near a dartboard when someone is throwing – a dart might rebound and hit you
✓ Do not walk in front of a dartboard when people are playing.
✓ Make sure the dartboard is set up well away from any busy areas or anywhere people might be passing
✓ If watching or playing always stand behind the player
✓ Make sure anything breakable is moved away from the surrounding area. Darts have a habit of
rebounding at some strange angles

Origins of a dart board

✓ The dartboard may have its origins in the cross-section of a tree.

✓ An old name for a dartboard is “ butt” , the word comes from a French word butt, meaning “target”

Darts

✓ Modern darts have four parts: the points, the barrels, the shafts and the flights.
✓ The steel points come in two common lengths which are the 32mm and the 41mm
✓ They are sometimes knurled or coated to improve grip.

Barrels

✓ They come in three basic shapes:

1. Cylindrical

• Cylindrical barrels are the same diameter along their entire length and so tend to be long and thin.
• Their slenderness makes them better for griping but because they are long, the centre of gravity is
further back.

2. Torpedo

• Torpedo shaped barrels are widest at the point end and taper towards the rear
• This keeps the weight as far forward as possible but like the ton, gives it a larger diameter than the
cylinder

3 Ton

• Ton shaped barrels are thin at either end but bulge in the middle.
• This makes them fatter than cylindrical barrel of equivalent weight but the centre of gravity is further
forward and so theoretically easier to throw

The shafts

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 ➢ The shafts are manufactured in various lengths.
➢ Shafts are generally made from: plastic, nylon polymers and metal such as aluminium and titanium
➢ Shafts can be rigid or flexible
➢ Longer shafts provide greater stability and allow reduction in flight size
➢ A longer shaft will make the dart less responsive and increase the chance of “wobbling”
➢ The choice of barrel, shaft and flight depend to a great deal on the individual player’s throwing style
➢ A dart should not weigh more than 50 grammes including the shaft and flight and must generally not
exceed a total length of 300mm

Scoring in darts

✓ Darts generally refers to a game whereby the player throws three darts per visit to the board with the
goal of reducing a fixed score, commonly 501 or 301 to zero (checking out)
✓ The final dart landing should be either the bullseye or a double segment
✓ A game of darts is generally contested between two players, who take turns
✓ Each turn consist of throwing 3 darts. When 2 teams are playing the starting score may be increased to
701 or 1001 and the rules remain the same.
✓ A darts match is played over a fixed number of games known as legs. A match maybe divided into sets ,
with each set being contested as over a fixed number of legs

Winning the game

✓ In order to reach zero each player must finish by throwing a double that is if player one has 36 remaining
he must hit double 18 to win. If player two has 45 remaining he must hit 5 single, double 20 to win

Rules of the game

✓ Players stand at the throw line, horizontally from the face of the dartboard
✓ It is legal to lean over the line. They may step on, but not across, the line
✓ Players may use their own darts if they meet the expectations
✓ It is not required for a player to throw all three darts on every turn. A player may pass or throw fewer than
three darts

Darts basic rules

• Dart games are played between two players or two teams

• The teams can be made up of two or more people each.
• Nine throws generally allowed for each person as a warm-up before a game begins
• To determine which team or person is to take his turn first one dart is thrown by a person from each team
• The team with the dart closest to the bullseye takes the first turn
• Each player throws three darts in his turn
• The darts are retrieved
• If a foot crosses over the line or a person happens to trip over the oche and releases his dart, the throw
counts for no points and may not be re-thrown
• Darts must stay on the board for at least five seconds after a player’s final throw to count
• A throw does not score if it sticks into another dart or if it falls off the board

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Scoring in darts

➢ Darts making it on the board score if they strike the dart board in any of the following manner:
• In the wedge
• The number posted on the outer ring
• The double ring (the outer, narrow ring)
• Twice the number hit
• The triple ring ( the inner, narrow ring )
• Three times the number hit
• Bulls eye ( outer bull ) : twenty-five points
• Doubles bulls eye (inner bull) : fifty points

Safety in darts

❖ Visit page 162 bk 4

Questions

1. Define archery [1]

2. Name any four-archery equipments [4]
3. What name is given to a person who participates in the archery sport? [1]
4. List any four archery shooting safety rules [4]
5. Mention the three archery shooting drills [3]
6. Write down a brief definition of darts [1]
7. A dart board is divided into …………………………………. radial sections [1]
8. Write down any three safety rules in a darts game [3]
9. How many points are scored if a darts player hits:
I) The bull’s eye, (outer bull’s eye)
II) The double bull’s eye, (inner bull’s eye) [2]
10. In which part of the world did martial arts originate? [1]
11. Name any three forms of martial arts. [3]
12. Wushu, as a martial art, originated in …………….. [1]
13. State the main purpose of boxing rule. [2]
14. Mention any three methods of winning a boxing match [3]
15. Give any three reasons why martial arts are practiced [3]
16. The term combat refers to…………………[2]
17. The aim in target sport is……………………[1]
18. What does the pankration mean? [2]

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