Introduction to Ethics

Basic Concepts

What is Ethics?
Ethics is the study of the morality of human act. Morality refers to the rightness and wrongness
of human act. Human act is an act done by man knowingly, freely, and voluntarily.
Is man a moral being?
Yes, man is a moral being. Man is the only moral being because he is a being in action, has
intellectual capacity (rationality), and freewill. He is therefore morally responsible for his actions.
However, not all actions performed by man make him morally responsible. It is only when man
performs a human act and partially an indifferent act that hold him moral accountability.
In relation to morality, man is classified into:
1. A moral person is a person who has the right knowledge of right and wrong, and is able to
that knowledge correctly.
2. An immoral person is a person who, despite of having the right knowledge of right and wrong,
fails to apply the knowledge correctly.
3. An amoral person is a person who has no capacity to acquire the right knowledge of right and
wrong, hence might fail to do what is right and avoid what is wrong.
Classification of act performed by man:
a. Human act: It is an act done knowingly, freely, and voluntarily. What makes an act a human
act is the presence of knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness. Ethics is primarily concerned
with human act. So, the essential qualities required of an act in order to be classified as
human act:
1. Knowledge. The act must be deliberate where the person does it consciously, knows
what is he doing and is aware of its consequences, good or bad.
2. Freedom. The act must be free in the sense that the person who is doing the act must
be free from external forces beyond his control, or from any strong influence.
Otherwise, the act is not his own. The act must not be done out of fear.
3. Voluntariness. The act must be voluntary. The act is done out of the will and decision of
the person himself.
b. Act of man: It is ac act done NOT knowingly, NOT freely, and NOT voluntarily. This act does
not bear moral accountability and is not the concerned of Ethics. Signs of act of man:
1. It is done indeliberately.
2. The act is not done freely
3. The act is done involuntarily
c. Indifferent act: It is an act whose morality depends on the circumstances. It becomes the
concern of Ethics when it bears moral accountability due to circumstances.
Human act is divided into:
a. Elicited act: An act starts and ends in the mind only (intention/plan)
b. Commanded act: An act that starts in the mind and ends up in actually doing it (executing
the plan).
What are the factors (determinants) that affect the morality of human act? Determinants of
morality are used to establish whether an act is moral or immoral, right or wrong.
a. The act itself.
 1. The act itself must be good.
2. Having a good act is not enough since the intention and the circumstance must be good
as well.
b. Intention
1. The intention must be good.
2. However, having a good intention is not enough. It must be supported by good act and
good circumstance.
c. Circumstance
1. Circumstance surrounds the act must be good.
2. However, the act and intention must be likewise good.

Modifiers of human act or impediments to human acts. Having determined that an act is wrong, further
steps must be taken to evaluate how wrong is wrong act. What are the factors that affects the
quality/degree of the wrongness of a human act?

1. Ignorance:
1.1. vincible ignorance is a kind of ignorance that can be eliminated if effort/initiate is
made.
1.2. Invincible ignorance. This kind of ignorance can never be eliminated; hence it frees
the person from any moral accountability.
1.3. Affected ignorance. The ignorance is intentional to avoid moral accountability.
1.4. Simple ignorance. Efforts to eliminate ignorance are made but due to certain
circumstances are not sufficient.
2. Concupiscence. It refers to manifestation/expression of emotions in actions.
2.1. Antecedent concupiscence is sudden manifestation of emotion in actions
2.2. Consequent concupiscence is a premediate manifestation of emotion in action.
3. Fear either lessens, eliminates or aggravate moral accountability
3.1. In fear aggravate accountability morally
3.2. Out of fear lessens or might even eliminates moral answerability
4. Violence excuses individual from any moral accountability.
5. Habit does not excuse individual from moral accountability
6. Indirect voluntary act can lessen or aggravate one’s accountability morally.

Principles of Double Effect. Am I morally permissible to perform an act, yet I am fully aware of its
positive and negative consequences? Panizo said YES, as long as:

1. The act itself should be good or at least morally indifferent (indifferent act)
2. The negative effects should not be directly intended but morally allowed to happen as
regrettable side issue.
3. There should be a reason sufficiently grave in doing the act
4. The negative effects should not outweigh the positive effects.

Morally good act is an act must have a good act, good intention, and good circumstance. The moment
any of the determinant is not good, the whole act is bad/immoral.
How is moral act different from immoral act?
A moral act is an act done in accordance with the dictate of right reason while immoral act is an
act done in contradiction to the dictate of right reason.
Why must man be moral?
1. He is a moral being
2. It is natural in man to win the good opinion of others concerning our self-image.
3. Man wants to avoid becoming troublemaker and rejection/punishment resulting from doing
bad/immoral act
4. Man is a social being as claimed by Aristotle. He co-exists with other in harmony. Thomas
Hobbes: Man is an enemy to each other (Homo Momini Lupus) due to:
*Not trust one another
*competition due to limited source of living
*Man’s natural tendency to retain his powerful/influential position.
In such a chaotic society, harmony born out of census is necessary.
5. Man has profession, position, and belongs to an organization all of which require him of
certain conduct/behavior/action
Where does man’s knowledge of right and wrong come from?
1. Accumulated experiences either good or bad
2. Personal (formal) knowledge
3. Traditions, customs. And culture
4. Social institution: Family, State, Religion, Education, Business/economic institution/social
organization.