COURSE

GUIDE

PAD 202
INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Course Team Mr. Babatunde Osabiya (Course

Developer/Writer/Coordinator) – NOUN
Dr. A. N. Eneanya (Course Editor) – NOUN
Dr. I. D. Idrisu (Programme Leader) – NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

PAD 202 COURSE GUIDE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone,
Nnamdi Azikiwe Express way
Jabi, Abuja

Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by
National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2014

ISBN: 978-058-191-9

All Rights Reserved

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PAD 202 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction……………………………………………….. iv
Course Aims……………………………………………….. iv
Course Objectives………………………………………….. iv
Working through the Course………………………………. v
Course Materials…………………………………………... v
Study Units………………………………………………… v
Textbooks and References………………………………… vi
Assessment………………………………………………… vi
Tutor-Marked Assignment………………………………… vi
Final Examination and Grading…………………………… vii
Course Marking Scheme………………………………….. vii
Course Overview/Presentation…………………………….. vii
What you will Learn in this Course ……………………… viii
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials…………………………… viii
Conclusion………………………………………………… viii
Summary…………………………………………………... viii

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PAD 202 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

PAD 202 – Introduction to Public Administration is a 3-credit unit

course for students of public administration at 200 level. The course
provides an opportunity for you to acquire a detailed knowledge and
understanding of theory and practice of public administration.

This course would enable you to apply different approaches in public

administration to the implementation of public policies. You will also be
expected to know the mainstream literature in public administration and
their discussion, and be able to apply approaches to case studies.

This course guide provides you with the necessary information about the
contents of the course and the materials you will need to be familiar with
for a proper understanding of the subject matter. It is designed to help
you to get the best of the course by enabling you to think productively
about the principles underlying the issues you study and the projects you
execute in the course of your study and thereafter. It also provides some
guidance on the way to approach your tutor-marked assignments (TMA)
and your examination.

COURSE AIMS

The aims of this course are to:

• define the concept of public administration

• mention the approaches into the study of public administration
• differentiate between public and private administrations
• explain the distinction between public administration and politics
• mention the different approaches in public administration at
various levels of government.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

• define administration in general and public administration in
particular
• differentiate between classical and behavioural approaches
• describe various theories in public administration
• apply public administration approaches to real administration in
public sectors
• elucidate the major distinctions in dominant approaches in public
administration.

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PAD 202 COURSE GUIDE

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course you are to carefully study each unit, beginning
with this course guide, especially since the course provides an
opportunity for you to understand the major approaches in public
administration. Also make a habit of noting down any question you have
for tutorials. In addition, please try your hand at formulating or
identifying theories relevant to, and that can be applied to administrative
inquiry.

COURSE MATERIALS

1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignment File
5. Presentation Schedule

STUDY UNITS

There are four modules in this course broken into 18 units.

Module 1

Unit 1 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

Unit 2 Growth of Public Administration
Unit 3 Meaning/Definition of Public Administration
Unit 4 Reasons for Studying Public Administration
Unit 5 Ecology of Public Administration

Module 2

Unit 1 Administration and Organisation

Unit 2 Public Administration as an Arts or Science
Unit 3 Importance of Public Administration
Unit 4 Scope of Public Administration
Unit 5 Functions of Public Administration

Module 3

Unit 1 Private and Public Administration: Differences and Similarities

Unit 2 Relationship between Public Administration and Politics
Unit 3 Approaches to Public Administration
Unit 4 Scientific Management Theory

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PAD 202 COURSE GUIDE

Module 4

Unit 1 Classical Theory of Organisation

Unit 2 Human Relation Theory
Unit 3 Methods of Inquiry in Public Administration
Unit 4 Nigerian Civil Service

Each module is preceded with a listing of the units contained in it, and a
table of contents, an introduction, a list of objectives and the main
content in turn precedes each unit, including self-assessment exercises
(SAEs). At the end of each unit, you will find one or more tutor-marked
assignment (TMA) which you are expected to work on and submit for
marking.

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

At the end of each unit, you will find a list of relevant reference
materials which you may yourself wish to consult as the need arises,
even though efforts have been made to provide you with the most
important information you need to pass this course. However, it is
advised that as a second year student, you should cultivate the habit of
consulting as many relevant materials as you are able to within the time
available to you. In particular, make sure you consult whatever material
you are advised to consult before attempting any exercise.

ASSESSMENT

Two types of assessment are involved in the course: the self-assessment

exercise (SAEs), and the tutor-marked assessment (TMA) questions.
Your answers to the SAEs are not meant to be submitted, but they are
also important since they give you an opportunity to assess your own
understanding of course content. Tutor-marked assignments on the other
hand are to be carefully answered and kept in your assignment file for
submission and marking. This will count for 30% of your total score in
the course.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

At the end of every unit, you will find a tutor-marked assignment which
you should answer as instructed and put in your assignment file for
submission. However, this Course Guide does not contain any tutor-
marked assignment question. The tutor-marked assignment questions are
provided from unit 1 of module 1 to unit 4 of module 4.

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PAD 202 COURSE GUIDE

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination for this course will take two hours and carry 70%
of the total course grade. The examination questions will reflect the
SAEs and TMAs that you have already worked on. It is advised that you
spend the time between completing the last unit and the examination to
revise the entire course. You will certainly find it helpful to also review
both your SAEs and TMAs before the examination.

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

The following table sets out how the actual course marking is organised.

Assessment Marks
Assignments 1-4 Four assignments, the best three
will be selected (each count 10%)
= 30% of course marks

Final Examination 70% of overall course marks

Total 100% of course marks

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

Introduction to Public Administration provides you with the opportunity

to gain mastery and an in-depth understanding of approaches in public
administration. The first module provides you with in-depth
understanding of the concept of public administration, scope and
importance of the concept. The second module will provide you with an
understanding of basic practices of administration. The remaining
modules introduce you to the basic contemporary issues in public
administration both within Nigeria and the rest of the world.

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are 15 hours of tutorials provided in support of the course. You

will be notified of the dates and location of these tutorials, together with
the name and phone number of your tutor as soon as you are allocated a
tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments,
and keep a close watch on your progress. Be sure to send in your tutor-
marked assignments promptly, and feel free to contact your tutor in case
of any difficulty with your self-assessment exercise, tutor-marked
assignment or the grading of an assignment. In any case, I advise you to
attend the tutorials regularly and punctually. Always take a list of such
prepared questions to the tutorials and participate actively in the
discussions.

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PAD 202 COURSE GUIDE

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, all the features of this course guide have been designed to
facilitate your learning in order that you achieve the aims and objectives
of the course. They include the aims and objectives, course summary,
course overview, self-assessment exercises and study questions. You
should ensure that you make maximum use of them in your study to
achieve maximum results.

SUMMARY

Introduction to Public Administration provides a theoretical foundation

upon which you will develop mastery in public administration. It is
aimed at equipping you with analytical skills for the understanding of
theoretical approaches in public administration. Upon completing this
course you should be able to explain the various approaches employed
in public administration, including their weaknesses and strengths. You
will also be able to apply these approaches to real life administrative
phenomena. This course assumes your prior level of understanding.

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 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1……………………………………………. 1

Unit 1 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria 1

Unit 2 Growth of Public Administration…………… .. 6
Unit 3 Meaning/Definition of Public Administration 10
Unit 4 Reasons for Studying Public Administration 17
Unit 5 Ecology of Public Administration…………… 21

Module 2…………………………………………….. 30

Unit 1 Administration and Organisation…………….… 30

Unit 2 Public Administration as an Arts or Science…… 37
Unit 3 Importance of Public Administration…………... 42
Unit 4 Scope of Public Administration………………… 48
Unit 5 Functions of Public Administration…………….. 53

Module 3………………………………………………. 58

Unit 1 Private and Public Administration: Differences

and Similarities……………………………….... 58
Unit 2 Relationship between Public Administration and
Politics…………………………………………. 68
Unit 3 Approaches to Public Administration………….. 75
Unit 4 Scientific Management Theory…………………. 80

Module 4…………………………………………… 92

Unit 1 Classical Theory of Organisation………………. 92

Unit 2 Human Relation Theory………………………… 105
Unit 3 Methods of Inquiry in Public Administration….. 120
Unit 4 Nigerian Civil Service…………………………... 126
PAD 202 MODULE 1

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

Unit 2 Growth of Public Administration
Unit 3 Meaning/Definition of Public Administration
Unit 4 Reasons for Studying Public Administration
Unit 5 Ecology of Public Administration

UNIT 1 EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

IN NIGERIA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The History of Public Administration
3.2 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The art of administration connotes the direction, co-ordination and

control of man, material and resources to achieve some purposes or
objectives. An administrator is one who exercises that art. There are
administrators in all human activities.

Public administration is that type of administration that is carried out in

any affair that concerns the government. It has a universal application
irrespective of the system of government practiced by the country. It is
the type of administration that is practiced in all levels of government be
it in the central, intermediate or local levels.

In this unit, we shall be looking at the evolution of public administration

and the factors that influenced the growth of public administration in
Nigeria.

You are expected to study this unit very well because a proper
understanding of the unit will give you a proper footing and a sound
foundation to grasp the rudiments of public service administration.

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• trace the evolution of public administration in Nigeria

• explain the influence of colonial masters as well as other
influences on the practice of public administration in Nigeria
• compare the modern public administration with the colonial
administration in Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The History of Public Administration

Public administration is not a creation of modern times. It has its roots in

history and dates back to the times of the ancient civilisations. It is on
record that dating back to 462 B. C. Pericles, a renowned leader in
ancient Greece, introduced a scheme for the compensation of officials,
thus, facilitating the continued participation in public administration by
citizens who had to work daily for their living (Bury, n d). The ancient
Chinese Empire during the Han Dynasty, 202 BC, recognised the need
to have a permanent body of officials to implement government
decisions.

Again, about the year 120BC, the Chinese Prime Minister, Kung – sun
Hung, in a memorandum addressed to the throne, observed that the
edicts and laws which were written in elegant classical style were often
not understood by the officers whose duty it was to explain and interpret
them to the people.

He therefore recommended that examinations be held for the selection

of men and that those who had shown the best knowledge should have
the first preference in appointments to office requiring the use of the
written language. His recommendation was adopted and marked the
beginning of the civil service examination.

It is also of interest to note that in AD 219 the ancient Chinese had

worked out a system of classifying men into nine grades according to
their ability, knowledge, experience, and character. This system was
called Chung Cheng, that is, Impartial Judge, a forerunner of our present
day civil service commission (Shih, 1941).

3.2 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

It has been posited that the present day public administration has its
origin in the amalgamation of the colony and protectorates of the
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PAD 202 MODULE 1

northern and southern Nigeria to form the colony and protectorate of

Nigeria in 1914. He equally informed that the Nigeria’s colonial
experience also laid the foundation for economic and political
underdevelopment of the country (Maduabum, 2008).

Before then, the natives formed clusters which were administered on the
basis of village or nomadic communities. Gladden (1972) wrote that
some form of administration had existed ever since there had been
government. In such communities, people of the same or mixed kindred
found themselves living within common or defined geographical
boundaries and interact as individuals or groups for their collective well
being. They had rule and regulations guiding them and established
control measures with the arm of authority vested on their traditional
rulers. This was collaborated by Muwanga (1978) who traced the
evolution of administration back to pre-government period.

According to him, ‘since man began to live in groups, even as a hunter,

he had to subject himself to some form of administration or another’.
Such were the system of administration and social control in many parts
of Nigeria until the advent of the British who colonised them.

The emergence of the colonial masters brought a different dimension to

the native administration. The British rule was fashioned to suit the
colonial masters at the expense of the native dwellers. Okigbo (1986) as
quoted in Maduabum (ibid) rightly observed that the colonial public
service was created and fashioned to suit the peculiar circumstances of
ruling the people who were held in contempt by the ruling power, and
considered valuable only for what they have to contribute to the
metropolitan country. To ensure a smooth administration of the natives,
the colonial masters created two forces: a military force to intimidate
their subjects and hold them in perpetual fear; and a small cadre of
dedicated loyal servants to maintain law and order and instill that fear in
the people.

The whites dominated the upper and middle positions in the

administration, leaving the menial jobs in the lowest reaches for the
natives irrespective of their educational qualifications and skills.
According to Maduabum (2006) the people were rendered completely
passive and highly de-motivated. This informs the nonchalant and
indifferent attitude to work by the Nigerian public servants as they
regard the job as that of the ‘white-man’ who took all the benefits that
accrued from the collective efforts of both of them.

However, the public service had undergone series of changes and

reforms but it is yet to divorce itself of the class structure and the

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

colonial mentality which it inherited from the colonial masters. This

mentality has continued to be the bane of the public service in Nigeria.

In the words of Maduabum (ibid), ‘the structural deformities and

contradictions inherited in 1960 have continued to militate directly or
indirectly against possibilities for growth, stability and development.
Political initiatives and regime initiatives have had to contend with
structurally determined and conditioned crises and contradictions while
making it possible for new problems to emerge and fetter.’ In effect, the
post colonial alignment and realignment of class forces in Nigeria have
operated within the overall deformities and distortions introduced and
nurtured by the colonial state and the colonial elite.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We can authoritatively say that public administration has emerged and

has come to stay as a discipline. Unlike before, the course is now being
studied in several universities all over the country. The profession is
practiced in all governmental institutions in the three tiers of
government and their parastatals.

We noted also that the issue of separating public administration as an art

or a science poses some difficulties as we have observed in our
discussions above. Public administration has traces of science and art
fused together. Still, it will be quite wrong to view the science element
of public administration as pure science.

5.0 SUMMARY

It is hoped that our discussion above has thrown more light into the
debate as to whether public administration should be regarded as an art
or a science or as both. These discussions have lessened the fatigue and
the confusion shrouded in the search for the real identity of public
administration. It has equally contributed to a better understanding of the
subject matter, their roles and expectations in piloting the business of
government for the overall development of the nation.

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PAD 202 MODULE 1

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the evolution of public administration in Nigeria.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A. (1992). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Ibadan:
Spectrum Books Ltd.

Adamolekun, L. (1986). Public Administration: A Nigerian and

Comparative Experience. Lagos.
Longman Nigeria Limited.

Akpan, N. U. (1982). Public Administration in Nigeria. Ikeja: Longman.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria; Principles,

Techniques and Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:

Snap Press.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

The Encyclopedia Britannica, (1977). Vol. 2, London: Encyclopedia

Britannica Inc.

Wilson, W. (1887), “The Study of Public Administration”, Political

Science Quarterly Vol. 2, June. Also vol. 56, December, 1941.

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

UNIT 2 GROWTH OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Growth of Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Public administration has become all–encompassing and affects the lives

of the people from the womb to the tomb. Since the end of the Second
World War, governmental activities have increased manifold and
became more complex and pervasive.

Public administration has undergone far–reaching changes both in its

objectives and in functions. Consequently, public administrators have
centered new functional areas. They are grappling with new problems in
administering public affairs.

It is recognised that public administration plays crucial role in all

societies – developed and developing. In the modern administrative
state, public administration has become so significant that our
development and progress depend mainly upon the efficient functioning
of public administration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain public administration as the basis of government

• discuss public administration as an instrument for implementing
laws and policies.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Growth of Public Administration

A number of factors have contributed to the growth of public

administration. These include the following.

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PAD 202 MODULE 1

The scientific and technological development

The invention of telephone and telegraph has made government and

large–scale administration possible. The introduction of mechanical
devices in the office administration such as typewriters, teleprinter and
calculators, photocopying machines, personal computers, fax and the
electronic mail has brought even more changes that are revolutionary in
the ways and methods of administration.

Industrial revolution

It has led to the growth of a very large –scale industries and factory
production, overcrowded industrial towns, and urban slums. The factory
system also resulted in such evils as the growth of capitalism, large scale
unemployment, exploitation of labour, longer hours of work and lower
wages, employment of children in hazardous occupations, health
hazards, etc.

Economic planning

Modern governments have resorted to planning as a method of

achieving economic development and goals of welfare state. The Afro–
Asian developing nations have undertaken development planning to
reshape their economies and societies and in the wake of the new
liberalised economic reforms, planning, as a method of economic
development and the administrative functions relating to it, are gradually
being diminished.

War

In times of both first and second world war, public administration

through public administrators are entrusted with the responsibility of
mobilising necessary manpower and resources for the purpose of war
and other activities acquired by public administration during wartime
continue and even after the termination of both wars. Based on this, we
can conclude that wars have their impact on the sphere of activities of
public administration.

Calamities and crises

In the event or occurrence of such natural calamities, the public

administrators have to act quickly and undertake rescue operations to
prevent loss of life and property of the affected people. In the
developing countries, very often the public authorities have to manage
the recurring crises resulting from social upheavals such as class and
caste conflicts, communal riots, tribal and ethnic violence.

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Rapid growth of population and problems of metropolitan cities

Proffering solutions to these problems has placed additional

responsibilities upon public bureaucracy and the responsibility for
tackling these social and economic problems has become the
responsibility of public bureaucracy and increased its sphere of activity.

Emergence of welfare state

In the interest of socio-economic, the positive welfare state acts as a

protector, a dispenser of social services, a provider of essential
commodities, a manager of key industries and banking services, and a
controller and regulator of private economic enterprises and activities.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Public administrators participate in policy formulation because the

administrative task of public bureaucracy includes formulation of
policies and plans, executing and monitoring programmes, laying down
laws, rules and regulations, which affect human actions in almost all
walks of life.

5.0 SUMMARY

The unit has thrown light on the factors responsible for the growth of
public administration, which has been identified as the basis of
government. Public administration is also an instrument for
implementing laws and policies and participation in policy formulation.
It also provides continuity when there is change in governments and
provides a wide variety of services. Public administration is an
instrument of social change and economic development. The reasons for
the growth of public administration are highlighted and discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

State and explain the reasons for the growth of public administration.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,

Techniques and Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:

Snap Press.

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PAD 202 MODULE 1

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos. ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia

Publications PVT.

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

UNIT 3 MEANING/DEFINITIONS OF PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning/Definition of Public Administration
3.2 Characteristics of Public Administration
3.3 Qualities of a Public Administrator
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Public administration has come to occupy a central place in the complex

and fast changing modern society. Its actual role consists in the
provision of services and regulation of inter-group relations in society.

Maintenance of law and order, defense, welfare of society, application

of science and technology, and eradication of poverty in the developing
countries engage the attention of public administration in the modern
administrative state.

In a word, the security and independence of the state, social and

economic welfare of the people depend upon the effective and efficient
functioning of public administration. Public administration is important
in our daily life, it is an important aspect of a more generic concept;
thus, its study is worth undertaking.

In this unit, therefore, the meaning of public administration will be

examined.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define public administration in details

• state the characteristics of public administration in details.

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PAD 202 MODULE 1

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Conceptual Clarification

According to Simon (1970), administration refers to the activities of

groups cooperating to accomplish goals. MacRae and Pitt (1980), sees it
as the co-ordination of men and materials within organisation for the
accomplishment of identified purposes. Administration also connotes
such activities as implementation of organisational decisions and goals
as well as the systematic study of these activities.

It is generally observed that administration is present in all human

organisation irrespective of its nature. It therefore becomes imperative to
attempt a definition of the term ‘administration’ before delving into
public administration. Many authorities have tried to define the term
‘administration’ but there is no generally accepted definition of the term.

We can now conclude that public administration is that administration

which is practiced in the public sector. It is the means, arrangements,
actions and processes by which the policies, programmes, purposes and
goals of government are realised, Maduabum (2008).

Woodrow Wilson (1887) perceived public administration as the most

visible side of government.

While Ezeani (2006) posits that public administration is the management

of government activities. According to him it refers both to the activities
of bureaucrats concerned with the management or administration of
government organisations and the study of these activities. It is the
machinery for implementing government policies to ensure stability and
continuity at all times irrespective of any government in power even
during period of crises.

Adebayo (1992) sees public administration as a governmental

administration that operates in the particular sphere of government as its
machinery for implementing governmental policies. He believes that its
study must therefore lead to the most efficient way of organising the
executive branch of the government, its functions and its procedures.
From his assertion, we can deduce that public administration is basically
concerned with the study of how a country’s administration is organised
as well as how it functions.

Akpan (1982) contends that public administration is the organ that

carries out the programmes and manifestos of politicians in power. He
sees public administration as the servant of politics.

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

He went further to say that public administration covers every area and
activity related to public policy. Accordingly, it includes the formal
processes and operations through which the legislature exercises its
power. The functions of the courts in the administration of justice and
the work of the military agencies all form part of the public
administration.

According to Balogun (1987), public administration is the fusion of

human and material resources in order to achieve the objectives of
public policy. One cardinal issue here which attention must be paid is
the issue of policy implementation. This is a very focal point in the
study of public administration.

Public administration can also be viewed as a body of knowledge which

is directed towards the understanding of administration of the
government business. Olojede et al. (2007) opines that public
administration is the study of the development and maintenance of
policy by members of governments, public agencies and public sector
employees and the practice of implementing the authoritative decisions
they have made.

Public administration concerns itself more with how politicians in

government and non-elected public sector employees devise policy,
sustain the machinery of government and ensure policies are put into
practice.

Nnoli (2000), describes public administration as follows: “public

administration is the machinery as well as the integral process through
which the government performs its functions. It is a network of human
relationships and associated activities extending from the government to
the lowest paid and powerless individual charged with keeping in daily
touch with all resources, natural and human, and all the aspects of life of
the society with which government is concerned.

It is a system of roles and role relationships which defines in a clear and

practicable terms as possible and in as much detail as possible the
intentions and programmes of government; the means available
internally and externally to accomplish them; where, when and how they
are to be accomplished; who is to benefit from them, and, finally, it is a
system that causes these intentions and programmes to be realised in real
life. It is a pattern of routinised activities, involving decision making,
planning, advising, co-ordination, negotiation, conciliation, arbitration,
command and data gathering, through which the government carries out
its responsibilities.”

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PAD 202 MODULE 1

Public administration is, generally believed to be, a study that deals with
the science of getting things done in the most efficient way in the
political system.

3.1 Meaning of Public Administration

The word ‘public’ is used in a variety of ways. In this course however, it

means “governmental.” Public administration simply means
governmental administration that operates in a political setting. Its focus
is specifically on public bureaucracy. The study and practice of public
bureaucracy is called public administration. It encompasses the
management of public agencies that carry out public policies in order to
fulfill state purposes in the public interest. Since government provides
services for the people in the public interest, the administration of
governmental affairs is known as public administration.

Public administration can also be seen as the activities of groups

cooperating to accomplish the common goals of government. Such
common goals include defense, safeguarding the frontiers, maintenance
of law and order, fire protection, communications, public health,
education, etc. In managing public affairs, public administration focuses
principally on the planning, organising, directing, coordinating and
controlling of governmental operations.

Public administration is the machinery, as well as the integral processes

through which the government performs its functions. It is a network of
human relationships and associated activities extending from the
government to the lowest paid and powerless individual charged with
keeping in daily touch with all resources, natural and human, and all
other aspects of the life of the society with which the government is
concerned. It is a system of roles and role relationships that defines in as
clear and practicable terms as possible and in as much details as possible
the intentions and programmes of government; the means available
internally and externally to accomplish them; and finally, it is a system
that causes these intentions and programs to be realised in real life. It is
a pattern of routinised activities, involving decision–making, planning,
advising, coordination, negotiation, conciliation, arbitration, command
and data gathering, through which the government carries out its
responsibilities (Nnoli, 2003).

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

3.2 Characteristics of Public Administration

The characteristics of public administration include the following in

nature:

a. Public administration is a means to an end and not an end in

itself. It is merely a tool of government to implement its policies
and provide various services for the people at the minimum cost
in order to attain good life. In a sense, it is service for the people
rendered by government.
b. Public administration differs significantly from private
administration, especially in its emphasis on public good, but it
finds partial analogies in private administration.
c. Public administration is interdisciplinary in history; it embraces
in its fold several social sciences such as political science,
sociology, psychology, economics and management science.
d. Public administration is a practical discipline, be it an art or a
science. It has nexus with political and state activity, which has
become all pervasive. It has an applied nature focusing mainly on
the problems of society and polity.
e. Public administration is an ongoing process. There is no end to it.
If one activity is completed, a new one will crop up.
f. Public administration is a non-political public bureaucracy
operating in a political system under the direction of public
leadership.
g. Public administration is the monopoly of the state. As such, it
deals with the ends of the state, the sovereign will, the public
interests and laws, the coercive element in society.
h. Although public administration tends to concentrate on the
executive branch of government alone, it is the whole
government in action. Since government is a “big affair,” public
administration is also naturally a big and complex matter.

3.3 Qualities of a Public Administrator

An administrator must possess the following qualities:

a. Sense of judgment: Another quality most essential in an

administrator is a fine sense of judgment. Every moment of the
day an administrator is engaged on assignments which require
evaluation, weighing of evidence, assessing degrees of urgency
on various public issues, and assessing the mood and temper of
those sections of the public which are clients of the department,
and which the department has to consult or take into
consideration before arriving at decisions and formulating
policies.

14
PAD 202 MODULE 1

b. Foresight: The administrator should be able to forecast based on

his knowledge and experience, the probable consequences of
measures proposed for policy. He should, in addition, be able to
think of likely developments that may arise over the next year or
two. From his knowledge and accumulated experience, he should
have the skill to deduce likely developments, given a set of
factors and circumstances.
c. Ability to delegate: Another essential quality necessary in an
administrator is the ability to delegate work to his subordinates. It
is a mark of poor administration for a top administrator to seek to
handle by himself all the essential assignments in the department.
In the process, he will create a bottleneck which will cause
endless delays, and he will ruin his own health.
d. Tact: He must be tactful in dealing with his political bosses. The
president or governor, minister or commissioner, as the case may
be. An administrator must be efficient and brilliant and yet there
may be clamor for him to be moved somewhere else on the
grounds that he usually puts up the backs of those working with
him. When dealing with political bosses and members of the
public, a top administrator should avoid being arrogant, pompous,
or pedantic. This is equally important in correspondence, and in
discussion.
e. Modesty: Administrators have a duty to brief their bosses, both
when they are alone together and when they are in the public at
some meeting or conference. Such briefing, especially the ones
carried out in public, should be done as unobtrusively as possible.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The original purpose of the study of public administration was not to

cultivate knowledge for its own sake; rather its purpose was explicitly
utilitarian. The study of public administration was directed at the twin
pursuits of reforming governmental institution and training civil
servants. Thus, administrative theory grew in the late 19th century and
the early 20th century with the primary objective of making government
more effective and economical in its working.

5.0 SUMMARY

The unit has thrown light on the meaning of public administration,

definition of public administration, the modern definition of public
administration, characteristics of public administration, qualities of a
public administrator.

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What are the qualities of a public administrator?

2. What are the characteristics of public administration?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A. (2000). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria (2nd ed.).
Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,

Techniques Applications. Lagos: Concept Publications.and

Maduabum, C. P. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria: The Journey So Far. Badagry: ASCON Press.

Maduabum, C. P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Limited.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia

Publications PVT.

Ujo, A. A. (2004). Understanding Public Administration. Kaduna: Joyce

Graphic Printer & Publishers Company.

16
PAD 202 MODULE 1

UNIT 4 REASONS FOR STUDYING PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Reasons for Studying Public Administration
3.2 Challenges to the Study of Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we shall be looking at the evolution of public administration

and the factors that influenced the growth of public administration in
Nigeria. We will also discuss public administration as a discipline. You
are expected to study this unit very well because a proper understanding
of the unit will give you a proper footing and a sound foundation to
grasp the rudiments of public administration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• trace the evolution of public administration in Nigeria

• explain the influence of colonial masters as well as other
influences on the practice of public administration in Nigeria
• compare the modern public administration with the colonial
administration in Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Reasons for Studying Public Administration

a. Public administration helps student learn the basic concepts,

principles and theories of public administration.
b. It helps explain the purposes, functions, and continuation of
government bureaucracy.
c. It provides knowledge of public organisations and the context in
which and the methods by which they operate.

17
PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

c. It promotes a superior understanding of government and its

relationship with the society it governs and thus enables us learn
more about how our country is governed.
d. It is useful as training for citizenship and for preparing citizens
for an active participation in the process of democratic
governance.
e. It makes us learn how to promote the public interest more
effectively.
f. It promotes among the people an awareness of the importance of
the administrative activities in their lives.
g. It is useful to make public policies, which are more responsive to
public needs.
h. It is an applied discipline, provides knowledge which is helpful to
the policy makers and to those who implement policies.
i. It prepares student for employment in the government services
and make them aware of the opportunities and challenges of the
public service and thus, it is useful as a self serving investment.
j. It will enlighten you on what the government does, or expected to
do thereby arming you with a parameter to assess the performing
government and the non performers.
k. You will understand the policy needs, its analysis, formulation,
implementation and evaluation.
l. It will help you understand the constraint of government in
executing certain policies and why some policies succeed and
why other policies fail.
m. You will understand who the public administrator is and the role
they play in the society.
n. You will understand the minds and doings of government as to
budgetary allocations; “who gets what and why”.
o. You will understand clearly how and why you as a public
administrator should be more proactive, effective and efficient.
p. You will get to know the relevance of public administration in the
society in general.
q. You will get to know the government parastatals, ministries,
departments, their functions, their characteristics.

3.2 Challenges to the Study of Public Administration

There are some challenges and constraints confronting public

administration in Nigeria and some other developing countries. These
challenges may not be present in the developed countries as they might
have outgrown them in terms of development and advanced technology.
Some of these constraints are discussed below:

1. Lack of knowledge as to the real status of public administration.

2. The scope of public administration is wide.

18
PAD 202 MODULE 1

3. Inaccessibility of the practicing public administrators by the

public administration students.
4. Poor funding for research on the subject.
5. Few universities offering the course.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We can authoritatively say that public administration has emerged and

has come to stay as a discipline. Unlike before, the course is now being
studied in several universities all over the country. The profession is
practiced in all governmental institutions in the three tiers of
government and their parastatals.

We noted also that the issue of separating public administration as an art

or a science poses some difficulties as we have observed in our
discussions above. Public administration has traces of science and art
fused together. Still it will be quite wrong to view the science element of
public administration as pure science.

5.0 SUMMARY

It is hoped that our discussion above has thrown more light into the
debate as to whether public administration should be regarded as an art
or a science or as both. These discussions have lessened the fatigue and
the confusion shrouded in the search for the real identity of public
administration. It has equally contributed to a better understanding of the
subject matter, their roles and expectations in piloting the business of
government for the overall development of the nation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the challenges to the study of public administration?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A. (1992). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

Ademolekun, L. (1986). Public Administration: A Nigerian and

Comparative Experience. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Limited.

Akpan, N. U. (1982). Public Administration in Nigeria. Ikeja: Longman.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,

Techniques and Applications. Lagos: Concept Publications.

19
PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Maduabum, C. P. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria: The Journey So
Far. Badagry: ASCON Press.

Maduabum, C. P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Limited.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

The Encyclopedia Britannica, (1977). Vol. 2, London: Encyclopedia

Britannica Inc.

Wilson, W. (1887). “The Study of Public Administration”, Political

Science Quarterly Vol. 2, June. Also vol. 56, December, 1941.

20
PAD 202 MODULE 1

UNIT 5 ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Ecology of Public Administration
3.2 The Environment of Public Administration
3.3 The Environmental Factors that have Influence on Public
Administration in Nigeria
3.4 Factors that Influence Public Administration in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit which is basically ecology and its influence in public

administration, we shall make concerted effort to explain in details the
relevance of ecology to the study of public administration. Though it can
be argued that ecology will fit in better in science fields but the study
will throw more light and bring to the fore how ecology is just not an
interaction between individuals and their environment, but also as
interactions between entire populations and the universe. It means the
influences of all natural, historical, political, economic, socio cultural,
religious factors and other significant national experiences that in one
way or the other influenced the growth and development of public
administration in Nigeria.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the meaning of ecology as it relates to public

administration
• describe ecology in relation to the basic types of interactions
found between individuals in ecological communities and how
these interactions may influence a community over time.

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Ecology of Public Administration

The Oxford dictionary defines ecology as that branch of science that

studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the
interactions between organisms and their environment. The general
definition of ecology is the relationship that exists between plant and
living organisms to each other and to their environment. Human ecology
examines humans and their interactions with their natural environments.

To public administration, it means an umbrella term for a variety of

projects that involve the origin, importance and impact of public
administration to the environment in which it operates. In effect, it
means the influence of all natural, historical, political, economic, socio-
cultural, religious factors and other major national experiences that
influenced the growth and development of public administration of any
nation.

Ecology of public administration is concerned with how the differences

in social, cultural and environmental factor coupled with historical
experiences affect the way in which public administration is conducted
and also how administrative actions affect the society in which it plays a
part. There is a general consensus that the very nature, purpose,
activities, structure and behaviour of public administration is determined
or modified by the social, cultural, economic, political, legal, historical
and technological factors in the environment.

Ecology of public administration further means how public

administration relates with itself internally as well as how it relates with
its external environment in terms of politics, social, culture, economy,
and technology, legal and so on. In order words, public administration
does not exist in vacuum but rather exists within a socio-cultural and
political environment.

Consequently, Richardson and Baldwin (1976) collaborates that public

administrator perceives the problems to be resolved, the alternative
possibilities within which choices can be made, the resources to be
employed, the support and oppositions to policies and programmes, the
client to be served or regulated, the market forces which establishes the
cost of goods and services, interest groups that are concerned about what
the public administrator does, the private and public institutions all form
the environment of public administration. It is within this environment
that the consequences of public administration are to be judged ‘right’ or
‘wrong’ … (Ezeani, 2006:52).

22
PAD 202 MODULE 1

Furthermore, MacRae and Pitt (1980) state that ‘the cultural norms and
values of society limit the activities of public officials, and the methods
which they can adopt to pursue their goals’. In effect, though the formal
structure of public administration of different countries may be the same
but their informal and behavioural patterns possess considerable
diversities that are conditioned by its environment.

Finally and so therefore, public administrators should ensure that

environmental factors are taken into account when making decisions and
‘that environmental transformations which are occurring by themselves
may be modified’ (Riggs, 1980). The environment is constantly
changing and exerting influences of various types on the organisation.
Some of these influences are beneficial while some are detrimental. It is
the duty of the senior administrators to take advantage of the beneficial
factors while counteracting the harmful ones, all aimed for the good of
the society.

3.2 The Environment of Public Administration

a. The resources needed by public administration are so diffuse and

dispersed that there is a serious problem of coordination. The spatial
division of labour in the system is designed to help out but it creates its
own problems of coordination.

b. Associated with this diffuseness of resources is the diffuseness of

roles necessary for public administration. Unlike a private economic
enterprise where there is a single minded focus on one project, the
objectives of even the ministries cannot be precisely defined and,
therefore, neither can the roles necessary to accomplish them be
precisely defined.

c. Public administration takes place in the full glare of the public eye. It
is in a sense everyone’s business, and what is more, some people outside
the civil service take this business seriously. They are ever ready to
proffer suggestions on how to perform better, to call for more action, to
criticise and identify weaknesses and failures, and to make political
capital out of such failures. Thus, public administrators are under
constant public pressure; their attention is divided; and they are
distracted. Under such conditions efficiency suffers. But this is a
necessary sacrifice for the values of freedom and democracy. It is
unthinkable that public administration should be a secret affair of the
civil servants (Nnoli, 2003).

d. It operates in an intense and pervasive political atmosphere. This is

natural since public administration is part and parcel of the political
process. Although politicians in government tend to absorb much of the

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

political pressures on government, enough still filters through to the

public administration to significantly affect its work. For example,
public administrators cannot take account of only the technical and
professional factors in their work. They must integrate them with
political considerations that are often unpredictable on a day–to–day
basis. Political considerations may cause an industrial project to be
embarked upon against all technical and professional wisdom. Yet, at
the same time the government expects the administrator to use resources
judiciously and to apply professional expertise in the solution of national
problems.

e. There is a widespread expectation of benefits from public

administration at little or no cost to the citizen. This is particularly the
case in the ex–colonial countries of Africa and Asia where there is a
strong heritage of government involvement in many welfare functions.
A consequence of this great expectation is that the populace is not eager
to calculate or make allowances for the cost of providing these
amenities. Thus, public administrators must walk the tight rope of
satisfying these popular demands with little or no resources at their
disposal.

3.3 The Environmental Factors that have Influence on

Public Administration in Nigeria

These factors are not peculiar to the third world states which include
Nigeria environment alone as there are also found in other developing
countries. Some of these are discussed below:

Social factor

In this situation, the loyalty to family, friends, local, state, and ethnic
groups take precedence over loyalty to the nation. This makes
supervision and control difficult to implement. It breeds corruption and
mediocrity as merit is not the yardstick for appointment to public office
or the award of contracts.

The public service is also viewed as a faceless entity or as ‘national

cake’ which should be sliced and eaten by those who are fortunate to get
close to it. The bigger your slice, the smarter you are viewed by the
society. The same society regards those who have been to the corridors
of power but have nothing to show for it as very foolish. They are
scorned and despised even by their own families. The result is looting of
the public treasury by public officers, politicians, the military, et cetera.
This has impoverished the country and made the Transparency
International to rate Nigeria as one of the most corrupt nations in the
world despite the acclaimed fight against corruption in Nigeria.

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PAD 202 MODULE 1

3.4 Factors that Influence Public Administration in Nigeria

As we mentioned earlier, public administration is influenced by the

factors that operate within the environment. Some of the factors that
affect public administration in Nigeria include; colonialism, political,
socio-cultural, economic, legal, etc.

1. Influence of colonialism

Prior to the advent of the British rule, there was in existence some form
of fragmented administration in the colonies before the amalgamation of
the Northern and Southern Protectorates of the country in 1914. The
salient features of the evolution of the Nigeria public administration as
listed by Maduabum (2006:14) are enumerated below:

a. From 1866 to 1874 the central administration for Lagos, Gold

Coast, Gambia and Sierra Leone was transferred to Freetown,
Sierra Leone.
b. From 1874 to 1886, Lagos and Colony was administered from
Gold Coast.
c. In 1886 Moloney was appointed Governor of Lagos.
d. In 1889, the Niger Coast Protectorate was merged with the
territories of the Royal Niger Company.
e. On 1st January, 1900, the protectorate of Southern Nigeria was
created along with that of Northern Nigeria.
f. In 1906, Lagos Colony was merged with Southern Nigeria.
g. In 1914, Lagos Colony plus Southern Protectorate were merged
with Northern Protectorate to form an amalgamated territory
called Nigeria. Thereafter, a Governor General named Sir
Fredrick Lugard was appointed for the amalgamated colony. He
was assisted by exclusively appointed all European Executive
Council members.

Nigeria inherited a rigid centralised administrative structure that was

designed to serve the interest of the colonial masters. It was tailored to
guarantee law and order, and to collect taxes and fines. Theirs was
mainly materialistic acquisition and not development administration or
assimilation as was done by their francophone counterparts.
Adamolekun (2000:33) rightly puts it thus, ‘British colonial rule was an
administocracy, a dictatorship, and an authoritarian system of
government’.

In the area of personnel, the upper and middle levels were pre-
dominantly occupied by the ‘whites’ while the natives were confines to
the menial jobs irrespective of their educational background or skills.
The people were highly demoralised and this made many of them to

25
PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

leave the public service. Those that remained were very passive and
alienated with their jobs which they see as ‘the white man’s job’. This is
partly attributed to the fact that the whites took all the benefits that
accrued from the job even when they did not work for it, leaving the
natives who are the rightful owners as servants and onlookers. This
trend continued even after independence.

More so, that even today, many Nigerians still regard the public service
as ‘white man’s job’.

This is a significant legacy left for Nigerians by their colonial masters.

The foregoing has a lot of implications on the development of public
administration in Nigeria, some of which are as follows:

a. Native administration system contrasted sharply with the imposed

indirect rule system and complex structure of governance.
b. The creation of a weak, repressive, and non-hegemonic state were
strategy by the colonial rulers to further defraud the natives.
c. The public sector was imposed on the people for the maintenance
of law and order. Rules and regulations were to be observed. This
was quite novel to the people who were used to their local ways
and cultural values. The public administration in Nigeria became
obsessed with these rules and ensured its compliance but failed to
take into consideration the fact that the rules were only to be used
as guide to an end.
d. The development of indigenous elites and their marginalisation in
the internal production and exchange system had a negative
impact on the psyche of the indigenous elites and the society in
general.
e. The hierarchical organisation of offices in terms of control and
supervision contrasts with the predominantly form of traditional
authority and its power structure.
f. The looting of the resources of Nigeria, discouragement of
relevant and comprehensive education, the failure to create useful
and democratic institutions, and the failure to build infrastructure
that would facilitate mobility and contract amongst people were a
huge set back to the development of Nigeria.
g. In area of personnel, the ‘whites’ were the sole occupants of the
upper and the middle echelon of the public administration,
leaving the menial and lower cadre for the natives irrespective of
their academic qualifications and skills. This had a negative
influence on the psyche of the natives who felt marginalised and
highly demotivated. As a result, majority of the people regard the
public service as a ‘white man’s job’.

26
PAD 202 MODULE 1

2. Influence of the ‘Nigerianisation’ policy

Before the First World War, the colonialists avoided appointing

Nigerians to positions of authority based on racial discrimination but by
the end of the First World War, the structure of administration had been
sufficiently established.

The Second World War gave a great boost to the ‘Nigerianisation’ of the
public service. During this period, Nigerians agitated for more
appointments in the senior cadres which were hitherto denied them. As a
way of compensating Nigerians for supporting Britain in their war
campaign, the Foot Commission of Inquiry was established in 1948, to
ascertain the possibility of indigenising or ‘Nigerianising’ the civil
service. The report of this commission paved way for the
‘indigenisation’ or rather ‘Nigerianisation’ of the public service. This
policy later spread to the Eastern and Western regions of the country.
The Northern regions were later to tow the same part. The later
introduced nepotism and ethnicity into their administrative system.

3. The political influence

The political environment consists of the attitudes and actions of

political and government leaders and legislators, which affect all kinds
of organisations and individuals. The policies the political class made
affect virtually every aspect of life so do the implementation of such
policies by the public administrators. Nigeria gained independence from
British colonial rule on 1st October, 1960 and since then she had
experienced both democratic and military administrations. Twenty two
years out of the fifty three years of independence have been under
democratic government, while the rest had been under the military
administration.

Nigeria operates a federal system of government with three tiers system

of governance; Federal government, the state and the local governments.
The act of governance is as stipulated in the Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria.

4. Economic influence

Public administration of a country is influenced by the economic

policies of the government in power for instance the privatisation and
commercialisation policy of the Federal government which has
influenced the prices of goods and weakened the purchasing power of
the currency.

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PAD 202 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Nigeria operates a mixed economy whereby government invests in

certain enterprises owned by the state such as PHCN, Nigerian Ports
Authority (NPA), etc. These are known as statutory corporations or
parastatals. The workers who work in these corporations are known as
public servants. The corporations are managed like private organisations
except that the management and board members are appointed by the
government.

5. Socio-Cultural Influence

The socio-cultural environment also influences the practice of public

administration in Nigeria.

By socio-cultural environment we mean the desires, expectations,

attitudes, degrees of intelligence and education, beliefs and customs of
the people in a given group or society.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Public administrators operate in a complex environment. They affect,

and to some extent, influence the environment in which they operate. In
playing advisory roles to the political class and also in policy
implementation they must consider the internal and external
environment. Many governments are making serious efforts to establish
an environment that is beneficial to the society. Nigerian government is
towing similar line.

5.0 SUMMARY

From the discussion on the ecology of public administration we have

seen the influence of environmental factors as it impacts on the practice
of public administration in Nigeria. Ecology in public administration
context is concerned with the differences in social, cultural and
environmental factors and how environmental factors and historical
experiences affect the way in which administration is conducted. It also
deals with how administrative actions affect the society in which it plays
a part. We also observed that development strategies and approaches
must take into cognisance the very nature of the society involved,
drawing at the same time from its human and material resources to
achieve social change in the society.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is ecology of public administration?

2. What are the environmental factors that have influence on public
administration in Nigeria?

28
PAD 202 MODULE 1

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,

Techniques and Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:

Snaap Press Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON
Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Okoye, J. C. (1997). Modern Management Techniques and Development

Administration Onitsha: Abbot Communication and Prints Ltd.

Okoye, O. M. (2002). Development Administration: Theories and

Applications in Nigeria.
Onitsha: Abbot Books Ltd.

Olojede I. & Fajonyomi, B. (2007). Essentials of Public Administration.

Riggs, F.W. (1964). Administration in Developing Countries. Boston:

Houghton Muffin.

29
MODULE 2

Unit 1 Administration and Organisation

Unit 2 Public Administration as an Arts or Science
Unit 3 Importance of Public Administration
Unit 4 Scope of Public Administration
Unit 5 Functions of Public Administration

UNIT 1 ADMINISTRATION AND ORGANISATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Organisation
3.2 Meaning of Administration
3.3 Basic Characteristics of Administration
3.4 How Organisation Function
3.5 Administrative Theories
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The specific issues that will be examined in this unit include the
definition of administration, administrative principles, administrative
theories, and how organisation functions. In this unit, therefore, the
meaning of administration and organisation will be examined in details.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain administration in details

• explain organisation in details
• discuss the history of administration
• discuss administrative theories.

30
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Organisation

Organisation is a social unit or human grouping deliberately constructed

to pursue specific goals. It has three goals which may be either
intermeshed or independent ends in themselves, namely; growth,
stability and interaction. To achieve integration and organisational goals,
the organisation designs a formal structure that sets for the desired job
relationship between people, who provide for the overall coordination of
efforts. Examples of organisation are corporations, armies, schools,
mosques, hospitals, churches, prisons and so on.

3.2 Definition of Administration

Administration is a universal concept and is also of universal

importance. According to Simon (1950), it is said to commence
immediately two people agree to co-operate to undertake a task, for
instance, to move a stone which none of them can move alone. Also
Nwosu (1985:3), noted that administration is inevitable in any given
situation where a piece of work has to be done, and this piece of work
requires the effort of more than one person to accomplish it. We are
involved in administrative behaviour when we co-operate with other
people to accomplish such objectives as erecting a community town hall,
constructing and managing schools, churches, hospitals, vehicles,
assembly plants.

Thus, Onuoha (1999) explains further that administration exists

whenever people cooperate to achieve the goals of their groups, and
such achievements require planning, organisation, command,
cooperation and control. It involves the mobilisation, deployment and
direction of human and material resources to attain the specified
objectives. When viewed from this perspective, certainly administration
is rightly considered a very old and global phenomenon, which exists,
even in the most basic human group.

We may therefore define administration as a capacity to coordinate and

execute many and often conflicting social demands in a single organism
so perfectly that they should all operate as a unit (Fayol, 1949).
Increasingly, those definitions and explanations, among others, point to
the fact that administration is both public and private.

Administration has a long history which dates back to the beginning of

the history of mankind, with research revealing administrative tasks and
practices since recorded history. Researches carried out by
archaeologists and translators have revealed that going back to the time

31
of ancient Egyptian dynasties, the ancient Chinese Empire, the ancient
Greek city – states and Roman Empire, there is abundant evidence of
impressive analysis with contemporary administrative tasks, merely by
way of illustration, also the early Christian Church also played a
remarkable role in the emergence of administrative practices. A Chinese
administrative expert writing in 500 BC remarked that:

Whoever pursues a business in this world must have a system. A

business which has attained success without a system does not exist.
From ministers and generals down to the hundreds of craftsmen, every
one of them has a system. Now, if we govern the empire or a large state
without a system, we are not even less intelligent than a common craft
man (Adebayo, 2004).

In our modern societies, various groups of people from all walks of life
are woven together in a complicated process to achieve the objectives of
the organisation. In both public and private establishments, large
numbers of employees have to be supervised, coordinated and
controlled. Thousands of workers have to be brought together and
distributed for work among the various departments of which the
various organisations are composed.

Workers are graded in different levels of authority, from directors and

managers at the top to messengers and laborers at the bottom. Everyone
has to be assigned his specific function and the contribution of each
must be towards the objectives of the whole.

3.3 Basic Characteristics of Administration

Administrative practice is based on some known characteristics namely:

Hierarchy: Organisation forms a chain of superiors ranging from the

highest ranking to the lowest–ranking manager.
Unity of command: Employees receive orders from one superior.
Chain of command: Organisations are divided into various but
functional sections, units, departments, etc.
Span of Control: Employees are given authority and responsibility that
commensurate with their offices, which should not be more or less.

3.4 How Organisations Function

(a) Goals: Organisations are social units which pursue specific goals
and this goals provide orientation by depicting a future state of
affairs which the organisation strive to achieve
(b) Human activity: Organisational behaviour results from the
interplay of human elements in a group relate to each other in

32
 pursuit of the reason for coming together and the climate or
environment created in the process.
(c) Interest group pressure: Organisations are instrumentals created
to serve one or more specific goals.
(d) Environmental influence: Systems theories have contended that
organisations are constructed by their environments.

3.5 Administrative Theories

Administrative theories are postulated to establish how resources of

organisations can best be managed. Administrative approaches are
broadly divided into administrative management, bureaucratic
management and human relations.

This theory was first formulated by Henry Fayol, and later Luther
Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. The theory concentrates on attempts to
develop principles of administration which can be applied everywhere.
According to them, any administrative principle once developed, should
logically work in any kind of administrative institution. Gulick and
Urwick gave the discipline of public administration, the acronym
POSDCORD which means - planning, organising, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. According to Gulick and
Urwick, POSDCORD constitutes the key duties and functions of any
administrator in an organisation. The acronym is criticised of having
over–simplified the work of an administrator. On their own part, still
under administrative management theory, James D. Mooney and Allan
C. Reilay formulated the four principles of organisation which are: the
coordinative principle; the scalar principle (hierarchical structure);
functional principle (division of labour); and the staff/line principle
(Onuaha, 1999).

Bureaucratic theory

Bureaucratic theory was one of the earliest theories of organisation. It

was formulated by Max Weber, who is fondly referred to as the father of
bureaucracy and bureaucratic theory. According to Weber, bureaucracy
is hierarchical, and promotion based on professional, merit and skill.
Bureaucracy is characterised by career service, which relies on and
adopts rules and regulations for its operations.

The career professionals are guided by impersonal relationship among

them, and between them and their clientele. Weber is interested in
learning how bureaucracy functions, why it functions the way it does,
and its possible effect on the whole society. Max Weber’s thesis is that
to understand organisation one needs to understand the procedures and

33
activities of the bureaucracy, since bureaucracy gives meaning to
organisation.

Human relations theory

Human relations theory is another method of studying organisations.

The theory is reputed as being a reaction against person as machine
concept of the scientific management school. The human relations
theory of organisation examines the informal work group at the
assembly, that is, the line level. It tries to find out what makes these
groups of workers work or refuse to work. The theory tries to establish
what relationship exists between motivation and job satisfaction, and
how these affect efficiency and productivity in the organisation.

The formulation of the theory began with the efforts of Elton Mayo in
1927. The study focused on relationship between workers and managers,
and among workers themselves. The development of the theory
continued with the efforts of Abraham H. Maslow, in what is today
known as Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs. Maslow perceived
human desire to be based first on psychological needs which provide the
foundation for the next greatest need, which is security. These are
followed by love or belongings, self esteem, and finally self
actualisation. According to him, all these human needs collectively
determine productivity in any organisation.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have explained that public administration is a governmental

administration or machinery for implementing public policy. Some basic
texts of renowned authorities are used as sources for the exercise. These
sources coupled with ideas of celebrated administrative theorists have
made our discussions much clearer.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have examined the meaning of administration, meaning

of organisation, definition of administration, and basic characteristic of
administration, how organisation function, administrative theories. We
learnt that public administration is the machinery as well as the internal
process through which the government performs its functions.

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is Administration? Discuss the history of administration.

2. Discuss three different approaches to the study of Administration.
3. Explain four basic principles of administration.

34
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A. (2000). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria (2nd ed.). Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.

Adebayo, (2004). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum
Books and John Wiley.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,

Techniques and Application. Lagos: Concept Publications.

Fayol, H. (1984). “Industrial and General Administration”. In: Adebayo

A. (Ed.). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in
Nigeria Ibadan: Spectrum Books and John Wiley.

Maduabum, C. P. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria: The Journey So Far. Badagry: ASCON Press.

Maduabum, C. P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Limited.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Nnoli, O. (2003). Introduction to Politics Revised Second Edition,

Enugu: Pan African Center for
Research on Peace and Conflict Resolution (PACREP).

Nwosu, H. N. (1983). “The Universality of Administration” In, Nwosu,

H. N. (Ed.) Problems of Nigerian Government. Enugu: Fourth
Dimension.

Onuaha, B. (1999). “Public Administration: Basic Principles,

Techniques and Process. In: Adebayo, Augustus (Ed.). Elements
of Politics. Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.

Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia

Publications PVT.

Simon, H. Smithburg, D. & Thompson, V. (1950). “Public

Administration”. In: Adebayo, A. (Ed.). Principles and Practice

35
 of Public Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books
and John Wiley.

Ujo, A. A. (2004). Understanding Public Administration. Kaduna: Joyce

Graphic Printer & Publishers Company.

36
UNIT 2 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS AN ARTS OR
SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Public Administration as an Academic Discipline
3.2 Public Administration as a Science
3.3 Public Administration as an Art
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we shall be looking at the evolution of public administration

and the factors that influenced the growth of public administration in
Nigeria. We will also discuss public administration as a discipline. You
are expected to study this unit very well because a proper understanding
of the unit will give you a proper footing and a sound foundation to
grasp the rudiments of public administration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss public administration as an academic discipline

• compare public administration as a science or as an Art.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Public Administration as an Academic Discipline

Public administration as a course of study emerged as a result of the

deficiencies observed by Woodrow Wilson (1887) in the apparatus for
performing the numerous tasks of government.

Woodrow highlighted the importance of studying the administrative

institution of government.

He opined that the task of public administration was ‘to straighten the
paths of government, to make its business less un-business like, to

37
strengthen and purify its organisations, and to crown its duties with
dutifulness’.

Other scholars developed interest in the study of public administration

and their writings further awakened general interest in the subject.
However, despite the huge awareness generated by these scholars, the
subject lacks a universally accepted definition. While some argue that it
should be treated as a separate subject that should stand on its own,
other insist that it should be treated as a branch of political science.

Public administration can be viewed as those activities involved in

carrying out the programmes and policies of government irrespective of
the system of the government in power. Whether monarchical,
totalitarian, socialist, parliamentary or congressional, presidential, all
countries of the world require a machinery to put into effect the policies
of the government at all levels, that machinery is public administration.

As a discipline or body of knowledge, public administration is geared

towards the understanding of governmental administration. It is
concerned towards the accomplishment of government businesses.

As an academic discipline, it is mostly interested in the structures,

finances, materials and personnel and how it can be more proactive.

However, there have been confusions and debates as to the real status of
public administration.

While some state that it should be regarded as part of political science,

some say should stand alone. There are some that say it is a science;
some opined that it is an art. Yet some classify it as both a science and
an art. Let us examine the subject under these three perspectives.

3.2 Public Administration as a Science

Some scholars and practitioners of public administration are of the

opinion that public administration should be regarded as a science. This
group contends along with Dahl (1978) that public administration has a
universal validity independent not only of moral and political ends, but
of the frequently nonconformist personality of the individual and the
social and cultural setting too.

Other supporters of public administration as a science argue that public

administration is a body of knowledge, which involves systematic
thinking and research. The human activities in organisations are guarded
by principles and theories for the purpose of teaching and impacting
sound knowledge to the practitioners. This group attributes public

38
administration as a body of knowledge, whose main concern is to study
and learn the purposes of government for the purpose of teaching and
assisting practitioners through scientific enquiry on solution to
challenges encountered by public administrators.

Other notable scholars like Willoughby, Taylor, Fayol, Gullick and

Urwik, etc. also defended the scientific side of public administration by
their principles of administration. Pfiffner agrees that specialists in
public administration have achieved a considerable degree of uniformity
in the manner of approach to the solution of problems which is
characteristics of science.

From the foregoing, public administration is a science since it has a well

systematised body of knowledge. It is an applied science because it
utilises the basic principles of sciences. It is equally a social science
since it deals with human beings. However, we have to note that public
administration is not a pure science like physics, chemistry and biology
which is subjected to a laboratory scientific experiment.

3.3 Public Administration as an Art

Many schools of thought who see the action part of the administration
recognises public administration as an art. Webster Dictionary defines
art as ‘skill acquired by experience, study or observation, the conscious
use of such skill’. Art is an acquired skill used in doing things.

According to Okigbo et al (2000) those who posit that public

administration is an art has the following arguments to buttress their
assertion:

a. That public administration deals with human behaviour which

can not lend itself to the uniformity of nature, nor can it be easily
analysed in the way that physical objects can.
b. The administrative behaviour is not always completely rational.
c. That no concept of public administration can be studied as an
absolute constant, that is, something not affected by
circumstances of time place and environmental factors
d. That since the various factors that influence the application of the
policy cannot be measured, public administration as a subject
becomes flexible.
e. That laws also lack universality e.g. administration policy
changes from country to country due to differences in political
system in various countries.
f. That most principles of public administration enunciated by
eminent scholars like Willoughby has received serious challenges
by public administrators who criticised the principles as being

39
 logically inconsistent (for instance, principles of centralisation
and decentralisation).

4.0 CONCLUSION

We can authoritatively say that public administration has emerged and

has come to stay as a discipline. Unlike before, the course is now being
studied in several universities all over the country. The profession is
practiced in all governmental institutions in the three tiers of
government and their parastatals.

We noted also that the issue of separating public administration as an art

or a science poses some difficulties as we have observed in our
discussions above. Public administration has traces of science and art
fused together. Still it will be quite wrong to view the science element of
public administration as pure science.

5.0 SUMMARY

It is hoped that our discussion above has thrown more light into the
debate as to whether public administration should be regarded as an art
or a science or as both. These discussions have lessened the fatigue and
the confusion shrouded in the search for the real identity of public
administration. It has equally contributed to a better understanding of the
subject matter, their roles and expectations in piloting the business of
government for the overall development of the nation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Why do we perceive public administration as a science?

2. Why do we also perceive public administration as an art?
3. What are the challenges to the study of public administration?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A. (1992). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

Ademolekun, L. (1986). Public Administration: A Nigerian and

Comparative Experience. Lagos.: Longman Nigeria Limited.

Akpan, N. U. (1982). Public Administration in Nigeria. Ikeja: Longman.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,

Techniques and Application., Lagos: Concept Publications.

40
Maduabum, C. P. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in
Nigeria: The Journey So
Far. Badagry: ASCON Press.

Maduabum, C. P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Limited.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

The Encyclopedia Britannica, (1977). Vol. 2, London: Encyclopedia

Britannica Inc.

Wilson, W. (1887), “The Study of Public Administration”, Political

Science Quarterly. Vol. 2, June. Also vol. 56, December, 1941.

41
UNIT 3 IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Importance of Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor–Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Public administration is a distinct field of administration, which is very

important for the success of any government. This peculiarity arises out
of the fact that public administration is an action part of government, the
means by which the purposes and goals of government are realised.
Specific issues to be covered here are: absorption of the work of
government, meeting the challenges of government activities,
implementation of government decisions, detaching of political
activities from administrative work, negotiation, conciliation and
arbitration and communication.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain how public administration absorbs the bulk of work of

government that covers various aspects of the society’ life
• discuss the importance of public administration in meeting the
challenges of continuous growth in size and complexity of
government activities.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Importance of Public Administration

a. Implementation of governmental policies

So many processes are involved in the making and implementation of

government policies that apart from the problem of high level expertise
there is the problem of an intricate division of labour that must be
solved.

42
1. There is the need for a clerk to file the letters.
2. Others to gather information.
3. Still others to ensure that the conditions of work are agreeable to
the civil servants.
4. Some to post letters, keep documents, write memoranda, gather
statistics, negotiate with individuals and groups, and so on and so
forth.

It is not efficient for one individual to perform many of these functions

at the same time. Experience has shown that more is produced or
achieved under conditions of a division of labour than under conditions
where no such division of labour exists. Therefore, the demands of
increased productivity, performance or achievement require a complex
division of labour in which many more people are involved than those in
government.

b. Welfare services to the people

Government activities have not only grown in size, they have also
grown in complexity. And such a complexity demands different kinds of
expertise for various activities. Therefore, even if individuals in
government have the time and energy to carry out all their functions
they will not have among themselves alone the necessary expertise to go
round their specialised activities. Thus, they need the variety of experts
found in the public administration such as:

• Teachers for managing educational institutions and impacting

knowledge into students and pupil in such institutions.
• Doctors whose responsibilities are to save lives through
preventive and curative measures using the equipments in the
hospitals and clinics established by the government.
• Industrialists for sustaining the industries established.
• Accountants, whose task is to keep proper records of financial
dealings of governments in addition to working out strategies of
generating revenue for financing the activities of government.
• Engineers that invent, operate and maintain equipments and
machines procured to serve various purposes in all departments
of government.
• Soldiers whose responsibility is to maintain both internal and
external security, etc.

Members of government do not know everything; and they do not

necessarily know more than everybody in their own area of expertise.
They need the help of experts and better minds.

43
c. Management of the economy

One of the identified importance of public administration is its ability to

absorb the work of governments. There is noticeable increase in the
activities of government all over the world. They deal with:

1. Foreign governments at the same time as they must oversee

internal and external trade.
2. The industrial and agricultural growth of the country; this
involves embarking on measures that will create a conducive
environment for both foreign and local investors.
3. The health of the population by establishing specialists and
general hospitals as well as clinics for tertiary, secondary and
primary health care delivery and maintenance of facilities therein.
4. Educational development through setting up of primary,
secondary, and tertiary as well as Universities across the nation,
most significant is also the servicing of these institutions.
5. Provision of power: governments across the world have a
demanding task of power generation which is the life wire of all
the economic and social activities.
6. Defense: the task of ensuring both internal and external security
remains one of the topmost activities of government, security
challenges have increased over the years.
7. Management of finance: aware of the vast needs of the public and
the lean resources always at the disposal of governments,
governments have the responsibilities of employing effective
measures for management of state resources.
8. Encouragement of development in science and technology:
governments embark on measures aimed at encouraging scientific
and technological innovations.
9. Promotion of sporting activities: Various sporting activities are
encouraged by the government to keep her citizens healthy and
entertain the populace (Nnoli, 2003).

d. Serving public interests

For a government to protect persons and property against violence, to

collect taxes, and control traffic and health hazards, it must make
regulations. In order to settle disputes between parties, it must conciliate
and negotiate. In order to arrive at a just decision when faced with
conflicting demands from opposing interests and functions in the
community, a government must be continually engaged in balancing.
This balancing involves consultations, negotiation, and compromise.
Then, of course, there is the equally important obligation on the part of a
government to provide services.

44
From the foregoing, one can see certain uses and process from the
bedrock of the responsibilities of a government. These include
regulating, conciliating, balancing, compromise, and service–providing.

Regulatory functions involve the making of rules and regulations and

the issuing of policy directives. For the rational and effective
performance of these roles there must be prior planning, and gathering
of information and data. It will also be necessary to hold consultations
with representatives of sectional groups and to reconcile conflicting
interests and points of view. All these tasks rest on public
administration. It is after these essential preliminaries have been carried
out that rules and regulations, and directives are issued by government.

e. Role as a change agent (technological change and

communication)

In public service, administrative officials perform a considerable portion

of their task through communication which could either be in oral or in
written forms. One of the hallmarks of an administrator is to develop the
habit of communication by discussion – telephone discussion, meetings
and conferences, interviews with members of the public and clients of
the department. A good deal is achieved through face–to–face
discussion.

In spite of the obvious advantages of oral communication and personal

contact, it is inevitable that senior officials have to communicate
frequently through the written word. They have to write minutes in files,
prepare memoranda and draft speeches for their chief executives – the
president, governor, ministers, state commissioners, and chairmen of
statutory bodies and agencies.

Minutes are views, opinions, advice, information, or directives

expressed in writing during the course of day–to–day work in the office.
They are usually enclosed in paper jackets known as files. Each file
bears a reference number by which it is easily identified. For the purpose
of tidy arrangement and easy reference, each file is devoted to a single
specific subject.

The decision to prepare the memorandum in a department may originate

directly from the minister/commissioners who are the political heads of
departments or the permanent secretary. A matter may have been subject
of consideration in the department and on which the minister and his
officials have exchanged minutes in the file, each one expressing his
own views as a result of the data and information assembled on the
issue. Matters may reach a stage at which the minister is convinced that
it is necessary to consult, inform or seek approval of the executive

45
council. At this stage, the minister will direct his permanent secretary to
prepare a memo.

Alternatively, the process may be the reverse. The permanent secretary

and his subordinates may have been examining a particular issue
through the exchange of minutes in the file. A point may be reached at
which an important issue of policy calls for determination and as he may
prepare a memo.

Public officials in the civil service, in the universities, local government

service, statutory corporations, etc. very often have to write speeches for
their chief executives. The chief executive may be the president of the
nation, the governor of a state, the vice chancellor of a university, a
minister of state, a state commissioner or the chairman of a statutory
corporation or any governmental agency.

4.0 CONCLUSION

It has been ascertained that public administration is the hub through

which social, political and economic development takes place within a
state. Indications are apt that through professionalism, administrative
duties lean more towards national interest than individual interest.
Textbooks are the main source for the exercise; ideas from various
scholars have been employed.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit dealt with the importance of public administration in details.

An important role of public administration is sustaining government’s
work that is by implementing government policies. Some of the areas
highlighted in this unit include; implementation of governmental
policies, role as a change agent, serving public interests, welfare services
to the people and management of the economy.

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

State and explain the importance of public administration.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,

Techniques and Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:

Snap Press.

46
Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in
Nigeria. Lagos: Concept Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeira. Lagos: ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Nnoli, O. (2003). Introduction to Politics. (2nd ed.). Enugu: Pan African

Center for Research and Conflict Resolution (PACREP).

47
UNIT 4 SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Scope of Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor–Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Public administration has evolved over time, it has played a key role in
the organisation of the structures of government and its usefulness to
other disciplines cannot be overemphasised. This unit attempts to
identify the critical areas that are the concern of public administration.
These include; organisation of countries’ structure of government,
promotion of efficiency in the running of the various structures of
government, public administration and politics, the interdisciplinary
nature, and its environment.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• describe the organisation of public administrative systems

• discuss the concept of efficiency with respect to public
administration
• examine public administration as an interdisciplinary field of
study.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Scope of Public Administration

a. Interdisciplinary

From public administration as management, the discipline moved to

what may be considered the present state of the discipline – the new
public administration – 1970 to the present which emphasised that
public administration should be studied along with science and society.
The new public administration reflects the new interest in the
relationship between knowledge and power, bureaucracy and
48
democracy, technology and management and technology and
bureaucracy. Also the period is witnessing interdisciplinary programmes
in science, technology and public policy. Emphasis has shifted away
from the traditional concern for efficiency, effectiveness, budgeting and
administrative techniques to a new public administration much aware of
normative theory, philosophy and activism; thus the new questions it
raises are on ethics, the development of the individual members in the
organisation, the relation of the client with the bureaucracy, and the
broad problem of urban growth, technology and violence (Nicholas,
1986)

In sum therefore, political science and management are the major

influences on the present stage of development of public administration.
The present stage pays extra attention to areas of organisation theory and
information science, emphasising areas like the state, local government,
executive management, administrative law, and all those questions
which seek to explain what the public interest is in democracy and under
a highly bureaucratic set up that is confronted by high technology.
Accordingly, core areas of the present state of the study are:

• environment of public administration (ecology)

• quantitative methods, public budgeting and financial management
• personnel administration
• public policy environment.

b. Organisation

The study of public administration grew out of awareness that the

machinery of government especially the executive branch, its
institutions and its procedures has to be organised in the most efficient
way. Thus, in the study of public administration, policy and
administration go hand in hand.

Policy is concerned with decisions as to what to do; it lays down the

broad objectives of what is to be done. It is concerned with the most
efficient way of implementing policy decided by the policy makers. At
the same time administration is also concerned with serving and
assisting the policy–making process.

Policy is concerned with ends while administration is concerned with

means. But very often means do influence ends.

c. Efficiency

It is sometimes assumed that public administration is mere conveyor belt

which mechanically executes the instructions passed to it by the policy–

49
makers. This view may have been likely more especially in the early
days when the tasks of government were few and the machinery
required was simple.

As late as the mid–nineteenth century, Andrew Jackson, President of the

United States, asserted that the tasks of government were sufficiently
simple that any person of intelligence could perform them without
preparation or training. Even in modern times when the responsibility of
government for social and economic development has assumed great
magnitude and demands exacting standards of efficiency, the impression
still persists that the functions of public administration are not to be
taken too seriously.

This erroneous impression is particularly true of countries like Nigeria

which, for the most part of their political existence, had been under
foreign guidance, the generality of the public regarded work in the
public service as hard work in the service of foreign overlords.

Public administration therefore grew out of awareness that the

machinery of government was inadequate and sometimes totally
unsuitable to perform the functions of modernising government.

Notable among the policy makers who were quick to notice the
deficiencies in the government administration of their day and to urge
the need to improve the system was Woodrow Wilson. In 1887, when he
was the Professor of Political Science at Yale in the USA, he stressed
the importance of studying the administrative institutions of
government. Woodrow Wilson stressed that the task of public
administration was to:

• strengthen the paths of government

• make its business less un–business–like
• strengthen and purify its organisation
• to crown its duties with dutifulness.

Since Wilson’s time, many writers on public administration, first in the

USA and in recent times in Britain and Europe, have sought to
emphasise the importance of the concept of efficiency in the functions
and processes of governmental administration (Adebayo, 2004).

4.0 CONCLUSION

Attention has been drawn on the scope of public administration where

diverse areas have been identified with the concept. Different views of
seasoned administrators and academics in the area have been explored;

50
this provides the major source of information for our discussion on the
subject matter.

5.0 SUMMARY

We have discussed in this unit, the organisation of public administration,

efficiency, the interdisciplinary of public administration so that the
students would understand what we mean by the scope of public
administration in details.

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain what you understand by the scope of public administration in

details.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A. (1984). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Ibadan:
Spectrum Books and John Wiley.

Appleby, P. (1949). Policy and Administration. Alabama: University of

Alabama Press.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,

Techniques and
Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:

Snap Press.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos. ASCON
Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

Nicholas, H. L. (1986). Public Administration and Public Affairs. (3rd

ed.). New Jersey: Prentice
–Hall.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

51
NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,
Lagos.

Nnoli, O. (2003). Introduction to Politics. (2nd ed.). Enugu: Pan African

Center for Research and
Conflict Resolution (PACREP).

52
UNIT 5 FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Functions Performed by Public Administration in any
Political System
3.2 Provision of Employment for the Citizens
3.3 Identification and Management of Available Resources
3.4 Provision of Social Amenities to the Masses
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor–Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Public administration performs a variety of functions which complement

the activities of the various branches of government. This unit therefore
will discuss the various functions performed by public administration.
Among the roles highlighted in the unit are:

• ensure continuity of government activities

• provision of employment opportunities for the citizens
• identification and management of available resources
• provision of social welfare services to the masses.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• describe how public administration sustains the incumbent

government in power
• explain how public administration provides employment
opportunities
• state the position of public administration in the identification and
management of state resources
• list the responsibilities of public administration in the provision of
social welfare services to the populace.

53
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Functions Performed by Public Administration in any

Political System

Ensure continuity of government activities

The most fundamental and important function of public administration

is to ensure the continuity of government activities. This involves certain
measures:

Generating goodwill for the government from the majority of the

population.

Maintaining the ruling class in control of state power.

These primary and fundamental functions guide all other functions.

They include:

Advising the government on how best to implement programmes: On

the basis of its long tradition and experiences in handling resources and
its store of data on every aspect of life of a society, public administration
is in a very good position to advise the government on possible
alternative courses of actions and their implications for the government
and society.

Public administration also performs the function of informing the public

at large about government programs and what progress is being made to
realise them. The goal here is to avoid any conflict between the people
and the government arising from the people’s ignorance of what the
government is doing, as well as to help generate support and goodwill
for the government. The ministry of information usually performs this
function.

A complementary function of public administration is that of informing

the government about the attitudes of the people, including various
groups in the society, towards government policies and programs. Such
information is often necessary to enable the government to order or
reorder its priorities. The various field agencies of government
ministries and departments often provide it.

3.2 Provision of Employment Opportunities for the Citizens

An important function of public administration is the provision of

employment for the population. This function can be quite crucial in the

54
ex–colonial societies of Asia and Africa where the government is often
the largest employer of labor. Most, if not all, of those thus employed
work within the public administration. Such employment opportunities
include:

national and regional ministries like education, health, science and

technology, finance, information, sports, defense, external affairs,
interior, agriculture, industry, etc.

Public enterprises, such as agro–allied industries, petrochemical

companies, power generating companies, transport companies, mining
industries, communication companies, etc. Government agencies which
include financial regulatory agencies, import and export promotion
bodies, anti graft, agencies, human rights bodies, etc. Educational and
health institutions at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, Local
government departments, etc. In this way the civil service is a source of
the means of livelihood, in the form of wages and salaries, for
thousands, if not millions, of the population.

3.3 Identification and Management of Available Resources

Another function of public administration is that of identifying all the

resources available to the government from within its territory, and
managing these resources adequately. It is the government’s
bureaucracy that is responsible for conducting or supervising surveys to
assess the existence of:

• various minerals within the country

• the unused agricultural potential of the nation
• resource endowment with respect to the organisation of industrial
enterprises
• the availability of the various categories of labour force
• the various resources that can be procured from external sources,
as well as the prices for their procurement.

The government bureaucracy not only identifies all these resources, it

also organises the most profitable and useful way of bringing them into
productive activity to the benefit of the ruling class in particular and the
population in general.

Such resource management has as its goal the task of ensuring that
government programs are tailored to the resources available to the
government, and to eliminate all waste in harnessing these resources to
the relevant government programmes.

55
3.4 Provision of Social Amenities to the Masses

Public administration is also very crucial in the organisation and

provision of social welfare services to the population.

• It is responsible in many countries for ensuring constant and

adequate supply of water, electricity, health care and educational
facilities.
• It is responsible for public works such as urban and other road
constructions.
• The dredging of rivers, the building of port facilities, irrigation
facilities, the organisation of famine relief when necessary.
• Sanitation, drainage facilities, the control of erosion and other
natural disasters.
• The payment of pension and other labour benefits.

In some countries it organises the provision of housing, day care

facilities for pre–school children and public transportation.

In this way public administration influences directly the standard of

living and the life style of the people.

Other functions include:

• The planning of the nation’s economic life in both the short term
and the long term.
• Taking care of the finances of the society, especially the balance–
of–payment function or the foreign exchange task.
• It must gather and store all possible information on every aspect
of national life and preserve important documents for future use
and scrutiny.
• The practical details and the equitable and fair use of the
instrument of justice, as well as law and order, are also the
responsibility of public administration. Public administration
must ensure that the courts function smoothly and are not
overloaded, that the prisons are not congested or run inhumanly,
and that the law enforcement agencies do not act arbitrarily.
• In addition, the civil service must co ordinate all the multifarious
activities of its various departments and agencies to ensure that
they are not working at cross–purposes.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Public administration is seen here as a veritable tool for social, political

and economic development of a state. Some important areas are then put

56
in perspective for discussion so as to ascertain the level to which public
administration functions. Public administration has continued to play a
critical role in sustaining the government in power and providing
essential public goods to the citizenry. While different countries have
different public administration, the basic functions of public
administration are performed by all states.

5.0 SUMMARY

In summary, this unit has highlighted the various functions performed

by public administration in any given society. Although not exhausted,
we have looked at the following functions: ensure continuity of
government activities; provision of social amenities to the masses,
identification and management of available resources, provision of
employment opportunities for the citizens

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

State and explain the functions of public administration in details.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,

Techniques and
Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:

Snap Press.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON
Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration, NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Nnoli, O. (2003), Introduction to Politics. (2nd ed.). Enugu: Pan African

Center for Research and
Conflict Resolution (PACREP).

57
MODULE 3

Unit 1 Private and Public Administration: Differences and Similarities

Unit 2 Relationship between Public Administration and Politics
Unit 3 Approaches to Public Administration
Unit 4 Scientific Management Theory

UNIT 1 PRIVATE AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Private Administration
3.2 Meaning of Public Administration
3.3 Comparison of Public and Private Organisation
3.4 Features of Public Organisation
3.5 Differences between Public and Private Administration
3.6 Similarities between Public and Private Organisations or
Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked/Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Public administration is a broad discipline that covers a variety of issues

which touches on maximising the use of scarce resources to satisfy
human needs. The various issues that will be examined in this unit
include; the distinction between public administration and private
administration, similarities between public and private administrations.

This unit treats Public and Private Administration with emphasis on

their differences and similarities. To help us understand this unit better
we will examine public and private organisations, their settings,
features, goals, etc. It is when we have understood this background
information about these organisations that we will be in a better position
to appreciate their administration and performance.

58
2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state the differences between private and public administration

• identify the similarities between private and public
administration.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Private Administration

Private administration or organisation can be defined as all activities that

are concerned with profit making by minimising cost of productions and
maximising profit. Sometimes, it may perform dual roles, that is, profit
orientation and services rendering e.g communication industries.

Private administration is concerned with the activities of private

organisations and institutions that are not owned jointly or principally by
the government. Whatever management decision or policy implemented
in private organisations, belong in the realm of private organisation or
administration. Private administration recruits their personnel in a
private manner. Their training and development can be internal or
external depending on the organisations and the nature of services
rendered.

3.2 Meaning of Public Administration

Public administration has no generally accepted definition. The scope of

the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than
define. But for the purpose of this study we posit that public
administration is a field of study (a discipline) and an occupation.

From the academic perspective, public administration can be viewed as

"A programme that prepares individuals to serve as managers in the
executive arm of local, state, and federal government and that focuses on
the systematic study of executive organisation and management.” This
includes instruction in the roles, development, and principles of public
administration. Public administration studies the implementation of
government policies and prepares civil servants for this work. As a
"field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its fundamental goal is to advance
management and policies so that government can function effectively
and efficiently.

Public administration is concerned with the organisation of government

policies and programmes as well as the behaviour of government

59
officials in the execution of these policies. Public administrators are
regarded as public servants working in public organisations and
parastatals at all levels of government.

Public administration could be regarded as both an art and science of

managing government affairs, enforcing laws and fulfilling public
policies. It is an art because it concerns the practical management of
men and materials for public interest. It is a science in so far as it
concerns the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfillment of public policy. It could however not be regarded as pure
science as its activities could not be subjected to practical laboratory
tests as in physics, chemistry and biology.

3.3 Comparison of Public and Private Organisation

Public administration could be seen as a decision making venture. It’s

the formulation and implementation of the governmental goals,
objectives, aims, targets and aspiration. Public administration is also, the
planning, assessment, appraising performance by government executive
and supervisors. It is therefore action part of the government. Public
administration can at times be referred to as public management or the
two worlds used interchangeably with other concepts like government
administration and public sector administration. It is concerned with
how a country’s administration is organised and how it functions. In
Nigeria, there are three levels of public administration, which are:

i. federal government administration

ii. state government administration
iii. local government administration.

3.4 Features of Public Organisation

The features and processes of administration are much the same for
every organisation. The features of public organisation assist the
organisation effectiveness towards the realisation of its goals and
objectives so do that of the private organisation.

These features are as follows:

1. It acts as a vital link between the government and the people.

Information is passed from the government to the government. In
this way, public administration helps in linking the two segments.
2. Public administration allows public servants for continuity, in the
policies of successive governments despite political instability
that has characterised the governments of African states.

60
3. Public servants/administrators should not take part in partisan
politics, so as not to endanger the party in government that comes
to power. On the other hand, the political party that comes to
power could victimise the public servants, if only they are
involved in politics.
4. The appointment, discipline, dismissal and promotion of
civil/public servants rest with a separate body called the public
service commission.
5. Public/civil servants must be impartial. This means that public
administrators must not be influenced by party feelings, thus, and
to ensure t his, they have been tarred from participating in
politics. This does not mean however that, they cannot vote in
elections. For instance, if a public/civil servant intends to take
part in politics by standing for election, he has to resign from
service before contesting for any political post.
6. The principle of anonymity. The detailed work of the
administration is done by the public/civil servants. They do not
receive any blame or credit while discharging their duties. It is
however, the ministers of various ministries that do receive the
credit or blame. Thus, while the minster defends him against any
mistake, he does not mention the name of any public/civil
servant.
7. Neutrality of public administration. In all the policies of
government, they must be seen protecting the image of the
governments, without antagonising the activities of the
governments and their organs.
8. Organisational structure. All public organisations or
administration must possess internal structure that may be
hierarchical structure also contains chain of command, unity of
control, etc. for the smooth running of the organisation.
9. Public organisation provides essentially services to the people
although; it may be engaged in profit orientation, as established
in the government public corporations and parastatals.
10. Public organisation or administration is established through the
Act of Parliament, with constitutional provision of their services
to the three tiers of government.

It should be noted that all these features and characteristics of public

administration can be applied to private administration. But the principal
aim and objective of establishing private organisations is profit
maximisation also there are no central bodies for recruitment of their
staff.

61
3.5 Differences between Public and Private Administrations

In order to clearly discuss and understand the subject matter of public

administration and the basic issues involved in it, it is important to
identify the differences between public administration and business or
private administration. Thus, public and private administrations differ
concretely in a number of respects.

1. The goals that both are expected to serve are different. Since
their activities are guided by the nature of these goals the nature
and organisational framework of these activities are bound to
differ. Clearly the maximisation of profit is the overriding goals
of private administration. All efforts must be channeled in this
direction, and all obstacles to its accomplishment must be
removed. The situation is quite different with public
administration in which the goal, in concrete terms, is not as
clear–cut and single minded. Profit, social welfare, national
prestige and political advantage are all to be accomplished
simultaneously. The public administrator must integrate them
with a lot less emphasis going to the profit motive than in private
administration. As a result of this mixing of goals the public
administrator must be more cautious and take less risk than his
private counterpart. He must be more diplomatic and less single–
minded than the private administrator. He must conciliate more,
negotiate more and consult more than in private administration
before arriving at a decision.
2. Related to this difference in goals is the difference in the
assessment of the performance of these two administrations. In
much of the work of public administration, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to quantify the output or evaluate precisely the
activities of the administrators. For example, it is difficult to
quantify the performance of those engaged in diplomatic
activities, and the implementation of educational and health
service programs. The situation is quite different with private
administration. Here, all inputs and outputs are evaluated in
monetary terms, particularly their relationship to the profit or loss
of the enterprise. This inability to compare performance lies at
the heart of the incomparability of public and private
administrations.
3. There is also a difference between the two types of
administrations with respect to the span of activities with which
they deal. The activity of the private enterprise is one of a narrow
focus, of the concentration of attention and resources on one line
of activity. Such activities are usually economic in character, and
concern only one specialised or specific aspect of economic life.

62
 Public administration concerns itself with at once social,
economic, cultural and political activities. The resultant
diffuseness of attention adversely affects not only the time that
can be devoted to an in–depth examination of the various aspects
of the implementation of public programs, it also hampers a clear
definition of the programs themselves.
4. Unlike administrators in private administration, civil servants are
accountable to the public for every aspect of their official
activities. They are subjected by the public to a detailed scrutiny
of their use of resources and the nature of performance of their
jobs. They face scrutiny by the press, legislature, taxpayers, the
traditional surveillance of the courts, and by interest groups and
political parties. Although private administrators are influenced
by their public contacts, are subject to government regulations
and maintain a vast public relations activity, their activities are
still in general private in character. Their internal operations are
to a large extent their own business, closed to the public gaze.
The demands for public consultation and participation in the
activities of public administration are growing all the time due to
the increase in the number of pressure groups and agencies that
demand attention and the right to be consulted. All these
demands impose constraints on the public administrator in terms
of his/her originality, initiative and use of discretion in the
exercise of his/her judgment. They also slow down the process of
public administration because of the time involved in these
consultations. Caution becomes an important value. Risk taking
is banished. And flexibility or adaptability is difficult to attain.

5. Both administrations differ in their structure of decision–making.

In private administration the ultimate decision–making group is
very small, limited to the board of directors of the enterprise. In
addition, members of this group have a direct personal and
concrete stake in the output of the business. Thus, the smallness
of size enables decisions to be directed strictly to the output, and
for a result–oriented decision to be emphasised.
The ultimate decision–making group in the public administration,
the cabinet, is much larger than in the private sector. It is,
therefore, more unwieldy as a machinery for quick action.
Furthermore, its members are not personal owners of the public
enterprise and, therefore, can be more easily distracted from the
objectives of their decision–process.
6. The structure for the implementation of decisions in public
administration is much more decentralised than in private
administration. It consists of the various ministries of the civil
service. Therefore, much more than in private administration
efficiency and effectiveness of the civil service depends to a

63
 greater extent on the effectiveness of the mechanism for
coordinating the activities of these decentralised units. This need
for coordination is much less compelling in private
administration where centralisation prevails. Thus, in public
administration, the lateral organisation of activities around
functions is an important aspect of the overall structure of the
system. In private administration this lateral organisation is
absent. All these functions are performed within one and the
same structure. This centralised arrangement encourages unity of
command, greater flexibility in the allocation of resources and
faster adaptation to changing conditions.
7. In public administration, officials are employed until retirement,
are promoted largely by seniority, and remunerated at standards
rates within fixed pay scales and promotion grades. Such
conditions of service sometimes do not bear much relationship to
performance since no matter how inefficient the official turns out
to be he is already in a particular grade and can hang on until
retirement. In other words, he enjoys job security. By contrast, in
private administration an official can be relieved of his job
anytime his performance is deemed inadequate. The salary and
fringe benefits are usually high but job security is absent. The
consequence of this difference is that the private administrator is
under greater pressure to keep his job than the civil servant. He
is, therefore, likely to be more highly motivated than the latter.
Thus, public administration is much slower and more inefficient
than private administration because of its poor work habits and
ethics.
8. The hiring and firing of workers in private administration is swift
and merciless. In public administration, it is slow and humane.
Consequently, private administration can move faster in the
organisation of its activities than public administration. It can
quickly add or drop staff, as it deems necessary to achieve its
objectives. Public administration does not enjoy this kind of
flexibility.
9. Discipline is much harsher in private than in public
administration. This is essentially because the private sector
thrives on the exploitation of man by man. Profit takes
precedence over human values. Although the conditions of work
are usually better than in the public they are much more
exploitative, considering what the worker produces in relation to
what he gets as wages and social security. Thus, the public
administrator is under much less pressure from the enterprise than
his private counterpart. He/she is, therefore, more relaxed with
his/her work, and more likely to develop a positive non–
mercenary attitude to his/her work. Public service cultivates
feelings of patriotism that are vital for the overall success of the

64
 society. The public servant develops a sense of participation in
the history of his people in a very direct way. This positive
attitude is an asset to public administration that is denied to
private administration (Nnoli, 2003).

3.6 Similarities between Public and Private Organisations or

Administration

There exist some similarities or comparisons between public and private

organisations or administration in term of conditions of service and
other operations of these organisations.

1. Both organisations are guided by government’s circular, gazette,

bulletins, constitution, etc. and not necessary control. But the
government regulations enable both organisations to have a
healthy environment.
2. Both organisations have conditions of service in terms of
employment, recruitment, promotion, salary, discipline, pension
and other welfare incentives offered by these organisations to
their employees, individual and collectively.
3. Both organisations or establishments provides some essentials
services like banking services, petroleum and oil supplies,
telephone services and educational services.
4. Both organisations provide satisfaction to the public in respect to
their various activities; programmes and products.
5. Both organisations source for personnel in the labour market, that
is, there is always qualification before recruitment into these
organisations.
6. Both organisations are always established based on certain goals,
aspirations, objectives and aims. That is, no organisation can be
established without solid reasons and things to achieve, either for
profit, services, or both.
7. Both organisation, have the ability to establish management-
labour relations and settlement of conflict that may arise in the
course of such relationship.
8. Both organisations source their capital, money or fund used in
establishing these organisations from the people or public (either
Internally or externally).
9. Both organisations have internal structure of organisation, that is,
there is always hierarchical mode of operation, chain of
command, division of labour, professionalism, etc. These are so
because different people perform different works.

65
4.0 CONCLUSION

From the discussion above, on the comparison of public and private

organisation, we can say that administration which is the organisation
and direction of human and material resources exist in both public and
private organisations. Public administration as carried out in government
owned organisations within the three levels of government (federal, state
and local) and with the intension to provide efficient services and not for
profit making, that private administration is carried out in private or
jointly owned organisations with the intentions to provide essential
services and are profit-oriented. However, both organisations have
conditions of services for their personnel in common market. They both
have similar internal structure of organisation; satisfy the public with
various services, activities, programmes and products, guided by
government circular, constitutions, source for capital or fund from the
people, etc.

5.0 SUMMARY

We have learnt in this unit that Public administration is administration

as it is practiced in the three tiers of government and its agencies while
private administration is that which is practiced in the private sector
either by an individual or jointly owned businesses ventures. We also
examined their distinguishing factors as well as those factors they had in
common. Their formation, objectives, goals and settings are features that
should be borne in mind. Also it should be borne in mind that where one
is service oriented the other is profit oriented and both of them are
guided by these goals.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Distinguish between public and private administration.

2. Mention the similarities between public and private
administrations.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian and

Comparative Perspective. New
York: Longman Inc.

Adamolekun, L. (1985). Nigerian Public Administration 1960–1980:

Perspectives and
Prospects. Ibadan: Heinemann.

66
Adebayo, A. (1992). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in
Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

Adebayo, (2004). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum
Books and John Wiley.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,

Techniques and
Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:

Ziks-Chuks Publishers.

Hughes, O. E. (1998). Public Administration and Administration: An

Introduction. London:
Macmillan Press Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Nnoli, O. (2003). Introduction to Politics. (2nd ed.). Enugu: Pan African

Center for Research and
Conflict Resolution (PACREP).

Weber, M. (1946). Essays in Sociology. H. H. Gerth & C. W. Mills

(Eds.). New York:
Oxford University Press.

Weber, M. (1947). The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation. A.

M. Henderson & T.
Parsons (Eds.). New York: Oxford University Press.

67
UNIT 2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION AND POLITICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Relationship between Public Administration and Politics
3.2 Dichotomy between Public Administration and Politics
3.3 Challenges of Politics and Administration Dichotomy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit will highlight the symbiotic relationship between public

administration and politics and the importance of their working
harmoniously for the common good. This unit is very interesting and
you will benefit very well if you will pay close attention to all the issues
discussed therein.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss in detail the relationship between politics and public

administration
• differentiate between administrators and politicians
• discuss in detailed the functions of the two to the society
• outline importance of a harmonious relationship between
administration and politics.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Relationship between Public Administration and Politics

The relationship between politics and public administration has always

been a case for debate especially at the formative years of public
administration. In those days, public administration had a confused
status. Some argued that it should not stand alone but should be lumped
together with political science.

68
Even in the political science department, it was treated with scorn. Some
were of the view that it should be grouped with management science but
there also it could not find its bearing as it was swallowed up by many
management courses. Finally, it found its bearing when it was accepted
as public administration and to stand on its own and treated as such.

The relationship between politics and public administration can be

viewed from two sides of a coin. There are some contenders who feel
that there is no distinctive relationships between politics and public
administration as both are inter-connected. They argue that the name
public administration itself embraces both politics and administration.
Administrators sometimes make political decisions in the course of
executing their duties. For instance when the politicians formulates
policies, the administrators while implementing these policies has to
weigh and consider conflicting demands and interests and tries to
balance and synthesise them all for the growth and development of the
polity.

The other school of thought that sees politics and public administration
as different, contend that in all democracies, the politicians who are the
executives are vested with the authority of policy formulation. They set
the broad lines of the policies to be pursued while the public
administrators merely implement these policies and dispose current
governmental businesses as directed by the political class who are their
boss. They execute routine tasks and assignments to achieve the goals
and objectives of the government in power, while the politicians apart
from formulating policies dictate the pace of governance.

3.2 Dichotomy between Politics and Public Administration

The pioneer scholars and writers on public administration notably

Woodrow Wilson (1887) stressed that administration lies outside the
proper sphere of politics and that administrative question are quite
different from political questions. He further maintained that though
politicians set the task to be performed by the administrators, they
should not usurp its offices.

This assertion was corroborated by John Pfiffner (1935) as he

maintained that politics must be controlled and confined to its proper
domain which is determination, crystallisation and declaration of the
will of the state while administration should confine itself with the role
of seeing to the implementation of this will once it has been clearly
defined by the political class. In other words, politicians should stick to
their role of policy determination and stop meddling in the affairs of the
administrators as they apply their technical expertise in executing these
political wills of the executives.

69
Frank Goodnow (1914) also corroborated their assertion and made a
clear distinction between politics and administration. His was the
classification of politics as the ‘expression of the will of the state’ and
administration as ‘the execution of that will’. It is interesting to note that
one of their contemporaries, Willoughby (1920), did not dwell in trying
to separate the two but went further to state that administration is the
‘fourth arm’ of government along with the legislature, the executive and
the judiciary (Adebayo, 1992:68).

Dichotomy between public administration and politics and the status of

public administration may be viewed by the classical model theory as
postulated by Taylor (1911). Taylor laid emphasis on the efficiency and
productivity in organisations which can be achieved by applying
scientific method to guide division of labour, to assign each worker to a
specific task which will be accompanied by a good reward for
accomplishment, thereby increasing productivity and efficiency. This
Scientific method believes that there is one best way to achieve a set
objective.

They also opined that once this objective is defined, the management
(administrators) should be given full responsibility and autonomy to
achieve the objective in the most efficient way by applying the scientific
method to the stated objective or problem.

The study of politics and public administration has shown that their
roles are complementary in nature. Whereas politics refers to the process
by which policies of the state or organisations are chosen and allocated,
administration deals with the process by which these policies are
implemented and executed.

In other words, politics are more concerned with what available

resources, right and duties are allocated and to whom and when,
administration deals with how wealth, resources, rights and duties are
distributed to those concerned. Most of the functions of politicians and
administrators are clearly discernable while some are difficult to
distinguish. For instance, the creation of more local government areas is
political while its implementation is administrative. The chairman of a
local government area may be a politician but is not divorced from the
administration of the local government. The legislatures also exhibit
administrative behaviour. Politics and administration are attributes of
both the legislature and the executive branch of the government. In the
earlier phase, public administration and politics are regarded as the same
study but later on distinction between them began to emerge. While no
clear cut formula may be possible in certain areas, it will suffice to
assign politics and politicians to the role of defining the broad objectives
of administration and manipulation of political power while

70
administration and administrators be confined to the roles of provision
of data, suggestions and criticisms for the formulation of policies and
the execution or implementation of the policy once it is made.

3.3 Challenges of Politics and Administration Dichotomy

Political neutrality of the public administrator stipulates that the public

administrators must be politically neutral. They should put their
politicking in their pockets and not meddle with the affairs of the
politicians. In other words, they should not play partisan politics but
instead are expected to show allegiance to any political party in power.

However, the major challenge to issue of dichotomy of politics and

administration as well as political neutrality came to the fore as a result
of the following factors:

a. There is no clear cut distinction between politics and

administration in some instances. An example is the usurpation of
policy making power by the administrators. According to Wu
(1978:341), this may be due to increased need for efficiency or
increase in the complexity of their duties or professionalisation
and specialisation of the specialists; administrators have
increasingly gained political power.
b. Added to the above is the demand by the political class, social
critics and the society in general to make public administration
more responsive. This means that the public administrators
should show active participation and be more responsive to the
needs, yearnings and aspirations of the general public. When they
do this they have added to social equity to the classical objective
of the political class. A potential commitment to social equity
means their meddling in politics and policy making and this
inevitably means that they are not politically neutral.
c. The public administrators these days are keenly involved in both
the policy-making and policy implementation of the people
directly involved. The administrators play an active role in policy
making. According to Appleby (1949), there is no such thing as
policy making being separate from policy execution. He opines
that public administration is policy making and is part of political
process. Richard (1975:648) shares the same view on this.
According to him, Administrators are involved in every step of
the political process from the technical readjustments of
previously enacted policies, to the creation and implementation
process for a completely new and innovative approach to an
immediate problem.

71
In the same vein Gross (1964), punctured Goodnow’s assertion of policy
and administration dichotomy and argued that policy making and its
execution are inseparably intertwined. He argues that purposes are given
meaning and content by the people who cooperate in carrying them out.
Purposes, he says, emanate from an entire organisation in interactions
with its environment. Chapman (1959:275) summarised it thus, that
‘policy’ is nothing more than the political activity of the civil servant.

From the foregoing, we can deduce that it is becoming increasingly

difficult to separate policy-making by political actors from policy
implementations by the administrators.

4.0 CONCLUSION

There are two contending groups to note here; one group argues that
there are dichotomy between the politicians and the administrators while
the other group is insisting that there is no such dichotomy. The true
position, as obtains in most developing countries, is close interaction
between politics and administration rather than dichotomy. This is
evidenced by the following reasons:

• Senior public administrators, by virtue of their functions as

advisers to the politicians on policy matters, are often involved in
policy making.
• Public servants are sometimes prejudiced and their personal
opinions do affect their official assignments.
• Politicians sometimes delegate their duties to senior public
administrators especially on matters with policy implications.
• Even policy implementation itself has policy implications.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we examined the relationship between public administration

and politics. The challenges they face were also discussed. It is hoped
that you have acquired a lot of knowledge regarding this topic that will
enable you discuss it intelligently at any level.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain in details what you understand by dichotomy between politics

and public administration.

72
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, A. (1992). Principles and Practices of Public Administration

in Nigeria. Ibadan:
Spectrum Books Limited.

Adamolekun, L. (1986). Politics and Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan:

Spectrum Books
Limited.

Appleby, P. H. (1949). Policy and Administration. Alabama: University

of Alabama.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,

Techniques and
Application. Lagos, Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:

Ziks-Chuks Publishers.

Hughes, O. E. (1998). Public Administration and Administration: An

Introduction. London:
Macmillan Press Ltd.

Goodnow, F. J. (1914). Politics and Administration. In: Gross, B. A.

(Ed.). The Managing of
Organisations. New York: Macmillian.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Pfiffner, J. M. (1935). Public Administration. New York: The Ronald

Press Company.

Richardson, I. I. & Baldwin, S. (1976). Public Administration.

Columbus: Charles Merrill.

73
Wilson G. (1887). ‘The Study of Administration.’ Political Science
Quarterly, Vol.2, June.

Willoughby, W. F. (1920). The Government of Modern States. New

York: Appleton-century
Crots Inc.

74
UNIT 3 APPROACHES TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Political Approach to Public Administration
3.2 Behavioural Approach to Public Administration
3.3 Formal Structural Approach to Public Administration
3.4 System Approach to Public Administration
3.5 Bureaucratic Approach to Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit teaches you the different approaches to public administration.

The bulk of the literature on public administration deals mainly with
approaches. One sees public administration as essentially management,
each perspective has a different set of values, offers distinctive
organisational approaches for these values, and each considers the
individual citizen in different ways. Realistically, public administration
indeed consists of varying mix of these branches. These approaches to
public administration are discussed in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss the approaches to public administration in details

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Political Approach to Public Administration

Some scholars claim that politics is central to the organisation of public

bureaucracies. The political approach to public administration was
perhaps most forcefully stated by Sayre. Public administration is
ultimately a problem in political theory; the fundamental problem in a
democracy is responsibility to popular control; the responsibility and
responsiveness of the administrative agencies. Bureaucracies of the
elected officials (the chief executives, the legislators) are of central

75
importance in a government-based organisation, which is increasingly
on the exercise of discretionary power by the agencies of administration.

Public administration was anything but devoid of politics. Once public

administration is considered a political endeavour, emphasis is
invariably placed on a different set of values than those promoted by the
managerial approach. Efficiency in particular becomes highly suspect,
because it has little to do with the bigger questions of government. The
political approach to public administration stresses the values of
representativeness, official responsiveness, and accountability through
elected officials to the citizenry.

These are viewed crucial to constitutional democracy and public

administration. One can find many examples of governmental reforms
aimed at maximising the political values of representativeness,
responsiveness, and accountability within public administration.

Public administration organised around the political values of

representativeness, responsiveness, and accountability tends to be
different from the managerial approach to organisation. Rather than
emphasising clear lines of functional specialisation, hierarchy, unity
neutral administrative competence, the political approach stresses the
extent and advantages of political pluralism within public
administration.

Under the political approach, the structure of public administration

becomes politicised, with different groups continually seeking
representation. Over lapping missions and programmes become
common as the administrative structure comes to resemble a political
party platform that promises something to almost everyone without
establishing clear priorities for resolving conflicts among them. Agency
becomes adversary of agency and the resolution of conflict is shifted to
the legislature, the office of the chief executive, and the courts.

Moreover, the number of government agencies tends to grow over time,

partly in response to the political demands of organised interests for
representation. This approach to administrative organisation has been
widely denounced as making government unmanageable, costly and
inefficient, but as Seidman argues, it persists because administrative
organisation is frequently viewed as a political question with stress on
political values.

The political approach to public administration does not depersonalise

the individual as does the managerial approach rather, it identifies the
individual’s interests as being identical to those of others considered to
be within the same group or category. For example, farmers growing the

76
same crops or located in the same state geopolitical subdivisions are
considered alike despite individual differences among them. The same is
true in many areas of public administration that are engaged in
implementing public policies. This tendency fits the political culture.

The political approaches often base its decisions on the opinions of the
public, interest groups and the media. Elections, public opinion surveys,
and news coverage are among the political approach’s prime techniques
for gaining the relevant information. Consequently, the proper approach
to serving the public interest through administration is not necessarily a
question for resolution by experts or science. Rather the public or
organised segments of it ought to have a large role in determining what
is in the collective interest. Indeed, public administration under political
approach reflects public choice and interests.

3.2 The Behavioural Approach to Public Administration

This approach focuses on the internal dynamics within the

administrative organisational behaviour of individual and overall
internal environment. In the behavioural approach, there is strong
concern with procedures for collecting and utilising data, such as, social
survey questionnaire and developing knowledge that is verifiable.

3. 3 The Formal Structural Approach to Public

Administration

This approach identifies the formal structure of governmental

administration as a significant feature that could form the focus of study.
When applied to the study of public administration, it is essentially
descriptive, which can be extended to include comparison and
prescription. For example, the differences and similarities between the
formal structures of governmental administration in two states can be
compared. Some scholars who are also interested in prescription might
discuss what constitutes a good structural arrangement.

3.4 The System Approach to Public Administration

This approach looks at the entire organisation. According to the systems

theorists, a system is made up of interdependent parts, which interact
with the environment by importing inputs while exporting outputs in
order to maintain a permanent state of equilibrium. When applied to
public administration, it represents inputs from the environment in form
of citizens’ demand for the provision of goods and services. The
administration of these demands in a conversion process is delivered as
outputs, such as, orderliness of the society, quantity and quality of goods
and services, policies, decisions, programmes, projects, etc. These

77
outcomes are further looped through feedback within the same cyclical
process.

3.5 The Bureaucratic Approach to Public Administration

This approach is concerned with the application of the Weberian

concept of bureaucracy in the context of government administration.
Weber argues that ideal hierarchical authority, specialisation of function,
specified sphere of competence, operation on the basis of rules and
impersonality. He contends further that the model is ideal and important,
as any organisation that is characterised by its features will function both
rationally and efficiently. As a theoretical framework, the bureaucratic
model has made a great contribution to the study of both public and
private organisations.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt that the bulk of the literature on public
administration deals mainly with five approaches. Each of these
approaches - political, bureaucratic, system, formal structural,
behavioural emphasises different values and procedural and structural
arrangements for the operation of public administration. Each views the
individual citizen in a remarkably different way, and each adopts a
different perspective on how to develop knowledge. These approaches
are embedded in our political culture.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about five different approaches to public
administration in any given political system. The political, bureaucratic,
system, formal structural, behavioural approaches to public
administration are highlighted and discussed at length.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

State and explain the different approaches of public administration in

details.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ekwealor, E. F. (2007). Fundamental of Public Administration. Onitsha:

Abbot Books Limited.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,

Techniques and
Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

78
Koontz, H. et al. (2008). Management: A Global and Entrepreneurial
Perspective (12th ed.).
New Delhi: McGraw-Hill.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON
Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Sapru, R. K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management Thought

(2nd ed.). New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.

79
UNIT 4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Scientific Management Theory
3. 2 Taylor’s Concept of Management
3.3 Principles of Scientific Management
3. 4 Components of Scientific Management
3.5 Aims of Scientific Management
3.6 Impact of Scientific Management
3.7 Relevance of Scientific Management
3.8 Criticisms of Scientific Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are two major sub-groupings of classical approach, they are: the
scientific management founded by Frederick W. Taylor and bureaucracy
formulated by Max Weber. The scientific management coined by Louis
Brandeis was perceived as a way to achieve greater efficiency in the
management of public business.

The best known proponent of the scientific management movement is

Frederick Winslow Taylor. He is generally acknowledged as the father
of scientific management, according to Koontz et al. (1983:37) in
Ezeani (2006:102).

Probably no other person has had a greater impact on the development

of management. His experiences as an apprentice, a common labourer, a
foreman, a master mechanic, and then the chief engineer of a steel
company gave Taylor ample opportunity to know at first hand the
problems and attitudes of workers, and the great opportunities for
improving the quality of management.

The objective of scientific management was to discover the basic

principles of motion involved in the performance of physical tasks and
then to determine the ‘one best way’ of performing any task. A major
contributor to this approach was Frederick Winslow Taylor, who saw
scientific management as a mental revolution in which a scientific

80
approach could be brought to bear not only on the performance of
physical tasks but also on all social problems.

In 1911, Frederick W. Taylor published his famous work titled the

“Principles of Scientific Management.” This book had three goals, the
goals include the following:

i. To demonstrate the great losses by the United States of America

as a result of the daily inefficiencies practiced by its people.
ii. To suggest that the solution to this problem lay in employing
people of ability and in the practice of systematic management.
iii. To prove that systematic management was based on definite
rules, laws and principles.

According to Taylor, scientific management is not an efficiency device,

nor does it belong to any group of efficiency devices. Scientific
management is no new scheme for rewarding men, it is no bonus
system, no piecework system, no premium system of payment; it is no
new method of figuring cost, it is not one of the various elements by
which people refer to it.

It is not time study, nor man study; scientific management does exist
and cannot exist until there has been a complete mental revolution on
the part of the workmen working under it, as to their duties toward
themselves and toward their employers, and a complete mental
revolution in the outlook for employer, toward their duties toward
themselves, and toward their workmen. In addition, until this great
mental change takes place, scientific management does not exist.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should able to:

• explain the components of scientific management

• describe the aims and impact of scientific management
• state the criticisms and relevance of scientific management.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Scientific Management Theory

This theory was propounded by Frederick Taylor. The key tenet of

scientific management is that human beings are adjunct to the machine;
thus, the workers should be made as efficient as the machine they
operated in order to achieve optimum productivity and efficiency. But
human beings as adjunct of the machine can only be applied to the lower

81
echelon of the organisation. The weakness of the technique lies in the
fact that human beings are not machine, and do not become activated
like machines. Workers are human beings with values which require that
they be differently treated in an organisation.

Scientific management theory views productivity as the major goal of an

organisation. This school of management thought is strongly influenced
by the rational systems of theoretical thinking. Frederick Winslow
Taylor applied scientific methods to develop accurate measurements to
determine what constitutes a day’s work for each operation by
establishment of standards through studying the job to find the best way
of doing it in the shortest time required.

3.2 Taylor’s Concept of Management

Taylor views management as a process of getting things done by people

operating independently or in groups. According to George in Sapru
(2008:95) Taylor’s approach to the management problem is direct and
simple.

Define the problem, analyse the work situation in all its facets, apply
measuring devices to all facets capable of being measured, experiment
by holding all aspects of the job constant except one which would be
varied, development of guide or principle of management from the
observations and study, and finally, prove the validity of the principle by
subsequent application.

Taylor’s main thesis is that prosperity to the society can come only
through the joint endeavour of the management and labour in the
application of scientific methods. He calls for mental revolution on the
part of both management and labour so that they might cooperate in the
spirit of work harmony with a view to improving their respective lots–
attaining high wages for labour and increased output at low costs for
managements.

Frederick Winslow Taylor observed that management is neglecting its

functions and pushing the burden of methods and output on labour. He
suggested that management must do the work of planning, organising,
controlling, determining methods and the like for which it is best suited.

3.3 Principles of Scientific Management

Taylor observes that what the employees want from their employers
beyond anything else is high wages; and what employers want from
their employees most of all is low labour cost of manufacturing. The
existence or absence of these two elements forms the best index to either

82
good or bad management. Taylor laid down four underlying principles
of scientific management as follows:

The development of true science: According to Taylor, the

development of true science consists of a deliberate gathering together
of mass traditional knowledge by the management, using motion study,
time study, recoding it, tabulating it, reducing it, in most cases to rules,
laws, and in many cases, to mathematical formula, which are applied to
the work of the employees. The principle, therefore, entails the
establishment of a large daily task, classified after scientific
investigation as the amount to be done by a suitable, selected and trained
person under optimum conditions.

The result of the development of a time science according to Taylor is

immense increase in output by both the employer and the employee.

The scientific selection and progressive development of the

workmen: Taylor avers that the deliberate selection of the employees is
the second of the great duties that devolved on the management under
scientific management. The management must take a great deal of
trouble in selecting the employees in order to ensure that employee
possessed the physical and intellectual qualities necessary to achieve
output.

Taylor stated that it is the responsibility of the management to develop

the workers by training them to enable them perform better, and then
pay them higher wages than ever before.

The scientific selection and progressive development of an employee is

the second of the great duties that devolve on the management under
scientific management.

The Bringing together of the Science and the scientifically selected

and trained men: This principle calls for mental revolution on the part
of the workers and management. According to Taylor, select and train
your employees to the maximum. Unless there is someone who will
make the men and the science come together, they will stay apart. He
noted that the greatest resistance to scientific management comes from
the side of management. The workers, he noted are willing to cooperate
in learning to do a good job for a higher pay.

A uniform division of work and responsibility between management

and workers: This is the last principle of scientific management. Here,
the management and workers should share equal responsibility – with
each sector performing the work for which it is best suited. With this

83
intimate cooperation, the opportunities for discord and conflict are
almost eliminated since the exercise of this authority is not arbitrary.

Thus, under scientific management, science would replace the rule-of

thumb, harmony would replace discord, cooperation would replace
individualism, maximum output would replace restricted output, and
each man would be developed to his greatest efficiency and prosperity.

In his quest for a science of management, Taylor discovered or

implemented a series of innovations pertaining to the machinery of
production, the organisational environment, and the people who use the
machines. Some of these developments include the invention of
mechanical devices, the development of cost accounting techniques,
machine room layout and design, purchase and store methods, tool
standardisation and room reorganisation, and mnemonic classification
systems.

3.4 Components of Scientific Management

Taylor’s scientific management comprises mainly three components,

these are:

(i) time and motion studies

(ii) wages incentive system
(iii) functional organisation.

Time and motion studies

Taylor attributed more than half of the problem of inefficiency to the

management’s ignorance of the proper time required to perform a task.

Accordingly, a primary task for scientific management is to establish

appropriate standards based on scientific investigations of tasks
performed using optimal methods rather than simple observations of
actual performance in the workplace. The primary tool of analysis in this
investigation is time–and–motion studies. The general procedures
employed in time–and–motion studies is to break down physical
activities into their component parts, specify the optimal routine for the
performance of each component part, and discover the most efficient
method for recombining the parts with the more complex task. For
Taylor, the following steps are involved in the time–and–motion studies:

i. The worker is provided with the best implements.

ii. The task is divided into elementary units.
iii. Useless movements are discarded.

84
iv. The analyst watches a skilled employee perform the task with the
help of a stopwatch.
v. The elementary movements of the task are grouped in a proper
sequence to maximise overall efficient task performance.
vi. The proper method of task performance is recorded and the time
required to perform the task is determined.
vii. An allowance to the extent of 20 to 27 percent should be added to
the actual working time to allow for unavoidable delays.
viii. Allowances should be made for the time it takes a new employee
to learn the job.
ix. Allowance should be made for rest required for a worker to
recover from body fatigue.

The intent of time-and-motion study is to establish standards for the

performance of a task, accounting for the capacity, speed, and durability
of the worker. Thus, standards established are to be accepted only
conditionally. Those standards are not to be altered, unless a new
method of performing the task is discovered. This is required to prevent
arbitrary changes in standards as productivity increases.

In his famous studies at the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Taylor found

that a group of 75 men were loading an average of 12 ½ tons of pig iron
per man per day. On the other hand, a Dutch labourer called Schmidt,
selected by Taylor, increased his output to 47 ½ tons per day for the
three years of the study by following detailed instructions to handling of
pig iron. Men were selected one at a time and trained to handle pig iron
at the rate of 47 ½ tons per day and, in return, like Schmidt, they
received a 60 percent increase in wages. Taylor drew attention to the
need for the scientific selection of the workers.

Wages incentive system

As stated earlier, Taylor’s incentive system is based on the established

standards of work performance through time–and–motion studies. Under
this, the worker is assigned a defined task with detailed instructions and
a specified time allowed for performing the task. When this has been
accomplished, the worker is to be paid extraordinary wages for
performing the task within the allotted time and ordinary wages if the
time allotment is exceeded.

Taylor was against the method of award for day work, piecework, and
task work with a bonus or differential piecework. He also objected to
gain-sharing plans, such as those suggested by Towne and Halsey. In
Taylor’s views, factors such as special incentives, higher wages, shorter
working hours, better working conditions, and individual reward far
overshadow the importance of the specific method of payment.

85
Fredrick Winslow Taylor based incentives on prior standards of work
performance with each worker rewarded on an individual basis and
performance linked reward. Thus, under Taylor’s incentive system, like
other pay plans, success is rewarded by higher wages and failure is
penalised by financial loss.

3.5 Aims of Scientific Management

Frederick Winslow Taylor enunciated the following aims/objectives of

scientific management. They are as follows:

i. Gauge industrial tendencies and the market in order to regularise

operations in a manner which will conserve the investment,
sustain the enterprise as an employing agency, and assure
continuous operation and employment.

ii. Assure the employee not only continuous operating and

employment by correct gauging of the market, but also to assure
a continuous earning opportunity while on the payroll by planned
and balanced operations.
iii. Earn through a waste-saving management and processing
technique, a larger income from a given expenditure of human
and material energies, which shall be shared through increased
wages and profits by workers and management.
iv. Make possible a higher standard of living because of increased
income to workers.
v. Assure a happier home and social life to workers through
removal, by increase of income, of many of the disagreeable and
worrying factors in the total situation.
vi. Assure healthful as well as individually and socially agreeable
conditions of work.
vii. Assure the highest opportunity for individual capacity through
scientific ways of work analysis and of selection, training,
assignment, transfer and promotion of workers.
viii. Assure by training and instructional foremanship the opportunity
for workers to develop new and higher capacities, and eligibility
for promotion to higher positions.
ix. Develop self-confidence and self-respect among workers through
opportunity afforded for understanding of one’s own work
specifically, and of plans and methods of work generally.
x. Develop self-expression and self-realisation among worker
through the simulative influence of an atmosphere of research
and valuation, through understanding of plans and methods, and
through the freedom of horizontal as well as vertical contacts
afforded by functional organisation.

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xi. Build character through the proper conduct of work.
xii. Promote justice through the elimination of discrimination in wage
rate and elsewhere.
xiii. Eliminate factors of the environment, which are irritating, and the
causes of frictions, and to promote common understanding,
tolerance and the spirit of teamwork.

3.6 Impact of Scientific Management

The scientific management has made the following specific impacts or

contributions to both management and administration:

i. It has led to professionalisation of management. Nwizu rightly

observed that the present practice in the modern industry of
having a specialised and trained managerial cadre had its origin
in Taylor’s view.
ii. It led to reduction in wastage of human and material resources
utility of efforts.
iii. Scientific management contributed to greater specialisation of
activities, with proper design of jobs, specification of methods,
and set time and motions studies and establishment of standards
of job performance. All these have contributed to the private
sectors.
iv. Through scientific management, managers and administrators
became aware of the importance of compensation and other
incentives to workers in ensuring increased productivity.
v. Scientific management brought about scientific selection of
workers to ensure that only the right caliber of staff is selected. It
also led to inception of efforts at formal training of workers in
organisations.
vi. The scientific management has greatly influenced both theory
and practice of public administration.

Scientific management elevated management by planned system and

design. It is important to note that the values and methods of scientific
management were in tune with the movement for reforms of government
and civil service such as centralisation of authority, and accountability,
introduction of business methods to public administration and the
consequent acceptance of efficiency as a primary goal of administration;
establishment of merit systems; freeing public administration from
partisan politics, etc.

3.7 Relevance of Scientific Management

While Taylor’s work is subjected to a lot of criticism, it should be

recognised that he wrote at a time of industrial growth and the

87
emergence of complex organisations with new forms of technology. His
main concern was with the efficiency of both workers and management.

Taylor believed his scientific management techniques would improve

management–worker relations, and contribute to improved industrial
efficiency and productivity.

Drucker claims that Frederick Winslow Taylor may prove a more useful
prophet for our times than we yet recognise … Taylor’s greatest impact
may still be ahead…. The underdeveloped and developing countries are
now reaching the stage where they need Taylor and scientific
management. But the need to study Taylor anew and apply him may be
greatest in the developed countries (Sapru, 2008:109).

Drucker argued that the central theme of Taylor’s work was not
inefficiency but the need to substitute industrial warfare by industrial
harmony. Taylor sought to do this through higher wages from increased
output; and removal of physical strain from doing work the wrong way;
development of the workers and the opportunity for them to undertake
tasks they were capable of doing; and elimination of the boss by the duty
of management to help the workers.

Taylor, in developing scientific management, made enormous

contributions to the understanding and prescription for the management
of organisations. Yet he is probably better characterised as a synthesizer
than an innovator. In dealing with industrial unrest, scientific
management promoted and called for a new look of harmonious and
whole–hearted cooperation in place of the old tendency toward rugged
individualism.

Further, scientific management, with its emphasis on research, planning,

use of standards, and cooperation, encouraged management to take
decisions based on the laws of the situation instead of individual guess
and intuition.

The scientific management movement spread far beyond the borders of

the United States, and gained wide recognition in Germany, England,
France, Sweden and other European countries. In Russia, immediately
after the revolution of 1917, Lenin referred to the Taylor system, as a
combination of subtle brutality of bourgeois exploitation and a number
of its greatest scientific management. He and Trotsky sponsored a state–
led scientific management movement aimed at promoting labour
discipline and higher productivity.

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3.8 Criticisms of Scientific Management

Scientific management has been criticised on the following grounds:

i. It lays much emphasis on economy, efficiency and material welfare to
the neglect of the emotional and psychological needs of the workers.
ii. Scientific management dehumanises employees. It considered the
organisation as a machine and the human beings working in the
organisation as parts of the machine. Workers were meant to do the
work at a standardised rate. If they produced below the standardised
rate, they were thrown out.

iii. It encourages authoritarian leadership. This is because the traditional

approach to public administration and management on which scientific
management is based does not tolerate composite decision–making.
iv. Scientific management recommends specialisation, which it assumes
as the best way of getting things done. Yet, specialisation may be boring
because of its repetitiveness and monotony.

v. There is no one best way to carry out functions related to values. For
instance, what is the one best way to eliminate corruption in Nigeria? Or
what is the one best way to be president of Nigeria?

vi. Scientific management wrongly assumes that individuals first look

for their own best interests before those of the group. The Hawthorne
experiment shows that workers realise that they are disadvantaged and
helpless unless they exist as a group.

vii. The scientific management techniques have been severely criticised

by the Marxists as mere efficient tools to exploit labour.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The above discussion showed that, the views and concepts generated by
scientific management, though new and radical at that time, are widely
applied in today; they are accepted as standards for managerial practice.

This acceptance is itself indicative of the total effect of scientific

management. The principles of Taylor’s scientific approach to
management appear to be very relevant today. Many of Taylor’s ideas
are accepted by present–day managers. We can still see examples of
management practices based on the philosophy of his ideas. Taylor gave
a major impetus to the development of modern management thinking.

Although, the Marxists criticised scientific management based on the

substantial increase in the profits of the enterprises where Taylor’s
experiments were carried out was not matched by corresponding

89
increase in the wages of the workers. Still Taylor’s scientific
management approach is relevant and accepted today.

5.0 SUMMARY

The unit has thrown light on the scientific theory of management. The
concept and principles of management are considered alongside the
component of scientific management. The aims, impacts, contributions,
relevance and criticisms of scientific management were also highlighted
and discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the components of scientific management.

2. State and explain the aims of scientific management.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories. (4th

ed.). New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,

Techniques and
Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:

Ziks-Chuks Publishers.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON
Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Ekwealor, E. F. (2007). Fundamentals of Public Administration.

Onitsha: Abbot.

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Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:
Snaap Press.

Sapru, R. K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management Thought

(2nd ed.). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall.

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MODULE 4

Unit 1 Classical Theory of Organisation

Unit 2 Human Relation Theory
Unit 3 Methods of Inquiry in Public Administration
Unit 4 Nigerian Civil Service

UNIT 1 CLASSICAL THEORY OF ORGANISATIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Classical Theory of Organisations
3.2 Basic Themes of Classical Theories
3.3 Main Features of Classical Theory
3.4 Contributions of Fayol
3.5 Criticisms of Classical Theory
3.6 Significance of the Classical Approach
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Herbert Simon propounded the classical theory of organisation. Other

contributors of early 20th century are administrative practitioners and
theorists such as Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, J. D.
Mooney and A. C. Reiley. They were the French and American
specialists in different fields who searched for ideal administrative
structure. These early writers are known to belong to the classical school
of thought in organisation theory.

The classical administrative theory grew out of Weber’s bureaucratic

theory and Taylor’s scientific management approach. Though classical
theory can be traced to Taylor’s concern for functional foremanship and
planning cells, it is sometimes considered as an extension of Max
Weber’s bureaucratic theory.

In this unit therefore, you will be conversant with some basic themes of
classical theories, the main features of classical theory, Fayol’s
definition of management and its elements, Fayol’s fourteen principles
and then proceed to discuss the evaluation of Fayol’s ideas, criticism of

92
classical theory and the significance of the classical approach to the
study of the public administration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss the basic themes of classical theory

• identify the main features of classical theory
• state the contributions of Henri Fayol to management studies
• explain the significance of the classical approach to organisation.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Classical Theory of Organisation

The classical theory of organisation is also known as the structural

theory. The most important concern of the classical theory is the
formulation of certain universal principles of organisation. It deals
primarily with formal organisational structure. The theory assumes that
there are certain fundamental principles on which an organisation can be
established to achieve a specific objective. The watchwords of this
approach are efficiency and economy, as it conceives that these
principles, if fully adopted, can lead to maximum organisational
efficiency and economy. The structuralists were chiefly concerned with
discovering the true basis on which work can be divided in an
organisation and devising proper methods of bringing about the effective
organisational coordination.

3.2 Basic Theme of Classical Theory

The basic themes of classical theories include the following:

i. There are a set of basic principles to every organisation. These

principles are immutable laws to manage an organisation.
ii. The requisite personnel or workers have to conform to this
preconceived plan.
iii. The four basic principles of classical theory are impersonality,
division of work, hierarchy and efficiency.
iv. Organisational tasks can be defined based on these principles,
and effective methods can be devised for better coordination,
delegation and control of personnel.
v. Classical theory advocated the use of authority as a system of
controlling personnel.
vi. The aim of this theory is the maximum organisational economy,
efficiency and productivity.
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vii. The theorists had a dogmatic faith in their findings and found
them as the only one best way.

3.3 The Main Features of Classical Theory

The classical theory of organisation is generally regarded as being

covered by the standard works of Henri Fayol, Gulick Urwick, Mooney
and Reiley. Their interest was chiefly concerned with formal
organisational structure and the basic management process. They all
believed in the existence of certain universal administrative principles.
They also believed that the application of such principles could make
organisations function more efficiently. The many points about
administrative organisations, which the early administrative theorists
agreed on, were in use quite for sometimes before the Second World
War.

The classical theory of organisation is also known as the “Formal

Organisation Theory,” “Principles of Administration Theory”,
“Structural Theory”, and the “Administrative Management Theory”. The
main features of the classical theory are briefly noted as follows

i. The classical theory emphasises the anatomy of formal

organisation. It views administration as a formal structural
arrangement by which work is divided, arranged and coordinated
for a definite purpose. The personnel, who are fitted into the
structure, are treated as mere cogs in the organisational machine.
The organisation chart is regarded as the basic tool for
monitoring and controlling the entire administrative process.
ii. Classical writers hold the generic view of administration, Henri
Fayol and Lyndall Urwick, for instance, are of the opinion that
the distinction between public and private administration does not
exist. Henri Fayol opined, “We are no longer confronted with
several administrative sciences, but with one which can be
applied equally well to public and private affairs. In other words,
in the opinion of classical writers, administration is
administration wherever it is found and whatever kind of work it
undertakes. Therefore, public and private organisations share
common administrative principles and processes and the
distinction between them tend to minimise.
iii. The classical writers believe that administration is governed by
certain principles, which are said to be of universal applicability
of all forms of organisation in all types of environments. Because
of this belief, all the classical administrative theorists engaged
themselves in evolving principles of management. Gulick
advocated a set of 10 principles of organisation while Urwick
propounded eight principles of organisation. Later he (Urwick)

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 developed 29 principles by integrating the various principles
developed by other classical writers.

The classical writers believed that these common operating principles of

administration could guide administrators in creating effective
organisation and improving administrative practice. An organisation
built on these principles could achieve efficiency and economy. It is also
their belief that these principles could be built into a framework from
which a general theory of administration would emerge.

iv. The classical theory views public administration as a nonpolitical,

technical, organisation designed to implement public policies
with efficiency and economy. To the classical writers such as
Gulick, efficiency is not only the axiom number one in the value
scale of administration, but also the ultimate good of all
administrative activity. The objective of administration is to
achieve the maximum results with the least expenditure of people
and materials.

v. The classical writers upheld the distinction between the line and
staff activities. Line activities are concerned with the fulfilments
of the primary purpose of the organisation, while the staff
activities are concerned with the provision of specialised advice
and assistance to the line agencies. Thus, in the classical
organisation theory, staff members are typically differentiated
from line members by their advisory capacity to line personnel.
The line people have considered the decision makers or order
givers. For classical theorists, this distinction between line and
staff people is fundamental.
vi. According to classical thinkers, people are motivated to work by
cash rewards such as increase in pay, and fringe benefits and the
threat of punishment. They believed that more of such monetary
rewards could keep people happy. The classical theory manifests
four features:

1. Impersonality
2. Division of work
3. Hierarchy, and
4. Efficiency.

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Further, it is marked by the following six philosophical characteristics:

i. It is atomistic in the sense that it sees the individual in isolation

from fellow men.
ii. It is mechanistic because it does not explain the dynamics of
organisation behaviour.
iii. It is static because it has a formal declared pattern of relationship
established by law.
iv. It is voluntary because it rests upon the native belief that the
individuals are immune from the control either by the groups or
by the social factors.
v. It is rationalistic because tasks are performed according to
methods determined by the principles of scientific work
performance.
vi. It does not take any note of non-economic incentives.

3.4 Contributions of Henri Fayol

As earlier stated, Henri Fayol is called the father of the management

process or the functional management theory. As a French engineer, he
first published his experiences in the book “General and Industrial
Management” in 1916. The book arrived in England only when it was
first translated to English in 1929. He tried to approach organisations
through their general principles without making a distinction between
industrial and public service organisations. According to him,
management and administration are two sides of the same coin and need
not be distinguished. Fayol’s theory of the scalar chain, which is the
synonym for hierarchy, is a kind of photograph of the framework. Fayol
used these principles to explain the organisational behaviour. He did not
consider these principles as immutable or one best way, but maintained
that the principle is the light house fixing the bearings, which can only
serve those who already know the way to the port. Fayol divided the
industrial activities into six groups.
These are as follows:

i. The technical activities, which include production, manufacture

and adaptation.
ii. The commercial activities, which include buying, selling and
exchange.
iii. The financial activities that is, search for and optimum use of
capital.
iv. The security activities, which include protection of property and
persons.
v. The accounting activities, which include stocktaking, balance
sheet, costs, statistics, etc.

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vi. The managerial activities, which include planning, organisation,
command coordination, control, etc.

Fayol also explained the five elements of administration as follows:

i. Forecasting: this involves forecasting a plan. This indicates the

need for administration to plan for future, look ahead, and adapt
plans for the prospective situations. He called it previous or
purveyance.
ii. Organising: this involves drawing the structure of the
organisation in such manner that would facilitate the performance
of basic activities in an optimal manner.
iii. Commanding: this involves instilling sense of discipline in the
subordinates through knowledge of the task and constant contact.
iv. Coordinating: this involves building, harmonising and uniting all
efforts and activities.

Henri Fayol’s definition of management and its elements

Henri Fayol was the first to put forward a classic analysis of the nature
of managerial activity, based on his own experience of doing the job in
the mining and metallurgical combined industry.

He defines management in terms of the following five key functional

elements:

1. Planning: It is the act of forecasting future and drawing up the

plan of action.
2. Organising: It refers to structuring the human resources of the
undertaking into jobs, departments and so on to enable them to
put the plans into action. It also involves the use of material
resources.
3. Commanding: It consists of setting the human resources into
activity toward the organisation’s objective. This is what we
today call leading.
4. Coordinating: It involves unifying and harmonising all activities
and efforts. It permeates the other four basic functions.
5. Controlling: It means, ensuring that everything occurs in
conformity with established rule and expressed command. It
serves to make certain that all operations are proceeding
according to plan to accomplish the goals.

These five managerial activities are treated by Fayol as universal. In his

opinion, these activities have to be performed by managers of both
public and private organisation. Fayol’s five functional elements have

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provided a system of concepts with which managers may clarify their
thinking about what it is they have to do.

According to Fayol, a successful manager must possess leadership

qualities, knowledge of the business and his workers, and the ability to
instill sense of mission. A manager having these qualities can obtain the
best performance from his work force. Knowledge of necessary
administrative powers and functions that have to be performed would
empower the manager to organise and run any undertaking.

To Fayol, good administration is a process, which is distinct from the

particular management task at hand. To put it differently, Fayol treated
administration as a universal process, which is equally applicable to both
public and private organisations.

In Fayol’s theory, the organisation chart graphically depicts the essence

of the organisation. According to him, such charts of managerial staff
show each man’s immediate superior and subordinates and are a kind of
framework of the organisation at a given moment.

Fayol’s fourteen principles

i. Division of work: It refers to specialisation of work or labour in

both managerial and non-managerial jobs. Division of labour
allows individuals to build up skills and increases organisation
productivity.
ii. Authority and responsibility: These refer to the right of a
manager to give commands and require conformity to those
commands. Responsibility must go with authority and must
match authority.
iii. Discipline: It implies that employees obey orders of
management, if it provides good leadership.
iv. Unity of command: This specifies that each employee should
receive orders from only one superior. It eliminates conflicting
lines of command.
v. Unity of direction: This denotes that people engaged in a group
of activities must have the same objectives in a plan.
vi. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: This
implies that the interest of one employee or a group of employees
must be subordinated to the overall interest of the organisation.
vii. Fair remuneration for effort: This principle states that since
payment is an important motivator, it should be a matter for
manager’s constant attention.
viii. Centralisation or decentralisation: This principle states that
centralisation or decentralisation of an organisation should

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 depend on the condition of the business and the quality or culture
of its staff.
ix. Scalar chain: This refers to the line of authority, from superior to
subordinate, running from the top to the bottom of an
organisation. This principle is necessary for unity of direction.
x. Order: This principle state that both material order and social
order are necessary for the proper and efficient working of the
organisation.
xi. Equity: It states that all employees should be treated with
fairness, kindness and justice.
xii. Stability of tenure: Stability of tenure among personnel is
necessary for the successful running of the undertaking.
xiii. Initiative: All personnel in an organisation must be allowed to
show their initiative in some way. This represents a great source
of strength for business, although it requires the manager to
sacrifice some personal vanity.
xiv. Esprit de corps: This is essential for management to foster the
morale of its employees. Henri Fayol used these principles to
explain organisational behaviour. He did not believe that the
principles of organisation and administration were immutable
laws. They may, at best, serve as guidelines for managers in
performing their duties.

These principles have to be flexible and adaptable to varying situations

because management deals with people in a wide variety of
circumstances. The process of applying them would be more of an art
than a science. Fayol raised general management to the level of science.
Unlike Taylor, he was not focused on the shop floor but found
mismanagement or lack of clear principles of management as the reason
for low efficiency and productivity. He defined management in terms of
the functions of planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and
controlling. There are two noticeable points in Fayol’s, which is
different from the “one best way” theorists.

First, he never insisted that this list of principles is the final one. He
believed that principles can be added and subtracted according to the
requirement of the organisation. Fayol observed that every
administrative rule or advice strengthens the human part of an
organisation or facilitates its working and has its place among the
principles for so long as experience proves it to be worthy of this
important position.

Secondly, unlike his contemporaries, Fayol is not rigid about the use of
the term “principles”. He opined that, “for preference I shall adopt the
term principles while disassociating it from any suggestion of rigidity,
for there is nothing rigid or absolute in management affairs, it is all the

99
question of proportion.” Seldom do we have to apply the same principle
twice in identical conditions; allowance must be made for different
changing conditions to allow for flexibility in propounding principles,
which have made functional management a universally applicable
theory.

This has also made Fayol a more acceptable theorist in management

practices in contrasts to the classical theorists. At least his two
principles, initiative and the esprit de corps have an important place
even in the modern organisation theory based upon psychology and
behavioural sciences. His suggestion for the stability of tenure has also
been the launcher for career services in contrast to the ‘hire and fire’
system prevalent in his time.

3.5 Criticisms of Classical Theory

The classical approach to public administration is full of contradictions

for which it has come under severe criticism. It has been criticised on
many grounds. The following are some of the major criticisms brought
against it:

Classical principles are synonymous with proverbs

Herbert Simon, a distinguished behavioural administrative theorist, is

one of the critics of the principles of administration developed by the
classical administrative thinkers from simple observations. He observed
the classical theory that they are little more than proverbs in disguise. (A
proverb is a popular saying, embodying some familiar truth based on
common sense or practical experience. For example, “look before you
leap,” but on the other hand, “he who hesitates is lost”).

Simon argued that, “like proverbs, the principles of administration

appear in pairs. For almost every principle one can find an equally
plausible and acceptable contradictory principle”. Let us consider the
principle of unity of command as an example. Unity of command
implies that each person in an organisation should receive orders from
one boss to avoid confusion. However, this principle is incompatible
with the principles of specialisation. The principles of specialisation lead
to a situation in which their formal superiors also receive directives from
the specialists in the headquarters. The result is dual chain of command,
which violates the principle of unity of command. In a similar fashion,
Taylor’s ‘function of foremanship’ also violates unity of command
principle. These contradictions reveal the unreality of the principle of
unity of command.

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Simon revealed that other principles of administration are also
contradictory. Some of the classical theorists argued that organisations
could improve supervision and productivity, if they kept a low span of
control. In the same way, he argued that organisations would improve
their performance, if they minimised the number of layers in the
hierarchy; thus, reducing communication problems and cutting down on
red tape. Thus, the principle of narrow span of control implying a tall
hierarchy comes into conflict with the principle of minimising the
number of supervisory levels of implying flat hierarchy.

According to classical theorists, specialisation leads to efficiency of the

organisation. However, the principle of specialisation fails to inform the
executive of exactly how to specialise so as to promote efficiency. They
also failed to state whether functional specialisation is better than area of
specialisation or vice versa.

For all the reasons stated above, the administrative principles promoted
by the classical theorist cannot claim the status of empirically tested
scientific principles. They have little scientific validity. They can, at
best, be regarded as administrative homilies comparable to folklore or
folk wisdom. Considerable doubt also exists as to their relationship to
actual behaviour in real administrative situations. For this reason, it is
said that the so-called principles of administration are of no use as
practical guides to the administrator. Therefore, Simon has characterised
the classical administrative theory as narrow and one that lacks realism.
Furthermore, there is no unanimity among the classical theorists as
regards the principles of administration. Thus, the contention of classical
administrative theorists that public administration had already developed
as a science with universally valid and generally applicable principles
was largely discredited by Simon’s attack against the classical approach.

Classical theory ignores the human factor and informal groups

The classical theory of Gulick and Urwick ignored the interplay of

individual personality and the influence of informal groups in the
functioning of an organisation. It ignored problems stemming from
human interactions in organisations. It did not give adequate attention to
the social and psychological factors relating to human behaviour in
organisations. It ignored virtually, all features of organisational life
beyond the formal structure. It ignored the individual employee and his
needs. Mayo’s human relations approach has revealed the human, the
interpersonal, and the informal factors are of crucial administrative
consequence thus, Mayo’s theory supplied a corrective to the
mechanistic approach of Gulick and Urwick

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Classical theory treats organisations as closed systems

The classical theory treats an organisation as a closed system,

completely unconnected with and not influenced by its external
environment. In fact, organisations actually engaged in constant contact
with their environment. An organisation and its environment influence
each other. The environment of public or government agencies is
complex and the connection between them and the outside world are
highly significant. Government agencies, for example, have to deal with
legislative committees, interest groups, the press, the court system,
individual citizens and others. The influence of this complex external
environment on the decision making process of public agencies is highly
significant. Therefore, it is said that organisations are considered
cybernetic in their behaviour with regard to the external environment.

Over simplification of human motivation

The classical approach has over simplified human motivation to work.

The classical theorists, in their naivety, believed that people are
motivated only by cash rewards and threats of punishments have been
questioned by the human relationists and behaviouralist. They have
argued that group pressures, social incentives, nature of work, and the
attitude of each employee towards it are also as important as pay and
fringe benefits.

Other criticisms

The classical theory is accused of a pro management bias, because it

attached much importance to the efficiency and greater productivity of
the organisation. It is also said that in today’s large, complex
organisations, the distinction between line and staff have lost much of
their clarity and significance because superior–subordinate relationships
are becoming less authoritarian and more advisory.

3.6 Significance of the Classical Approach

Despite its limitations, the classical approach had an impact on the study
and practice of public administration, especially in the USA. Federal
Government and many state governments in the USA reformed their
administrative studies. These reforms were based largely on classical
tenets.

This theory played a notable role in rationalising administrative

structures and even stimulating production. Thus, the traditional
emphasis in public administration stressed in both theory and practices a
rationalised view of administration.

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The classical approach has some value even today. Owing to its
influence, such management techniques as reporting, accounting and
budgeting have come to be used in public administration. Gulick’s
POSDCORB formula serves even today as a handy check list of the
functions of managers both in public and private sectors.

Administration of many governments is even at present structured in

accord with the classical principles. Some techniques of personnel
administration such as formal job described and position classification
are cut from the classical mould. Therefore, the classical administrative
theorists were errant, but important. Even today, some of their ideas and
concepts are relevant.

The idea that administration was a separate activity and was worthy of
intellectual investigation was first propounded by the classical writers.

The classical approach formulated a set of concepts of administration

that evolved a terminology, which has provided a base for subsequent
research in the field of administration. The limitations of the classical
theory stimulated further research in organisational behaviour, thus,
becoming an important milestone in the development of organisation
theories such as human relations, behavioural and social–psychological
theories. In fact, the classical theory is regarded as the foundation of the
20th century administrative thought.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt that classical theory has played a notable
role in rationalising administrative structures as well as stimulating
production. The classical approach has some value even today. Owing to
its influence, such management techniques as reporting, accounting, and
budgeting have come to be used in public administration. We can also
see that Gulick’s POSDCORB formula serves today as a handy checklist
in public and private sectors. There is no doubt that administration of
many governments today or at present is structured in accord with the
classical principles. Even today, some of the classical ideas and concepts
are still relevant in our organisation.

5.0 SUMMARY

The unit has thrown light on the classical theory of organisation. The
basic themes of classical theories are considered along with the main
features of the classical theory. The contributions of Henri Fayol, his
definitions of management and its elements, Fayol’s 14 principles of
management, the significance, and the criticisms of classical theory were

103
also highlighted and discussed. In the next unit, you will be taken
through the human relations theory or school.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the Henri Fayol’s 14 principles of management?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (4th
ed.). New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Private Limited.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,

Techniques and
Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:

Ziks-Chuks Publishers.

Hughes, O. E. (1998). Public Administration and Administration: An

Introduction. London:
Macmillan Press Ltd.

Goodnow, F. J. (1914). “Politics and Administration”. In: Gross, B. A.

(Ed.). The Managing of
Organisations. New York: Macmillian.

Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON
Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration, NOUN,

Lagos.

Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia

Publications PVT.

Singh, A. (2005). Public Administration: Roots and Wings. New Delhi:

Ashok Galgotia for
Galgotia Publishing Company.

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UNIT 2 HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Human Relations Theory
3.1.1 The Hawthorne Experiments/Studies
3.1.2 The Great Illumination Experiment
3.1.3 Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment
3.1.4 Bank Writing Observation Room Experiment
3.1.5 Major Findings of the Hawthorne Studies
3.2 Interview with Workers
3.3 Basic Principles of Human Relations Theory
3.4 Frederick W. Taylor vs Elton Mayo
3.5 The Human Relations Theory vs the Classical Theory
3.6 Criticisms of Human Relations Theory
3.7 Significance of Human Relations Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The human relations approach is an attempt to improve some of the

defects inherent in the classical management approach. This approach
emerged from the result of the Hawthorne studies, which was conducted
by Elton Mayo and his fellow researchers from Harvard University. The
proponents of this school argue that since management involves getting
things done with and through people, the study of management should
be centered on interpersonal relations. The scholars of this school have a
heavy orientation to social psychology. They believed that if the
management of an organisation showed concern for employees,
increased productivity would result.

The main concern of the human relations approach is the study of an

individual as a socio-psychological being and what motivates the
individual. In this school, there are scholars who lay emphasis on human
relations and why the manager should develop the skill to understand
and practice. The human relations school argued that organisations
could be improved by making it less formal and by permitting more
subordinate participation in decision-making. Elton Mayo is regarded as
the founder of the human relations movement. Some of the major
contributors to this group include Robert K. Merton, Argyris, Likert,

105
Alex Balevas, McGregor, and Keith Davis, etc. In this unit, you shall be
made aware of the relevance of human relations theory.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss the different stages of the Hawthorne experiments or

studies
• explain the basic principles of the human relations theory
• state the differences between the Taylor’s scientific management
and Mayo’s theory
• discuss the differences between the human relations theory and
the classical theory
• identify and explain the significance of the human relations
theory.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Human Relations Theory

Human relations theory is another method of studying organisations.

The theory is reputed as being a reaction against person as machine
concept of the scientific management school. The human relations
theory of organisation examines the informal work group at the
assembly, that is, the line level. It tries to find out what makes these
groups of workers work or refuse to work. The theory tries to establish
what relationship exists between motivation and job satisfaction, and
how these affect efficiency and productivity in the organisation.

The formulation of the theory began with the efforts of Elton Mayo in
1927. The study focused on relationship between workers and managers,
and among workers themselves. The development of the theory
continued with the efforts of Abraham H. Maslow, in what is today
known as Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs. Maslow perceived
human desire to be based first on psychological needs which provide the
foundation for the next greatest need, which is security. These are
followed by love or belonginess, self esteem, and finally self
actualisation. According to him, all these human needs collectively
determine productivity in any organisation.

The rise of human relations school may be attributed to the scathing

criticism of the mechanical and structuralists for having neglected the
psychological and sociological aspects of organisation. Elton Mayo,
who spearheaded this humanistic challenge to the classicists, called his

106
approach a clinical one. He focused upon the social and psychological
aspect of an organisation in his Hawthorne experiments.

3.1.1 The Hawthorne Experiments/Studies

The Hawthorne experiments were conducted at the Western Electric

Company of the Bell Telephone Company at Hawthorne near Chicago.
Elton Mayo, with his two other colleagues of the Harvard Business
School, F. J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickinson, conducted
experiments which became the basis of all humanistic studies across the
world. The relevant experiments for the students of public
administration are as follows:

3.1.2 The Great Illumination Experiment

The famous earlier experiment ran from 1924 to 1927. The purpose of
this experiment was to study the effects of illumination that is, lighting
on workers’ efficiency and productivity. Two teams of workers took part
in these tests – the experimental group and the controlled group. Each
group consisted of six women.

The researchers had assumed that an increase in illumination would lead

to greater production per worker. As the amount of lighting was
increased for the experimental group, efficiency and productivity
improved. However, to the surprise of the researchers, the workers
turned out even more when the lighting was reduced. In fact, the
workers did not stop working until the room became so dark that vision
was actually impaired. The productivity of the controlled group working
under a constant illumination also increased.

The research scientists were baffled by the seemingly anomalous results

of this experiment. From a scientific management perspective, this was
puzzling indeed. Eventually, the researchers concluded that to some
extent, the workers were responding actually to the experiment itself
rather than to the levels of illumination. This phenomenon gave rise to
what is called the Hawthorne effect - the theory that workers perform
more efficiently because special attention is being devoted to them.

3.1.3 Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment

In 1927, the Harvard Industrial Research team directed by Elton Mayo

took over the Hawthorne experiments, which had produced unexpected
results in employee performance. Mayo and his colleagues undertook
the Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment at the plant. Its objective
was to determine the effect of changing work conditions on the
efficiency and output of the workers as a group. The researchers also

107
wanted to examine the role of fatigue and monotony on group
productivity. In this experiment, the researchers segregated a group of`
six women who were assembling telephone relays and placed them in a
test room. For two years the researchers studied the response of the
women to various changes in their working conditions. As many as 10
changes such as shorter hours, varied rest pauses, refreshments and a
number of incentives where the team spent a great deal of time with the
work group discussing the changes before they were put into effect.

Output increased each time a change was made. Yet, when the women
reverted to their original working conditions with a 48-hour week, no
refreshments, no rest pauses, and no other incentives, output rose again–
indeed to the highest ever recorded at Hawthorne.

Another significant result was a decline in absenteeism of 80 percent.

Either under pleasant or unpleasant working conditions the response of
the women in terms of productions moved in only one direction – up.

This fact startled Mayo’s research team. One conclusion drawn from this
experiment was that production did not vary in direct relation to working
conditions. The conclusion eventually drawn from this important
experiment was that attention and recognition in and of itself tends to
generate a positive response. According to this study, attention centered
on employees raised morale and hence also production, irrespective of
what particular form that attention took. In other words, people
responded more favourably to attention than they did to physical factors
or to other material inducements.

In this experiment, the women had gained enormously in work

satisfaction by the feeling that they were part of the team by the
communication between the researchers and workers. Everyone in the
group felt more valued and responsible for her performance and that of
the group as a whole. This sense of cohesiveness and self-esteem was
more important to performance than any number of improvements in the
working environment.

Another important conclusion of this investigation was that worker–

management conflict was the result of the basic emotional attitudes of
the workers rather than the objective difficulties in the work situation
such as insufficient task specialisation or inadequate wages. According
to Mayo, workers were ruled by the logic of sentiment, whereas
managers were activated by the logic of cost and efficiency. Thus,
without understanding and compromise, conflict was inevitable.

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3.1.4 Bank Writing Observation Room Experiment

In 1931, the Harvard researchers began their most important experiment

in the famous bank writing room at the plant. The purpose of this
experiment was to determine the effect of a piece–rate pay system on
group productivity. For the purpose of this experiment, the researchers
and the management put a small group of men engaged in making parts
of telephone switches on a piece–rate system and observed their
activities. Under this system, the management logically expected the
workers to earn higher incomes by turning out more output. However,
most illogically, the men did not produce as many pieces of work as
they could, even though they were being paid in accordance with their
output. They had developed a work culture of their own. They had
become a cohesive and compact group with their own codes, rules and
norms. Among these rules were prohibitions against doing too much or
too little work. They informally established a standard level for daily
output and decided not to exceed that fair range of production. Contrary
to the researchers and management’s expectations of a great jump in
productivity, the output of the men remained the same as before.

In this experiment, the male workers’ reaction to the wage incentive

plan of the management was not at all like that of rational economic
men. Instead, they rationalised that plan as an attempt by the
management to eventually cut some jobs or to reduce wage rates.

Though the company assured the workers that such things would not
happen, employees remained unconvinced. Taylor’s scientific
management could not explain the irrational behaviour of the
employees. In this experiment, the employees work behaviour was very
much influenced by group norms, group pressure and acceptance, and
the concomitant security. One conclusion from his experiment is that
people do not work simply to make money. It also made it clear that
economic incentives and material rewards would never be as powerful
as social norms and social controls in increasing productivity.

3.1.5 Major Findings of the Hawthorne Studies

The following are the major findings and generalisation of the

Hawthorne studies:

i. The output or the amount of work of a worker is not determined

by his physical capacity but by his social capacity.
ii. Non-economic rewards and sanctions significantly affect the
worker’s behaviour.
iii. A worker often does not act or react to management as an
individual but as a member of groups.

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iv. Communication, participation, and leadership play a central role
in worker’s behaviour.

Taken as a whole, the relations between workers and their supervisors

and among the workers have significant influences on the behaviour of
the workers. The significance of the Hawthorne investigation focused on
discovering the informal organisation, which it now felt, exists in all
organisations. It confirmed Mayo’s earlier view that what he calls the
‘rabble hypothesis’ about human behaviour (that is, each individual
pursues his own rational self-interest) was false. Mayo emphasised that
management must develop a new concept of authority and foster a new
social order based on the individual’s cooperative attitude.

3.2 Interview with Workers

Following the seemingly anomalous results of the Hawthorne

experiments the Harvard team conducted extensive interview with large
numbers of workers to inquire into conditions in the plant. The
researchers were interested in employees’ attitudes about their jobs.
They found themselves hearing about workers’ dreams, their home lives,
and other topics, which at first seemed extraneous. Through these
interviews, the researchers understood that people create an impressive
variety of interest, backgrounds, and concerns to work situations with
them, the interview also programme revealed that the workers derive
meaning and motivation from the social situations in work groups.

They can have marked effects on the attitudes and behaviours of

organisation members. These interviews brought to light the existence
and functioning of the informal organisation with the formal
organisation. Mayo’s generalisation is that work satisfaction depends to
a large extent on the informal social pattern of the work.

The Hawthorne experiments discovered the psychological variables that

affect workers and revealed the impact of the informal organisation on
behaviour of employees in organisations. These studies also revealed the
inadequacy of Taylor’s scientific management and disproved his
philosophy of self–interest.

3.3 The Basic Principles of Human Relations Theory

The human relations movement was inspired in large part by the

Hawthorne studies with which Mayo’s name is forever linked. The
confluence of Mayo’s philosophy and the findings of various studies
formed the human relations movement. This movement advocated more
humanism, dignity and democracy in the work place. The basic
principles of human relations theory may be discussed as follows:

110
i. Workers are essentially social beings. They must first be
understood as people if they are to be understood as organisation
members. Their attitudes and effectiveness are conditioned by
social demands from both inside and outside the work plant.
ii. Work is a group activity. The work groups enforce a standard
level of productivity upon all members through its own codes and
norm. Mayo said that human collaboration in work has always
depended upon the evolution of a non-logical social code, which
regulates between persons and their attitudes to one another. The
small informal groups are found to be exceedingly significant in
the functioning of organisations. They affect organisation
members’ perceptions and serves as medium of communications.
Small informal group propagate norms – expected behaviours –
about such matters as how groups deal with one another and with
superiors, which types of formally prescribed actions will be
resisted by employees, and how much will actually be performed.
iii. Social rewards and sanctions are the strongest motivators on the
job. The workers in the Hawthorne plant responded to the
respect, recognition, affection, sense of belonging and security
and the appeals to group loyalty provided by their fellow
workers. These social and psychological factors were found to be
more powerful as motivators than the management system of
economic incentive and material rewards. Thus, non–economic
factors played an important role in determining workers’ morale
and motivation. They are more important than the physical
conditions under which the workers operate. The behaviours of
workers cannot be separated from their feelings and sentiments.

The general hypothesis, which main emphasis is on human relations

theory, is that, motivation to work, productivity, and quality of work are
all related to the nature of the social relations among the workers and
between the workers and their boss.

iv. Mayo and his colleagues found that formal structure by no means
described the totality of an actual, functioning organisation. The
formal organisation is always supplemented by an informal
organisation, a pattern of social relations that crops up outside of
– and sometimes in conflict with - those prescribed by
organisation charts or management. In fact, Mayo’s most
important discovery was the existence of informal organisation
within each formal organisation. Mayo explained that
management could only succeed in leading an organisation’s
employees if the workers, in their informal groups, accepted that
leadership without reservation. Organisations are therefore, social
as well as technical entities.

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v. The human relations theory emphasised the participative style of
management or supervision and democratic system of
administration. The Hawthorne experiments made it clear that
effectiveness and productivity of the workers will increase if
there is effective communication between the management and
the workers, and if the management is willing to allow the
workers participate in decision making. This type of management
requires every change in the work schedule and should be
preceded by manager’s close consultation with the informal work
groups and their informal leaders.

The experiments also revealed that workers will do better if allowed to

manage their own affairs without being told what to do. While the
participative type of supervision wins the worker’s acceptance of
organisational objectives, the democratic system of administration
would alienate the workers. The participative type of supervision
coupled with democratic system of administration would lead to the
highest level of workers’ effectiveness and the resultant productivity.

The human relations approach is built on socio-psychological findings,

theories and applications, which call attention to the fact that work
environment cannot function in terms of technical efficiency, profit and
wages. Workers are very much influenced by friendships with
colleagues, group pressures and standards, and the social environment.
Thus, the essence of human relations approach was a focus on the
organisation as a social system.

3.4 Frederick W. Taylor Vs Elton Mayo

Elton Mayo’s human relations theory is frequently presented as

somewhat opposite to that of Taylor’s scientific management. There are
certainly some basic differences between the two approaches. The
differences include the following:

i. In Taylor’s philosophy, productivity depends upon physical

factors and monetary incentives, whereas in Mayo’s theory, the
informal work group norms could affect productivity in a positive
way.
ii. Taylor looked at workers as self-centered rational economic men.
In contrast, Mayo looked at them as social beings and members
of small informal work groups.
iii. They also differed as regards the sources of conflict between
management and workers. Taylor traced the causes of such
conflict to the objective difficulties in the work situation while
Mayo thought that such conflict was the result of the basic
emotional attitudes of the workers.

112
From the preceding discussion, one should not conclude that Mayo was
against Taylor’s scientific management theory. Mayo was really not
against Taylorism. What he did was that he debunked Taylor’s rigid
application of scientific management.

In a sense, however, Mayo’s human relations theory and Taylor’s

scientific management are allied. Both believed that friendly cooperation
between workers and management would eliminate nearly all causes of
conflict, dispute and disagreement between them. However, they
suggested different methods to achieve cooperation and harmony.

Taylor felt that high wages would generally suffice to elicit employee’s
cooperation and compliance. Mayo on the contrary, suggests such
devices as participative style of supervision from the behavioural side of
administration. He always insisted that the understanding of human
factors such as workers morale was important to his system. In these
aspects, Taylor’s philosophy is related to that of Mayo’s human
relations. Both were motivated to improve the productivity of the
American industry in the early twentieth century.

3.5 The Human Relations Theory Vs the Classical Theory

The human relations theory is called the neo-classical theory because

just as the classical theory, it also accepts efficiency, economy, and
productivity as the legitimate values of organisation. However, to
achieve these values, the human relations approach relies on techniques
that are quite different from those of the classical approach. The human
relation theorists seek to maximise the values of efficiency, economy,
and productivity by eliminating the dysfunctions caused by over
specialisation, alienating hierarchical arrangements and general
dehumanisation of the classical approach.

Thus, the classical and human relations theories are alike in their
objectives but they differ in the methods and techniques adopted to
accomplish those objectives. The human relations theory also differs
from the classical theory in the following respects:

i. The classical theory emphasises the formal organisation structure

consisting of jobs and job descriptions as spelt out in organisation
charts and manuals. In contrast, the human relations theory is
concerned with the informal organisation, that is, the life or
individual workers and workgroup within the organisation.
ii. The, classical theory takes the atomistic view of man and views
workers as various cogs in a machine. On the contrary, the human
relations theory considers workers essentially as social beings

113
 who have the tendency to form the informal groups in the work
situation.
iii. In determining workers’ motivation, economic rewards and
physical conditions of work are regarded by the classical theorists
as important factors. Contrastingly, the social–psychological,
factors and sanctions are considered by the human relationists as
important motivators to work.
iv. The classical theory emphasises the authoritarian style of
supervision, while the human relations theory lays emphasis on
democratic and participative style of supervision. The preceding
discussion clearly shows that the classical and human relations
approaches have taken two different views of organisations. If the
classical theory viewed organisations as formal structures, the
human relations approach emphasised informal relations within
organisations. Neither of the two approaches is wholly right,
although each is partially right. In reality, an organisation is both
a formal structure and informal relations. These aspects of an
organisation are not contradictory but allied to each other. It is
good to recognise that informal organisations exist in all formal
organisations and are not necessarily harmful, but may facilitate
teamwork and collaboration. Therefore, it would be in the interest
of management to develop harmony between the informal social
systems and the formal organisation by dealing effectively with
the dynamics of informal groups and sentiments of the workers.

3.6 Criticisms of Human Relations Theory

Although human relations theory is an improvement over the classical

theory, it is also not free from errors and defects. Mayo’s human
relations theory has been subjected to certain criticisms. These are
highlighted below.

i. The human relations theorists were accused of being preoccupied

with increase in material wealth through greater productivity as
the classical theorists. Mayo and his colleagues naively assumed
that happy employees would be productive workers.
ii. Mayo’s Hawthorne studies, from which the human relations
theory developed, have been attacked on the procedures adopted,
the analysis of the findings and the conclusions drawn. For
instance, Mayo’s assumption that there is a natural community
between workers and management has yet to be proved.

In fact, the conflicts between the employers and employees are real,
based on real class differences. One of the frequent attacks leveled
against Mayo’s philosophy is that he failed to appreciate the value of
competition and conflict in assuring the freedom of workers. It is said of

114
Mayo that he had a tendency to draw conclusions than the data
supported. In addition, it is said that Mayo had failed to demonstrate any
commonality of interest between workers and management.

iii. Like the scientific management, the human relations theory is

also one sided. If Taylor and his colleagues focused on
organisations without people, Mayo and his team of researchers
concentrated on people without organisations. The human
relations theorists looked at organisation members, their
motivation, satisfaction, and so on but neglected (or rather
ignored) the roles of formal structure, technology, and conflict in
influencing the behaviour of workers. Thus, Mayo’s theory lacks
capacity to explain the multifaceted organisational behaviour and
relationships.
iv. The human relationists have overdrawn the sweeping contrast
between the formal and informal organisations and failed to
synthesise these two aspects of organisation in a harmonious
way. This is an important defect of Mayo’s theory of human
relations.
v. The Hawthorne experiments of 1927 to 1932, conducted by
Mayo and his colleagues, covered the behaviour of small groups
only and did not deal with the entire organisation. The
observations made by them about the behaviour of the small
experimental groups in the Hawthorne plant may not be valid
when applied to the entire organisation, and its behaviour may be
at variance with the behaviours of the small informal groups
within it. They lacked a theory that could explain the set of
observations they had made about workers’ motivation.
vi. The Mayo’s group thought that the benevolence of executives
towards employees coupled with improved communications with
the work groups would raise productivity and make the workers
happy. The critics found this emphasis superficial and irrelevant
to the needs of the workers. The researchers also thought that
labour unions were driving management and workers apart,
increasing conflicts, and preventing effective communication.
However, the critics pointed out that union, in fact, protected the
employees against executive power.

3.7 Significance of Human Relations Theory

The Hawthorne studies and Elton Mayo’s philosophy have tremendous

impact on both management and academics.

i. In the first place, despite their defects and limitations, the

Hawthorne experiments were significant in stimulating an interest
in the human factors. In the words of Stephen P. Robbins, from a

115
 historical perspective, the Hawthorne studies began a new
direction – recognition that human beings are a complex and
influential input into organisational performance. The Hawthorne
conclusions led to a new emphasis on human beings as key
contributors to the organisational efficiency, productivity, and
goal attainment.

According to Carol Kennedy, Mayo’s contribution to management

thinking was seminal. It revealed the importance, in hard bottom–line
terms, of human emotions, reactions, and respect for the business of
managing others. The Hawthorne studies constituted the first systematic
research to expose the human factor in work situations and their impact
led to a fuller realisation and understanding of human beings as workers
in organisations.

ii. Central to the understanding of the human factor was the

discovery of the informal group as an outlet for the aspirations of
the worker. The informal groups could be encouraged to greater
productivity by being led to do it themselves through interest and
respect on the part of their managers. These groups are found to
be exceedingly significant in the functioning of organisations.

In the words of F. A. Nigro and L. G. Nigro, the Hawthorne studies…

established the informal group as a major explanation of behaviour in
organisation and extended the conceptual horizons of organisation
theory to include a huge range of social psychological variables. The
human relations raised the status of informal work group equal to that of
formal organisation as an administrative and managerial concern.
Obviously, human relations promoted a particular vision of human
nature in organisational settings; it urged cooperation over competition
and interdependence over individualism. In fact, the Hawthorne studies
allowed Mayo and the others to test social theories that stressed values
as the bases of human social action.

iii. Mayo’s Hawthorne studies pioneered the whole concept of

proper management–worker communication. He emphasised the
importance of an adequate communicating system, particular
upwards from workers to management. It is a new idea because
of the respect for the individual it required between bosses and
workers. Mayo explained that management could only succeed in
leading an organisation’s employees if the workers in their
informal groups, accepted it as authority and leader without
reservation.

Mayo’s key concept of management-worker communication laid the

foundation for the work of later management thinkers and writers such

116
as Peter and Waterman and the 1950s school of sociologists headed by
Chris Arguris, Frederick Hertzberg and Abraham Maslow. These writers
and social psychologists like Douglas M.C. Gregor, and Rensis Likert
belong to the humanist school of administration.

The above-mentioned writers accepted wholly the human relations

component in administration but carried it still further, arguing for a
more humanitarian approach to the whole administrative problem. The
humanistic theory has given importance to the development of human
personalities in the organisation. The writers of this school covered such
areas of research as work–group behaviour, need satisfaction, job
satisfaction, motivation, leadership, and so on. They have used
psychological and sociological concepts and research in analysing
organisations. Among psychologists, the studies switched the future
emphasis from fatigue to group processes.

iv. Lastly, the human relations approach to organisation theory has made
some valuable contributions to administrative thought as well. It literally
created the humanist school of administrative thought, finally
convincing the field that social leadership skills for managers were at
least as important as technical knowledge. The new administrator
needed to strive toward social consolidation with workers.

According to Nesta Gallas and Laurence J. O. Toore, Jr., in their human

relations approach, attention to the social psychology of bureaucratic
life, its discovery of the informal organisation, its development of a
more complex and realistic model for human nature and its innovative
approach to organisational design, this school of theorists improved
markedly on the ideas of its predecessor.

Although, the human relations heyday (1930s to 1950s) was over, the
research and theory building continue today on many of the issues first
raised in the Hawthorne studies in the late twenties and the early thirties.
The human relations approach has great impact initially on business
administration, and later on public administration. Indeed, it is regarded
as a major development in the American administrative through the
period 1900–1939. This approach marked a major turning point in the
history of administrative theory and practice.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The human relations theory of organisation rejects formal

institutionalisation and considers the informal day–to–day functioning
of the structure as more revealing than the mechanistic study of structure
and principles of organisation. However, it must be stated that these two
approaches are not mutually exclusive but rather supplement each other.

117
There cannot be informal organisation without a formal one, from where
the former can operate. Informal organisation is a self–evident fact and a
functional necessity, which no formal structure can completely choose
to ignore.

The formal organisation theory gives only a partial and incomplete

picture of organisational dynamics. The complete picture of an
organisation emerges only when the formal theory is supplemented with
the informal theory. Undue emphasis on one will lead to distorted view
of organisational reality and undermining of the advantages of both.

5.0 SUMMARY

The unit has thrown light on the human relations theory of organisation.
The Hawthorne experiments is considered along with the basic
principles of human relations theory, interview with workers, Taylor’s
scientific management and Mayo’s human relations theory were
discussed. The human relations theory and the classical theory were also
evaluated. The criticisms and the significance of human relations theory
of organisation were highlighted and discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

State and explain the basic principles of human relations theory.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (4th

ed.). New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Private Limited.

Eneanya, A. N. (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,

Techniques and
Application. Lagos: Concept Publication.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:

Ziks-Chuks Publishers.

Hughes, O. E. (1998). Public Administration and Administration: An

Introduction. London:
Macmillan Press Ltd.

Goodnow, F. J. (1914). “Politics and Administration”. In: Gross, B. A.

(Ed.). The Managing of
Organisations. New York: Macmillian.

118
Maduabum, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in
Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.

Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in

Nigeria. Lagos: ASCON
Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.

Ekwealor, E. F. (2007). Fundamental of Public Administration. Onitsha:

Abbot Books Limited.

Ezeani, E. O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration (Revised

Edition). Enugu: Snaap
Press Limited.

NOUN (2012). MPA 740 Theories and Practice of Public

Administration. NOUN, Lagos.

NOUN (2012). PSM 803 Ecology of Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia

Publications PVT.

Sapru, R. K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management (2nd

ed.). New Delhi: Prentice-
Hall of India Private Limited.

Singh, A. (2005). Public Administration: Roots and Wings. New Delhi:

Galgotia Publishing Company.

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UNIT 3 METHODS OF INQUIRY IN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Method of Inquiry in Public Administration
3.2 Descriptive Method of Inquiry in Public Administration
3.3 Experimental Method of Inquiry in Public Administration
3.4 Survey Method of Inquiry in Public Administration
3.5 Case Study Method of Inquiry in Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor–Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Public administration has evolved and developed over time, this has
been possible because of relentless investigations into issues bothering
on the improvement of the discipline. Major methods of inquiry into the
discipline that will be discussed here are historical method, descriptive
method, experimental method, survey method and case study method.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain historical method

• examine descriptive method
• describe experimental method
• discuss survey method
• analyse case study method.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Historical Method of Inquiry in Public Administration

Historical sources may be classified into two major categories, namely,

documents and relics. Documents are usually written whereas relics are
generally archaeological or geological remains such as tools and
utensils. Relics are not written. For instance, a letter written by President
Goodluck Jonathan would be a document from the standpoint of the

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information it contains but would be a relic from the standpoint of
spelling errors or other aspects which are not part of what Jonathan
intended to transmit. Among the various documentary sources are:

1. Official records, minutes of meetings, committee reports and

legal documents
2. Institutional records, attendance rolls, university bulletins
3. Memoirs, biographies, diaries, personal letters, books on the
philosophy of a known scholar, and so on.

Historical sources can further be classified into primary and secondary

sources:

• Primary sources are data provided by actual witness to the

incident in question.
• Secondary sources of data come from a middleman who acts
between the original witness and the present consumer.

Secondary data are subject to an inherent danger of inaccuracy.

Whenever evidence is transmitted from one individual to another, it
tends to become distorted. Occasionally secondary sources have been so
carelessly compiled that they are in a category of unverified hearsay or
rumor. For this reason, reliable historians rely as much as possible on
primary sources, using secondary sources only as hypotheses to bridge
the gaps between the various pieces of primary data, and at times the
historian may have to rely on secondary sources. He must bear in mind
the limitations of such data. In the event that numerous gaps in the
primary source cause his over–reliance on secondary source, he should
refrain from attempting the study at all.

3.2 Descriptive Method

Descriptive method is concerned with the collection of data for the

purpose of describing and interpreting existing conditions, prevailing
practices, beliefs, attitudes and ongoing process. Descriptive inquiry is
that investigation which specifies the nature of given phenomena.

The specification can be simple or it can be complicated. The

importance of descriptive inquiry in public administration as well as
other fields of educational endeavor clearly implies complexity of
phenomena. The need for systematic ways of telling what a situation is
means that the situation is no longer simple. It can no longer be
understood directly and without synthesis.

Descriptive inquiry gives a picture of a situation or a population. Any

consideration of phenomena generally begins with a full understanding

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of the phenomena. Accurate descriptions are imperative for making a
wide range of policy decisions. For example the Nigerian department of
labour makes detailed surveys of unemployment; these attempt to
describe unemployment in the Nigerian economy for the purpose of
knowing what the situation is.

Such surveys provide the basis for eliciting possible policies considered
and those ultimately accepted as a result of the inquiry, represent value
decisions. While the research findings may have been useful, it cannot
be concluded that the policies were determined scientifically.
Descriptive inquiry is basic for all types of research in assessing the
situation as a prerequisite to inferences and generalisations. While
descriptive inquiry is a prerequisite for finding answers to questions, it is
not in itself sufficiently comprehensive to provide answers.

Descriptive inquiry cannot establish cause and effect relationships. From

description the investigator cannot deduce conclusively the cause of the
phenomena or predict what the future phenomena will be. Descriptive
inquiry using the same design done at specified periods of time can,
indeed, show trends in description from which hypotheses can be
gleaned and later tested under controlled experimental conditions.

3.3 Experimental Method

The steps of experimental method are essentially those of the scientific

method. They may be outlined as follows:

1. Selecting and defining the problem: The problems amenable to

experimentation generally should be converted into a hypothesis.
This hypothesis can be verified or refuted by the experimental
data. The variables to be investigated should be defined in
operational terms.
2. Reviewing the related literature: This shows how the present
research fits into the scheme of things. It surveys the research
previously done on the problem and evaluates what this research
has and has not accomplished in solving the problem currently
under study. Thus in this review, the research should point out
very carefully the similarities and, more importantly, the
differences between that research and his current study. In order
to do this effectively, the researcher must do more than consider
the findings as they are reported.

He must examine the findings critically in light of the research

methodology, the specific procedure employed, the control, the
sampling and the measuring instruments used.

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3. Drawing up the experimental design: This section should place
primary emphasis on the question of control, randomisation, and
replication and should include a clarification of such basic
aspects of the design as the place and duration of the experiment.
It is generally advisable to conduct a pilot study because of the
complexity of an experiment in order to ensure the adequacy of
the design.
4. Defining the population: It is important to define the population
precisely so that there can be no question about the population to
which the conclusions are to apply.
5. Conducting the study: It is important here to insist on close
adherence to plans, especially as they relate to the factors of
control, randomisation, and replication. The duration of the
experiment should be such that the variable under investigation is
given adequate time to promote changes that can be evaluated
and to insulate the influence of such extraneous factors as
novelty.
6. Assessing the outcomes: Careful consideration must be given to
the selection of the criterion on the basis of which the results are
to be assessed, for the efficiency of the experiment depends
largely on the fairness of the criterion used.
7. Analysing and interpreting the results: The researcher is
concerned with the operation of the factors under investigation.
He must be especially sensitive to the possibility that the results
of his/her study arose through the operation of uncontrolled
extraneous factors. The researcher must further insulate at a given
probability level the possibility that the experimental findings are
simply the results of chance. In no other area of research is the
need for competence in statistical procedures so clearly indicated
as in the analysis of experimental data as the basis for their valid
interpretation.
8. Drawing up conclusions: the conclusions of the study must be
based on the findings of the study. Care must be taken not to
over–generalise the results obtained. The results also pertain only
to the conditions under which they were derived, and, since
control may have distorted the natural situation, care must be
taken to restrict the conclusions to the conditions actually present
in the experiment.
9. Reporting the result: The study must be reported in sufficient
detail so that the reader can make an intelligent judgment as to its
validity (Fisher, 1957).

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3.4 Survey Method

The survey method is interested in the accurate assessment of the

characteristics of whole populations of people. Only rarely, however, do
survey researchers study whole population; they normally study samples
drawn from populations. From these samples, the researcher infers the
characteristics of the defined population or universe. The study of
sample from which inferences about population can be drawn is needed
because of the difficulties of attempting to study whole populations.
Random samples often furnish the same information as a census at much
less cost, with greater efficiency sometimes, greater accuracy.

Sample surveys attempt to determine the incidence, distribution, and

interrelations among sociological and psychological variables.

Survey research focuses on people, the vital facts of people, and their
beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and behaviour.

Surveys are particularly versatile and practical, especially for the

administrator, in that they indentify present conditions and point to
present needs. Surveys do not make the decisions for the administrator,
but they can provide him with information on which to base sound
decisions.

Surveys can be conveniently classified by the following methods of

obtaining information: personal interview, mail questionnaire, panel,
telephone and controlled observation. Of these, the personal interview
far overshadows the others as the most powerful and useful tool of
social scientific survey research (Osuala, 2005).

3.5 Case Study Method

Case study has a long history in social science research and has been
used extensively in public administration more especially in the area of
motivation. For example both Freud and Piagnet typically used case
studies to develop their theories. Criticism of their techniques damaged
the case study approach, but the increased acceptance of qualitative
research and in particular, participant observation has, as corollary,
revived the acceptability of the case study.

The case study can either be quantitative or qualitative, or even a

combination of both due to the constraints of a sample of one or a single
unit being studied. With the restrictions that brings for statistical
inference, most case studies lie within the realm of qualitative
methodology. Case study is used to gain in–depth understanding replete
with meaning for the subject, focusing on process rather than outcome,

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on discovery rather than confirmation. Case study must involve the
collection of very extensive data to produce an understanding of the
entity being studied. Shallow studies will not make any contribution to
administrative knowledge (Osuala, 2005).

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has outlined and discussed the various methods of inquires
used in public administration. The discussions show that the success in
the administrative work depends to a large extent on the efficient
method of gathering and applying the information at various levels.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit considered the following approaches for discussion; historical

method, descriptive method, experimental method, survey method, case
study method, the institutional approach, and comparative approach. It
discussed their theoretical assumptions, usefulness and weaknesses as a
mode of inquiry in public administration.

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the methods of inquiry in public administration?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian and

Comparative Perspective. New
York: Longman Ltd.

Fisher, R. A. (1957). The Designs of Experiments. London: Oliver and

Boyd.

Jones, T. (1971). Conducting Political Research. New York: Harper and

Row Publishers.

NOUN (2012). INR123 Introduction to Public Administration. NOUN,

Lagos.

Onah, R. C. (2005). Public Administration. Nsukka: Great AP Express

Publishers Ltd.

Osuala, E. C. (2005). Introduction to Research Methodology. The

Millennium Edition, Enugu:
Cheston Agency Ltd.

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UNIT 4 NIGERIAN CIVIL SERVICE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Functions
3.2 Principles of Civil Service
3.3 Control of the Civil Service
3.4 The Colonial/First Republic Civil Service
3.5 The New Civil Service in Nigeria
3.6 Civil Service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988
3.7 Civil Service Reforms under Obasanjo 1999 to 2007
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor–Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An understanding of the nature of civil service in a society is very vital

for the study of the administrative practices of such place. Civil service
is the hub through which public administrative work centers on.
Important areas considered for discussion here are the definition and
functions, principles, control of civil service, the new civil service in
Nigeria and civil service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define and list the functions of civil service

• mention various principles of civil service
• describe the control of civil service
• examine the colonial/first republic civil service in Nigeria
• discuss new civil service in Nigeria
• examine civil service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988
• examine civil service reform under Obasanjo 1999–2007.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Functions

Civil service is the body that normally functions with the executive arm
of government comprising of men and women who constitute the
permanent staff of the departments of government. They are
professional administrators. Sometimes they are generally referred to as
public service.

Functions of the Civil Service

i. Conversion of policies that have been formulated by the cabinet

into action
ii. Enforcement of laws enacted by the legislature
iii. Provision of expert advice on either positive or negative
implications of policies intended to be formulated by government
iv. Planning, organisation and supervision
v. Advice on measures of improving the quality of life of citizens
and making government more efficient
vi. Ensuring continuity of government in spite of changes.

SELF–ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Define and state the functions of the Civil Service.

3.2 Principles of Civil Service

Civil service has some guiding principles in discharging its duties, these
principles include:

i. Political neutrality: The first principle guiding the performance of

the public service is political neutrality. By this we mean that a
public officer does not become involved in partisan politics. He
serves the government of the day with dedication. If that
government is replaced by another one, he serves the new
government with the same degree of loyalty and dedication. He
does not allow his personal views to interfere with his
performance of his functions.
ii. Impartiality: Similar to political neutrality, the civil servant
serves all members of the public to the best of his ability. He does
not favour anyone. He does not belong to any political party or
faction, at least, not openly.
iii. Anonymity: In an effort to protect the neutrality and impartiality
of civil servants, they are made to operate behind the glare of
publicity. They advise their ministers and political executives but

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 they do not make open or partisan speeches. The ministers and
politicians make such public statements and defend programmes.
Anonymity extends to the actual operations of the service.
Decisions taken are regarded as the decision of all. Everybody is
responsible for it. This is the principle of collective responsibility
which also ensures the neutrality of any particular individual.
iv. Permanence: Governments come and go but the civil service
remains. Public officers are not changed each time there is a
change in government. As long as they do their work properly
and do not commit any crime, their tenure of office is guaranteed.
v. Merit and achievement: Another principle of the civil service is
that recruitment into the service is based on merit. This means
that certain standards and educational qualifications are set, and
only those who satisfy them are considered for employment. This
is different from some traditional systems where sons succeed
their fathers automatically. In addition, under civil service rules,
promotions are based on merit and achievement and not on
patronage or favour by a godfather (Leo and Oyewole, 1988).

SELF–ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Mention the principles of civil service.

3.3 Control of the Civil Service

Any organisation where people operate without laws controlling their

actions will be vulnerable to anarchy. To avoid this, an elaborate
network of rules and regulations govern the behaviour of civil servants.
These are divisible into internal and external controls:

The internal control the civil service includes:

• The general orders: These are the body of regulations which

outline the conditions of service and responsibilities of public
officers. Closely related to this is the Financial Instructions which
prescribes the procedures for the collection of spending of public
funds. It is important to note that civil servants are expected to
pass examinations on the general orders as part of their
knowledge and experience.
• Control by the ministry of establishments: This ministry deals
largely with all matters affecting the conditions of service of
public officers. Its regulations affect all other ministries, and thus
it can guarantee uniform standard in matters such as grading
incremental credits and so on.
• Control within the hierarchy: Each ministry is hierarchically
structured with the permanent secretary being the overall

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 supervisor of the ministry. He can discipline those under him in
many ways. For minor offences, the officer may be cautioned. In
more serious cases, a query may be issued and in the most serious
cases, a disciplinary committee may be set up, or the matter may
be sent to the Public Service Commission for investigation and
necessary punishment.

The external control of the civil service includes:

There are other mechanisms outside the civil service which exercise
some control on the service:

• Control by parliament: The legislature authorises funds for

various ministries and departments. Through this power of the
purse, it could review the performance of the officers to see
whether or not they have carried out government policies. If a
department has failed to perform satisfactorily, the budget for it
may be cut.
• Control by administrative courts: Tribunals or public complaints
commission. By whatever names they are called, these are
institutions set up to ensure that public officers are above board in
the performance of their duties. Citizens who feel that an officer
has not performed well can approach a tribunal or complaints
commission for redress. Such complaints are investigated and
recommendations made. As the public becomes more aware, the
kind of control exercise by tribunals and public complaints
commission will become more important.
• Control by the court: In case of gross abuse of office, an officer
will be handed over to the court for necessary disciplinary action.

SELF–ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Describe the ways through which civil servants can be controlled.

3.4 The Colonial/First Republic Civil Service in Nigeria

The civil service in Nigeria during the colonial era and the first republic
was organised along the lines of the British civil service with four main
classes – the administrative, the executive, clerical and manipulative
classes.

These four classes used to operate as if there were watertight

compartments. It was difficult for a civil servant to move from one class
to a higher one. The administrative class was the highest and most
prestigious and people used to call them the senior service.

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People in this class worked closely with the politicians in advisory
capacity.

The members of the administrative class were university graduates with

good degrees who in addition passed the entrance examinations and
interviews. The entry qualifications for the other levels were lower, so
are the salaries and benefits. These classes provide needed supporting
services to the Administrative class.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Examine the colonial/first republic civil service in Nigeria.

3.5 The New Civil Service in Nigeria

The new civil service in Nigeria marked a departure of the old rigid
system to a more flexible and result oriented system. For example,
following the Udoji Commission Report of 1974, the Federal
Government of Nigeria decided to abolish the four classes. In its place a
unified grading system was introduced. Instead of having classes, the
jobs in the public service was graded from level 1 to 17.

The highest positions were 17 while the lowest were 1. All public
officers and jobs were fitted into this unified system. The merit of this
new system is that a good officer who starts his/her career on level 1 can
move up to any level his ability can carry him. This was an
improvement over the old system under which it was impossible to
move from the Clerical to the Administrative level.

The new system enables everybody to be in the same unified structure

and merit and efficiency can carry one to the highest levels (Adebayo,
2004).

SELF–ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the new civil service in Nigeria.

3.6 Civil Service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988

In Nigeria, during the four years of the Second Republic, we seem to

have adopted an amalgam of the American and the British Systems.
Even though we operated a presidential system of government, we had
Permanent Secretaries whose positions were in fact recognised by the
constitution. Indeed, the constitution described them as Chief Executives
in the Ministries or Departments in addition to other departmental heads
in a ministry. The fusion led to some degree of uncertainty, as to what

130
the relative roles were between the Minister/Commissioner and his
Permanent Secretary and this in turn led to conflicts in the departments.

In some of the governments in the federation, there were sharp

disagreements between ministers/commissioners and their permanent
secretaries. The ministers/commissioners, on assuming office,
approached their task with the assumption that since Nigeria had
embraced the presidential system of government, there were the chief
executives of the departments in every respect. It is a sound and
reasonable assumption. The permanent secretaries, on the other hand
were trained to operate on laid down rules and regulations, and until
these were changed or modified, the permanent secretaries went by such
regulations. Thus, the existing civil service commission regulations
delegated to permanent secretaries certain powers of appointment,
promotion and discipline up to a certain level in the civil service.

The financial instructions and public administrative law made the

permanent secretary the accounting officer of his ministry and the
general orders gave the permanent secretary, as head of department,
responsible over a great number of personnel matters, for example
approval of vocation leave and matters relating to discipline, promotion
and development of staff in the department.

SELF–ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Examine the Nigerian civil service from 1980 to 1988

3.7 Civil Service Reforms under Obasanjo 1999 to 2007

Obasanjo’s reforms centered on the following aspects:

1. Anti–corruption, transparency and accountability: Corruption

remained an intractable problem that constrained development
efforts in Nigeria. On assumption of office, Chief Olusegun
Obasanjo, observed that the time–tested approach in conducting
government business had degenerated to such an extent that the
public service was abandoned either due to sheer ignorance or for
selfish reasons (Ekpenkhio, 2003).

The president emphasised that transparency in government procedures

was necessary to usher in a great and dynamic economy to ensure a just
and egalitarian society. The reform programme focuses on specific
measures to curb corruption, improve transparency, and accountability
in the conduct of government business.

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2. Monetisation of fringe benefits: As part of its efforts to reduce the
cost of governance and ensure efficiency in resource allocation,
the Federal government decided to monetise the fringe benefits of
public servants. The fringe benefits to be monetised where
residential accommodation, furniture allowance, utility
allowance, domestic servant allowance, motor vehicle loan,
medical allowance and entertainment allowance.
3. The Pension Reform Act 2004: The pension reform act came into
existence in 2004 the main objectives of the Act were to:

a) Ensure that every pensioner who worked in either the

public service of the federation, Federal Capital Territory
and the private sector receives his retirement benefits as
and when due
b) Assists improvident individuals by ensuring that they save
in order to cater for their livelihood during old age and
c) Establish a uniform set of rules/regulations and standards
to the administration and payments of retirement benefits
for the public service of the federation, Federal Capital
Territory and the private sector (Ezeani, 2005).

SELF–ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Examine the civil service reform under Obasanjo1999 – 2007.

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed civil service in Nigeria. We explained how civil

service is a veritable factor for the development of the country. The civil
service has witnessed various reforms from the Colonial/First Republic
to the reforms during Obasanjo’s civil rule, the essence has been to
reposition and equip the civil service for efficient service delivery.

5.0 SUMMARY

We have in this unit treated definition of public administration,

functions of civil service, principles of civil service, the control of civil
service, the colonial/first republic civil service in Nigeria, new civil
service in Nigeria, civil service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988 and civil
service reform under Obasanjo1999–2007.

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is civil service?

2. List the principles of civil service.
3. Describe the New Civil Service in Nigeria, 1980 to 1988.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adebayo, (2004). Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum
Books and John Wiley.

Dare, L. & Oyewole (1988). A/L Government Textbook for West Africa.
Ibadan: Onibonoje Press
& Book Industries (Nigeria Limited).

Ezeani, O. E. (2005). “Adnistrative Reforms in a Post–Colonial State:

An Appraisal of
Nigeria’s Experience under Obasanjo Regime (1999–2005)”. In:
University of Nigeria Journal of Political Economy, 1 (1).

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