Module 24

Enlightenment and
Revolution
Essential Question
Why did Enlightenment principles influence radical changes in governments around the world?

About the Photo: This photo shows a In this module you will learn how ideas of the Enlightenment led to
reenactment of the American Revolution. revolutions around the world.
American revolutionaries were inspired
by Enlightenment ideas. What You Will Learn…
Lesson 1: Ideas of the Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
Explore ONLINE! The Big Idea Enlightenment thinkers built on ideas from earlier
movements to emphasize the importance of reason.
VIDEOS, including... Lesson 2: New Views on Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
• Global Impact of the American The Big Idea Enlightenment ideas influenced the growth of
Revolution democratic governments in Europe and the Americas.
• History Alive: Thomas Jefferson Lesson 3: The Age of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
• The Declaration of The Big Idea Revolutions changed the governments of Britain, the
Independence American colonies, and France.
• The French Revolution Lesson 4: The Spread of Revolutionary Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
The Big Idea Napoleon’s quest to rule Europe was eventually
Document-Based Investigations thwarted, but not before the ideals of the French Revolution spread
throughout the continent and Latin America.
Graphic Organizers
Interactive Games
Image Carousel: European Monarchs
Image with Hotspots: Stamp Act Protest
Image with Hotspots: Signers of the
Declaration of Independence

822 Module 24
Timeline of Events 1642–1831 Explore ONLINE!

Module Events World Events

1600

1642 Civil war begins

in England.
1647 Construction on the
1650 Taj Mahal is completed.

1690 John Locke argues that government’s

power should be limited.

1700
1707 The Mughal Empire ends in India.

1759 Mary 1750

Wollstonecraft is
born in London.
1776 The American 1769 Spanish
colonies declare missionaries begin
their independence. founding missions
in California.
1789 The French
Revolution begins.
1800
1804 Napoleon is crowned emperor of France.
1812 The War of 1812 begins between
the United States and Britain.

1825 Bolivia declares

independence.

1850

Enlightenment and Revolution 823

Reading Social Studies
THEME FOCUS:
Politics, Society and Culture
This module will introduce you to the Enlightenment, an era of great political
thinkers, writers, and activists. You will learn about some of these figures, who are
among the most influential people in all of world history. In their ideas, you will
see the roots of our modern government, a government brought about by bold
statesmen who inspired a revolution. You will also see how similar revolutions
changed society and culture in countries around the world.

READING FOCUS:
Points of View in Historical Texts
History is made up of issues, or questions about what to do in a particular
situation. Throughout history, people have looked at issues from all sides. Each
person’s view of the issue shaped what he or she thought should be done.
Identify Points of View The way a person views an issue is called his or her point
of view, or perspective. Points of view can be shaped by many factors, such as a
person’s background or political beliefs. When you read a historical document,
figuring out the author’s point of view can help you understand his or her
opinions about an issue.

Consider the author’s

Thomas Jefferson, from the Declaration of background—Jefferson was
Independence a leader in the American
The history of the present King of Great Britain colonies.
is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations
[seizures of power], all having in direct object Look for emotional
the establishment of a direct Tyranny over these language—Words like
States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a injuries and usurpations make
candid world. Jefferson’s opinion clear.
He has refused his Assent [agreement] to
Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for
Look at the evidence—
the public good. Jefferson only uses examples
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of the king’s flaws.
of immediate and pressing importance, unless
suspended in their operation till his Assent
should be obtained; and when so suspended, he Put it all together to determine the
has utterly neglected to attend to them. author’s point of view—Jefferson
was opposed to the policies of the
English king and wanted a change in
government.

824 Module 24
You Try It! Key Terms and People
Lesson 1
Enlightenment
Read the following passage from this module. Then answer the Voltaire
questions that follow. salon
Mary Wollstonecraft
Lesson 2
Rousseau French thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau unlimited government
limited government
(roo-SOH) criticized divine right. He believed in John Locke
popular sovereignty—the idea that governments natural rights
should express the will of the people. In The Social majority rule
Contract, published in 1762, Rousseau declared, Charles-Louis Montesquieu
“Man is born free, but he is everywhere in chains.” Jean-Jacques Rousseau
popular sovereignty
According to Rousseau, citizens submit to the
Lesson 3
authority of government to protect their own English Bill of Rights
interests, entering into a “social contract.” This rule of law
contract gives the government the power to make Declaration of Independence
and enforce laws as long as it serves the people. The Declaration of the Rights of Man
and of the Citizen
government should give up that power if it is not
Lesson 4
serving the people. Napoleon Bonaparte
coup d’état
Klemens von Metternich
conservatism
Think about the passage you have just read, and then answer
liberalism
the questions. Simón Bolívar
1. What do you think was Rousseau’s point of view about
France’s government?
2. What words or phrases in this passage helped you
identify his point of view?
3. How did Rousseau’s own beliefs and ideas affect his point
of view?
4. Do you think Rousseau’s point of view was similar to
or different from that of the king of France?
5. Who do you think would be more likely to share
Rousseau’s point of view, a wealthy French noble or a
colonist planning a rebellion? Why do you think so?

As you read this module, try to determine the points of view

of the various figures you are studying.

Enlightenment and Revolution 825

 Lesson 1

Ideas of the Enlightenment

If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are a student in the early 1700s. It seems your
Enlightenment thinkers built on
teacher can pass or fail whomever he wants. You think
ideas from earlier movements the teacher should make his decisions about grades
to emphasize the importance of based on what a student has learned. You come up with
reason. a new idea—testing students so they can prove what
Main Ideas they know. You think this idea will improve your grades
as well as relations in your school.
■ The Enlightenment was also
called the Age of Reason. Will you challenge the teacher’s authority?
■ The Enlightenment’s roots can
be traced back to earlier ideas.
The Age of Reason
■ New ideas came mainly from
Discoveries made during the Scientific Revolution and on the
French and British thinkers.
voyages of discovery led to changes in Europe. A number of
Key Terms and People scholars were beginning to challenge long-held beliefs about
Enlightenment science, religion, and government.
Voltaire These new scholars relied on reason, or logical thought,
salon instead of religious teachings to explain how the world
Mary Wollstonecraft
worked. They believed human reason could be used to achieve
three great goals—knowledge, freedom, and happiness—
Reading Check and that achieving these goals would improve society. The
Find Main Ideas use of reason in guiding people’s thoughts about philosophy,
How did the society, and politics defined a time period called the
Enlightenment
thinkers explain Enlightenment. Because of its emphasis on the use of reason,
the world? the Enlightenment was also known as the Age of Reason.

The Enlightenment’s Roots

The main ideas of the Enlightenment had their roots in other
eras. Enlightenment thinkers looked back to the Greeks, the
Romans, and the history of Christianity. The Renaissance,
Reformation, and Scientific Revolution also provided ideas.
Greek and Roman Philosophers Enlightenment thinkers
used ideas about the natural world from the ancient Greeks
and Romans. Greek philosophers had observed an order and
regularity in the natural world. Aristotle, for example, taught

826 Module 24
 that people could use logic to discover new truths. Building on Greek ideas,
Roman thinkers developed the concept of natural law, the idea that a law
governed how the world operated.
With Greek and Roman beliefs as guidelines, Enlightenment thinkers
began studying the world in a new way. They applied these beliefs not
just to the natural world but also to the human world of society and
government.
Christianity The history of Christianity in Europe provides other clues
about ideas that emerged in the Enlightenment. One religious thinker,
Thomas Aquinas, had taught in the Middle Ages that faith paired with
reason could explain the world. Although it owed a great deal to Aquinas,
the Enlightenment was mostly a secular, or nonreligious, movement.
Enlightenment thinkers disagreed with the church’s claims to authority
and its intolerance toward non-Christian beliefs.
The Renaissance and Reformation Other reactions to the Christian
Church in Europe also influenced the ideas of the Enlightenment. For
example, some Renaissance thinkers used Greek and Roman ideas to raise
questions about established religious beliefs. These Renaissance thinkers
were known as humanists.
Although most humanists were religious, they focused on human value
and achievement rather than on the glory of God. Renaissance humanists
believed people could improve their world by studying it and changing it.
These ideas contributed to the Enlightenment idea of progress—the belief
that humans were capable of improving their world.
Some Reformation ideas also reappeared during the Enlightenment.
Like Martin Luther and other reformers, Enlightenment scholars
questioned church authority. They found that religious beliefs didn’t
always fit in with what they learned from their logical study of the world.

Quick Facts

Ideas of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment is also called the Age of Reason because reason, or logical
thought, is a basic part of all Enlightenment ideas.
t
The ability to reason is what makes humans unique.
t
Reason can be used to solve problems and improve people’s lives.
t
Reason can free people from ignorance, superstition, and unfair government.
t
The natural world is governed by laws that can be discovered through reason.
t
Like the natural world, human behavior is governed by natural laws.
t
Governments should reflect natural laws and encourage education and debate.

Enlightenment and Revolution 827

 The use of reason
advanced science and
technology, which
in turn influenced
the Enlightenment.
Here, the Italian
scientist Alessandro
Volta explains a new
invention, the battery.

The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution also influenced

Enlightenment thinkers. Through experiments, scientists like Newton
and Galileo had discovered that the world did not work exactly the way
the church explained it. Using scientific methods of study, scientists
Reading Check discovered laws that governed the natural world. Enlightenment thinkers
Find Main Ideas
What ideas influenced took the idea of natural laws one step further. They believed that natural
the Enlightenment? laws must also govern human society and government.

New Ideas
Enlightenment thinkers borrowed ideas from history to develop a new
worldview. They believed the use of reason could improve society. To
achieve this progress, they had to share their ideas with others.
French Philosophers French philosophers popularized many
Enlightenment ideas. One philosopher, Voltaire (vohl-tayr), mocked
government and religion in his writings. Instead of trusting God to
improve human happiness, Voltaire believed humans could improve their
own existence.

BIOGRAPHY

Voltaire 1694–1778
Voltaire is the pen name of the French philosopher and author François-
Marie Arouet. He used his wit, intelligence, and sense of justice to poke
fun at religious intolerance. Voltaire’s skill and bold ideas made him a
popular writer. In his writings he argued that the purpose of life is the
pursuit of human happiness through progress in science and the arts.

Make Inferences
Why did Voltaire poke fun at religious intolerance?

828 Module 24
 Having gotten in trouble for some of his writings, Voltaire also spoke
out against censorship—removal of information considered harmful. He
argued, “I [may] disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death
your right to say it.” His statement emphasized the Enlightenment goal of
freedom of thought.
Enlightenment thinkers made an effort to share their thoughts with
the public. Philosopher Denis Diderot (dee-droh) edited a book called
the Encyclopedia. This book included articles by more than 100 experts
on science, technology, and history. The French king and the pope both
banned the Encyclopedia.
In spite of censorship, Enlightenment ideas spread. One important place
for the exchange of ideas was the salon, a social gathering held to discuss
ideas. Women often hosted the salons. Most Enlightenment thinkers did
not view women as equal to men. However, in hosting salons women could
influence opinions.
British Writers Women and men also began to publish their ideas in books,
pamphlets, and newspaper articles. British writer Mary Wollstonecraft, for
example, argued that women should have the same rights as men.
Enlightenment thinkers even applied their ideas of freedom and prog-
Reading Check ress to economics. British writer Adam Smith believed economics was
Summarize governed by natural laws. He argued that governments should not try to
How did control the economy and that economic growth came when individuals
Enlightenment
thinkers spread their were free to make their own choices. Like many Enlightenment thinkers,
ideas? his ideas would have a lasting effect.
Summary and Preview Scholars during the Enlightenment drew on ideas
from previous eras. They proposed ideas about the importance of reason
and progress. In the next lesson, you will learn how the Enlightenment
changed ideas about government.

Lesson 1 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking
1. a. Define What was the Enlightenment? 4. Summarize Draw a chart like this one. Use it to sum-
b. Explain What was the main goal of most marize the sources of Enlightenment ideas.
Enlightenment thinkers?
Greek and Roman
2. a. Define What does it mean to say that the Philosophers
Enlightenment was a secular movement?
b. Explain What was the connection between the Christianity
discoveries of the Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance and
Enlightenment? Reformation
c. Elaborate How did the idea of natural law
Scientific Revolution
contribute to the Enlightenment?
3. a. Describe How did Voltaire feel about censorship?
b. Explain What did Adam Smith contribute to
Enlightenment ideas?

Enlightenment and Revolution 829

 Lesson 2

New Views on Government

If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are in a coffee house, discussing everything from
Enlightenment ideas influenced
politics to religion with friends. It is 1770. Suddenly,
the growth of democratic someone next to you questions the king’s right to rule.
governments in Europe and the Other people begin to agree with that person. As you
Americas. listen to their logic, you wonder about other ways to run
Main Ideas a government.
■ The Enlightenment influenced Would you support a government that didn’t
some monarchies. include a king or queen? Why or why not?
■ Enlightenment thinkers helped
the growth of democratic
ideas.
Enlightenment Influence on Monarchies
In the 1600s and 1700s, kings, queens, and emperors ruled
■ In the Americas, the
Europe. Many of these monarchs believed that they ruled
Enlightenment inspired a
struggle for independence.
through divine right. That is, they thought that God had given
them an unlimited right to rule as they chose. An unlimited
Key Terms and People government is one in which one person or group of people
unlimited government holds all power with no restrictions. An unlimited government
limited government can also be called an authoritarian state. This type of state
John Locke is one in which power is centralized and the people have few,
natural rights
if any, freedoms. Limited government is one that is not all-
majority rule
Charles-Louis Montesquieu
powerful. It is checked by laws and institutions representing
Jean-Jacques Rousseau the will of the people.
popular sovereignty
Unlimited Government in France King Louis XIV, who ruled
France from 1643 to 1715, was an absolute monarch
who saw himself as the entire government. He
declared, “L’état, c’est moi!” or “I am the state.”
Louis XIV established a totalitarian state. A
totalitarian state has absolute control not only
over government but also over every aspect of
culture, from the arts and literature to science
and commerce. Censorship was common. Any
artist or writer who criticized the monarchy
was punished.
Although absolute monarchs like Louis
XIV held all governmental power, other
King Louis XIV
ruled France as an groups in society also had privileges. In France,
absolute monarch. the nobles paid few taxes and held the highest

830 Module 24
 positions in the army. The French clergy paid no taxes at all. Most of the
French people, the commoners, were poor, paid high taxes, and had no
role in their government.
Enlightened Despotism The spread of Enlightenment ideas pushed some
absolute monarchs to change how they ruled. They applied Enlighten-
ment ideas to government. These rulers became known as enlightened
despots. A despot is a ruler with absolute power.
The enlightened despots tried to make life better
for the commoners. They thought they could make
their countries stronger if the commoners were
happier. Frederick II of Prussia was one such ruler.
He approved reforms in law and education.
Empress Catherine the Great of Russia was
another enlightened despot. For most of its his-
tory, Russia had an unlimited government whose
tsar ruled with an iron fist. Catherine the Great
ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. A German, Empress Catherine
Catherine became czarina through marriage to a the Great of Russia

Explore ONLINE!
European Monarchies, 1789

Holy Roman Empire

Habsburg possessions
0 250 500 Miles
N
W RUSSIAN
0 250 500 Kilometers
EMPIRE
E SWEDEN
S

North NORWAY
GREAT Sea Interpret Maps
BRITAIN Place To which sea did the Russian
NETHERLANDS
DENMARK Empire extend in the south?

PRUSSIA POLAND
ATLANTIC
HOLY
OCEAN ROMAN
FRANCE EMPIRE

SWITZERLAND HUNGARY
GENOA
Black Sea
AL

VENICE
UG

OTTOMAN
RT

SPAIN KINGDOM EMP

OF SARDINIA IRE
PO

PAPAL
STATES
Mediterranean Sea

KINGDOM OF
THE TWO SICILIES

Enlightenment and Revolution 831

 Russian prince. Catherine became inspired by Enlightenment ideals dur-
ing her rule and tried to put in place reforms. She promoted education for
all by expanding the number of state-run schools in Russia. She reformed
Russia’s legal system according to Enlightenment principles.
Part of the reform gave “equal protection” to all Russians. Many
Russians believed that Russian serfs would now be freed and provided
protection under the law. Serfs were workers legally tied to a lord’s land.
Serfs made up the majority of the population in Russia, but Catherine
needed support from the Russian nobility to maintain power. The nobil-
ity opposed freedom for the serfs. Ultimately, serfdom expanded under
Reading Check
Catherine’s rule.
Contrast Even though Catherine the Great and other enlightened despots made
How do rule by divine some improvements to their countries, many Enlightenment thinkers
right and rule by
an enlightened despot criticized these reform efforts. These thinkers began looking for bigger
differ? changes. They began to consider the need for democracy.

Democratic Ideas
Some Enlightenment thinkers challenged only the idea of rule by divine
right. Others went further. They developed some completely new ideas
about how governments should work. Three of these thinkers—Locke,
Montesquieu, and Rousseau—tried to identify the best possible form of
government. The ideas of these Enlightenment thinkers contributed to the
creation of modern democracy.
Locke The English philosopher John Locke had a major influence on
Academic Enlightenment political thought. In 1690, he published Two Treatises of
Vocabulary Government. In this work, Locke argued for government as a contract
contract a binding between the ruler and the people. A constitution, or written plan for
legal agreement
government, is one form of this contract. A constitution defines the
relationship between the government and its citizens, outlines the
structure of the government, and describes the government’s powers.
Because a contract binds both sides, it limits the ruler’s power.
Locke also declared that all people had certain natural rights, which
included the rights to life, liberty, and property. He thought that no person
was born with special privileges. According to Locke, this equality should
be reflected in government. The government’s decisions should reflect
majority rule. Majority rule is a system in which the ideas and decisions
supported by the most people are followed. A government also had to
protect the natural rights of those in the minority. If it didn’t protect the
rights of all its citizens, the people had the right to change rulers. Locke
thought that government existed only for the common good of the people.
Montesquieu Charles-Louis Montesquieu (mohn-te-SKYOO) was a mem-
ber of the French nobility. He built on Locke’s ideas in The Spirit of the
Laws, published in 1748. Montesquieu claimed that a government should
be divided into separate branches to protect people’s freedom. In this idea,
known as the separation of powers, the powers of each branch of gov-
ernment are limited by the others. In addition, each branch has certain

832 Module 24
DOCUMENTBASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source

Separation of Powers
When Charles-Louis Montesquieu published The Spirit of the Laws in 1748,
it was immediately viewed by many as one of the most important political
writings of the period. Montesquieu used England’s government as a model
for his discussion of the separation of powers, the most well-known chapter of
the work. The concept later became the model for the U.S. Constitution.

Montesquieu believed
that for a government to “When the legislative and executive powers are
effectively protect citizens’ united in the same person, or in the same body
liberty, governmental of magistracy, there can be no liberty; because
powers must be separated apprehensions [fear] may arise, lest the same
into three distinct branches.
monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws, to
execute them in a tyrannical manner.
If the powers to execute the
law and interpret the law
Again, there is no liberty, if the power of judging
were granted to the same be not separated from the legislative and executive.
branch, then citizens would Were it joined with the legislative, the life and
be unprotected against liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary
government oppression.
[random] control, for the judge would be then the
legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the
Analyze Historical Sources judge might behave with violence and oppression.”
What might happen if the same
— Charles-Louis Montesquieu from The Spirit of the Laws
branch of government held both
legislative and judicial power?

powers that the others don’t have. As a result, the separate branches must
share power. None of the individual branches can control the government
completely.
Rousseau French thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau (roo-SOH) criticized
divine right. He believed in popular sovereignty (SAHV-ruhn-tee)—that
governments should express the will of the people. In The Social Contract,
published in 1762, Rousseau said, “Man is born free, but he is everywhere
Reading Check in chains.” He believed citizens submit to the authority of government to
Synthesize protect their own interests, entering into a “social contract.” This contract
What idea appears
in the works of both gives the government the power to make and enforce laws if it serves the
Locke and Rousseau? people. The government gives up its power if it is not serving the people.

The Enlightenment in the Americas

The ideas of these three philosophers spread throughout Europe and then
to the British colonists living in North America. Enlightenment ideas
would have a big effect on the history of the Americas.
The British colonists already knew basic ideas about participation in
government. Because they were British citizens, the colonists were familiar
with Parliament and its control over the British monarch. When the

Enlightenment and Revolution 833

 Enlightenment Thinkers

The ideas of Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau contributed to the creation of

modern democracy.

N E W YO R K
ON,
LLECTI
R CO
E
R AN G
EG
TH

John Locke Charles-Louis Jean-Jacques

1632–1704 Montesquieu Rousseau
• Government’s 1689–1755 1712–1778
power is limited. • The powers of • Governments should
• People have natural government express the will of the
rights, such as should be divided people.
life, liberty, and into separate • People enter into a
property. branches. social contract with their
government, giving it
the right to create and
Analyze Visuals enforce laws.
Who believed in the separation of government powers?

British government began to chip away at what the colonists saw as their
rights, the colonists were outraged. Many believed that they needed to
fight back.
British Policy in North America To learn more about this struggle, we
must go back to the founding of the colonies. Other countries besides Britain
settled and controlled land in North America. One of them was France.
In North America, the French and British had
many disagreements. These conflicts led to war.
Even though the British eventually defeated the
French, years of fighting cost Britain a lot of money.
The British government created new taxes in
the colonies to pay its war debt. One tax added to
the cost of molasses. Another tax, called the Stamp
Act, required colonists to pay a tax on newspapers,
some legal documents, and other printed materials.
People in England didn’t have to pay these taxes.
As a result, the colonists thought the taxes were
unfair. The colonists wanted to be treated as British King George III
ruled Great Britain
citizens because they were subject to British laws. when the Stamp
They wanted the same rights as people in England. Act was passed.

834 Module 24
Link to Economics

Economists of the Enlightenment trade among nations as a way to achieve greater

wealth and peace for all.
New ideas about economic freedom also became
important during the Enlightenment, largely Economist Adam Smith took the ideas of the
in response to the principles of mercantilism. Enlightenment and formally applied them to
Mercantilism was the dominant economic economics. Smith rejected mercantilism and
system in Europe from the 1500s to the 1800s. government control of the economy. He also
It was based on creating wealth through strict rejected monopolies, or the control of a particular
government regulations on trade. good or service by one person or business. He
maintained that they prevented the natural
Enlightenment thinkers supported free trade
competition that takes place when people have
and greater economic freedom. English
the freedom to produce, sell, and buy as they
philosopher John Locke’s theory of the social
choose. Adam Smith’s ideas formed the basis
contract stated that people willingly gave up
of capitalism, an economic system in which a
some of their freedoms to government in return
country’s trade and industry are controlled by
for protection of their liberty and property. Laws
private owners rather than by the state. The
that violated these protections, such as those
freedom to engage with and compete in the
restricting free trade, were unjust. Charles-
market and the freedom to trade openly with
Louis Montesquieu, a French Enlightenment
others in the market were key Enlightenment
philosopher, also called for the expansion of
ideas that endure today.

Analyze Information
How did Adam Smith apply Enlightenment principles
to economics?

Colonists’ Views Many colonial leaders were familiar with the ideas of
the Enlightenment. Two leaders in particular—Benjamin Franklin and
Thomas Jefferson—applied those ideas to the colonists’ complaints.
In 1766, philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin went to London.
There he addressed the House of Commons in Parliament. He argued
that the British government had no right to tax the colonists because
they had no representation in Parliament. His argument against
“taxation without representation” inspired riots against taxes in the
colonies. The riots persuaded the British government to get rid of the
Stamp Act.
Thomas Jefferson was a farmer, scientist, and scholar. He had been
influenced by the Scientific Revolution. John Locke was another source of
inspiration. In keeping with Locke’s ideas, Jefferson believed that Britain
had no right to govern or impose taxes on the colonies. He supported
the idea of independence for the colonies. Jefferson also supported the
separation of religious and political power. In this way, he reflected the
Enlightenment’s secular attitudes.

Enlightenment and Revolution 835

Timeline: The Enlightenment Reaches America
1690 1745 1755 1765 1775

1690 1748 1762

John Locke Montesquieu Rousseau 1766 1774
publishes Two publishes The publishes The Benjamin Franklin Thomas Jefferson
Treatises on Civil Spirit of the Social Contract. argues against argues that only
Government. Laws. unfair tax policies voluntary loyalty
in the American to the king ties the
colonies. American colonies
to Great Britain.
Analyze Timelines
Who might have been influenced by Rousseau’s writings?

Reading Check Jefferson would later become president of the United States. His
Find Main Ideas philosophies and achievements, based on Enlightenment ideas, helped to
Why did some
colonists want to be establish the democratic government and the rights we enjoy today in the
independent of Britain? United States.
Summary and Preview In the 1600s and 1700s, some European monarchs
thought they had a divine right to rule. As Enlightenment thinkers
proposed new ways of thinking, people questioned the monarchs’ powers.
Democratic ideas spread. In the next lesson, you will learn how these ideas
changed governments in England, France, and the Americas.

Lesson 2 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People b. Elaborate Why do you think many Americans
consider Thomas Jefferson a hero?
1. a. Define Describe the difference between limited
and unlimited government. Critical Thinking
b. Explain What did enlightened despots try to do?
4. Analyze Effects Draw a graphic organizer like the
2. a. Define What are natural rights?
one shown. Use it to describe the effect of the British
b. Explain What did Locke believe was the purpose of government’s policies on its North American colonies.
government?
c. Elaborate Why would the separation of powers British Policies
protect people’s freedoms?
3. a. Describe What role did Benjamin Franklin play in
the American colonists’ disagreement with the British
government?

836 Module 24
 Lesson 3

The Age of Revolution

If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You live near Boston, Massachusetts. British soldiers
Revolutions changed the
have moved in and taken over your house. They say
governments of Britain, the that the law allows them to take whatever they need.
American colonies, and France. But your father doesn’t want the soldiers living in your
house and eating your food. What can he do to fight the
Main Ideas
king’s laws?
■ Revolution and reform
changed the government Should your father disobey the king?
of England. Why or why not?
■ Enlightenment ideas led to
democracy in North America.
Revolution and Reform in England
■ The French Revolution caused Enlightenment ideas inspired commoners to oppose
major changes in France’s
monarchies that ruled without concern for the people’s needs.
government.
However, the monarchs wouldn’t give up their privileges. In
Key Terms and People England, Parliament forced the monarchy to change.
English Bill of Rights
rule of law Trouble with Parliament For many years, the English
Declaration of Independence Parliament and the English monarchy had had an uneasy
Declaration of the Rights of Man relationship. Parliament demanded that its rights and powers
and of the Citizen be respected. However, the monarchy stood for rule by
divine right. The relationship between English monarchs and
Parliament got worse.
The conflict led to a civil war in 1642. Representatives
of Parliament led by Oliver Cromwell took over the country.
The king, Charles I, was charged with various crimes and
beheaded in 1649. Cromwell became a dictator. The years of his
rule were troubled and violent.
By 1660, many English people were tired of turmoil and
wanted to restore the monarchy. They invited the dead king’s
son to return and rule England as Charles II. They made
Charles promise to allow Parliament to keep the powers it
had won in the civil war. These powers included the right to
approve new taxes. Parliament was able to work with Charles II
during most of his rule. However, when Charles died and his
brother James became king, the trouble began again.

Enlightenment and Revolution 837

 In this painting, King John signs the Magna Carta.
The English Bill of Rights drew on the ideas in the Magna Carta.

James II, an unpopular Catholic, tried to

promote his religious beliefs in England, a
Protestant country. As a result, Parliament invited
the Protestant William of Orange, James’s son-
in-law, to invade England. When William and his
wife, Mary, arrived in England in 1688, James and
his family fled to France.
New Rights for the English People Parliament
offered the throne to William and Mary on one
condition. They had to accept the English Bill of
Rights, a document that listed rights for Parliament
and the English people. This document, approved in
1689, drew on the principles of Magna Carta, which limited a ruler’s power
and recognized some rights for the people.
Magna Carta had been in place for hundreds of years, but the monarchs
had not honored it. William and Mary agreed to honor Magna Carta. They
also agreed that Parliament could pass laws and raise taxes. As a result,
Reading Check the monarchs ruled according to laws passed by Parliament. William and
Analyze Events Mary’s agreement to accept the Bill of Rights ensured that Britain would
What events led to the
creation of the English have a limited government. The monarchs, like everyone else, were subject
Bill of Rights? to the laws of the land. This principle is known as the rule of law.

Democracy in America
Although the power of the monarchs was limited in England, some people
in North America were not satisfied. Colonists there grew increasingly
unhappy with both the king and Parliament.
A New Country Some colonists disliked the laws and taxes that the
British government had put in place. In addition, colonists were used to
ruling themselves through their own assemblies, or congresses. They also
believed that a faraway king and parliament could not understand life in
America.
Many colonists protested British laws they thought were unfair. As
conflict continued, colonial leaders met to resolve the crisis. At this
meeting, called the First Continental Congress, the delegates decided to
resist the British. Not all colonists wanted independence, but they did
want to have fair laws and to feel safe. They created militias, or groups of
armed men, to protect themselves from the British troops stationed in the
colonies.
The American Revolution began in April 1775 when a militia exchanged
fire with British troops. In 1776, the colonial leaders gathered again. At
that meeting, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence,
a document declaring the colonies’ independence from British rule. Like
Magna Carta, the Declaration stated people’s rights to certain liberties.

838 Module 24
 George Washington led the colonial army to victory over the British in the American
Revolution. In this 1851 copy of a famous painting, Washington is shown leading his
troops across the Delaware River to attack British forces.

Academic The Declaration begins with a sentence that also expresses Enlightenment
Vocabulary ideals:
ideals ideas or goals
that people try to live “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they
up to are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these
are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”
–from the Declaration of Independence

In this passage, the word unalienable means “cannot be taken away.”

This wording shows the influence of John Locke’s ideas about natural
rights. In addition, the Declaration of Independence said that people
unhappy with their government had the right to
change it. This statement builds on the ideas of
Rousseau as well as Locke.
The Declaration of Independence was signed
by representatives from all of the colonies. A new
nation—the United States of America—was born.
A New Government In 1783, the British government
finally agreed to end the fighting and recognize the
United States. American leaders then met to form
a new government. They wrote a set of rules called
the Articles of Confederation. Under the Articles,
the central government was weak. The Americans
were afraid that a strong central government would
Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence

Enlightenment and Revolution 839

 Link to Today

An Unwritten Constitution
A constitution is a set of laws for how a country’s
government operates. Many people might think all
constitutions are a single written document. The
U.S. Constitution, for example, is made up of a single
document and its amendments, or changes that
have been added over time to the original. Great
Britain, however, has what has become known as
an “unwritten constitution.” Rather than operating
according to rules set forth in one written document,
Great Britain has a collection of documents, court
decisions, laws, and traditions that has developed as
its constitution over time. The English Bill of Rights is a
key part of what has become known as Great Britain’s
“unwritten constitution.”
Analyze Information
How is Great Britain’s “unwritten constitution” The English Bill of Rights guaranteed free speech for
different from the U.S. Constitution? members of Parliament.

be too much like a monarchy. However, over time, the weak government
didn’t serve the needs of the people. A new plan for the American
government was needed.
Virginia farmer James Madison was a main author of the new plan—the
Constitution. This document reflected the ideas of Montesquieu, who had
proposed the separation of powers in 1748. In keeping with Montesquieu’s
idea, the Constitution divided power among three branches.
t
The legislative branch, called Congress, would make laws.
t
The executive branch, headed by the president, would enforce laws.
t
The judicial branch, or court system, would interpret laws.
The Constitution did not address the rights of women or slaves, and men
without land couldn’t vote. It did, however, guarantee the rights of most
Reading Check citizens.
Find Main Ideas
Locke’s idea of the social contract was included in statements ensuring
How were ideas
of Enlightenment that the government existed to serve the common good of the people. In
thinkers reflected addition, some states approved the Constitution only on the condition that
in the American a Bill of Rights was added. This document—the first ten amendments to
Revolution and
the new American the Constitution—further guaranteed the individual rights and liberties
government? of the new nation’s citizens.

The French Revolution

As the Americans fought for and created a new nation, the French people
paid close attention to the events. They were inspired by the Americans to
fight for their own rights.

840 Module 24
Quick Facts

Documents of Democracy
The growth of modern democracy was greatly influenced by several key documents.

Magna Carta (1215)

t
Limited the power of the monarchy
t
Identified people’s rights to property
t
Established people’s right to trial by a jury

The English Bill of Rights (1689)

t
Outlawed cruel and unusual punishment
t
Guaranteed free speech for members of Parliament

The U.S. Declaration of Independence (1776)

t
Declared that people have natural rights that governments
must protect
t
Argued that people have the right to replace their
government

The French Declaration of the Rights of Man

and of the Citizen (1789)
t
Stated that the French government received its power from
the people
t
Strengthened individual rights and equality

An Unfair Society The French king ruled over a society split into three
groups called estates. The clergy were members of the First Estate and
enjoyed many privileges. Nobles made up the Second Estate. They held
important positions in the military, the government, and the courts.
Most French people belonged to the Third Estate. Included were
peasants, craftworkers, and shopkeepers. The Third Estate paid the
highest taxes but had few rights. Many members of the Third Estate
were poor and hungry. They thought that the king didn’t understand
their problems. While the common people starved, King Louis XVI had
fancy parties. The queen, Marie-Antoinette, also had little regard for
commoners. She spent huge amounts of money on clothes.
Meanwhile, the government was badly in debt. Louis XVI wanted
to raise money by taxing the rich. To do so, in 1789 he called together
members of the three estates.
The meeting did not go smoothly. Some members of the Third Estate
were familiar with Enlightenment ideas. These members demanded a real
voice in the meeting’s decisions. Eventually, the Third Estate members

Enlightenment and Revolution 841

 formed a separate group called the
National Assembly. This group demanded
that the king accept a constitution limiting
his powers.
Louis XVI refused to agree to the
demands, angering many Parisians.
Violence broke out on July 14, 1789. A
mob stormed a Paris prison, the Bastille.
After forcing the guards to surrender,
the mob used guns from the building to
free the prisoners. The French Revolu-
tion had begun.
During the French Revolution and Change After the Bastille fell, the revolution spread
Revolution, about
6,000 women marched to the countryside. Peasants there were afraid that the king and nobles
to the palace at would crush the revolution. In events called the Great Fear, peasants took
Versailles to demand revenge on their noble landlords for years of poor treatment. In their rage
bread from the king.
and fear, the peasants burned country houses and monasteries.
Other leaders of the revolution were taking peaceful steps. The National
Assembly wrote a list of rights. It included some of the same ideas found in
the writings of Enlightenment philosophers, the English Bill of Rights, and
the Declaration of Independence. Called the Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of the Citizen, this document guaranteed some freedoms
for citizens and distributed the payment of taxes more fairly. Among the
rights the Declaration supported were freedom of speech, of the press, and
of religion. It also guaranteed that men could take part in the government.
The French Declaration Louis XVI was forced to accept the new laws, but new laws did not
of the Rights of Man and satisfy the revolution’s leaders. In 1792, they ended the monarchy and
of the Citizen stated that
the French government created a republic. The next year, the leaders put Louis XVI on trial and
received its power from executed him.
the people.

842 Module 24
DOCUMENTBASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source

Impact of the French Revolution

“It is no longer the paltry [small] cause of
Thomas Paine was a supporter of the American kings, or of this, or of that individual, that
Revolution. He also supported the cause of the calls France and her armies into action.
French Revolution. He gave this speech right It is the great cause of ALL. It is the
after the end of the French monarchy.
establishment of a new era, that shall blot
despotism from the earth, and fix, on the
lasting principles of peace and citizenship,
the great Republic of Man. . . .”
Analyze Historical Sources
—Thomas Paine, “Address to
What do you think Thomas Paine envisioned the the People of France”
“new era” to be?

Facing unrest, in 1793 the new French government began to order trials
of anyone who questioned its rule. In the period that followed, called the
Reign of Terror, thousands of people were executed with the guillotine.
This machine beheaded victims quickly with a heavy blade. The Reign of
Terror ended when one of its main leaders, Maximilien Robespierre, was
himself executed in July 1794.
Reading Check Although the Reign of Terror was a grim chapter in the story of the
Summarize French Revolution, the revolution wasn’t a failure. Eventually, France cre-
What is the ated a democratic government. Enlightenment ideas about freedom were
Declaration of the
Rights of Man and powerful. Once they took hold, they would not go away. Many Europeans
of the Citizen? and Americans enjoy freedoms today thanks to Enlightenment ideas.
Summary and Preview Questions about divine right led to struggles
between the English monarchy and Parliament. Enlightenment ideas
inspired the American Revolution and led to democracy in the United
States. The French also formed a republic. Next, you will learn how
Enlightenment ideas continued to influence world events.

Lesson 3 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People 3. a. Describe How was French society organized before
the French Revolution?
1. a. Summarize What caused the conflict between the
English monarchy and Parliament? b. Compare What did the Great Fear and the Reign of
Terror have in common?
b. Compare What was the connection between
Magna Carta and the English Bill of Rights? Critical Thinking
2. a. Identify What basic rights were listed in the
Declaration of Independence? 4. Organize Information Draw a graphic organizer like
the one shown. Use it to describe the steps of the
b. Explain How were Montesquieu’s ideas reflected in
French Revolution.
the U.S. Constitution?

Enlightenment and Revolution 843

 Lesson 4

The Spread of Revolutionary Ideals

If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are living in Paris in 1799. You have complained for
Napoleon’s quest to rule Europe
years about the weak, corrupt government officials who
was eventually thwarted, but not rule your country. Just days ago, however, a popular gen-
before the ideals of the French eral led an overthrow of the government. His supporters
Revolution spread throughout say he is strong and patriotic.
the continent and Latin America.
Will you support this new leader?
Main Ideas
■ During the Napoleonic Era,
Napoleon conquered vast
The Napoleonic Era
territories in Europe and After the French Revolution, a young general named Napoleon
spread reforms across the Bonaparte became a hero in France. He defeated rebels at
continent. home and foreign armies that threatened the new republic.
■ At the Congress of Vienna, Before long, Napoleon seized political power and made France
European leaders tried to into a great empire that dominated Europe.
restore the old monarchies and
ensure peace. The Rise of an Emperor By the late 1790s, the French had
had enough of the violence. They wanted order and strong
■ Inspired by revolutionary
ideals in Europe, Latin leaders, not the weak politicians who were running the coun-
American colonies began to try. In 1799, Napoleon took part in a coup d’état (koo day-
win their independence. TAH), the forceful overthrow of a government. Napoleon took
the top position in the new government of France. Then
Key Terms and People
in 1804, with his popularity soaring, he crowned himself
Napoleon Bonaparte emperor.
coup d’état
Klemens von Metternich Napoleon was a remarkable military leader and showed his
conservatism abilities as he began to take over the rest of Europe. He had
liberalism learned the value of artillery as a young officer. He grouped his
Simón Bolívar cannons on the battlefield to maximize their effect. Napoleon
also stressed mobility. He quickly moved his troops into place
to surround the enemy. Under his command and using these
techniques, the French army won a series of dazzling victories
against Austria, Prussia, and Russia. French troops conquered
many countries and forced others to become allies of France. By
1810, Napoleon was the master of Europe. His empire stretched
across most of the continent.

844 Module 24
 Between 1805 and 1808,
Napoleon’s armies defeated
the armies of Austria,
Prussia, and Russia. As a
result, these countries were
forced to become allies of
France. This painting shows
Napoleon during his victory
against the Russian army
at the Battle of Friedland
in 1807.

Napoleon wanted an efficient government, and he created one. He

put in place a system of public education. He made taxes fairer. He also
created the Bank of France as a central financial institution. Perhaps most
significantly, he issued a set of laws, called the Napoleonic Code, for his
empire. The code reflected many of the ideals of the French Revolution.
All men were equal before the law. All received the same civil rights,
including trial by jury. All could practice religion freely.
With these reforms, Napoleon brought new liberties to the people of
the French Empire. Yet his legal code denied rights to women. In addition,
Academic Napoleon did not allow fair elections. He restricted freedom of the press.
Vocabulary Napoleon also tolerated no opposition to his rule, and he harshly punished
opposition the those hostile to him.
act of opposing or
resisting
The Defeat of Napoleon Great Britain was the one enemy Napoleon could
not defeat. In 1805, the British navy destroyed the French fleet at the
Battle of Trafalgar, off the coast of Spain. In response, Napoleon ordered
all nations in Europe to stop trading with Great Britain.
When Russia ignored this order, Napoleon invaded with a force of
600,000 men. The decision was a disaster for the French. Smart Russian
tactics and harsh winter weather forced the French into a bloody retreat.
With Napoleon’s army weakened, Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and
Russia joined forces to defeat the French. These allies captured Paris in
March 1814. In April they forced Napoleon to give up power and leave
Reading Check France. A year later, he returned and raised a new army. The British
Summarize and Prussians, however, dealt Napoleon his final defeat at the Battle of
What changes did
Napoleon bring Waterloo in Belgium in June 1815. The allies then sent Napoleon away to
to Europe? a small island in the Atlantic. He died there six years later.

Enlightenment and Revolution 845

 The Congress of Vienna
Napoleon was driven from France in 1814. European leaders met in Vienna
to draw up a peace settlement. They aimed to restore stability after many
years of war.
Redrawing the Map Countries across Europe sent representatives to the
Congress of Vienna. But the leaders of powerful Austria, Britain, Prussia,
and Russia made all the important decisions.
Prince Klemens von Metternich (MEH-tuhr-nik) of Austria led the
meetings. At first the congress offered generous peace terms to France.
But after Napoleon returned in 1815, the diplomats were not so lenient.

Explore ONLINE!
Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815

Napoleonic Empire, 1812

North
Sea

KINGDOM OF
ATLANTIC N SWEDEN AND NORWAY
Paris
OCEAN Vienna W
E

UNITED
Madrid KINGDOM North Baltic
Rome OF GREAT Sea Sea
BRITAIN AND RUSSIAN
Mediterranean Sea IRELAND
DENMARK
EMPIRE
S
ND

PRUSSIA
LA
ER
TH
NE

Boundary of the LESSER

German Confederation GERMAN
0 150 300 Miles STATES
AUSTRIAN
0 150 300 Kilometers EMPIRE
SWITZERLAND
FRANCE Black
Sea
PARMA
MODENA
ATLANTIC LUCCA PAPAL
Corsica STATES OTTO
MA
OCEAN (Fr.) Ad
ria
N
AL

KINGDOM tic
Se EM
TUG

OF SARDINIA TUSCANY a
P
SPAIN
POR

IR
E

Sardinia KINGDOM
OF THE
TWO SICILIES
Mediterranean
Sea

Interpret Maps
1. Region How many Italian states resulted from
the Congress of Vienna’s reshaping of territories?
2. Location How might France’s location have
contributed to Napoleon’s rise and fall?

846 Module 24
 Following the Battle of Waterloo, they sent an army to take control
of France. France had to give back the territory it had conquered. The
French also had to pay 700 million francs to rebuild Europe. In addition,
diplomats added and subtracted territory to reshape the kingdoms along
France’s borders. They did this to try to balance the strength of the
different countries in Europe. After Napoleon, the diplomats wanted to
make sure that no single European power could ever again threaten the
rest of the continent.
Containing the French Revolution Metternich and the other leaders at
the Congress of Vienna opposed the ideals of the French Revolution. They
instead promoted conservatism, a movement to preserve the old social
order and governments. The diplomats at Vienna wanted to return Europe
to the way it was before the French Revolution.
The Congress of Vienna restored the old European monarchies. Royal
families returned to power in Spain, Portugal, and the Italian states. In
France, Louis XVIII took the throne, putting the Bourbon family back in
power. The new king, however, did have to accept a constitution that left
some of the reforms of the French Revolution in place.
Reading Check Despite Metternich’s efforts, the ideals of democratic revolution did not
Analyze Motives die. Liberalism, a movement for individual rights and liberties, gained
What did the strength in the following decades. In the 1820s, liberal uprisings erupted
diplomats at
the Congress of in Spain, Portugal, and a number of Italian states. But conservative forces
Vienna fear? rallied to preserve the old order. The dreams of liberals would have to wait.

Latin American Independence

The ideals of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution also inspired
uprisings across the Atlantic. European powers had ruled Latin America
for 300 years. The people living in these colonies now wanted to control
their own affairs. In the 1800s, they launched a series of revolts to throw
off European rule.
Haiti, a Caribbean island under French rule, was the first colony in
Latin America to gain independence. In the 1790s, Toussaint Louver-
ture (too-SAN loo-vehr-TOOR), a freed slave, led a rebellion of the island’s
African slaves. Although Napoleon sent an army to retake the island,
Haitian fighters defeated the French troops. In 1804, Haiti declared its
independence.
Revolution in South America The movement for freedom quickly spread
to the continent of South America. Here, the ideas of Locke, Montesquieu,
and Rousseau had been widely discussed among the educated elite in Latin
American cities. Many had begun to question Latin America’s colonial
status and to desire independence. The Spanish government had adopted
a more liberal constitution in 1812, but it still denied colonists represen-
tation in the Spanish government and maintained rigid control over the
colonies. Latin American colonists were angry at their continued lack of
political and economic power.

Enlightenment and Revolution 847

 BIOGRAPHY

Simón Bolívar
Simón Bolívar was born in Caracas, Venezuela. At the
time of his birth, European powers governed Latin
America. As a teenager, Bolívar moved to Spain to
finish his education. He spent much of his adult life in
South America, where he lived mostly in Venezuela and
Colombia. He led independence movements in Bolivia,
Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, and he also helped
liberate Upper Peru. The people there named their new
nation Bolivia, in his honor. He later worked to build unity
among Latin America’s new countries and to establish the
new nations as constitutional republics. Rebellions and
unrest, however, defeated these efforts.
Summarize
What is Simón Bolívar known for?

Bolívar and Independence The revolutionary leaders Simón Bolívar

(see-MOHN boh-LEE-vahr) and José de San Martín led independence
movements across the continent. Bolívar condemned the Spanish rulers:

“They have committed every manner of crime, reducing the Republic of

Venezuela to the most frightful desolation [state of ruin]. Justice therefore
demands vengeance, and necessity compels us to exact [get] it. Let the monsters
who infest Colombian soil, who have drenched it in blood, be cast out forever.”
—Simón Bolívar, from Proclamation to the People of Venezuela

Bolívar’s successes inspired other revolutionaries to fight for liberation.

Independence movements flared up across Latin America. One by one, the
colonies threw off European rule. Neither Spain nor Portugal could hold
onto their New World empires. By 1831 a dozen Latin American nations
had won their freedom.
Mexican Independence In 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo, a priest who
served a poor Mexican parish in Dolores, called his parish by ringing the
bells atop the church. Instead of leading the people in prayer, Hidalgo
issued what came to be known as el grito de Dolores—the cry of Dolores.
Hidalgo urged the people of his parish to fight for rights and for economic
justice for the poor. He demanded racial equality and the redistribution of
land to the poor in Mexico. He also demanded independence from Spain.
Hidalgo was eventually caught and executed for his rebellion and his
radical ideas about the poor. Another priest, José Morelos, took up the
cause for Mexican independence. Morelos led many followers in the fight
for four years, until he also was caught and executed in 1815. In 1821,
Mexico finally gained its independence.

848 Module 24
 Explore ONLINE!
Latin American Independence

UNITED
STATES
MEXICO ATLANTIC
(1821) OCEAN
Gulf of
N Mexico
HAITI (1804)
W E

UNITED PROVINCES
OF CENTRAL AMERICA GRAN
(1823) COLOMBIA
(1819)

PACIFIC
OCEAN PERU EMPIRE OF
(1824) BRAZIL
(1822)
BOLIVIA
(1825)
PARAGUAY
(1811)

(1824) Year of independence

CHILE
0 500 1,000 Miles (1818)
URUGUAY
0 500 1,000 Kilometers (1828)
ARGENTINA
(1816)
Interpret Maps
Place What were the first three countries in
Latin America to gain their independence?

Creating Constitutional Government Latin American republics looked

to the United States, France, and Great Britain when they created their
new governments. They adopted Enlightenment principles and used
the U.S. Constitution as the basis for their own founding documents.
The first Latin American constitutions, enacted in Chile and Venezuela
(1811–1812), set up representative governments that guaranteed the
rights and liberties of citizens. These first constitutions did not suffi-
ciently separate the powers of government, however, and created a weak
executive branch.
Academic By about 1815, Latin American nations began to move away from
Vocabulary truly liberal Enlightenment principles. Conflict between conservatives,
conflict an open who wanted the wealthy to control government at any cost, and liberals,
clash between two
opposing groups who favored democracy, created turmoil. It was hard for inexperienced
new leaders to rule under these conditions. Throughout the region,

Enlightenment and Revolution 849

 Reading Check unstable governments rose and fell. The power struggle led to new con-
Find Main Ideas stitutions that gave more power to a centralized authority. The elites
Name three key leaders
in the movement not only wanted power, they thought that a strong centralized govern-
for Latin American ment would offer better opposition to any future Spanish interference.
independence.
Summary After gaining power in France, Napoleon conquered much
of Europe. After his defeat, European leaders met in Vienna to try to
restore stability to the continent. In Latin America, revolutionary ideals
led to independence movements.

Lesson 4 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People 3. a. Recall What was the first colony in Latin America to
gain independence?
1. a. Describe What is a coup d’état?
b. Identify Who initially led the movement for
b. Explain What events led to Napoleon Bonaparte
Mexican independence?
being forced to leave France in 1814?
c. Draw Conclusions How did independence affect
c. Evaluate How did the Napoleonic Code reflect the
the new Latin American countries?
ideals of the French Revolution?
2. a. Recall Which four countries had the most influence Critical Thinking
at the Congress of Vienna?
4. Categorize Identify two achievements and one
b. Contrast What is the difference between
failure of each leader. Use a chart like this one.
conservatism and liberalism?
c. Evaluate Why do you think the old European Leader Achievements Failure
monarchies opposed the ideals of the French Napoleon Bonaparte
Revolution? Klemens von Metternich
Simon Bolívar

850 Module 24
Social Studies Skills
Accept Social Responsibility
Define the Skill 3. Remember that violence is never an accept-
A society is an organized group of people who able method for change. People who use
share a common set of activities, traditions, force in seeking change are not behaving in
and goals. You are part of many societies— a socially responsible manner, even if their
your school, community, and nation are cause is good.
just three. Every society’s strength depends This module was filled with the stories
on the support and contributions of its of socially responsible people. Many of them
members. Social responsibility is the obligation devoted their lives to changing society for the
that every person has to the societies of which better. The revolutionary leader Simon Bolívar
he or she is a member. spent much of his life struggling for Latin
American independence from Spain and to
establish these new nations as constitutional
Learn the Skill republics.
As a part of your school, community, and
nation, you have obligations to the people
around you. The most obvious is to do nothing Practice the Skill
to harm your society. You also have a duty to Imagine you live in Latin America during the
take part in it. At the very least, this means 1800s. You believe the Spanish government
exercising the rights and responsibilities of is oppressive and you want your colony
membership. These include being informed to become an independent constitutional
about issues in your society. republic. But you know not everyone thinks the
Another level of social responsibility is same way you do about a new government.
support of change to benefit society. This level Some people might report your thoughts
of involvement goes beyond being informed or actions to the authorities. You might be
about issues to trying to do something about imprisoned.
them. If you take this important step, here are 1. Would reading the ideas of Locke,
some points to consider. Montesquieu, and Rousseau benefit society?
1. Few efforts to change society have every- Explain why or why not.
one’s support. Some people will want things 2. Are you willing to risk imprisonment
to stay the same. They may treat you badly if for speaking out against the oppression of
you work for change. You must be prepared the Spanish government? Why or why not?
for this possibility. 3. Would participating in the movements led by
2. Sometimes, efforts to improve things involve Simon Bolívar and other revolutionaries be a
opposing laws or rules that need to be socially responsible thing to do? Explain why
changed. No matter how just your cause is, if or why not.
you break laws or rules, you must be willing
to accept the consequences of your behavior.

Enlightenment and Revolution 851

Module 24 Assessment
Review Vocabulary, Terms, and People
Match the words or names with their definitions or descriptions.
1. British writer who argued that women should have the same rights a. Enlightenment
as men b. English Bill of Rights
2. defeated rebels and foreign armies to make France into a great c. Voltaire
empire
d. John Locke
3. a period also known as the Age of Reason
e. natural rights
4. proposed the separation of powers
f. popular sovereignty
5. document that William and Mary had to sign before they could rule
g. Mary Wollstonecraft
6. spoke out against censorship
h. Charles-Louis
7. the idea that governments should express the will of the people Montesquieu
8. included life, liberty, and property in Locke’s view i. Napoleon Bonaparte
9. led revolutionary movements in Latin America in order to replace j. Simon Bolívar
colonial rule with liberalism
10. argued against divine right in Two Treatises on Civil Government

Comprehension and Critical Thinking

Lesson 1 Lesson 3
11. a. Identify What three goals did Enlighten- 13. a. Identify What event started the French
ment thinkers believe the use of reason Revolution?
could achieve? b. Analyze What basic ideas are found in
b. Compare How was the influence of both the English Bill of Rights and Magna
Greek and Roman ideas similar to the Carta?
influence of the Scientific Revolution on c. Elaborate The way people interpret the
the Enlightenment? U.S. Constitution has changed over the
c. Elaborate Voltaire and others have years. What do you think is a reason for
argued against censorship. Is censorship this change?
ever acceptable? Explain your answer. Lesson 4
Lesson 2 14. a. Identify List the four countries that
12. a. Identify Who were two important lead- controlled all the important decisions
ers in the American colonies? made at the Congress of Vienna.
b. Compare and Contrast What ideas did b. Analyze How were Napoleon’s forces
Locke and Rousseau share? How did weakened and then defeated?
these ideas differ from most monarchs’ c. Elaborate Describe the problems that
ideas about government? faced South American nations after they
c. Elaborate Do you think things would threw off colonial rule.
have happened the same way or differ-
ently in the colonies if colonial leaders
had not been familiar with Enlighten-
ment ideas? Explain your answer.

852 Module 24
Module 24 Assessment, continued
Review Themes Social Studies Skills
15. Politics How did the English Bill of Rights Accept Social Responsibility Use the Social
and the Declaration of the Rights of Man Studies Skills taught in this module to answer the
and of the Citizen change the power of question below.
monarchs?
16. Society and Culture How would daily life 19. Fill in the chart to answer whether each
have changed for a peasant after the French action is socially responsible, and give your
Revolution? reason for your conclusion.
Action Is this socially Why or
Reading Skills responsible? why not?

Understand Points of View Use the Reading Teach

Skills taught in this module and the passage below someone to
read
to answer the questions that follow.
Throw litter
on the
“From whatever side we approach our principle, sidewalk
we reach the same conclusion, that the social Cut in front
compact sets up among the citizens an equality of someone
of such a kind, that they all bind themselves in line
to observe the same conditions and should Vote
therefore all enjoy the same rights.”
—Jean-Jacques Rousseau, from Focus On Writing
The Social Contract
20. Write a Persuasive Article Write an article
on the ideas and benefits of the Enlighten-
17. What is Rousseau’s point of view about ment. In three to four sentences, introduce
rights? the ideas of the Enlightenment. In the
18. Who might disagree with Rousseau? next paragraph, discuss what you believe
are the benefits of these ideas to society
and government. Be sure you include your
strongest argument about the benefits first.
Then support your argument with your
weaker points, and address any possible
objections to your arguments. Conclude
with a summary of your main points and a
call to action—what you want readers of
your article to do or think.

Enlightenment and Revolution 853

 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

the
American
revolution

The American Revolution led to the formation of Declaration of Independence, announcing that the
the United States of America in 1776. Beginning in American colonies were free from British rule. In reality,
the 1760s, tensions grew between American colonists however, freedom would not come until after years of
and their British rulers when Britain started passing a fighting.
series of new laws and taxes for the colonies. With no Explore some of the people and events of the
representation in the British government, however, American Revolution online. You can find a wealth of
colonists had no say in these laws, which led to growing information, video clips, primary sources, activities, and
discontent. After fighting broke out in 1775, colonial more through your online textbook.
leaders met to decide what to do. They approved the

853 MC1 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

 Go online to view these and
other HISTORY® resources.

“I know not what course others

may take; but as for me, give
me liberty or give me death!”
—Patrick Henry

Seeds of Revolution
Watch the video to learn about colonial discontent
“Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death!” in the years before the Revolutionary War.
Read an excerpt from Patrick Henry’s famous speech,
which urged the colonists to fight against the British.

Independence!
Watch the video to learn about the origins of the
Declaration of Independence.

Victory!
Watch the video to learn how the American
colonists won the Revolutionary War.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 853 MC2

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