########MODULE 1:

Human development - is the pattern of movement or change that begins

at conception and continues through the life span.
Development includes growth and decline. This means that development
can be positive or negative.
**Some major principles of human development**
1. Development is relatively orderly
proximodistal pattern - development proceeds from the center of the
body outward.
cephalocaudal pattern - develops from the head to the feet.
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of
developmental processes and the rate of development are likely to vary
among individuals.
3. Development takes place gradually
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of
biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes
Biological processes - produce changes in an individual's physical nature.
and weight gains, changes in motor skills, the hormonal changes of
puberty, and cardiovascular decline are all examples of biological processes
that affect development
Cognitive processes - refers to changes in the individual's thought,
intelligence, and language.
Socio-emotional processes - include changes in the individual's
relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
personality
These biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes are
inextricably intertwined. While these processes are studied separately, the
effect of one process or factor on a person's development is not isolated
from the other processes.
 **Two approaches to human development**
traditional development - show extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age.
life-span approach - if you believe that even in adulthood developmental
change takes place as it does during childhood.
**characteristics of the life-span perspective**
1. Development is lifelong. - It does not end in adulthood. No
developmental stage dominates development.
2. Development is multidimensional. - Development consists of
biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions.
3. Development is plastic. - Development is possible throughout the life-
span.
4. Development is contextual. - Individuals are changing beings in a
changing world.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. -
The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as
individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into
the back stage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage.
**Principles of child development and learning that inform
practice**
- Below are the principles of child development and learning which the
bases of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) in early are
childhood program for children from birth through age 8, which were stated
in the position paper of the National Association for the Education of Young
Children (2009). They affirm the principles of human development and
characteristics of life-span development approach.
1. All the domains of development and learning-physical, social and
emotional, and cognitive-are important, and they are closely interrelated.
Children's development and learning in one domain influence and are
influenced by what takes place in other domains.
2. Many aspects of children's learning and development follow well
documented sequences, with later abilities, skills, and knowledge building
on those already acquired.
3. Development and learning proceed at varying rates from child to child, as
well as at uneven rates across different areas of a child's individual
functioning.
4. Development and learning result from a dynamic and continuous
interaction of biological maturation and experience.
5. Early experiences have profound effects, both cumulative and delayed,
on a child's development and learning; and optimal periods exist for certain
types of development and learning to occur.
6. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation, and
symbolic or representational capacities.
7. Children develop best when they have secure, consistent relationships
with responsive adults and opportunities for positive relationships with
peers.
8. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social
and cultural contexts.
9. Always mentally active in seeking to understand the world around them,
children learn in a variety of ways; a wide range of teaching strategies and
interactions are effective in supporting all these kinds of learning.
10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation as well as for
promoting language, cognition, and social competence.
11. Development and learning advance when children are challenged to
achieve at a level just beyond their current mastery, and also when they
have many opportunities to practice newly acquired skills.
12. Children's experiences shape their motivation and approaches to
learning, such as persistence, initiative, and flexibility; in turn, these
dispositions and behaviors affect their learning and development.
MODULE 2:
**Havighurst's six (6) developmental stages**
**Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5)**
1. Learning to walk
2. Learning to take solid foods
3. Learning to talk
4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
6. Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and physical reality
7. Readiness for reading 8. Learning to distinguish right from wrong and
developing a conscience

**Middle Childhood (6-12)**

1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
2. Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself
3. Learning to get along with age mates
4. Learning an appropriate sex role
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
8. Achieving personal independence
9. Developing acceptable attitudes toward society

**Adolescence (13-18)**
1. Achieving mature relations with both sexes
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Accepting one's physique
4. Achieving emotional independence of adults
5. Preparing for marriage and family life
6. Preparing for an economic career
7. Acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior
8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

**Early Adulthood (19-29)**

1. Selecting a mate
2. Learning to live with a partner
3. Starting a family
4. Rearing children
5. Managing a home
6. Starting an occupation
7. Assuming civic responsibility

**Middle Adulthood (30-60)**

1. Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible adults
2. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility
3. Satisfactory career achievement
4. Developing adult leisure time activities
5. Relating to one's spouse as a person
6. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age
7. Adjusting to aging parent

**Later Maturity (61-and over)**

1. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health
2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3. Adjusting to death of spouse
4. Establishing relations with one's own age group
5. Meeting social and civic obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory living quarters
 **The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)**
**The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock**

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremendous

growth- from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and
behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) - A time of extreme
dependence on adults. Many psychological activities are just beginning
language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1) - These are
the preschool years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient
and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many
hours in play with peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6 -11 years of age, the elementary
school years) - The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic
are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its
culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child's world
and self-control increases.
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of
age) - Begins with rapid physical changes - dramatic gains in height and
weight, changes in body contour, and the development of sexual
characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, development-of pubic
and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of independence and
identity are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More
time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the
30s) - It is a time of establishing personal and economic independence,
career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an
intimate way, starting a family and rearing child.
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) - It is a time of -
expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting
the next generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of
reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
8. Late adulthood (60s and above) - It is a time for adjustment to
decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to
new social roles.

**FREUDS STAGE OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT**

Freud is the most popular psychologist that Studied the development of

personality. Also, the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual
development includes five distinct Mages.
The theory is Quite interesting for many because Freud Identified specific
erogenous zone for each stage of development. There is specific "Pleasure
arear that become Focal point for the particular stage.
According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five
stages and along the way there are need to be met.

ORAL STAGE (Birth to 18 months)

The erogenous zone Is the mouth. During the oral stage the child on oral
pleasure (sucking)
This type of personality may be ORAL RECEPTIVE that is have a stronger
tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat or ORAL AGGRESSIVE that is
with tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words of even gossips.

ANAL STAGE (18 months to 3 years)

The child Focus of pleasure in this stage in anus.
Fixation during this stage can result in being ANAL RETENTIVE, an
obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control or ANAL EXPULSIVE,
where the person may merry and disorganized.

PHALLIC STAGE (Age 3 to 6)

The pleasure or the erogenous is the genitals.
 OEDIPUS COMPLEX in Greek mythology, Eudipus unintentionally
killed his father and married his mother
 Psychologist also believed that girl may also have a similar attraction
towards their father this is referred to the ELECTRA COMPLEX.
LATENCY STAGE (Age 6 to Puberty)
It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain represent the children’s
Focus in the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate
more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.

CENITAL STAGE (Puberty onward)

The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty
when sexual urge is once again awakened.

**FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS**

Freud described the personality Structures as having three components,

the id, the ego and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is
the id, followed by the ego and last to develop is the superego.
THE id
Freud says that, a child is born with the id. Actions are controlled by the id,
which is a biological component of your personality that is present at birth
and is based on instinct. It exists in your subconscious and is driven by the
pleasure principle, which is the idea that your needs should be met
immediately.
THE EGO
As the baby turns into a toddler, and then into a preschooler, he/she relates
more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. Operates
using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be
met.
The Superego
Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the
superego develops. It embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops
from what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence
impart to be good or moral.

**The Three Components and Personality Adjustment**

- Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who
can help satisfy the needs of the d without going against the superego
while maintaining the person’s sense of what is logical, practical and
real.
- Freud believed that the personality of an individual is formed early
during the childhood years.

*Topographical Model*
The Unconscious
Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs,
feelings and impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious
level. He believes that the most influence us is our unconscious.
The Conscious
Freud also said that we are aware of is stored in Our conscious mind. It is
the awareness of the self in space and time and is defined as human
awareness to both internal and external stimuli.
The Subconscious
The last part is the Preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that
we can reached if prompted, but is not in our active conscious Its right
below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it.

Jean Piaget stages of cognitive development

For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development.

His research method involved observing a small number of individuals as
they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later
known as Piagetian tasks.
called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because
he was interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the
environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation.
 Basic Cognitive Concepts1##
Schema
Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the cognitive structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an
individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or
experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has
folders that contain files of things he has had an experience with.
Assimilation
This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema. As learners encounter novel
experiences or data, they attempt to make sense of these newfound
insights by relating them to their previous knowledge.
Accommodation
This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now sees
another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different.
Equilibration
Piaget believed that people have the natural need to understand how
the### world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their
life. Achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or
cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. Means
there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood.
We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish
equilibrium once more.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage.
The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when
a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes
more organized in his movement and activity. The term sensori-motor
focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through
which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world.
Object permanence
This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when
out of sight.
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage
The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old, roughly
corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in
nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental representations and is
able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols.
Symbolic Function
This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that
represents something else. It gradually develops in the period between 2 to
7 years.
Egocentrism
This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume
that everyone also has his same point of view.
Centration
This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a
thing or event and exclude other aspects.
Irreversibility
Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
Animism
This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or
characteristics to inanimate objects.
Transductive reasoning
This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither
inductive nor deductive.
Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but
only in terms of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages
between 8-11 years or the elementary school years.
Decentering
This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of
objects and situations. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing
with concrete objects and situations.
Reversibility
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that
certain operations can be done in reverse.
Conservation.
This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number,
mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance.
Seriation
This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage
In the final stage of Formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15
years, Thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract
Problems and can hypothesize.
Hypothetical Reasoning
This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and
to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment.
This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can
now deal with “What if” questions.
Analogical reasoning
This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use
that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar
situation or problem.

Deductive Reasoning
This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
instance or situation.