'"')

nA^I-'.yi a{-

Evolutiom of Comaparative
Political Analysis
trntroductory. olthe greabest students ofcomparative govern-
One
me'rrt Lawrence Lolvell had predicted that tlier'*: was no possibiliiy cf'
siucly of prolitics ever becoming a scien<:e. He had snili: "l..Ioi until it has
acquired a vocabulary totally rninteliigible to the normal well-etirrcated
lay-rnan,'I)uring the course of ]ast levr decades a l argr: num L,er ol worrls
have been mined. This led S.E. Finer tc, rerliark..ihat, "the coinage of
neologism s has becor^rJ-il nroi;t {rhn h c." i Ti rr: st u,Jy ol govemrnent and
politics, particularly comparative study, hee gradually emerged as a
separate di scipline. Tl're word 'g<1.:ernm erit' has baen variously used. For
an undergraduate studenb it will suf'frce to understauri that the institu-
tion lool<ing alter law and orrier in a soc'ie l; is goverrunent. Finer says
that a government is '..; a standardised zrrrangement ior taking deci"
sions affecting the grcup and lor giving etTect ta tirern,..'Ihe governmen[
of units like the fanrily, the church, the tras-le union... rnay properiy be
cailed'privaLe'government. It is horvever ... 'public' goverrrrnen [, t]iai is
to say, the go\,errrment of thq telritorial stabe, that the terrn 'govern-
ment'.is commonly applied."? Th,e term qo_r3pg1g!iy9 .eo-le-rnfqr-r! qrid
politics, as is commoqbr understood, means the comparalive :;tudy of
go-femrnen-t aiid liolitlos,in f*ct the entire;;o!!!iqqi-syslern ofcnecountry
with anr:ther mrintry. It is said to_be gn e.ramination ofpq.st history and
present 6iitics. Altho;gh rron.rparaLive sludy of'goverrlmellt has l-een
held iiiG tie ancient Greek period. ihe abundant niaterial that i.q
availatr'le teday was not to irc found at tiiat tirne"
In the field of ormparative governmenl and politics we str,',dy "tire
pr:,Iitical experienrx. insl;itutjons. ):ehavi'rur. and prcncesses of the nra.lcr ,
'
s-vsterns of'mrrde rr-r gc','ernment.r'l lts r:",rrp,r,se is to anal,vse sirnilaritieit
a nti dissimiJ aritir:s oTtlie f,r,'?€ 1"r)nr{:nt and po}iiics oldiffereni cor.t* i.rit.,r;,

1. Finer, S.lI.: Oo'r,!x:r$ti,-'t (;':t:)t:r +ntziil, i974, p. 1.

9 Frncr, S F.. op. uii.- p. .'i.' t
Hiir:hr:er, !i (1.- e.nci l,svilr,-', (larci : Itor')1;,c.r\1tit1e (i'.,,,err,rne*t a,,,i li i i,rrr.. p 1 \
2 Evolution of Comparative Political Analysts
so that it may be possible tci predict for the future. The material for
comparative study that is available today has made the comparative
analysis central basis ofthe study ofPolitical Science.
The terms'Government and'Politics' are often used as s;rnonyms'
and sometimes not. The word politics is derived from the Greek word
'Polis'which means a city. In the ancient Greece, city was the basic unit
of human organisation. The'City', and the 'State'meant the same thing
a'city state'."twa words were derived from'Polis'' They are 'Politics'
-and.'Politiho.s'- The forrner meant a citizen, and the latter implied
x"appertaining to the city." The word'PoIitics'has aclually derived from
rhis?o[iiiaos'. The term politics has been defined as Jlre study of the
general principles onwhic'h-government can be carrietl on succ6ssfutly'"a
in ottrer words, the study oithe exercise of power may be regarded as the
study of politics. All the activities of man are not politics, but the entire
human ac/,ivity, in some form or the other, may be brought in the scope
of politicsi.$grne people,claim that they have'nointerestin politics'. The.v
use tl^e ter; bolifies' in a narrow sense,just as'character'is often used
in a very narrow sense. Actually, the scope of'politics'has become so vasb
that nobody can really claim to be free from politics. Just as 'government'
concerns everyone ofus, so does'politics'. That is the reason *hy th{
study ofgovernment and politics cannot be separated from each othe{
The scope of Comparative Government and Politics incliides p-i!iti-
t
gg!-expegeLlgg,rryti!g!-qgq,!"ha.y199144dy-orking,ofmajorgoverments'
ailie comparaBne sttidi proceeds on the assumption that the government
is of universal nature, and its scientific study is possible.Qhree main
objectives of the comparative study are ; First, to develop-a^Tddy of
knowledge atrout government and politics that can be verified' We
presume that scientific analysis is possible to verify this knowledge'
However, it is true that the study of man (which is the key-point of our
study) may not always be as rigitl and scientific as that of natural
sciences. Seco nd,toef.aivate political experience,institutions,behaviorlr
etc. in tr:rms of cause and effect, and desirability and undesirability.
LExact scientific conclusions are ttot possible, but we may be able to
'bxplain
what generally happens under given conditiondi The predictions
normally come tme, but tinimpeachable conclusions 6annot be arrived
at.Third., to be able to predict events, trends and consequences. This is
a very contronersial objective..It may not be possible to compare and
rneasure atl potitical institutioni. It has been suggested that, in view of
this difficulty, "political Science seems destined to be at best a science
ofexpl anation or diagnosis ra[her than one ofprediction-"5 Despi te these
difficuities, it is.possible to make prediciion in certain fields such as

4. kice, J.fI- : Comrytratiue Gouernrnenl, p- 7-

5- llitchner and l*vine : op. cit., p. 2
 Evolution of Comparative Political Analysis 3
easily predicted towards the later stage ofelecbion campaigning in India
r!
in March 1977 thai Congress Farty was going to suffer heavy losses,
although nobody predicteC that even Mrs. Irrdira Gandhi was going to
lose her seat. 1'hus, comparative study ma-v be defined as the study of
government and politics that attempts at, as accurate as possible,
prediction of man in relation to his government.
Why do we Study Comparative Politics ? There is always some
reason why we study a certain subject. Eyely dfq,ctpUreIas-its-utility.
We have seen above three main objectives of the study of comparative
government. An average student does not invesbigate, but merely
studies the conclusions of other studies. Why do we study comparative
government ? The Government is universal institution. No nation can
maintain itself,without government. Man tries to discover the best form
of government. A country that wants to rnake its government useful for
its people, must, constantly discover the utility of other forms of govern-
ment through <.:ornparative study.'
The parliamentary government originated in Great Britain. It has
been adopted by several countries, including India. But, no country can
blindly follow the British institutions and traditions. Evgly cogntry has
its own charaeteristics. The result is that many countries adopted the
Britisiiiid oFiailia-mentary dernocracy, but could not adopt two-party
system, Some big countries, like India and Ausiralia, could not adopt
unitary government. They decided to adopt parliamentary government
with fe dg:ral pol i ty. Si miTa rI yl many- counEes-Eave fi op tr?-i niltip-ein-
de-nie ofj udici ary and j udi ci al review from ttr e IJni ted States of America,
without adopting the presidential government. The srrialist countries
0ike the former U.S.S.R. and China) claim that they are'tiue' democra-
cies, while western countries condemn them as dictatorships. There are
ocases
where one party system was adopted with socialist or communist
government. There was one-party dictatorship in Hitler's Ger'many and
Mussolini's Italy, whereas communistleaders claim that their one party
i
systems indicate democratic classless character of their societies.
The comparative study of government and politics attempts to ,.(
discover the corect theory or practice out of these confusi ng situations- i
Another objecti ve of the study-ofg-omparative government is to enlleavouF''
scientific aqrqly-siq g[ the*s_u]ject. il6f,f E-an ci:rtaiir iristitii[ions achieve
the best results in different circumstances. The successful parliamen-
tarl'democracy of England and Canada has not been so successful in the
ea$tern countries. Why ? How canit become successful in these countries
also ? How can the newly independent crountries, like India, adopt
s<rialist syStem in a democratic'style, without comrnunist regimenta-
tion ? What is the tlest instrument ofexpressionof the aspirations of the
people ? Comparative study can be very useful in hnding answers to
these queslions.
 {.
Evolution ol Comparative political Analysis t
I
' several newly-independent co,ntries of Asia and Africa decided
to
9

i"
t4i democratic system, butit failed. Democracy has been fully
successfur ;
in rndia and sri Lanka. when we compare tle two situaulns, i
we can :
decide what faqtors are necessary for the successful working
of democ-
racy in Afro-Asian countries. rndia was divided into
two Do-rrrinions of
India and Pakistan.due to the advocacy of two_natlon theorf by ffr.
Jinnah and hisMuslim r-eague. Butithas nowbeenprovedi.riiaru
tt ut
several religions can co-exist in a democratic society, and that Mr.
Jinnah's theory rvas not correct. The sprit of pakistan in 1921 and
creation of Bangladesh arso proved thaf the two-nation theory .was
a
farce, because theMuslims ofEast pakistan (now Bangladesh)
cluld not
tolerate the suppression bywest pakistan. This proved that ttre
creation
of states of theocratic basis was a senseress decision. the
comfaraure
study can help r:s to arrive at such a conclusion. Thi, d*
scientific analysis is possible in political Science. ;;;;;;.;
_ The Development of Comparative Study of Governrnent and
Politics- The c''omparative study ofgoveriiment and po!itics is so ord that
it is neither possibre nor desirabre to give its detailed hi.tory. vut.o*"
of the more important deveiopments may t,n briefly aeatt
oittr t
In ancient times, Aristotre himserf had macle use of comparative "re.
technique to exarnine the iorms and methods of government.
Although
Aristotle's works refer mainly to Sparta, Carthaie r;h;;;vet the
""d
great Greek thinker had studied as many as 15g constitutions
to Le abre
to reach his conci,sions. It is arnazing that 15g constitutionu
available at that time for comparative study. a.i"t"tr"t rr*o*
*""u
,; of states and governments was based o" tfru
ar""i-
lT.oll
rnat he made. Later, Aristotle's views were transrnitted.
"o.npu.aUrre
study
tlyuclt by Folybius and cicer.. polvbius was of the opiniontothat
Roman
inixedgoverrunent@ erEksaA;a a"*o*-
the

'qa{.X9'"-lg-09jlrs^tuo!-t-@
2 in
Mc€hiav€tli, the n"""i"s"n"u, .g"t" adoptedAristotelian tech-
nique. His writings are accepted as basis of modern poriticur
,"a
comparative government. He drew his cpncrusions regarding ".iu"o
a secure
and }asting government, o-n_t_tre basis q[his observations
of rta]ian and
other Es4op-qa, gove.nrnenk"-rnipi"eauv Aiis;rre;;Jii""ttiJ"Ju,
famous Frenctr thirrker gpdi:lg1.uOu a comparative
$r"
study of European
' g-overnments during tlr" i.i*ten"*,
His trruo.y oito".uigrty iu
"ent,ry.
acoepted as reievant_to any_discussio., o., ih" subject. bnce againlin
eighteenth cenrrry M-o_nteiquieu adopted the comparatrveletnoathe
to
discuver the reai ractors ihat ma<ie for inriividuar i;i**y.
theory ofseparaticn ofpowers was derived on the u^sis
rii*-i**o.rp
orcornpa.atioe
studv. rt was iarer adcpred by the united states A*;;;
coun t ii es. "f
;id otliu"
 Evolution of Comparative political Analysis 5
The comparative study did not flo,rish *uring the nineteenth
cent,ry. The approach of most of the thinkers during
the late last
nineteenth and early twentieth century was less comp""r'U"",
..ra -o."
theoretical. -The theories.ofAnarchism,s_,ocialism and
philosophical' rather than practicat. :rte .auocates
Syndicati"* *"."
of these theories
propounded their ideologies without makirrg
the study of any
governments. Those lvho studied governments "*i"t.rg
emphasised ori consti[u-
tional provisions and structure o1 parriaments. They
did not deem it
necessary to make comparative studies.
The books written at the beginning of the twentieth
century dealt
with different constitutions one atter tn"e ottrer. prpminent
schclars like
r'owell and r.,ord Bryce also did notstudy govemments
with comparative i
method.6 Similarly the books o., E.."opJan Governments
Munros hardly made comparative studies.
b, O;;;;.Jii,..- iJ''no *,.r
.:.;:i
with the publication of Lord Bryce,s Modern DemocraciesLiLf " ,".1r,.,
Fi rst worl d war comparati ve stucry
was agai n i nitia ted. This book de; ;, - 4
with the theory of democracy and examin-ed the working
of democratic-
ins'itutirns in sevcrar countries. with the estauri.rr*."t'riNur;
in Germany, Fascist mle in Italy and Communist government;;*-
soviet union, it became essential to compare the traditional in the
riberal _,
democracy witir these systems based on one'party.
Herman Finer,s weil
known work 'Tlrc Theory and, practice of'Modzrn
published i. 1932. with this, emphasis was
Couernmcnt, was
shifted from structure and
povrers ofgovernment to <pmparative study
of present rore and theoreti-
ca} analysis for the future.
I'radition-al Approach of comparative
.,
the preceding section that practicaliy
study. we have seen in
alr the studies in the field of
g-o-v-ernments and politics were essentially
descriptive. They dealt with
different co.stitutions and cornpari"o..,n -., g".r"rally
avoided. W. *;
refer to this method of study .. t""ditio.r.I-approach.
scientific. we shall briefly examine the features
rt was not very
method
of the traditionar
and its inadequacies.
The traditional
approach was essentia llv a."iijtiue.
of^comparison was armost missing. occasiorlaily,
The element
a few similarities or
otherwise were pointed out. ThJ modern iert,rres
systems' press,re groups, prediction for future """n
..-prflJ*l
on the basis ofhistoricar
6. Their important works are : (a) lawell Gooernments
and. parties of Continental
studie,s of Fr-ance, C""-r""y, S*rriertanJ
,"::"f;!:f1f
.Ian:es Bryce :Tke Ameria_ a-._.:-
v'.qrry vw'l'
etc.), rorv and. (b)
18e6 a'u \.,./
7. ogg.F.a.:mea>
",,";;;';_;:::.:,,#ii{iiii.^itr;ithGreatBrirsin,Germany,
Fra nce, Italy, Switzerland and Ausiria_Hungary,
a. Munm :?he Gouernntents of Europ€ ( 1g2s) tr;tid
o-.eorless the samecountries
as Ogg did.
6 Evolution of Comparativa Political Analysis
analysis were practically Ie{t untouched. Thus, the study ofgovernrnent
}\'as essentially limited to structure and functions of varior.rs organs of
governments. The traditional writers ignored socio-economic faciors
which invariably affect the politics of a country.
The traditional method was basically nan-con\aratiue. "theconsii-
tutionsof different countries were studied mainly with reference to legal
provisions. These studies were limited to ond or more constitutions, and
attempt at analytical, comparative and critical studips.wap genelaliy
not made. i ,l " t:,--A ,-{) { 1. , ,.* , ,.' '
' The traditional approach was essentially paroChial.It appears that
the writers did not bother to study the poteni:ial systems of far off
countries either because of the difficulty of language or of means of
communication. Most of the works are lirnited to the study of Great
Britain, France, Switzerland and other western countries. Even in case
of these countries syste-1-n-q9-g qqd -q-i]g]1r[-qal appl939h wqs. gggerallv
avoided, and descrifiive method was adopted. The political institutions
-i$ore
-Annefi -weie
of Asia,' AfriCI d;a-LAEi n Ca tbtally d. One possibl e
explanation for this Iapse maybe that several o{ these counbries were not
sovereign- But, if the approaEh was different, enough maiiliidt for
bomparative study could have been easily found.
Another shortcoming of the earlier method was that it was static-
The studies were limited to existing organs of various governments.
Their developments, nature, role and likely changes were usually not
dealt with. The subjects like elections, voting behaviour and public
opinion were not thought fit for inclusion in the study of government.
Thus, the progressive elements of government and politics did not find
place in the traditional approach.
Lastly, traditional approach has been criticised for beingtheoretical
rather than practical. Therole ofpolitical institutions, actions ofvarious
social organisations hnd individuals affecting the political system did
not attract the attention ofwriters on the subject. The political interac-
tion and political behaviour was ignored. It is obvious that political
institutions are affected by socio-economic, cultural and scientific
prqlress. Thus, inter-disciplinary approach is essential for proper
understanding of the subject.
It is ctrear from this discussion that the traditional approach has
outlived its utility. In the scientifie and technological atmosphere of
post-Second World War period several new methods of study have been
adopted. They are more scientjfic, systematic, analytical and inter-
disciplinary in nature. Nevertheless, we cannot say that the traditionai
method has no ritili ty. It has provided us with basic facts. In the absence
facts analysis is impossible" Thus, the success of modern approach
' of
greatly depends on the availability of material, which has tre-en supplied
t:.;

rir .Evotut-tan of Cornparative Politica! Analysis 7

:l by the traditional method. To that extent, traditional approach is, and
() will ahvays remain, relevant.
We shall briefly explain some of the classiflrcations of government
based on traditional approach.
FORMAL CONCEI{IR.ATION OF POWER
Aristotle's Classification. The ancrent political thinkers did not
distinguish between the state and the government. Thus, when
they dealt with the classification ofstates, it actually was classification
of governments. An important reason why they used the term
'classificafron of states' 'xas [he fact that it is not easy tb classify
the states on the basis of elements other than government. The
modern writers, however, prefer to use the term 'classification of
governments'.
'- -
In-rrie* of the prevalence of different socio-political conditions in
different anc*ientTstates, different forms of government were found in
various countried.*&l!\qWh the classification of governments given by
Aristotle was the most scient'ific and acceptable at that time, many
other Greek thinkers also offered their classifications yrtiich were not
substantially dilTerent from each other. Fon example,(Herodotus had
divided the forms of governrnent as monarctly.r*afi*sl-Wra:cy= gp-d democ-
racy. He had iaid tnt[ *ru""ffi6Je iiiiuffiiiiu"t* become perverted aJ,c+
fourth type of govemment called tyranny is established. The great '-,, r.';.
thinker Plato, while talking about afr-ideal state, had discussed the
foilowing forms ofgovernment: Rule by a philosopherkingfrnideal rule),
-
aristocracy of men of wisdom" and oligarchy of the rich.
Aristotle, the father of Political Science, had studied as many as
about 158 constitutions, and offered a scientific and generally acceptable
classification of governments. The state, according to Aristotle, was a
moral institution, and its task rvas to establish a decent society. There
were two bases of Aristotle's classification.
.*ffi .F;rst : The number of mlers--@ose who exercised the sovereign
fio*". in q state. The classification-ilTfiii6"5ftis alone could not be
suffi cienbz(Therefore, t\"pg9rj4-hqgi s adopted for his classifi cation was
the pur/ose for whichifiEEil[-oi*ipo*er was exercised]rtne govern-
.ment seeks to promote 'common interest'it is "normal' government.
If,
on the other hand, the government seeks to satisfy the selfish interest
of ruling'class only it is 'perverted". Aristotle ciassifieil the states into
three types on the basis of first criterion ie." number of rulers. The
'normal' government by one ruler is monarchy, by a few nrlers is
'aristoc'ac,r', and h-v mnny people is 'polity'. Ifthe rulersturnselfish, the
government beccmes perverted. "Iyranny' is the perverteC form of one
tl rulels government, ila few are perverted, Aristotle calledit'Oligarchy',

i"

Lr
 I
Evolution of Comparativo politicat Analysis
and the perverted government by many, according to Arist0tle, was
'democracy'. This cI assifi cation of Aristotle can be explained with the
help ofthe follorving table :
The First Criterion pee Second Criterion
(Nurnber of the (The purpose for which
Ruier.s) the power is exereised)
Norrnal Gouernment Peruerted Couernment
Rule of one Monarchy ftranny
Rr:le of Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Rule of Many Poiity Demrcracy
Aristotle's cycle of change. An important feature of Aristotle's
classification is his argumentthat none ofihe fionns ofgovernment is of
permanent nahtre. Nei ther a good normal government can last long, nor
a bad perverted government is tolerated by people for a long tlrrre. ue
said that a cycle of political change is constantrygoing on. Minarchy is
rule ofone person, who governs in the common interest. After some time
he becomes cormpt and forgets about the good of the people. This creates
tyranny. People aie soon fed up with tyranny, and a fewnoble wise men
thmw a\4'ey the tyrant and assume power for-[he g.oi;trof-fhd ilmmon
rnan. This is aristocracy.--when these vrise men become perverted. (for
poweriE-Iiiiiri-d-to c6irupt the rulers sooner or later) aristocracy gives
qlqlg-ql_fgarchy. There is a poputrar uprising against perverted few, and
oli garchy i s repl aced by _p=rlrtg===_gSgg-.coyg*1q9ql Uy,r**r-. t{Ar"r,
polver corrupts the rnany, dnd the rulerJI66me selfiihi.nd peiverted,
d9ry9g1ac1
-!s eSlhblish-ed.-This '<iemocracy' also comes to an end. A
powerful iioble and sensible rurer puts an end [o democracy, or mob-ru]e,
and assumes all powers forhimseri. once again monarchyis estabrished.
\_,rruu aBarrr
Once cycle ts repeated. ,I:his cycle, uA;i
L,e same cycleisrepeateaffi"yae,
again the according to Aristotle,
is natural and unavoidabre. He considers'aristocracy' as the best
government, because in any given iociety only a few are capable ofgood
government.
Aristotie's classification, though acc,rate at that time, cannot be
f,Ily accepted today- The critics argue that Aristotle had emphasised the
nurnbers a,d ignored the quality. This criticism does not appear to be
valiil- we must remember thal basis of ihis classification was the small
city-state of those days. It is difficult to apply it to the vast
nation-states that are found today. Monarchy u" *Lti as Tyranny have
almost disappeared. Even if there are monarchies, as in Creat B.ituin
or Japan, ihe n-roi rar'chs have become pow.eriess. i t i s better to ret-'er
' co*ntries as limited monarchy', these
'"o.r"tit,rtio.ral rnonarchy', or.cr-owned
democrac/. Today the term dernocracy is used not f*'u pu.u.rtua
 Evolution af Comparative Potitical Anatysis g
government, but for a g:overrrnent that functions for common gcnd. It is
bctter Lo describe the perverted polity_today as mob-.ryie or mobocracy.
Nlany other changes have come about sirice the time Aristotle gave
his classificabion. The'polity',.arhich accortling toAristotle was a normal
governrnent *'as'rule by many'. Itwas notmqlority rule. At thattime the
slaves, the women and the rurai population did not enjoy any political
rigtrts. Perhaps, that was the reason why Aristotle referred to'polity' as
rule of urany. In today's situaiion, if we talk of the rule of rnany, it would
be better to descr:ibe it as 'aristocrac_y'. Today the governments are
classilied not rnerel-v on gJrounds of numbers and quality of rulers but on
several other criteria also. The cla.ssification cf modern governments as
parlian'rentary or presidential, unitary or federal, socialist, fascist or;; ,
traditional democracies, does not fit in anl.where in the classif-rcation or] i ,,
Aristotle. Even if we accept,that there are monarchies both in England fc.,:,C r -
and Jordan, the two co*niries do not have the same form of governmenti ;.. !i-]
There is no monarchy in France, still it is a unitary srarc rike G.earl"'' t'
Britain. rn India, we have a parliamentarygovernmentlike thtof Grea! ''-:
Britain (but with an elected President) andyetwe have adopted a federal,"' .
system which places india closer to the united states. Thus, it appearsf .l,l ' ,1-"
that the modern governments may be descdbed as .rqixed' syslems oda jrr..-'
governnrent. l!^i,.r,l ,.-
Marriot's Classification
several writers, frorn Greek period till today, have oflered classifi-
cation of governments on dift'erent criteria. The modern writers, like
Marriot and Lbaccrck, while acceptingAristotle's crassificatlon as basic
do not think that it can fit in the modern conditions. The classification
given by_N{arrio_t is today q_q:epted aq g-!g-ql!he best. According to him
the government may be classified on tn! iilttowlng three bases :
,One Classification on the geographical basis : unitary and
federal-
.,TVO Constitutional basis : rigid and flexible.
-Three On the basis of executive-legislature relationship :
parliamentary and presidential. Besides, rnonarchy
Qimited though) is also mentioned in this connection.
f.We may say that, on these bases, India has federal, rigid and
parliamentary system; Great Britain has flexible, unitary and parlia-
mentary government; and the United States has adopted federal, riEfid
and presidential government-
The modern democratie gove.nments mry be further classified on
cil the following bases also :
One-Limited monarchy (crowned demeracypapan and Great
Britain; and
10 Evolution ol Comparative Poliricai A.nalvsis
T*,o--Republic India and the United States of America.
-
The classification ofMarriotis further clarifiedby Leacock. He has
divided the government mainly between absolute (or uiilim-i-te4) monar-
chy and democracy. Democracy is further divided between limited
monarchy and republic. Further, unitary and federal; and parliamen-
tary and presidential systems may be found in both the general catego-
ries menfioned above. This modern c]assificatron may be illustrated
with the help of the foliowing chart:
Modern Government

J
Limited Monarchy Republic

Unitary Fede Unitary Federal

.t---- 4,
Parliamentary Parliamentary Presidential
This classification also has a shortcoming. That is, the absence of
classification on the basis of fi.rnctions and objectives. There are a
nurnber ofcountries today which are described as socialist democraeies.
;

This category includes countries like Cuba, China and Viet Nam'
Secondary: Certain cnuntries are known as welfare states. India
can be cited as an example of this category. These countries accept
socialism as their ultirnate objective, but try to achieve their aim
through peaceful parliamentary methods.
Thirdly: There are certain countries, like the United States, which
are clearly capitalist and even today believe in open competition and
some kind of laissez-faire; and 1

Lastty: Naei or Fascist dictatorship this system is cpposed both

-
to democracy and socialism and r.evolves round one leader and one party-
Hitlefs Germany and Mussolini's Italy were the outstanding examples
of this category.
iVlaclver'e Classifi cation
'Ihe classification of modern governments by Maclver is aIr impor-
tant and elaborate exercise. There are four bases ofhis classification.
These are : constitutional, economic, cornrnunal and sovereignty. Maclver,
ti!.S=.4riqF!fg, b,elieves that no governmental systern is of perr4anent
nature. Howerer, some fundamental systems continue with occasional
minor adf ustments. He accepts the utility of the traditional classifica-
tion, bu+. does nst Sn.l it suitable for the modern conditions. IIe has
offered a detailed classification in the light of modern socio-econornic-
political conrlitions. The following table will show l\ltaclver's classifica-
tion:
 Evolution of Comparative Political Analysis 11

Corustitutional Economic Comrturtal Souereignty

Basis Bosis Bosis . Bosis
Oligarchy
(a) Monarchy (a) Folk (a) T?ibal (a) Unitary
Government Government
(b) Dictatorship (b) Feudal (b) 'Polis' (b) Empire
Government Governrnent Coiony
Dependency
(c) Theocracy (c) Capitalist (c) Country (c) Federal
Government Goverrrment C<rvernmeni
(d) Plural.
(d) Socialist (d) National
Headship Govern ment Government
III. Democra.c)t
(e) Limited (e) Multi-NationaI
Monarchy Government
(f) Re public (f) World Government
' ?. Constitutiona.l Basis. The above table rvill show that broadly
speakingMaclver has classifi ed the governments between oligarchy and
democracy. The Oligarchy can take different forms- It may be Monarchy
or pictatorship (Totalitarianism), Theocracy or Piur'al Government, but
-theYhct remains that the power remains concentrated in the hands of
,, f.r'small group of people. Monarchy is based on hereditary princip)e,
/. \ ,dictatorship may be created through milit,ary coup and, theocracy may
.rri.,t"'be established by a fanatic religious group. The basis o[ the state
.:putlrority in the ancienti6ilntries with plural headship was also a small
'.'gro)rp
i,. vl\L
of people.
,

", -,-c Democracy may take the form of a republic as in India and the
i i-'-i' United States of America, or it may be limited monarchy like Great
. gritain and Japan
/- Economie Basis- The governments may be divided into four parts
. onthubu"i" ofu s-The FblkE@nomy
was the basii-oTFtatesln ancien es. Feudalism was the basis of
European countries during the Middle Ages and the power was con-
trolled by the feudal lords. With the tl*4"q5,!=e] Bsrolution and the era
ofprosperity from the mid-eigEte-<int6 ceniury onwards capitalist ectnomy
was adopted by England,.France, Germany, the United States and a
' number of other countries. This system is prevalent in many countries
'
; even today- Spggltgm ernerge"d- as a result of a reaction to capitalism
+
, dii,--ing 'uhe 'uw-eniieih cenhu-.-y. It was adopted b;i a number of co'mtries.
.. Communal Basis. Maclver has classified tlre governments on the
r''i criterian of the number of people who exe:'cise power. In the very eerly
.. days the tribal chiefs exercised ali powers. This was a very backlvard
 12 Evolution ol CompsTsllve political Analysis
svstem. 'The-reafter, during the Greek periotl, every city became in
itserf
an lndependent state. This wgs the period of city states, which were
known as'Polis' Go'ernmentsi subsequently bij and small co*ntries
developed their separate governmental systems with monarches
as
heads of state. This led to the estabrishmeni ofnation state. one nation,
one state became the basis of setting up sovereigrr governmenLs,
Today
we find a number of cou.ntries where not o.,e but ma.,y nationalities
can
be found. Maclver chooses to refer to these countries as multinational
govemments- Finally, he refers to the world government. Arthough
there appears to be no possibility in the .eu. f,.t*u of establisheme-nt
of the world goverment, yet at least in theory the worrd goverment
is a
possibility. It may no-t be a unitary world government but
may be a
fedeiation of ngtiort staLes.
sovereignty Basis. The modern states are divided between uni-
tary and federal on the basis of sovereignty. Arthough imperialism is
now an out-of-date concept, yet Maclver thought it proper to mention
colonies, dependencies and Lmpires as the basis of exercising
eignty. "oru.-
This classificabion is fairly complicated. It is based more on histori-
cal facts than realities. It will appear from the entire discussion
ihat
Marriot's classification is no rnore practicabre and meaningful in
the
context of, contemporary world.
MODERN METHODS OF COMPAIiING POLITICS
In an earlier secf,ion we have briefly dealt with the shortconrings
or
the traditional approach otthe study of g.""**""*. ft
appears that the traditionar approach had"o*pu..if""
limited the Jcope orsl"ay or
government to the description of organs of government
and their
f,nctiorx as laid down in the law. In fait, structure of government
political processes are highly complicated and are affecld and
by the social,
economic and cultrirar factors. Thus, new methods of the
government and politics have been discovered to
study oi
examine and anaryse
various factors that' affect working of an entire poritical system.
The
modern approaches are, generariy speaking, resu[ ofprevaiiing
dissat-
isfaction with the traditionar method. Armond and iowelr
opi n ionth a t th e rol
ai of the
toilq !! lee {actorp a19ee neral ly .";p;; ;ii; r* tn"
aftel the SiCond Wortd Wir. rr';psr
iy,nattonatawaken_
3n:.:Pflli:h9s
ing took place in severar coiinue; or.Asir, Africa u.,d
trru naiaaiu g."t.
This resulted in the emergence of several independent
nations with
divergent cultuges, sociar institutions and poritical features.
in fl uence of the, Atl a niic powei:s decr i
s""";;;',
i-,ed j #a ;#
interference.in tL-e -new areas incr udingcolonies" and ".i.""-p"*rJi "."a
newly independent
countries. Thi f dli ; comm uni sm e me rgud u", po*erful factor.
It emerged
as a competitor and tried to alter the nature of worrd
economy'and
 Evolution ol Comparative potitical Anatysis 13
politics according to its own ideologr.
MODERN COMPAR.ATI\TE POLITICAL ANALYSIS
The above mentioned factors compelled serious
students of Govern_
ment and Politics to abandon the traditional approach.
situation required new m-ethods and approa"r,"s'to
in"
"fr";Ci"g
poiitio
in its proper perspective' According to atmona
u.,a ""a"."I""a
po*"tiro1to*i;;;or.
major tendencies tend to separate modern comparaf,i
ve politics from the
traditional study of comparative government.
(a) The search for more comprehensive scope_The
search for
more comprehensive scope ofcomparative politics
i" u;,,"a riiutii*",
the discipline from its narrowjurisdiction. The politicar
situation has
considerably-c.l,rapggl_qite_r_!!r_q
$_egpgr-d_Wgrld Wqi._Study of gorernment
could not be kept Iimited to tte;;;uiil"o"ni.iu",.
to study revolutionar-v ch-anges and qh,ql-l_q4g_e.s
It becamc essential
f_o_the iiberal democratic
systems. This w.idened the scope of .o*puruUve g.overnrne;;.
B;;;.,
rhe soci aI i st .y"i"-., totutft a ri an regi mes an<i
l}.ll$:il"mocracies,
!i13i1t31"s ley"!i9s-,eleg k-sel t" r,"
prcse ni," "t"a;"a
l"t"n ;;;;;;#ffiH;
i rrci usi on of the stud-y of n-ewly i n d epe qde-nt.
l^o:
ntadc-rlo
Csmltaratiue politic,s couni ries
u niversal ;,,
comparatiu e Politics'- A De ue roprrL,
Airffiilff;;#;ia;
"f,r.i"iri.A]mond and coleman,s
apprnc[,
The Politics of Deueropinga-eas and "t"rr'.Lurict 's
constitutionar Gouern-
t q.s
'1, " 9,Ny!1trf::" :$9.y tg.le, g,.F.e rio us, a ile nl p ts i n r
[i s d i re cbio n. .
(bi'r',';'#t r,iF i,"r-fr;* _ iii";; J" r]fl" ;# ;,.i,kfu
i
,
",/
r'
"Ju
consequence of changed poiihcal circumstances. The traditional ap-
Pry3lh lrya$-. &-Lmal - -lt:rcrely_Lqnce rned Jit
insiitutions and constitutioriaGi.rcture. ThL new a"or oey, poiiri".t
t o*,, i
approaches seek to
examine all those structureq q!q
_p3gg9!!es that_affect ptf ;ti"u u.,Jpoll"y
or traaiiionoi.l6;aird; ;r"ay, the modern ap-
3::H:3::,11 lr1":
proaches include more realistic study of itical
?;;*,':Igi181$*+Tt#,#;iii#Hiffi ;ffi 'Jlffi
flpolitical socialisation and other r*i"_"""""[r; "i;;;ffi;:'Ti: ;:
formal political insritutions-, Tf is aporoq;h
heba.riourel stridy. i. . , ,'' li.*;iI','.1,- '" "" describcd
iu otten ""i'11',1,ui.l
,
i._a.:,r
lclThe search qrf:g:-sj.gn Scienrific and technologicai , '
^r:i.
q/uqrrrr..u}Jrcurir[Jrr.
atprecisr:Jn.;ifis -
i rlr praclrce
praci;..'t,uu i*"" tatr:ty ! . .:' .-, .,

ij,ll:::l:-lr-""*m S fiaS b€en latr:ly in

inthesphereofcomparativep.riticsur*.ait"*ptsarenownu;r-,g*ull:,,,-r inlrsduced
trOduCed
i,..
bo underiake sample surveys to examine trends
scientif;c analysis of politica! cultrrre, p.**.*u.
i-n-polid.; i;;";;;j,,. ,."
and facts.
(ri) T-tre searcl' for furtelleetuar *rdcr--,rhere
search fcr an interiectuar order. *1 *".u
is a +,enriency t*
i.,! *run,^i,ation of co'stitutions,
rights of peoplc--, and represenratiorr grro<adu.es
croes not help i. trre
l de*eloprne, L of an interLect'ai o;'der. xrr*-
opproaElers ef compar.ati'e
 14 Evolution of Comparative political Anatysis
government and politics are beingintroduced toenable the development
of a new intellectual order.
Since the Second World War the trend that has emerged in the
sphere of comparative politics is to consider the world community as a
political !-ystegl in itself. National political sys6ils* are dtiiiiieil 'and
comfared as units of the rvorld corinmunity. T6ffi'n6iaction r:f various
national commulr!ties is studied, and comparative-anal.isis is under-
taken to evolve a systematised and scientific knowledge of government
politics. Endeavour is being made to make comparative study of

groups,,,_1rr$icialproces5-esan{ql*egtbr;d-p_r9ees5es.

Li The scope of comparative politics has widened. The non-western

political systems are being studied in details, and certain aspects which
-
-f.ere hitherto igrrored are being systemabically examined. The political
-
. systems of Asia, Africa and Latin America now provide significant
material for the study of Comparative Government and politics.
FEATLTRES OF MODERN APPROACHES OF COMPARATNTE
POLITICAL ANALYSIS
There are several new approaches to the study of comparative
politics. An examination of these approaches reveals certain common
features of the modern comparative politics. we may briefly mention
these common general features.
(r) Generhlly comparative in approach Unlike the tradi-
tional method, which was comparative only in- name, the modern
approaches are generally and largely comparative. Fast changing politi-
cal situations can best be studied only with comparative approach. Each
political system has its unique characteristics. But, there are certain
common elements also. It is essential [o make comoarative studv of
various political systems to arrive ai a rationar co.,ct,rsrJ*1:4 ,',i5,', L
(ii ) E:rte n s i ve i n sco p e rh $tfi"TTE;j i''#r;,Ya8# S*,;
- "i;
tive politics is rather wide. As we have said above, besides the constitu-
-.

tional law and institutions the modern study includes examination of

numerous non-political and socio-economic facbors that affect the entire
political system. The present political processes are studied in historical
background and predictions for future are made. various political
systems are being studied as,nits of one-world-comrnunity. compara-
tive politics is not limited to liberal democracies. lts glgdy includes all
system s de moera tic and totalitarian. soci ali st ana cioi tatl st, western
-
and eastern so that comparati ve politics can examine all aspects of worl d
political.community.
(rrr) Analtrtical ande:rplanatory- Macridis is of the opinion that
mere description ofpolitical institutions cannot enahle us to understand
 rruenarnreor.poriu"ui]i::::'r:.?::::::::r:,::i:;:::r.*o::
iti !,14 !g-eg1b[i93]-_C5r_4_rs,c.egrsh *n"e"sle.d.:e_t]c_1lh_+] descrip -
.iive. The modern approaches of comparative poiiUis hi"e Le"o*e
analytical. For that purpose facts are c.ollected, examined, analysed and
compared..
(iu) System-oriented study- The modern approaches have a
special feature that clearly distinguishes them from the traditional
methods.(Constitutional f.ame*or[ is no more giyen importancgl the
present studies are centered round,.psj|Fge! sy-stemjas a whole. Institu-
tions are studied as constituents oita siitem.-'iiiei. interactions are
systemabically studied to enable us to understand socio-economic-
political problems in proper perspective. All the politicai processes and
institutions.can be properly understood only if the study is system-

(u) Social context-oriented study-* The scholars ol modern

comparative politics believe irr the interaction ofpolitical processes and
sociological forces. Thus, political processes are not being studied in
relation to socio-economic context. social institutions, forces and tradi-
tions that affect political system are being studied from political angle.
Politics is a pait of soci al processes. Thrls, modern approaches examine
political systems in the social cpntext.
(ui) Behavioural approach of study- The most outrstanding
feature of the study of modern comparative politics is its behavioural
approach. Behavioural study is a new and very effective method of
comparative politics. Conciusions are drawn on the basis ofexamination
and evaluation ofthe facbs collected afber studying behaviour ofvarious
people. Such a study is surely more'neaningful than a descriptive study
of structure and powers of political institutions. Behavioural approach
has not only given new dimensions to the study of comparative politics,
but it has made it scientific, systematic and purposeful.
Criticisrn of Modern Approaches
We shall examine the modern approaches in a subsequent section.
Since we have seen above main features of modern approaches, we may
briefly refer to criticism of these methods. There is no doubt that the
modern methods of comparative politics aim at wider outlook and
scientific approach. They tend to give true mlourof 'science'to political
Science, particularly to comparative politics. Nevertheless, there are
cer:tain shorf-comings in these methods. Firstly,it" is said +-hat the sope
ofcomparative politics has become unwieldy. It is impossible to examine
all the factors tbatdirectly andindirectly affect politics. Ifall ofthem are
exarnined the study becomes unwieldy. If we ignore them the scope ot
comparative politics rernains unrealistic. There is growing awareness
among scholars on this point. Many ofthem, including Apter, S. E. Finer,
ar
 16 Evotution of Comparative potitical Anatysis
Almond and Coleman and G.Ii Robberts, started
thinking of limiting
the scope of comparative politics, essentially to porificar
Jeiurop*"rt".
secondly, critics are ofthe opinion that most offhe new.pp.orih""
u.u
vague' There is no unanimity even orr one approach. Different
writers
offer different methods to exprain the same approach. since most
of the
modern methods have-been adopted from sociology
it is often
difficult to apptv them to poriticar scienee. rhirdry:;;";oae*ir"tnoa"
found
are, it is argued, trrc behavioural in their apprlu"h. aer,auioo.at
proaches have their rtility,.and comparative poritics ap-
has immensely
benefited from them. But, the critics th'at u"l;";i".;;il*" ,huu
dominated modern comparative poribics ".gr"
t the extent that an.d;;;
student finds it impossibre to undlrstand the discipli"u.
draw conclusions on the basis of certain facts coiectea
ii i" .rJ r.i" to
sample sLrrvev' Fina*y, it is said that there is unnerpssa.y
,"i, ti*"gt
upon the developing politics._Revorutionary change.
.*frr*ri"
t ru" trt
the study of ocrnparative poritics after thJsecond \vorrd war."., fiu"" r.,
This rvas
the direct oukrrrne ofernergence of a rarge number ofnerv
nations in asia,
Africa and Latin America. There 'arere i"iae a;rre.e.,ces
in their poritical
institutions and processes. Rapid--cften radicar--ct
their politics. Thesc factors natura) ly drew the attention,f,tookliice in
a.rges
nurneror:s
scholars. This trend led colnparative politics to a
situat.ion where it got
involved merel;i in the
'studv of deveroping.o""t.zu"
true comparatr,e comprexion. critics feel thatthereis
JJ"r".ialorir,*
ity in the developing politics that too much dependence so mucir instabir-
on the* i" iiLury
to affect the utility of comparative politics.
There is rrnd.ubtediy rot of truth in the above
criticism. Neverthe-
]ess none can deny the fact that the rrroa".,
approaches are irnportant
in more than one ways. They are analytical rather
th"., ae*.iptii" tt
are universal rather parochial ; they are more systematic; and "y
lhan
scientific than the traditionai methods *u.." Th,r", onui i" r"q,rila i"
a second l<rck at the rnodern appmaches
with a view to make theln even
more usef*r fo' the students of comparative
Epvernment an<I politics.
Comparative Governrment before the Seeond
Wqrnld. W.ar
Before we explai, the modern sr:ie,tific
poli tics we feet it i s essential for-our yoorrg
apprcac,es of cornparative
.trra*nts kr know so*"tt irrg
a*xrut rnethods used in the first halfofthe-present
century for the study
of cxrrnparative government- These metholcs
rvere not as vast in their
approach as modern methods a.re. Even then,in
theirorrr., *ry, tt *y*".u
useful methr<Is of'-.iniier.s'r,arrriirrg..,*pur*ave poiitics. -we
expiain the methods of_cc-mparative goolrnment shar briefly
pop'larbefore the skrond lvorrri war, uid which were quite
h*u,n not
--- teen f,*ily ur&sr
-'rzvi"i^'<J discarded
evcn ioday.
 Evolution of Compaitrative Po!rtical Anatysis iZ
Configurative Studies. This is the oldest and easiest method of
comparative study. -tVlany modern miters refuse to accept this as a
method of comparative government. We study various governrnenis, in
the configurative method, one after the other. 'We take one politicai
system, study it and analyse and examine its principal features. Simi-
larly other political systems are examined, and comparative analysis is
simuitaneously carried out. Most of the literature available on govern-
rnents is of config,rative nature. some of the prominent works of Lhis
type are : R.G. Neum ann's'European and Comparatiue Gouernment,,
Carter and Herz : 'Major .Foreign Powers'; and I)ragnich,s ,Major
European Gouerrrments'. Several books have been written in India
according to this approach.
This approach, generally regarded as'traditional' has been cri ticised
ibrbeingdescriptive, parochial and non-comparati ve. There is, however,
no doubt about it that this is the most "infonnai,ive" method. An average
student cannot undertake deep research work uni,il he has got basic
knowledge, which is provided by the configr_:.rative niethod. This rnethod ,
vri th modern scientific toueh, can lie made suiiable for analytical stutly.
We can study government and politics of several countries, not merely
in a descriptive way, but with socio-economic basis and historical
approach. Thus, the entire political system can.be studied with a
rneaningfui purpose. It is true that the configi-rrative methorl by itseif, is
far from being satisfactory, yet it cannot be denied that it can play ver,v
useful role in the modern comparative stucly.
.drea Stud ies- As and when se.reral new countries becarne indepen-
dent and sovereign, the scholars got inspiration to study their govern.
ments and politics. The knowledge about se.rera.I 'new' countries of Asia.
Africa and Latin America was extremelylimited. Theirpoliticar systems
have been studied on the area basis with comparative approach. To begir r
with, certain countries of a particular area or region were chosen f,r,-
configurative study of their political systems. rt was natural to take
separate studies of West Asia, I_,atin America antl of South-East Asiau 'p
countries. India, Pakistan, Burma and Sd Lanka gained their indepen
dence within a period of about a year. Their political arrtl economic
development. has, however, not been of the same level. Significant
conclusions can be arrived at if we study their political systems in the
backgrerund of their soeio-economic progress. sorne of the conclusions
that can be easily arnved at are : the circumstances in r+'hich democrac,v
can succeed, when andwhy military dictator-shipis established, and that
detnocracy anri i,ile<rraiic sysiem cannot go iogether.
It is true that. area study is neither the only method of comparaiir r.
study, nor it is ihe trest approach. Political, historical and cullurr; r

unifor-rnitlr is not possible merel;r because of geographical mntigui t-v.

:,
 18 Evolution of Comparative potitical Anatysis
Nevertheless' this is a very usef,I method for understanding
socio-
aspects of'new, countries. ,Goucrnments and"politics
""orrorri^-political
of sout h-EastAsra'edi ted by r(,hin,'Goue rnments and poritics
of s out h-
East Asia' edited by Kahin ,'Gouernntents and. politics
in Latin America,
by Davis (ed.), and Harari's Gouernments and poritbs
of the ttid.ire nast,
are examples of area studies- The area studies have their utility,
although other methods of comparative study are newer and more
sophisticated.
Institutional-Functional comparison. This is a very effective
and significant method of comparativi study. rnstitutions have arways
been established to help the man manage his state . "An institution
is an
established pattern ofbehaviour ; a function, ofcourse, is the normal
and
expected activity of something.'e comparison of institutions and their
functions is naturally an important sor-rrce of knowledge. some of the
prominerrt political institutions are : The monarchy, the presidency,
parliament, cabinet, speaker, political parties and pressure groops,
etc.
Thev perform several important functions. comparative stJoy
i:rtions of different countries oiinsti-
is very useful. Differences in iositions,
circumstances and working of presidents of different countries
can read
to important conclusions. The comparison of the g.iu.h
u;d-A-".i"".,
speakers, similarities and dissimilarities of the Indian, British
and
American upper Houses, and comparison of the role of supreme
in a federation with the rore of'highesb court in a *"rt"ry .irt"
court
r s reach significant conclusions. The comparison
."" i"rp
of only the structures
of various institutions wiil be meaningru"". wh.t i"
required is anarysis
and comparison of the functions and roie of institutio"" i"-Jirr".""t
countries-
This method, like other methods, also has shortcomrngs.
But, the
role of institutional-functional method in making usefu.l
study cannot be underestimated. The configuritive study "i-o*"rtr"
u"a trru
institutional-functional study, if combined can serve
the p,.rrpose j When
an institution is removed from its natural setting
o, its study
becomes meaningless- Thus, the functions "o.,tu*t
and rore of political parties
can be examined in the c,,ontext of the concerned poriticar
system. r-ne .ote
of the Communist party in China is bound to be
entirel/;ilf;;;;"*
the role of parties in traditionar ribe:al democracies. There
is a world of
different between the rore of the party in ctrrna and the united
states.
In china the chairman of the pariy was arso supreme comma,der
armed forces while i, the united staies no sordier is alrowed of the
even to
beco;::e a memkr of a politicai party."he useiui
anri effeciive
son is possible when the tvzo countries have "o*purr_
simirar systems such as the
comparison of parties in England and ]rrance or ol bhe communist
;
9. Ilitchner, D.G. and levine, Carr:l : ()ormparatiue- Ct>uernment r,nti politics"
p.g.
 Evolution ol Comparative potitbal Anatysis 19
parti es in china and the former soviet union. Even in liberal democra-
cies themselves the role of the parties differs. The functions of the parties
in tlre United States (presidential system) and Great Britain (parlia_
mentary system) are fundame.tally different. The position and role of
the Presidents of India and the United States is sharply different.
Similarly, there are many dissimilarities between the monarchs of
Great Britain and Saudi Arabia. The comparative analysis of the
similarities and the dissimilarities provide useful knowledge ofgovern-
ment and politics. some outstanding examples of insbitutional -f,nc-
tional studies are : Duverger,'Political parties', K-C. Wheare ,;I*girlo-
ture s', zar cher,' constitut io ns and cor*titut i ortal r re n-ds since workl
war II'and.Hitctrner and Levine 'comparatiue Gouernment and poli-
tics".
The Study of Problems and policies. The specific problems or
government policies of two or more countries can also be examined
through comparative method. There is no end of problems in the
contemporary world. The voting behaviour of citizens in two democratic
countries, the problem ofnationalisation ofindustry, the unemployment
problem, militarism, civil service recruitment and foreign-policy mak-
ing provide important material for c',omparative stutiy. The way different
countries formulate their foreign policy and the impact that different
circumstances have on the policy is also a subject matier of cnmparative
study- The soci al welfare acti'ities in divergent political systems,
planning for economic development 0ike the Five-year plans in India)
and comparative study of parliamentary procedures c:.n be easily
undertaken.
This approach to political problerns can be effective only if, we
employ both tristorical and empirical analysis; mere historical analysis
will not suffice. The critics, however, suggest that the method oppuur"
to be more of an art than pure science. There are severar probrernJwhich
cannot be examined purely frorn scientific angie. For example, problem
of family planning for the prosperity of a nation is not onfu socio-
economic-political but also physical and psychological problem. This
study can be useful only if inter-disciplinary approacl-r is adoptetl. one
who tries to examine sc'cio-economic-political problems with compara-
tive approach, his investigation is borind to be rewarcling antl stimulat-
ing. This method has proved effective in the study such as Chapma n,,The
Profession of Gouernmenl'; Wraith and
-aimpkin's,Corruption in Deuel-
otrting countries'and Lakernan and Lambert's yoting in Demcrcracies'.
CON.{PARATIVE POLI'f ICS*MODERN AFPINOACI{ES
ci We have exarnined the generai featnres of rnoclern methods of
comparative politics in an earlier secbion. we have seerr that the aim of
aiodern rrre thoris i s to rr nde rstand the pol i ti cal i n sti t.ur.i ons as pa rL of an
n Evolution of Comparative political Analysis
entire system.They should notbe studied in isolation. Politics cannotbe
'separated from economics. There should be deeper study of all the
aspects of a political system. We shall now explain the followingrnethods
ofcomparati-ve politics which have emerged after the Second World War.
These are:
1. Systems Analysis ;
2. Structural-Functional Analysis ;
3. Modernisation Approach ;
4. Political Development Approach ; and
5. Marxist-leninist Approach.
I. SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The systems analysis is essentially a sociological approach. David
Easton was greatly influenced by this approach. He published his book
The Politicol System in 1953, in which he said he would try to offer a new
inter-disciplinary approach of politics. His aim was to introduce the
concept of political system derived from the general systems theory.
David Easton is rightly considered pioneer of the systems analysis in
comparative politics.
The General Systems Theory. It is essential tc understand the
meaning of the general systems theory before we attempt an examina-
tion of the lolitical system'. The originai idea of systems analysis is
derived from Biology. It was adopted by variorx social sciences. The
conceptwas introduced by Biologist Ludwig von Bertallanfy in 1920. He
defined system as'a set ofelernents standing in interaction". The term
'system'was later differently defined by other scholars. Collin Cherry
said that a system "is a whole which is compounded of rnany parts-an
ensemble of attitudes". According to I(aplan. "A brief and non-technical
description of the object of systems analysis would include the study of
a set of inter-related variables, as distingrrished from the environment
of the set, and of the ways in which this set is maintained under the
impact of environmental disturbances-" Thus, the common point that
emerges is that a systern is'one unit'which consisis of several elements
or inter-related variables. It is sureiy a vrhole consisting of many parts.
We have to understand bhe interaction of many parts to be able to
understand the whole.
A system does not mean a rnere aggregation of elements. The
elements should be inter-dependent and should be such that can be
located with sorne precisionboth in."ime andin space. Astudyof systems
analysis forms part of, what is know as, inter-disciplinar,v approach.
C,eneral systems theory is based on the principles that are relevant to
various systems. It is bel jeved that there are a number of things cornmon
in various disciplines, and ifthey canbe put in an abstract form a general
 Evolution of Cornparative Potiticat Analysis 21

theory can emerge that might help each discipline to understand its
problems better.
The Political System
T'he social system consists of many sub-systems" Political sub-
systemisthe mostimportantofthem. Itis this sub-system thatconcerns
us as students of comparative polities. Itis difficult to separate political
from non-political. Nevertheless, study ofpolitical system can be sys-
tematically taken up as a separale discipline. David Easton was the first
Political Scientist who rnade use of the concept of 'political system'- He
first put forward his idea in an article entitled "'fhe Analysis ofPolitical
Systems" published in World Politics in 1957. The concept was later
developed by him in his books ; A Framework for Folitical Analysis, and
A Sysferns A.nalysis of Politital Life. T}:,e concept was put forward by
several other scholars. They presented their different models, though
the basic theme or'concept remains the same. Almond and Powell,
besides others, were al so prominent exponents of the concept ofpoli bical
system.
- The concept of political system obviously includes two te::ms, uiz.
political ond system. What do they mean ? The main idea of political
concept incltrdes the basis of coercive power or authority to compel
people to obey its policies. Political syst€m implies legitimate physical
coercion. David Easton speaks of "authoritative allocation ofvalues";
Lasswell and Kaplan of"severe deprivations"; Dahl of"power, rule and.
authority" ; and Almond and Powell write that "the political authorities,
and only they, have some generally accepted right in a given territory to
utilise c,oercion and to com.mand obedience based upon it." All these
definibions imply the legitimabe power to enforce, to compel and to
punish within a fixed territory.
VIhat is a system? It implies some interdependence of parts and
some kind of boundary between it and its ehvironment. There are
numerous components of a system. A human body has numerous
organs or components or a motor car has very large number of parts
or components. All components of a system are vital. When properties
of one component in a system change, all other components and
system as a rvhole are affected. *Ihus", according to Almond and
Powell, "if the rings o[ an automobile erode, the car burns oil, the
functioning ofother aspects ofthe system deteriorates, and the power of
tire car declines."lo We may take another example. If a person suffers
heart attack his entire system startsdeclining andis affected. Similariy,
il the liberty ofa university or a college starts losing boohs and library
staff becornes lebhargic the entire educational system is adversely
.j,
:
lO. Almond & Powell (.Ir.), Cornparoliue Politits, Little Brown & Co., Boston, p.4
2 Evolution of Comparative political Analysis
ffected. In a politicar system the emergence ofa new poritical partymay
lfect the performane of all other stru.ctures of'the system. rntthe.
'ords' "when one varizibre in a system changes
in mag,itude or quality
:hers may be subjected to s,trains and may be transformed. The systern
ren changes its patten'r of performance, or the unmly compon-ent is
isciplined by regulatory mechanisms."r 1
A thild important aspect of the theory of political system is the
rtion of boundary. A system starts somewhere and ends somewhere.
is easy, lor example, to locate the boundary of a motor car or even
-
q university. tsut, in case of a polibical system, the problem of
;undary is more difficult. A political system is made up of the
rteracting rrcle of qitizens or voters, with legislatom, civil servants,
rinisters and judges. "1* individuals expose themselves to political
rmm_rrnication, form political interest
€1rrcups, vote or pay taxes, they
rift from non-polibicar to poriticar roles : one might iay they ente.
rd leave the politicar systsrn.'rz The people pa*icipatu only
, politics ; they play their role in econonry, ir.ity urla .uligio; "ot uiro.
hus, when a peasant goes on the day of polling to cast hiJvote,
he
osses the boundary of economy and enterr inu uo.rrraary
of the pol#cal
'stem. Similarly, when a prime minister visits a temple or church
tt,
fer p^ra19rs he crosses over from the boundary of political system
to
Lat of religion.
Thus, a system in which there is a mechanism which has the
rwer to take authoritative decisions, to enforce them
rd punish may be described as a political system.and It
to compel
fo.,cUJn"
ithin an environrnent, and has its crearly demarcated boundaries.
!1vid- Easton was prirnariiy concerned with emp\asising the rela-
rnships between a s;rstem and the environment in which it
is rocated.
re.systems theory usually divides interaction between
a system andits
n'ironment into three phases : input, conversion and output.
Chrrs,
rmands made on the system and supports that
they.ecelre a"e inprris.
re system converts them into "finished goods.
or output. tt.pofiJus
eich come-out of the system as'output'g[ve rise
to new demands. This
'ocess is described as feedback
into the system in the form of fresh
mands, so that the system continues to furrction.
The model pr".u.rt*d
P3da Easton eompares political system to a small box a machine,
rich receives inputs and produces outputs which areortransmitted
rough the environrnent as feedback d-emands and
support". in"
ilowing figure CFig. 1) explains this :

.Ibid. pp. 5-6

Almond & Powell (Jr.), op. cit., p. 6.
 Evolution al Comparative Potitical Anatysis z3
ENVIRONMENT
Deman ds o
a
F< POLITICAL Fl
5 SYSTE]VI C
o.
Supports ,t
z, a

Feedback
-.-- EI.IVIRONMEI..IT
Fig. L

lnputs and Outputs- The system theory is usually explained with

the heip ofinteraction ofvarious components ofthe system through the
mechanism olinputs and outputs- According toAlmond and powell, the
inputs and outputs are transactionFhtween the system andits environ-
ment- The conversion of inputs into outputs-{of raw-material into
finished goodsF-is a vital function of the system. rnputs of demands and
supports enter the political system from the en,ironment. when inJIa-
tion increases prices of commodities and people clemand more. wages,
there is an interaction between economy and politics. The economic
situation Ieads to demands for particular legislative or execulive ac-
tions- These demands are. converted into outputs such as welfare
payments, more wage or dearness allowanc.,e, or price controls. Theso
outputs procuce changes in the enrrironment which may pror.ide feed-
back for fresh demands. The process has been explained try Almond and
Powell with the help of following figure (Fig. 2) : -
Inputs Conver.sion Gutputs into Enyiroumental
Enviromaent Outeomes
Dsmands Extractions
Distributions Domestic
Participant Regulations and
Su pports ' Symbols International
Welfare
Subject and
Supports Secu rity
Preceding
Envirounental
Stateg

f eeuDtlgK L/looPtt

F'ig. 2
'Cha.rges uot caused by the Political System itself.
 2tL, Evolutian of Comparative Foliticat Anatysis
Darrid Easton has made a clear disti.ction between demnnd s arur
supports. Whai type of demands are usually made on the system ? They
are : (i) demands for distribution antl services.-demands for better
roads, educational facilities or for minimum wages ; (ij) demands for
regulation of behaviour--demands for .rres pertaining to marriage,
health and sanitation ; (iii) dernands for ]ess taxaiion ; (ju) dernands ior
conrrnunication of iniormation-in the event rf tlrreat from within or
without; (u) demands for participation-demand for reduction in voting
age, or to organise political parties ; and (ui) demands for stability, order
and peace-for lessening of violence. A political system may face these
and many more demands, in many combinations, forrns and degrees of
intensity- Referring to demands, Easton wrote, -rhey are only tf,e raw-
material out of which finished products called decisions are manufac-
tured." 13

Almond and'Powell refer to two mqior classes of supports. Firstly,

there are inputs of participant efforts, to support Ieaders and groups who
are seeking to gain public office and *at e poUtic policy. Votilng, partici_
pating in a campaign, and fighting for a particular political f*tio., ur.
all examples of such supports. Second.ly, there are supports calied
subject-supports or compliance. This category includes material sup-
port, such as paJrment of taxes;obedience to law and regrrlations,
and
attention paid to governmentar cornmunication and respect for author-
ity, syrnbols or ceremonies.
Inputs do not necessarily corne from the society ofwhich political
system is a part. very often inputs are generated internally by potitical
elites-kings, presidents, ministers, law_makers a.ra Srriges. Inputs
may also come from the internationai system in the forms of threats,
invasions' and assistance from forei gn politicar systems. Thus, inputs
come from three sources ulz. domJsfic society, poriticar elites and
internationa] environment.
Outputs may be of four different types. They are : (i) extracbions
-
which may take the form of tribute, personal service or taxes
;
(ii) regulation ofbehaviour ; (ia) distribution of goods, serwices,
honours
and titles ; and (iu) statement of policies and affirrnation of values.
The capabilities of Foritical systems. Armond anri power] have
emphasised the capabilities of political systems. Neither the traditional
nor the Marxian approaches gave any importance to capabilities.
Alm.nd and Powell have pointed out two reasons for the capabilities
approach being more precise and comprehensive. Firstly, it is useful for
compa.ative exami.ation of poiiiicai sys'ter=rrs nt-ri nrereiy irom siruc-
tu ral poi nt of view, but on the basis of fu nction al di fferen ti aiion, poli
tical
13. David Eastcn : Approc ch to the Analysi* of potif ical Sysfern.s, p- 39O.
 Evolution of Comparative political Analysis 25
culture and developrnent. secondly, the capabilities approach enables
us to deal with the problem of polibical change. "when we introduce
capabilities level of analJrsis we enhance not only our capacity for
scientific predietion aud explanation, but also our capability to talk
about poiicies as they may affect political changein desired direction..l4
Almond and Powell have specified six capabilities of political systerns"
The are : extractive, regulative, distributive, symbolic, .esponsive, and
internationa'|. First: The political system should possess capability to
extract the resources required by it from the social system . second :The
system should regulate human activities so that ii may exercise controi
over the behaviour ofindividuals and groups. Third :The sysbem should
possess high distributive capatrility so that it may effrciently aiiocate
goods, services and honour etc. Fourth: celebrations of national days,
parades, award of nabional honours have symbolic importance. These
symbolic outputs are important indicator of the political legitimacy of
the system. Fifth : Responsible capability is not, strictly speaking, an
output function. rt establishes a relationship betvreen inputs and out-
puts. It is a feedback loop. It inforrns the governnrent about the reaction
of the people to its policy desisions antl also their expectations from the
system. siath : The first five capabilities are domestic in nature.
International capability of any system depends on the factors like
military and economic power, spheres of influence and ideological
following.
Mitchell on Political System. William Mitchell has offered
furbher improvement over the models of Easton as well as Almond
and Pow,ell . Demands and .Supporfs, according to Mitcheli, do
not account for all the inputs in a system. He adds Erpectation-s
(what people expect), and&esources, which are so vital for theoperation
of the sysLem. Similarly, on the output side, he includes goals, values,
and controls- Every political system has certain goals, such as social
welfare, protection of weaker sections, education for masses, and
economic prosperity. They represent aggregate of demands and expec-
tations of the people. values and costs refer to distribution of llmited
values and costs thereof. Lastly, controls represent mechanism of the
system- It is through the controls that goals and values are imple-
mented. His rnodel is explained with ihe help of Figure B, reproduced
below:

14. Almoad and Powell : Contparc.tiue polilics : A Deuelopmental Approoch, p- EA.

 Evolution of Comparative political Anatysis

Demands and Bxpec-

tations Structures (Norms and poter)
Formal and Inforrnal
\pes, Nu mbers
- Sources, T)rpes, Number
Intensity
Regources Poiitical Culture Yalues and Costs
Beliefs and Synrbois
- Types, Incidence,
Matcrials. Techno- I Recipients and
Iogv I
Quhntities
I
Su pports I Role Ino:mbents Contmls
Number, Characteristicr
fupes, Levels, Ob- - and Tenure
jects, Intcnsities Types, Nu mbers
If nforcements

Fig.3
An importantcontriburion ofMitcheil is his idea
ofequiribrium. The
system is in equilibrium when the demancrs and
expectations of mem-
bers have been met. The polity is, generall-y spealiing,
motion tur,ing demands and n*p".t tiorr", resources
,t*uv."l, tfr"
and suppoits into
goals, values and costs.
Evaluation of the.systems Analysis. The potitical system
analy_
sis has made comparative study of potitics easy,
because it is based on
the examination of an entire system rather than the poiiti"uii.r"utr-
tions alone' This analysis herps us understand
various factors that make
a system efficient and stabre. we can make
sorne p."ar"L"" ,t""", ,rr"
corning political events- The critics, however, point
out that the system
analysis is obsessed with the idea ihat no errent
is free fr.om an entire
system. Most of the hypotheses of the scholars
of systems tn"o.y u."
abstract' It is, therefore, not possibre to make their
empirical investiga-
tion. Thirdly, psychotogical iactors u.e igoo.ea
approach' Fourthly, the systems .pp.ou"f, i.
i" tf,e p"fiU"ai'*"**
incapabre orexamining trre
revolu-tionary changes- It is basei on the
concept that alr changes are
part of a developmental process. Finally,
the poflUcal upi.pu"f,
is not independent. It is a part of the soiological "y"tu-
study.
Actually, it is too early to evaluate the real
rore and importance of
the system analysis- rts importan"" t realised only afLer this
approach-is broadly accepted for the-"v study of comparative politics.
i'ievertheiess, we must accept rhat the syste;";";;;;i;;;;;#;'i.",
wayin giving a real scientificoutrook to tile study
ofco*pur.ti.'.u potiti"u.
 Evolution of Comparative politicat Analysis ZT
2. STR'UCTUR,AL-FUNCTIONAL APPROACII
ti St'ructural-functional approaeh of Comparative politics is closely
related to the systerns a,alysis. The potitical system is treated as a sub-
s-vstem of social system. A political system itself is composed of several
structures.'Ihey perform different funciions. It'is essentiai thab the
structures of a system perform their funedions in such a way that the
systenr-keeps on workingin a smoc,th rranner. The traditional theory of
separation of powers divided the government into three branches-
legislature, execuiive andjudiciary. It rvas believed that each ofthese
organs must perform only a specified function, and should not interfere
in the jurisdiction of the other two organs. This rigid separation was
possibie in the nineteenth century. But, with the introduction of democ-
racy and emergence of political parties the situation became compli-
cated. In the new situation severai American scholars tried to search for
an approach that rvould consider an entire system rather than.state',
'governrnent' or 'sovereignty'. Prominent anrong the advocates of stmc-
iural-.fu,nctional apploach are Almond, Apter and Easton. The term
'state' is rather l,egalishc and instituiional. It has been replaced by a
comprehensive term "political system'. Sirnilarly, Iegal term "po.*,er"
hasbeen replaced by sociological term "function". The term Snstitutions'
has been similarly replaced by 'sLructures'. .public opinion, has given
way to 'political culture' and 'citizenship training, has been replaced by
'political socialisatjon'. Thus, in piace of institutiondl approach, we now
have comprehensive sociological apf mach called structural-Fanctional
Analysis" This approach has been derived from Anthropology and
Sociolory- Its earliest advocates were Redcliffe Brown, Marion Levy and.
Merton. But, the concept was actually refined by Talcott parsons. He
applied the system analysis to his sociological inguires.
Almond and Coleman were the first Folitical Scientists who scien-
tifically examined the structural-funchional approach, and app)ied it to
Comparative Po]itics. In their books, The politics of Deuetajing Areas,
and Comparotiue Politics-A Deuelopment Approaci, Almond and
coleman assert that a political system is a ,nit that affects the
environment and is affected by the environment. The following at-
tributes are expected in a political system : Comprehensiveness,
Interdependence, Boundaries and Oiren System. Almond has
emphasised both stability and change in the Structural-Functional
approach. Political sysbem, according to Almond and Coleman, "is that
system of interactions which can be found in atl independent societies
which performs the functions of integration and adaptation... by means
of the employment, or threat of empioyrnent, of more or less tegitimate
physical compulsion. The political system is the legitimate
order-maintaining or transforming system in the society... r,egitimate
 2A .Evolution of Comparative politicat
Anatysis
force is the thread that runs through the inputs
and outputs of the
political system grving it quality an-cl salience
and its coherence as a
sYStem." 15
Almorid and Powerl have acceptecr the model .f David
Easton for the
structural-F,nctional approach-'ihu." r."Jrrr"u stages ofthe
approach.
They are : inputs, conversion, and outputs. Each
system has several
structures. All of them affecb the working of other structures.
rf a human
body is a system, it has variou" o.gr"", I,r"h as heart,
brain, eyes, ears,
hnnds, liver and kidneys etc. All of them are interdependent.
perform their functions which cannot but They
a{fect other organs oi ttu
systey. Similarly, political parties, pressure groups, Iegislaiure,
execu_
tive, bureaucracy and judiciary ali a.e interdeplnduit,
u.,J pr.io.*
functions of conversion of inputs into outputs. The
fo[owing fig*,e vriu
explain Almond's Structural-Functional apf .oucn (Fie.
.)
Almond's approach is also known as the seven._F,nction
His sbructures perform seven functions. They
Analysis.
are : poriticar scriarisation
and Recruitment, Interest Articujation, interest .dggregation,
Political Communication-(input functions) and RuIe_MJh.re, 'Rand
Application, and Rule-A$udication as output ; tu-
functions. How these
functions are performed by the poriticarsystem is
important to know to
enable us to compare various political
Irrputs of a Politiea-l System "y"t"*r.
(o) Folitieal Socialisation and Recruitrnent. political
socialisation is basic function of a sysiem for
regulatio" .ri"pri. r^
traditional language we used the term training
of-citizenship. fii, i"
life-long process and invorves forrration
of attitudes. In modern lan-"
guage of comparative p_olitics, the
same process is explained with the
help of broader terrn or polihcal The nature of poliricar
";;ii";i;".
socialisation would telr *s what type of a"*."as and supports are rikery
to enter the system from the u.r,ri.o.,-".,t.
We may.li trr"iiii, trr"
enrriron:nent that determi,nS socj-alisaUon
According to Almond f.ocess in any given soci"ty.
powell f.l..j,-;iiofitical socialisation is the
_and
process- by which poritical cultures are formed, maintained and
gfanee{'"r6 Thev insist-that the p.;;" continues throughout
'Attitudes mav be initialry fo-med i. life.
being adapted as the individual_goe- "*rai',*a,
but they are always
riences'"r, sometime a mqior diamatic
ifr""gt, political and social expe_
ev-ent may provide a sudden
resocialisation of an entire nation. David-Easton
and Jack Dennis
:::::: jlTil ar vi ews. They say rh at poli rical r""i uli";; r."*"ln o""
;;
ggr"!ry:"ttr._,"""r*rtrr-**Jrr;;;;"fi ;;J"}"f"liffi iff ,#:::
15. Almond and Coleman, I'he potirics of
Deuetoping Areas, p. .l
.
16. Almond & Powell, op. cit., p. 79.
17. Ibid.
 Evolution of Comparative Political Analysis A
tations and patterns ofbehaviour.'r8 And, according to Roberta Sigel,
'Ihe goal of political socialisation is to so train or develop individuals
that they become well-functioning members of ttre polibical society..."1e
Alrnond's Structural-Functional Approach
EIIWIRONMENT
Jnput Conrrersion Process Ouiput
rrt
Demands CouernrnentoL
Distribution of
things Rule o
.
Extractive
z
Making
ln
Beh arriour z
-l
Regulative
Int€rest
Political Aggregation lleg-ulative
Participation
Corrrmunication Political
Communication Distributive
Supports
F Symbolic
zgl Material
4 Obedience
N Participation
Deference
ztrl

Political Sociaiisation and Rccmitment

l
I EI.{VTRONh,IENT ]
Fig.4
Although the proceSs of attitude formation is a life-long one, yet
early experience may be of greatimportance in several ways. Achild can
be easily managed by those who wish to scrialise him. In the later years,
attitudes gethardened, and itis seldom that they are radically changed.
However, a great war or an economic depression can conQtitute a severe
political shock for millions of individuals, thus reshapiri! the political
culture and making for resocialisation. There are p!'imary as well as
secondary socialisation influences. The role nf famil-v, school, religion
and work group is important primary influence. Among the secondary
:,- rl ----- ^-l *^--^-- rl-
llltluellce5 ItlusL lIItPUr LallL ar c -^r:1:-^I-^r:-- rrrilsS rirEula artu
purrLr'Ja1.r frar LrtjJ, -^-^*^l:^ EUvet
mental institutions. Political parties pla-v an important part of, moulding
:'
18. Darrid Easton & .Iack l)ennis, Children in the Political St;slem, p. 7.
19. Ii:t'erda Sigc), 'Assu rrrptions atxrut the l-earni ng of Politi(:al Values", i nThe A,nna! s
of the American Acod.emy of t>olil'r<:o! and S..rial Science, Sept- 1965.
 30 Evotution ol Comparative political Anatysis
the attitudes of the people. In totalitarian states, the
only party that
exists compels people to adopt only specified attiiude.
them an opportunity for resocialisation. Armond is of
It iJs.,ot gi'e
the opinion that in
comparing polibical systems it is very important to examine
the struc_
tures ofsocialisation, their functio.,i urd styles.
- Recruitment is another important regulatory instrument of inputs.
Dealirgwith recruitment, Almond and poweil give the example of
a car.
They say, "For an automobile to perform efficiently on the
,oua, pu.t*
must be lubricated, repai-red and replaced..." "In a political
incumbents of various roles (diplomats, nrilitary officials,
,yri"* thu
tax officials)
must be recruited to these roles, and learn how to perform in
them.,2o
Every political system must have some way of fiuing
political structures. Positior\s of different ilportance the roles in the
are to be filled
through recruitment. Many peopre may rike to become presidents,
mi ni sters, sen ior ci servants, but not so many persons wa nt to become
'ir
clerks. But, recmitment function must tre performed for
each role.
The inter.action between political socialisation
and recruitment is a
continuous process. Te process of socialisation prepares
different indi-
viduals for definite roles in the poriticar systern. patterns
ofrecruitment
vary from system to system. citizens arl recruited for
various rores in
a system. They are : participant rore, subject
role and elite rore. proper
socialisation for a specific rore is essenuai for the success
or*,u.y"t"-.
(6) Interest Articulation. The people
have problems. They make
demands for rectificatiorr of their problems. r. other
words,"peopte
convey their demand to the govemmlnt. This process
is cailed -interest
articulabion"- According to Almond and poweli, *The politicar
set in motibn when some group makes a political
p.*"*" is
demand. ti,i, p.o."u"
of demand makingis called interest articulation.-2r
*re"" u.. r,;;;."r,
wavs in which interest articuration is achieved. In
people of a village may talk to their 'headman'
a simpre systern
or sarpanch who wilr
convey demands of the people to the authorities.
In a monarchy; subjects
of a king may seek an audience with the rulei
and convey theii demlnds
to him' In a totalitarian system, interest articulation
may ge.re*ted
bf.tf e pq rty. Foll owing examples show how interest articul be
ation may be
achieved. A citizen writes to his repres""tutlu"
i" [" p..iirr,"* f".
assistance in obtaini.g a smalr business roan.
students
sity meet the N{inister of Infcrrmatio., u.rJB.oudcastingof Derhi univer-
for concession
in cinema tickets' Bribish r ab-o,, readers prorest
against a wage freeze
at' the Annua! confere.ce of the r-ebcur part;r.
And, a delegaiion of
rndian v,'omen pleads with the porice commissroner
for effeciivr: aclion
atain-st dowry seekers. Interest articulation is very
ofte* rlone try the
20. Almond & PorvelI, .rp cit., p. 14,
2r.' ibid" p. 169.
 Evolution of Comparative Political Analysis X
tations and patterns of behar"iour."rs And, according to Roberba Sigei,
"The goal of political socialisation is to so train or develop individuals
that they become well-functioning members of the political society..."1o
Afmond's Structural-Functional Approach
EI..WIRONMENI
Ioput Conworsion Process ()utput
rn
Detnands
Distribution of
things C
z
Extractive
rn
Behawiour zI
Regulative
Interest Rule
Political' Aggregation Application Regtrlative
Participation
Communication Political Rule
Communication Adjustment Distributive
Supjrcrts
F Symtrolic
rrl Material
z Obedience
Participation
Deference
zrI]

Political Socialisation and tr{ccmitment

I EI..{VIRONMENT ]
Fig.4
Although the proceSs of attitude formation is a life-long one, yet
early experience maybe of great importance in several ways. Achildcan
be easily managed by those who wish to socialise him. In the lateryears,
attitudes gethardened, and itis seldom that they are radically changed.
However, a great war or an economic depression can conqtitute a severe
political shock for millions of indivitiuals, thus reshapiri[ the political
crrlture and making for resocialisation. 'Iher:e are primary as well is
secondary socialisation influences. The role ofl flamil-v, school, religior-r
and work group is important prirnary influerrce. Among the secondary
:-- al - - --l
llllluellce5 ITIUSL lrtrljur LitrlL i1r E -^ti1:
purl Lleai IJaILies, rr-^-^rirrrb lrrELlla
-^la-
^--I -^--^-- rr-
arr(r EUver
mental institutions. Political parties pla-v animportant partof moulding
i8. David Easton & .Iack l)ennis, Child.ren in the Political Syslem, p. ?.
19. Iiot,'erl"a Sigcl, 'Assu rrrpticns about Lhe lrarni ng of Political Va'lues", i nThe An rlu:.l-.
of the Ame rican Acad.emy of Political qnd ,Socic/ Scieace, S<'pt. 1965.
 30 Evotution of Comparative political ,Anatysis
the attitudes of the peopre. rn totalitarian states, the
onry party that
exists compels people. to adopt only specified attitude. rt
does ,rJt g*u
them an opport'nity for resocialisation. A]mond is of the
opinion thatin
comparing polibical systems it is very important to examine the
struc_
tures ofsocialisation, their functio.ri .rd styles.
- Recnr.itment is another important
regulatory instrument of inputs.
Dealirqgwith recruitment, Almond and powell give the exampt"
of i
They say, 'For an auiomobile to perform effici-ently on the ,"r4, p..t" "r..
must be lubricated, repai_red and replaced..." "rna poriticar
system the
incumbents of various roles (diplomats, nrilitary officials, tax
o{ficials)
must be recruited to these roles, and learn how to perform in them.,2o
-Every political system must have some way of filling the roles
political strucbures. PositionS of different iLportance in the
are to be fiIIed
through recruitment. Many people may Iike to become presidents,
ministers' senior ci'il servants, but not sJmany persons
want to become
clerks. But, recr*itment function pu.rormed
-"riuu for each rore.
The interaction between political socialisation and recruitment
is a
continuous process. Te process of socialisation prepares
different indi-
viduals for definite rores in the poritical system. patterns of recruitment
vary from system to system- citizens arl recruited for various
rores in
a system. They are : participant role, subject role
and eiite role. proper
socialisation for a specific role is essentiai for the success
or*,e system.
(b) rnterest Articulation. The people
have probrems. They make
demands for rectificatiorr of their problems. Irr other
words,'peopie
cunvey their demand to the governmlnt. This pr@ess
is cailed -interest
arbiculation". According to A]mond and poweli, *The politicat
p.ocess is
set in motibn when some group makes a political
demand. tf,i, p.o."u"
of demand makingis called interest articulation."2,
ways in which interest articuration is achieved. rn
Th;;r;; ;;;;;",*
people of a village may tark to their 'headman,
a simpre
or sarpanih who "y"t"*
wiII
convey demands of the peopre to the authorities. rn
a monarchy; subjects
of a king may seek an audience with the ..ler
an<I convey their d.emands
to him' rn a totalitarian system, interest arbiculation
may be generated
by.tf e p? rt)'. Following examples show how interest
articur ation may be
achieved' A citizen writes to his representative in
the parriament for
assistance in obtaining a smail business loan.
students
sity meet the Iltinister of Information and Broadcastingof Derhi univer-
for concession
in cinema tickets. Eribish l ab-our leaders procest
against
at the Annr-ra! confer"e.ce of the r,abo,.i pa.ty. And, a wa're freeze
a delegaiion of
rndian v,'omen pleads with the Folice commissioner
for effective action
:gf"t d.*rf *r:kers.Interest articulation is very often <lone by the
20. Almond & Porvell, op cit., p. 14.
?1. ibid, p. 169.
 Evolution of Comparative potitical Analysis 31
interest groups in democratic countries. The demancs that th,s enter
the system are converted into outputs.
(c) Interest Aggrcgation. The function of converting demands
into mqior policy a.lt-ernatives is called interest aggregation. *Demands
beccme major policy alteinatives r.r,hen they are backea by substantiar
political resources-- Policy resources mean votes of citizens
who sripport
candidates, votes of members of parliament, and support of ci,ii ser-
vants- Political aggregation consists of the proess that converLs de-
mands into policy alternatives and mobilises resources behind
these
policy alternatives.
The annual convention of ,a political party receives demands and
complaints of labour ,nions as well as business organisations, of
,niversity authorities as wer as students, of minoritylommunity as
well as the majority community. The convention then bargains and
compromises these conflicting,interests into some form of policy
state-
ment that most people may support. such a policy based on comirornise
of conflicting interests can be the best example of iiiterest
Similarly, when our planning Commission U.i.rg" about a
**"g.ai"".
bebween demand of the Education Ministry for more funds "oirpio*i""
and of the
Finance Ministry for reduction of experr*s, it is pu.forming the function
ofinterest agg-regation- rn other words, various demands ale aggregated
into a generally accepted poricy, which is then communicated to the
political syste-m for necessary conversion. As students of comparative
politics we can compare various politicar syqtems by anarysing different
ways of interesi aggregation. Armond consideis bureauiracy a.rd
political parties as two specialised structures which help convert
articu-
lated demands into interest aggregation. Rore of parties, however,
depends upon nature of the system democratic, authoritarian, totali-
tarian. -
(d) Political comrnunication. The term communication means
transmission of message from one person to another person or group of
persons. No social or poriticar interaction is possibie
withouiproper
communication. "Poriticar rife is a form of soci al behaviour"j write
Almold and Powell, "and all sociar activity depends on communica-
tion."22 Attitude formation (sociaiisation) as well as continuingbehaviour
depend on the communication ofinforrnation betwee" i"ai.,r-iarars.
ir,e
demands that have been articulaLed and aggregabed are comrrunicated
to the rule-makers. Yarious sbructures within a system communicate
for
proper discharge of their functions. Iesislators- minisf.rs ri'il *,..-
vants, j udges must comm unicate for snioothl fuil ;;i;; ;i: ;;J;.
According to A-lmo'd there are five types of comm*nication st.rct,res.
They ar"e : (n) i*ior:mal face-to-face contacts with friends,.eighbours
and
22. ft>id, p- 14.
32 Evolution of Comparative Political Analysis
colleagues; (6) trad.itional soci al structures, Iike family and religious
associations; (c) polilical ou@ut structures 0egislatures) ; (d) political
input structures (political parties and interest groups; and (e) mass-
media (newspapers, magazines, radio and television). While first two
methods are informal, the rest are formal structures ofpolitical commu-
nication. The formal mrnmunication structures convey aggregated
demarrds tothe decision-makers, and their decisions, rules and policies
are transmitted to the people.
Output Functions of a Political Systcm
(e) Rule-Making Function. The trad.itional term 'legislation'
has been replaced by the modern writers by a broader term'rule-
making'. The inputs received by the government stmctures are set out
as outputs. Rule-makingis a vital function. It is basically performed by
the legislatures. The demands are converted into policies and rules. It
is not only the legislature which makes rules. Once the laws are enacted,
they are supplemented by various rules made by the bureaucracy and
even the judges. According to Almond, the term 'legislative'indicaies a
specialised structure and a definite process, whereas 'rule-making'is a
diffuse process.
Thus, the latter term is preferable in modem context. Rule-making
function is usually divided into three sub-functions--initiation, modifi-
cation and vetoing. These imply preparation and introduction of bills:,
adoption of bills, and assent or vetcr of the bills respectiyely.23 RuIe-
making structures vary from system to systim. In democracies, rules
are made after people's demands are articulated and aggregated by
political parties and interest groups. In authoritarian systems rule-
making is initiated as v''ell as formulated according to wishes of the top
Ieadership.
(fl Rule-Application Function. The second vital output func-
tion of a political system is rule-application. It is essentially performed
by the civil servants under the supervision of the rninisters. Rule-
application is a modem term for enforcement and administration of
laws. Lasswell prefers to call it "invocation and application". The
bureaucracy is surely the core ofmodern government. It monopolises the
output function of the political system. The civil servants, as we have
seen participat€ very effiectively eyen in rule-making. They enforce the
rules, or laws, and while doing so they make furbher rules and regula-
tions- The powerof delegated legislation is used by the civil servants for
rnaiij lr g a dd.iiional r-ules.
@) Rule-ASudication Function- Generally speaking, rule-ad-
judication function is judicial in nature. 'lhe politicai system, for its
23- Thus, everyone fmm civil servants" particularly of [,aw l{inislry, upto the
President are in one way or tJre other participanls in mle-making.
 Evolution ol Comparative Political Analysis 3(t
efficiency, ensures that the rules are acceptable to tl-re society. Mainte-
nairce ofbalanceis vital for every political system. When we talk ofrule-
a$udication we do not mean that this function is performed only by the
jutiiciary or that the judiciary does not perform any other function.
Actualtry, very often judicial pronouncements arnount to rules and the
funetion of making mles is rule-making. Similarly, structures of rr.le-
applic-ation are ofLen involved in rule-a$udication. Civil servanLs per-
form several functions which are semi-judicial in nature.
Conclusion. Almond, it appears, grves more importance f,o the
input firnctions of the system. He categorises input functions as political
in nature, the output functions as governmental functions. Almond
believes thai ihe struct*re become rnore specialised when a system is
highiy developed. Almond, achrally advocates his theory of political
change with the help ofstnrctural-functional analysis. It is quite close
to the rnodel ofParsons.
David Easton and Gabriel Almond have consitierabiy irrf'luenced
rnodern study of comparative politics- they have many common vari-
ables in their models. However, while Almond's emphasis.is on Struc-
tural-tr'u,etional approach, Easton is essentially pioneer of Systems
Analysis or input-output approach. There are many other scholars like
Aptei anc Lassell who have also made valuable corrtribution in this
respect.
3. POL.ITICAL MODERNTZATICIN
Political modernisation is an approach of comparing modern politi-
cal systerns. Political institubions and values keep on changing. Changes
are often made by revolutions, but in many cases the societies undergo
gradual evolutionary changes. There are several categories of stability
and instabilityin between these two extremes. sociological and political
researchers try to measure these factors of change. There are various
rnethods of measuring this process of change, which are collectively
known as 'political modernisation'. A]mond has classified these mea-
sures into, traditional, transitional, and modern. The purpose of this
classification is to determine the extent of elements of modernization in
vari ous pol i hcal sys.r.er-ns.
Apter has used the term modernization ir.r the context of sociologi-
cal--particularly econornic-change. According to him, development is
inqvitable.'Like the flow ofgoods and services in economicrife (business
goes where profit is i,o be had), modernization takes place where it is
r'rr.c? caci!.. r+q++^J ^- -- '^-.^,? lixt^ --,: !l -- ll -
--
J
oi roles t'r om rnetrr:pcle to penphery-,2a AccrrrrJing to Apter, there are

24. Ilavrri i]. Apter, Introductiotr to Potitical Anolysis" Winthrop publishers, Canr
'irri(ler,.-.469.
34 Ev6lution cf Comparative Politicat Analysis
four stages of modernization. In the early stages modernization begins
with a few hardy enterprising individdals with a particularly strong
sense of mission. They are the pioneers- Historically, they paved the way
for institutions of innovation within the context of coionialism. For
example the British colonised North America and India. Thus, in the
first stage, there was contact between colonial and local populations. As
'local
elites formed, new social fo;-mations arose. In the second stage,
locai people drew intc closer contact with the foreigners. The foreign
elites created urban centres, or transformed those that aiready existed.
This was the process ofconsolidation ofempire.'The mysbique of empire
was that if the'civilised' nations would bri ng the benefi ts of the markeLs,
education and Christianity to the 'savages', the labter would prosper."25
Thus, 'primitive' countries were.opened up. But, exploitation was
carried out. In Africa, for example slave trade was promoted. In the third
stage, demand for independen@ was made mainly by those who were
edu^ated by the rulers themselves. Mahatma Gandhi, for exarirple, had
been edeveated in England. He led the movement for India's freedom.
Mass movements were created. I-ocal elites demanded share irr the
governance of the country. The fourth stage, agcording to Apter, is
marked by political rather than economic modernization. Most naiions
achieved independence, and decided to develop themselves economically
and politically. Today, the problem for developing nations is tc use
political independence to produce more rri able and effective communi-
ties.
The following figure given by Apter is meant to demonstrate the
stages of modernization, which is described as "Unilinear Model of
Political Modernization."
TRADITIONAL SCCIETY

t{Fs S,,&,.-.
l'%r
$s
RF
HODERN
,rrtw
SOCIETY

STAGES oF I,IODERN|ZAT\ON
Edward Shils has described the desire oi traditional societi es bo

25. Ibid, pp.469-70.

 Evotution of Comparative politica! Anatysis 36
'liberate'themselves from the west as modernization. shils berieves
that
various aspects of social rife must be studied i. order to u;;derstand
politicai rnodernization in broader context. poriiicar change the
rnJ *oa-
ernization is to be examined i. the context of inter-relatJa r""L.u
or
i,dustriaiisation, urbanisation, education, commerce,
sociological cevelopment- Accorcring to coreman, "A rnodern "Ul"r" ""a
scrciety is
charabterised, amo,g other things, by a comparatively high degree
of
urbanization, wide-spread Iiteracy, comparatively h;gh pJ.
lrr_
corne, expensive geographical and sociar mobility, a retativeiy "upTtu
rrigh
degree of commerciarization ttre industriaiisatio*of thu
o",
extensive and penetrati ve network of mass comm*nication""o.roi,l,,
media, and
in general by r+'idespread participation and involvement uy memue.s
or
the scciety in modern, soci al and economic process."26AIl the
traditionar
social arrd political stmctures have undergone substantial
crrurrge ,s *
result of modernization- one important aspect of pouticar moaer"iulntio.,
is changed relationship between elite and corrrnon rnan.
.
I'he nervly independent countries of Asia and Africa are rapidiy
trying to modernize themserves. Their politicar institution" *""u,!o.r-
era)ly speaking,.based on models of the erstwhile ruling countries.
many of them democracy failed, and miritary dictatorstiips
In
were sorrn
established' Later, peopre asserted their power and re-estabrished
demr:cracy, as in Br-ngladesh. The riifferent ievers of modernization
reached in the deveroped, developing and under-developed
countries is
an important basis on which comparative politics bu studied.
4. POLITI CAL DE\IEJLOPIUE}IT' "u.,
P--olitical Develcpment, or De'elopmehLarism as Apter
would prefer
p gail it, is another systematic approach to the study of Co_p*i*lir,"
Politics. This approach is very ciose to political rvroaerniration.
"implies a progression toward a goal by means of economic growth.,27
rt
Just as democracy is regarded bytraditonal writers as embodiment
philosophical ideas of societ,al good, so to the developmentalists. of
the
conclusion to a period of change is *part of an evc',:tio',."y,
repeating history of indusbriai nations.. ryclical or
scveral co*ntries of Asia, Africa and Latin America attained
free-
dom from the western imperialism, after trre second
world war. These
countries are c,llecbivery caileci the Third worrd. The Third
worrd
co*ntries decided to rapidly i,dustrialise themselves. They had numer_
ou^s social, economic and political problems. rn
most of trre m dem*r,..-,,
as a form of government did not succeed- Modern poriticar
sJ".tr"i'.
26' James s' coleman, 'The politicar Sy."tem of the Dtrvelopi.gAreas,,
in ?,re poilitics
Deueloping Areas (.Almond and Coleman, ed_), p. bS2.
.of
- .4,pter,
-27. op. cit., p. 4S5.
36 Evolution of Comparative politicat Analysis
tried to evolve a new approach to the study ofpolitics ofthese developing
countries, so that they could find ansrvers to several problems. They
adopted the Development approach to understanrl pmblems of institu-
tions, culture and politics of the oe.reloping courtries. The concepi of
political developrnent was pmvided b;rr{axweber, Radciiffe Brown and
Talcott Parsons and developed by scholars iike Apter, colemarr and
Lucian foe.
Ti'le concept oi de';elopmentalism has been vario*sry defined. Ac-
cording to s-N. Eise*stadt, the concept of poiitical development
irrvoives the abilit.v of the poliiical system "r.o atrsorb varieiies anrl
changing types of political demancls ancl organisations. rt also includes
the skill to dea] with ner,r'and changing types of problems which the
system produces or which it must absorb frpm outsicle source."28
william chambers says, "Politicai deveioprrient r..iay tre understood as
a movement towards political system which is capable of handling the
loade it confronts, characterized by sigrrificant differentiaiion oflstruc-
tures, and speci{ity- of function, increasingiy centralized a*c abie to
rrraintain itsel{" .2e
There is some coni*sion akruut various definitions of developmental
approach" However, Lucian Fye irad dea!t with ten prevailing notion*q oi.
the concept. It will not be proper. i,o explain all of thern in rietai! in this
brief section of political development approach. we may oni;r, merrrion
these notions. They are: poiilical De'reloprnent as the poiitical prereq*
uisite of economic deveioprnent; political rlevelaprnent as the poiiti.u-
t"vpical of industrial societies; Fciiticar Development as politica! l*oti-
ernization; Political Develcpment, as nation-L'uilding: p+liiical Devl:lc;p-
ment as administrative and legal development; polibical DevelopmenL
as mass mobilization and participation; political Development as the
building of democracy; Political Development as stability and orclerly
change; Political Development as mobilization and po*'er; and political
Development as one aspect of a multi-dimensionar process of soci al
change.
Luciari Pye has tried to locate common points in these ten notior-rs.
'l'lre three common features are: talEqualit)
@a*iclpation by all in ihe
political pr@ess, equality before raw und.e".oitrneni to politicar offices
on the basis of certain achievement standards, and not ascriptive
considerations); (6) C ap acitylpoiiiical outputs, governmental perfor-
mance, effectir-eness and efficiency, and rabionality in ad;ninistration);
l$lQl! ff":- "tjgr, 9r, _{sle.-r ali$gn gl j@
28' s'N' Eisenstadt, in Joseph Lapalornirara (ed,) rlurearcra car aur poritica! I-)euetop-
m-ent, p. 16.
29" \Ir'i]liem N. chambers, in Lapalornbara and weiner {ed.'t, poiitiaa-t partizs and
Pol itic l)eucl+pmt.rtt, i.,p. B?-gg.
 . Evolution af Comparative Politica! Analysis CI
.. mate sense of integration). Pye felt that tenslons are likely to occur in
reconciiing these three dinrensions of political developmeni. The three
dimensions are explained thus :
I)irnension s of Political Flevelo grrrent
Three Dimensions of Releoant Compo*ents of Political System
Politicdl Deuelopment
Equa-iity Political culture and sentiments about legiti-
macy and cornmitrnent to the system.
Capac!ty The performance of the authoritorrbn struc-
f tzre.s of goverruncnt.

Differentiation The performance of the non-authoritaria n struc-

tures and the general political process in the
scciety at large.
Apter correctly opines that the change from a non-developed or
underdeveloped to a deveioped society is an extremely complex
transition. He says that, 'the faiih in developmeni as rflankind's hope is
dimrned by practice.-."3o Nevertheless, deveiopment pr@ess must
continue. Apter goes on to comment bhat most developing countries
build tough one-party states, milii,ary regimes or corporatist g'overrr-
ments in the process of modernising themselves. But, this is not
universally tme. The fact remains tbat every country is trying to
develop and to modernize. Different third world countries have different
problems and varying solutions. The study of politics of these third
vrorld c.ountries can be effectively pursued by examining their potitical
(and economic) development. Dealing with the "political economy of
development", A-lmond and Powell write : "Political developmen[ has
specifically refened, first, to the rise ofspecialized political executive
and bureaucratic agencies capable ofsetting collective goals and imple-
menting them ... second, it has been used to mean the rise of .-. political
parties, interest groups, and communication media ..."3rThe developing
role of these structrires in various countries should be carefully com-
pared and analysed as a sigrrificant new approach of Comparative
Politics.
Development and IJnderdevelopment : The intimate relation-
ship between economy and politics must be careiully studied.to under-
stanei the modern c',omparative political analysis. Itis suggested that for
a very iong tirne the mankind has lived in a 'single world emnomic
system.'.dndre GunderFrank, dealingwiih the single system says: "Its
fundamcn!-alli'unvar5'ing u.ncqucl sl,i-uctr:;"c and ul:cven deve!cprnent

t.,l
3O. f)aviC Apter, op. cit., pp. 45&.5?
31. Alrnond and Powell (Jr.) op. cii., p. 358.
 3E Evolution ol Comparatir,,e politica! Analysis
has, as its mode of production,_ been
based on antl reproduced the
polarisation of owned weal th and'disowne;;;;;r;;i;;;;rd#;;
underdevelopment, periods of cl,aicaf .*purrio., .i;;;r*._
#;
fion."32 The argr:ment1id :f
is thai the;o;ld;;;_, at different per:iods,
' experienced both development and has
unrlJveropment. This has been i,ire
result ofclass-based exproitation. underieveiopme,t
development. It is not simply . rr rr"r. rr
between "ril".t
some areas
which are more deveroped irran the "o-p..i*n
Jtirer- eotn development a.d
underdelelopment are related to each other.
In
ment and lJnderdevelopment, Fyank insists an essay c)n Deverop-
that, "rieverop*.ri urra
underdevelopment are also rerated, bott tn.oogh
prscess that they have shared during the cornmon historical
the past several centuries and
th-rough the mutual, that is reciprocal,i"n"u.,".
other throughout history.*, rturr.'u;;;u"y that they have, on each
urgy:g that in the period after intrustiar revoruhon, other scholars have
world into deveioped and, n derdevel opu a .egions di,ision of the
I
exploitation. The liftist view is tnai ",.na".ae,e1op-L.rt'a-Jurop"e
" "u"*d
;; ;;;ituti"t
in intimate reration into
countries" which is the resurt .the^ der"l"oi-,""t of the now deveroperl
of historical process orcapiiutistieletop-
ment' Accordi ng to yves Lacoste, 'unaerdevelopment
mentally from the int.rsion of the capitarist results funda-
system., He also says that,
"the present state of the ,rra".a.rr"iIplJ
*: y:Il as social pointof view, comes f*; ih" from the ecr:n.mic
"*o*.,trins,
rise in England
of 18th centurv of this at the end
revolution'" This theory "o*pr"*:
p*,;;;;;""" ca,ed rhe industriai
is that industriar .erotrtion-b"ofrrT;o*.,
existence the system of capitarisrn,
ment in its
*n,; i; t".n created underdeverop-
own class interest. Howeve., i*"."t"
does not say that every
is ne_cessarily. underdevutopoa
Troi, is a developed inut every industrialised
country country. 'Ihus, he ".
..gr." that "not aII coloniserl
countries became underd-eveloped (USA,
Eustralia) ..., Lacoste also
wrote that Japan is the onry underdeveropJ
fact Japan is the only country which
indrxtriarisea *""t.r.r"
ruJingclass itselfrlecided to aevetopih"
*u* .rurr". colonised and whose
could bec'ome incorporate<i into "the
*o.--t., and did thatbefore she
system." "oio"irri"t-imperiarist-capitarist
r"re ra ri ons of de pe n <tency non
,tTf:g-"^ : i.i:y i lt a] d IL Chi kate
H:.ln:t-'.L"-:.?r1''g"i1it"tio,,*",,,"il;;"-#;"I#;;,iHTilI
f._.?i3_:.lpllttheberi:i"rh_lrrh;we;;;;;;;";;trj#iJ:;,ili.
h1'*;Ju,:T,::?'^:l^i.:s:c"w.$:;""d";:;;;;#;'ffiT:,:';::
He adds, it was hoped rhat """au.Ji"urnil';;;;-*;;:;;il;",?;

Andre Goader Frank : aisis !, ztl_ Transf<trznatirLa

o/.ilepend,enqt in tlv Worti
Systetn, in Chilcote & Johnson (c<i.),
?i eotes a{ I}*,tteJ,_,,,--^, roac - ,oi
rlJ- Andre Cunrie:- .F-ronk, Or Capitatisi
""iri"it"nr_ear, rlipsa4, 192g, p. l.
 Evolution of Comparaiive politicat Analysis 39
develqped, modern nations along path charted in the West."34 This
means that Western capitalism took upon itself the task of developing
some and depriving others of development.
The dependency theo4r is based on an examination ofrelationship
bet*, een the develope d, me t rop o le and underdeveloped per jphery. Frank
concludes that the "capitalist productive organisation in the underde-
veloped countries relegates owners of Iarge scale land, domestic trade,
internationai commerce, industry, finance all together to bourgeoisie.'
While conflicts do still occur betwean capitalists in different developed
coultries, the participation of abo.re mentioned groups in capitalist
econornic system relegates thcm to the bourgeoisie in company with
those ofother countries both developed and underdeveloped. "By virtue
of their relation in the productive pr@ess to the proletariat, these
capitalists in one anderdeveloped country are allied to analogous ones
elsewhere and tothebourgioisiein remainderof the periphery aildin the
metropole."35
After the Second World War two traditions had emerged. A nation-
alist developmentalist rrierv was concgrned with the prospects of
reforming capitalism in the periphery; the other tradition not only
opposed outside influence but urged revolutionary means to overcome
im peri al ism and transforrn underdevelopment. The nationalist senti-
ment in the periphery was accompanied by an outcry against imperial-
ism, demands that national resources be preserved, and insistence that
the domestic economy be transformed through "state-guided national
capitalism". This view emphasised nationalism and autonomy to oppose
the exploitative tendencies of world market and multinational corpora-
tions.
The opposite trend was revolutionary in outlook, opposed imperial-
ism and presented capitalism as a negative force in the periphery. The
nationalist economist RauI Prebisch had divided the world into two
parts, a centre ofindustrialised countries and a periphery of underde-
veloped countries. Prominent among the revolutionary Ieftist intellec-
tual circles was Frondizi, and Argentinian Marxist. He was one of the
first to focus on the questions of underdevelopment and dependency. He
argued thatcapitalism, not feudalism, was responsible for the underde-
velopment and dependency on world capitalism. According to this view
dependency on capitalism is the m4ior cause of underdevelopmefit of
what we call the Third Wortd. However, Warren, in his lrnperialism :
Piorrcer of Capitalism, argued that capitalism as an agent of social and
economic progress must be considered in analyses of dependency and
34- Chilmie : Depnrlency on Modc of Production? in Chilc.ote & Johnson (ed-) :
Theories of Deuelopment, p. 9-
35. Franl* : Oa Capitaiist Underdeuelopment, p- 94.
 4A Evolution of Cofiparative politica! Anatysis
imperiarism' and tl1t:apitarism
is a prerequisite
i n sis ted th a t' con
trary to contem po.u.!. rrr*u.*i st to sociarism. warren
guod for ca pirat ist aeuetop.r,e.,; rriew, the prospects
il;;;;;"vetoped peiiphera I areas.a re
Andre Frank s:T:l-alres his thesis
ment by saying that, .Underd"r"l";;;t, on capitalist underdevelop-
itself is the product but- also no less than development
o..i "Tii-,"'*otive power of capitarisrn."
capital ist devel opmen I h" ..e',r"a,
tory developrnent based o"
i"" u."", r"ndamental ly contradic- -
Ji.tl""l"d
in development and ,.,de.derel,o,"r""i,
"_,"pf
resulting at the sarne time
porverful sbates, the. expansio" a"**ated with the g-r-owbh of
oi *u."r.,Llism_capitalism leri
development ola metropole-and, to the
."i"ial" rt through ties
and rorce, ora periphe.y.
coloni al i sm, i mperi
*," *Lt.ffi ,i;#ffiffi#;I""il*o *
of commerce
a lism and neo_colo"i;l
i.*. The metropole
the periphery in such a way exploi ted
and to such an extent that -the
became what we today.calt;t"""t;;l;;,; meiropore
we nolv cari underdeveroped.'eo the periphery became rvhat
dictions olcapi ralism f, ur"
,y""k.il; that the same basic contra-
a ;;;";;""t nd underdeveloprnenr
within the metropole, and"ruut *iiii"'ii"periphery. a

"tr" op*.r, t .i'ra,-

further di vi sions be tween- a"rur Thus, there are
nallv wi thi n both the aururopu a".aeveropment i nter-
J ."I't'.ipo,l'uro underdeveloped
peri ph -
capi ta ri sm' an d narficuiarly
the singr e worr d capitarist systera,
neither changed, has
"or^"ur, "rru.,g.
ter'" The Ieftist scholars
iir1l-oj"]*rr* structure
in-sisrthat *r"lJtrr"t system and charac-
operabe as devetopmelt of continues to
durul;;;;;?.,a
underdeveropment maintaingir:;li;;";;ational ,r," deveiopment of the
levels' Frank and other nru."i.*
-tliiotrrrr* and inrernarional
people have been abie us that onrv t.ose
to escap"
f#f1;H:fl #,*:. .'.i*"J.iI i,.,,-", who
**r.r i" ""a".a"i"iJrment have
.o" ry ii"*discardetr
J" J"r -
metropor ran p.,d;; "o
i

*::iil,.ffi;::i: *"'ra
;:ffi'ff :l H.XtrJ,i:f#:li
"'piiJrlJ";il;
f mi *;
and from its consequent
These views of Marxist schorars
tion' capitarism increed r,r" cannot be accepte* withoui ques-
tices' and the svstem has """"[i"io'ffirrr"fordir.ision
surelybeu.,.u"porJule
tendencies and prac-
into developed North of the worrd
and the periphery" But,ir.q ".a'", a"r"i"ilIL"rh_berween mebropote
certain countries to escape
their d;;ffiinrv socialism has enabred
underdevelof-u.rt t u" proved
un{.;i16. The sudden collapse to be largely
Union a,d rhe discrosr.J.,i "a;;;ii;#ir,=ru.t
i;;;:;'j:::1i"_*-- * " Erryr.,n. arrri ji;i
-q:'-F'.' ciiu e^.;^+
!cL
these *,*
rt
"""
36.
*.; ;
r- (..^6c _I1"_ll]r.:k
cc*nr:_iFq
" "
l'rank : op. cit, p. 95.
;ffi
of development in
;'# ;;:rffcertain sectors in
TJ,i ffi L.li;"_":?1, :T
 Evolulion of Comparative Politica! Anatysis q't
system adopted in these countries- I-arge scale liberalisation in some of
the erstrvhile socialist countries as welr as many Third world nations,
with its attendant evils, has been widely welccmed in the 'socialist
developed" as well as Third world non-sociarist courrtries. Eccnomic
Iiberalisation initiated in Iast decade of trveniieth cenlury in eountries
Iike India rnay succeed in many cases in speeding up their development.
If that happens the view that only socialisirr is a sure guarantee of
development may not be universally accepted.
MAR,XISII-LE}UNIS" AI'FRCIACH
5"
Ivfarxist-Leni*ist approach is largeiy based .n ihe theories pro-
pounried by Karl l\Iarx in the nineteenth century. These are still
accepted by the Communists as basic or of eter.nai value. Icnin,s
interpretation is very valuable. Thus, Marxism-Leninism, as an ap-
proach of comparative Polibics, though not new, is stili considered
'r n odern'.
several countries of Asia, Africa and Latiq America attaineti
i'dependence, aswehave seenearlier, after the seconc world war. N{ost
of thern adopted liberal democracy, but democratic governments
could not last long in many of ihem. Tl-rese nelv countries decided to
go ahead with rapid social, economic and political development.
Traditional values olpolitics, and methods of study of political institu-
tions became irrelevant in these countries. Many of ihe co'.rn iries of the
"third rvorld" were undergoing rapid, and eve, revolulionary, changes.
scholars of comparative politics were keen io evolve an approach that
could enable the students to systematlcally examine the politics ai-rd
revolutionary changes of the third wor-ld ccuntries. we have explained
earlier in this chapter different approaches adoptetl by the western,
particuiarly American, scholars. Marxist-I*ninist, approach also at-
tracted atfention of tl.re scholars of comparative politics. soviet union
has emerged as one of the "super powers". communist governments had
assumed political control in several East European countnes. commu-
nist revolution in china had overthrown chiang Iki-shek's corrupt
government. In view of rapid adoption of communism, it becarne
imperative to pay due attention to the Marxist-Leninist approach of
siudy of ctmparative politics. rt was felt that politics of developing
countries couid be easily generated with the help of &Iarxist-r-eninist
analysis.
Meaning and Chanacteristics of Marrxist-f.eninist Apprnach-
The advocates of Marxist-teninist approacl'i firrnly believe in the
f--!!,.,.,;--
r !,ri r(rw, r rB --.::
p, crrr rr'cs /'\ .rYrarxlsL_1,€tll
-^- .. \r r,
/ r}lSts g1!,9 very Ilt,tie lmporiance [o
the fr.irmal political institutions; (ii) they l-',elieve that tlre problems
of, deve!oping countries can be easil.v exaniined according to
 42 Evotution of Co,-nparati,ve political Analysis
Marxist-Leninist approaches of state_power, class_structure
industrialisation; (rjj) ihey believe that communist ideology and
must be
accepted in order i,o examine the politicar systems
of the deveroping
countries; an<i (iu) they raise general, rather than specific, problems
anO
seek generaiised solutione to rhese probrems. Th;*
briefly explained thus : ;.;;i.".""*-, u*
(r) Advocates of Ma.rxist_Leninist approach admit
political institutions that
cxist in every system, yet
ha',,e to
very little irnportance. In i.his respect ihi" upproochthey v" tr,o,,
g-i
is s]rnilar to
gthgr modgrn approaches, like the System Analysis. Formal
inshitutions lost irnporiance e'cn in western moders
afrer the introduc-
ti on of be havi ouralisrn. Thus, &iarxist_f,eni
aprr.r"i,, l, a
rnore with the socio-economic-poriticai processes"isi than poritical
""""".,., "
tion s.
institu_
(rr) it is argrred tha,; the outl'ok of developing countries in respecl
of po'arer, ass-structr:re, and i.dustrialisation is similar to
cl
ist-Leninist ideoiogy. Forexarnple, the concept ofdemocracy the l\{arx_
ing co,ntries is closer to M.a'xian dernocracy rather in develop_
than tie or
liberal democracy. Act,ary, lveste.n type ir democracy "o.,"upt
man-v of the third worid couni.ries.
nrs ruir;a ;.,
(iii) An impo:tant feature ois{arxist-Leninistapproach
is that, }ike
other modern approaches, it i; inter_disciplinary-
believe that impori;ant r-rationar qrrestro.,.u get
in nature. They
unnecessariry divided,
irr thetraditional approaches, betweert separate disciplines
economics, political scignce, socioiogy, ol
etc. No p*pu, sot.,tion ca, Ue
found when experts loot at the probflm. i*-
Marxist-Leninist
,*..ow angre. Therefore,
schoraru ,., political systern as one
unit, and try t. find solutions"o.rridu.
j
oraj probrems".ii."
in the framewlrk of a si,gle
system-
(iu )
I\{arxist-r-eni nist approach has i is crearry set-out
variable s and
ideology. In the rvestern comparative analysis
the solution ofeveryprobl"*. Urrlik" tfrui,
ra"u" u." r*
"uru "rJrJabout
iviu."i"ts havesetideas
class-rvar and dictatorship of proleta.iat
elrney
in every situation, ancl seek generaiised solutions.appry the same ideas
The points discussed above reveal that in
many respects Marxist_
l-enirrist aoproach is sinrira-r to-the *""tr.r"
is one basic difi'erence- unlike wester* "pproaclres. However, there
iholuu.,
scholars are perrnanently tied Oo*., to pia.*iun Marxist-I-eninist
ideology. They are
dognatic' they ref'use to ,ook at any pr.irr"-
except in the context of
Marxist plrilosophy.
It is neither desirabre nor possibre to discuss here
pr-inciples the ideorogical
of rVfarxisrn-Leninism. w" *lir" tr,.refore, u"i"gv ,r",iir"^
 Evolution of Comparative potitica! Anatysis 4.1

system adopted in these countries. I-arge scaie liberalisation in some of

the erstwhile socialist crcuntries a.s well as many Third world nations,
with its attendant evils, has been widely vrelcomed in the "socialist
developed" as well as Third world non-socia)ist courrtries. Economic
liberalisation initiated in last decade oftrventieth century in countries
Iike rndia rnay succeed in many cases in speeding up their tleveioprnent.
Il that happens the view that only sosiaiisrrr is a s*re guarantee of
development may not be universally accepfed.
5. MAP"XIST-LENINIS" AI'PBOACH
I{arxist-Leninist apprrcach is largely base,i .n .r,he theories pro-
pounded by Karl Marx in i,he nineteenth century. These are still
accepted by the Communists as basic or of eternal value. I_enin,s
interpretation is very valuable. Thus, Mar:<ism-Leninisrn, as an ap-
proach of comparative Politics, though not new, is siili considered
'rnoderrr'.
Several countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America attained
independence, aswe have seenearlier, after the seconc world war. N{ost
of ttiein adopted liberal democracy, but democratic g,overnments
could not last long in many of ihern. Tilese new countries decided to
go ahead with rapid social, economic an.;l poiitical development.
Traditional values of politics, and methods of study of political institu-
tions became irrelevant in these countries. Man;r of ihe countries of the
"third *'orld" were undergoing rapid, and everr revorutionary, changes-
scholars of comparative politics were keen i,o evorve an approach that
could enable the students to systematically examine the politics and
revolutionary changes of the third world c*untries. we hal:e explained
earlier in this chapter different approaches acopted by the ,*€stern,
particuiarly American, scholars. Marxist-I-eninist apprroach also at-
tracted attention of the scholars of comparative politics. sorriet union
has emerged asone of the "super powers". communist governments had
assumed political control in several East European countries. commu-
nist revolution in china had overthrown chiang lki-shek's corrupt
government. In view of rapid adoption of communism, it became
imperative to pay due attention to the Marxist-Leninist approach of
siudy of comparative politics. rt was felt that politie; of developing
countries could be easily generated with the help of Marxist-r-eninist
anaIysis.
Meaning and Characteristics of Marxist-Leninist Approach-
The advocabes of Marxist-teninist appr"oach firrnly believe in the
rt',rrrrrwrrrB **^-:-^-
fil'!-.,'':-- /-'\ rr-
pr ErrrrDcs .- (r/.ryiarxlSL_j,€turtrSts gr !,e very irt,tie Impoftance tO
the formal political institutions; (ii) they believe that the pr:oblems
of, developing countries can be easil.v ex:r.nrined accoiding to
 42 Evotution of Comparati.ve political Analysis
Marxist-Leninist approaches of state-power, class-structure
industrialisaticn; (iji) ihey believe ttui Jo."*rrrrist ideology ancl
must be
acceptbd in order to exarnine the politicar systems
of the deveroping
countries; anti (lu) they raise generai, rat her than specific, problems
seek generalised soiutions to tl-rese problems. Th;*
and
briefly explained thus : ;.;;;.".-#-, U*
(r) Advocates of _Marxist_Leninist approach admit
political institutions that
haie io exist in every-thi.
system, vet ttrey givo,r,o,r,
very little irnportance. In ihis respect *pp.ooch is simirar to
ythgr modern approaches, ]ike ihe Systern Analysis. Formal
insbitutions lost irnporLance even in western moders afLer
the introduc-
tion of be havi ouralism. Thus, &iarxist_i,eni nlst apr;""i.
more with fhe socio-economic-politicar processes
i" .,r" a
""r""
than politicar institu-
ti on s.
(") it is argued thai the outrook of developing countries in
respecr
of po"'er, ass-structl;re, and i.dustriarisation is simirar to the
cl
ist-Leninist ideoiogy- For exarnple, the concept of I\{arx-
democracy in deverop-
ing co,ntries is closer" to M.a'xian dernocracy rather
than the concept ot-
liberal democracy. Act.ally, v,,esler.n type of democracy
many of the third worid countries. f,"" fuii"a i.,
(iii) An impo:tant featu re <;is{a rxi st-Leni ni st
approach
other rnodern approaches, it is inter-disciplinary in i s trr at, ri ke
believe that imporiant r-rationar qr:estions get nature. ihey
unnecessarily divided,
in the traditional approaches, be tweerr separate disciplines
economics, political scignce, sociology, etc. of
No p.op". soiution .u., Un
found when experts look at the prob[ms from
narrow ang]e. Therefore,
Marxist-Leninist scholaru u., ..,iir" political systern as one
unit, and try t. find solutions"or,ridu.
oraii probrems in the framewtrk of a single
system-
(lu) a{arxist-r-eni nist appruach has i
ts crearry set-out variabre s and
ideology. In the rvestern comparative anarysis
the solution ofevery probl"*. Urrlik" tfrui, "ur"
ia"u" u." r..
"rJ"Jabout
ivi.."l"ts have set ideas
class-rvar and dictatorship of prolet".i"t
apply the same ideas
in every situation, anci seek generalised "Lrney
solutions.
The points disc.*ssed above revear that in
many respects Marxist-
reninist approach is simira-r to the rr"estern app.oaches.
is one basic difi'erenr:e. Unlike Western However, there
otro., Ivlarxist-Leninist
scholars are perrnant)ntly tied Oo*., to pia.*ir.
""t ideologl,. They are
dogmatic' l'hey ref'use to ,ock at any p.rirru-
except in the context of
I'larxi st phil osoph_v.
It is neiiher desirable nor possib.le to.iscuss here the ideological
principles of lVlarxism_Leninisrn. We will. th"refo.e, b;"n;;;,i;.^
 Evolution of Compaflit,e potltica! Analysis dB
only ,those principles which are aptrllicable in the stuclv
politics. vr q
vvs\1'r of corn_
l)a-rative
Firstlv. Nfarxists-Leniaists believe that econorrdc aspects
of
p:.y_"., is most important in our social system. Entire'h*rn
?,"^tlitl."-y
class ls reguiated
structu'e
by his escnomic .Ltrr. They believe in
ot-society, and hold the vierv thai thl crass that
holds economic.,orver d6.oirratns-o"L.itlr". .fr.."",
Lhem do whaler.'e. ihi;;r;;;;i-
ir lik;;. ""J; ;i".
basis of ctass
and exploitation. Marxi"ts *arri'to-eo^"","" *i*, tL" srruggrc
any one clas-s-over. the ecrrnomic powe.. tfi", *".t "-"i.ii
econornic "r
lrower:
to be shar:eci by the entire
.dominares
Secondly, since econornic""*il;;ti;^^-
po*,er iL snpe.ior.anri wealth' ciass
over orhers, polidipow;; tr'I"" ;.,t;dlr#l"irtilir"
dominant ciass- All the instituti*. in a political
system are subordinat-e-to this clominant ".rat.r.octures
cla_;. Th;;. ;;il;;;i""
politics can be studiecl keeping ir
"i"*iiriu fb,ct of clomination
on{ ong class ove-r poriticei stftct-urJ.'ir;;*"r;;r-.. of
system is determined b-y the facb as to r"ho controls "r" ilrlii."r
producbion and distribuii"., th. ilear.s crr
lr"u t"f," 1,,..r1rurtv is dislrii-^iLecl i:r
a a>untry. Thus. the ""J"t
of cornpara-il""i
realistic only if economic asft Jtrr*#"ii.iake.lr"iitio_;;-lr;;"
.sbudy
'l'he most sieniJ]cpnt featurc
intc, crnsi der.at i.*
of &iarxisl-l,eni*ist
its belief in i\Iarxian ideot"gv_ii--f"lii, il inevitabilitlr aJrl;roar:h is
6f
anct utrimare success of tht c;";"d;1,;#&.i;.iro
v,,orking class. r\s fu{ rF moder-n."rror.r"
"1."*-*,o.
,r'in.
Leninist approach as siSnifi;
"i;*;;;i;'$ilti.=
are concerned t'lrey fintl the foilorvingcharacterisr,ics
o[MarxisL-
(a) There is conceptual stabilit5, in
approach. The beliefs, variabies the MarxisFlcnirfst
Leninism has rernain"a r.Ji""g"a^ "rd ;1ottt*
il.'ril
"r.*rr"rarl,
;;;
For example, for them the meani-ig. .i"i"..-rtruggie to"y"r"f ." *..
Lio^ arc the sarne roday as th;t;L;;;f ana rcv.ru-
gzo. t-irrr., it has been
remarked that if a scfrotar of Marxi.t *r..1o*
w.ent ol,.to sleep in
1950.and got up in 198?, lr" ir^iro'"o .liifi";;y-;;;;j"._
standing- Soviet social- system ""o.,ta var.iabit,s.
rhing happenert *iitt-r; ""J-frr,"."i.t ri,,*"i,i,l S.,ri,- if
:ylLl"I
1e87 that he rvai iorally ";.;;;;;;..hnj^., n,,j i*
Ti"fir b;;;; i; th; i;t";
var^iai:les, vrxxbularl,, q1r( t"".h-il". ni.o"rpn a.til.e
wcster n coun t ries r,,,bu Id have boJn c,r*pln
"*;.,,"r^,*ra
stu,.lies of
hec.use rvester-u res"n."h"." *; il;;;,;;itniIt,.i,. ?i,,, "g,,.l--iiil i. i"
new approaches, while Marxist .t"ai"l. nely riefi nliio's ancl
pretation of Mar:rist-I eru!;sf iae"f"g5i-fiost "r,ri"d;h" #;.-
<to ir.t

eternal truLh of Marxian itlenln,^, *.',ii- -*'^ {tr._\ Ma-xis't-s l;;;;.

uirc' ..,^..r-^*-. -.^L^r_, s
r\ so'I'r-'] rr ')Lltt,,Ii'll
seem to asrce on ai"glu .pprl?Irr.
; .,j
"
(b) Mar-xist-Leni'ist app.oacl.r has zrn integrated rnethocror-
 44 Evolution o{ Compartive trotiticat Anatysis

wholisiic or coilecti'isi nature. Marxist scholars insist on

ogy' of
examining Lhc e*tire-soci o-economic_p.Uti""f ._v.tu*. fi.,", Jo r.,oL
exarnine any poli{.icar situaLion in isoiation. rt Li}""r't-rrrLl
politi.,rl situation is inv?4abry *n""q,r*.r". ofi* hiutoriLiei""^
eccnornic background; 'I}?.t is" wh5, hi"to.y, social conditions, "ra
:F I:i"_?.{ :,?1-o,T},?"d 1rcti t ics are e"x am in;d ild, tr*;-r L.
o[ Gne srngle collectivist systcm. ^i,i"
(c.l N{arx not only gave hi-s otvn
interpreiation of hisLory, -ff.
he..also- predicted Oei:nite *,o.u of irit".n cler"iop*Lrril but
believed thai, there is rnuch tou, ai.u"ii"-f""tio.,
es se.f ial] ;r ag'icuitural economy, rn,hile in -iJ;;;;;;; ""
hlghlt;rd;; tilrii"._a
*^ "
of dissatisfaZri;o-;A ;h;s""
ir^._:tl.-t::? crg?ler degre6'
IJ€v€ lopm ent ol' pclitics is very srorv in agricr.rJ
Lurai uo"inli"s
Decause 01 smali degr-ee of clissatisfaction. But, more
and downs.,ta$ nllce in industriJ .coro i". which makeups rapitl
,.-aplo growlh oi entirc poliLical systern. for
'I'he above disrrrssion of ma-r:rist_Leninist altproach brings
out the fact that ir is essentiar]y brs.d oo"raminition of devek-r1-i-
l: g.I:tl!r*l s;'s te m s, and cleiised- io"- es,mati,,g Ji"."tio;
c-nanges r. ilrose s.ystems. Marxism-LeniniJm has devoted of
lllt;dre
its attention.mainly to cievelopirrg ;;t iur. a"y t"* pofiU""i
systems ean be ccmp:rred rvitli thE heip of Marr.iit-t,eiriil;;p
proach. The bases nf ririr."u*p..i;;"#;#;;f
nature of_scrcial, ecrnom rc ancl- polltiJ-str.uirures ;p;A;iJ, *a
systerns. B1gfiy the bases of Mirxlst_ieninist
i,, a*; gi;n,
paraLive politics are crmparative stud.ie" of , "pp.o".f, ;f;*-
iilth;;*""t"r*
ff1fi::lf.Trytarce
ut,t Lt\e class. con1)osilion 1f the yrublic anJp"i"aL"
of the ruleri i and "*"[o".
;;;*y*;
(i.ii) Lhe"f nature of
economy'. It is believed that realistic .onctusions
social and politicrri systems ca"n be a.ri""a at orrf_"
;t;"; .;;".
if **fr".i"J...
are done on the basii of thr.;;t";;-;itioned factors.
. The Marxist-L,e3rr5! approach received a major setback
when the enbire socialistllo"ffnl"t br*rpean oountries
Mar:rism as the basis of dropped
nance. Ttre Soviet Union which "o"ro-u-.to*i.'structure and of gover-
*""11r. *rnerstone of Marxism-
onJ.v disintegrated l;t ;." discarded socialist
_L:-Tid?r" ^nol
rn9!?9(r ol governanrc. Thus, Marxism-Lenirrism * ,ro *o."
crai,,, ro be fi'e-tunea-b";l;;h debrminins level of
'aiicllv
dc'elopm ent, or. Lh e s t^as.e ofGpit"ti ; I; ;;;;;i;ril;
. ;;;ir.
Political Econoney AXrlrroach : Closely relatecllwitl, ML-
xrsl-LeninisL -4'1i,r:oacri- ui'co*p"rative potitics is Foriti"r
::i":J-ApFr.oa.ct:. IL d.als rvith intcr_relationship of
iin., econo,.rc rlr'cesse-G--s.metirnes it is vierverl everi in nolitical
xist, classicai ktissez-faire fi,o*n**.i^oi.o ., outhnea i;on-Mar-
1
I
[r3, aairo
sm i th arrd L-) a'i<i Reca-t'erc. T.Tr ;;ur--r t t r ii r n, iaii."gri" J t}r"t
=T-
 Evaiution of Contparlive Pclitical Anaiysis 45

state being a necessary evil should perforra minirnum potitical

anci mj.litary functions, leavilg economy completely free in the
irantis of individuals. As against +,his, c,onternporary politicai-
econorly appioach. following Marxist anal-ysis, focuses on the
ec,cnorni.c base of political super-structui.e. 'I'he state is said to
ser'',-e as an instrument of the eccnon:icaiiy dorninant cla.ss. In
other words, pcliiirx is detennined by econornic factors. 'flre
exploitation cf the 'workilg people lty econornicaLll,, dominant class
is not only tolerated but is often supported b-v politiei set.up in
return for the support of capitalist ciass fc,- i|11r5s rr,fio posiess
polit icai power.
^ The- classicirl approach believing in sepzrralion of ecottom-v
liorn politics. vierved capitaiist-rvorkrrl refatir-rnship purely as
econornic phenomenon. The state w-as treated to be a neitral
inslirutioir v,rliich rvas not expected to inten ene on behalf of dre
poor ancl h?ve- noLs. The progress of cir-iiisation was seen in the
prirs_uil cf the profit motive of t}le imlividual, lvho th,rough elivieion
c,i'lahotr lecl to mutual satisfaction of needs. :rnd. th.Jre w.a.Ei no
neeci of poiiticrl po\ri,er to inter-rene. In iact, iritervel:tion Ly tr,
uxternal agcnc..r such as t.he sta.le c:,oul d ]'e riisru;rtlve of l,he
h a;-r; ony ll-ortoted by the econornic acf;ors amone;'themselves.
T'hi s vi e iv t.t aly i'divirlu alis Lic and pr.or noi. erd tipi rali s rn anrl
^w'as
intcrc>st cf the borii'gerii.sie
'fiic m,-.dern Ma..rxisi, vicu' rrl'politiciri t,con(,mJ, :ilrproacir rs
t h:ri the d.rrrrai.s of politics and u:rinornics are r:rot"se$#ate a.rl
exchisive rvho have +"o be related in externaliries. Actirall1l, their
si>heres overlap. lt assumes that in the capitalist s1,g6f,tn 6h.
ecorrornJ is politiciil and involves the relatiorishjp of d6minatir;n
arld sul;jugation. 'lhe state supports the ciominant ciass. Thr.l
'F.la,'xist view is tliat once capi[alism is destr.yecl, exploitation
en-<is, bhe sLatc i.r,iil q,ilher away. But, rLntil rhau hapfcns post-
bel.ravior.rralists support the poiitical eco^om1,r apprLach #t i"t
rests on ihe assumptiori that the study of loli1ic.s cannot be
.isolated fuom social and economic pheiromenon. In the post-
behavior:ral.phase_ a reformation of comparativ. potiti.s' was
atternpted along with the lines of radical poiitical edcnomy rvith,
atbention not only on ttre state and the ercnomir: classes, hirt also
otr the lran^snational fronters by focussrng on econorillc lm-
1;elialism and dependency at the internatioriai ievel i. addition
Lo lrrcus on c-lass and state. In the r:u*ent phase of giobaiisatio^;
with liberalised econorni.cs and privatisatio... a t n*lcli-en-*ion is
acided to political econom-y" wltle privatisation ancl disinvest-
ment has curtailed the role of politics in economy, yet greaier
f.^-.i--, vt'r r r..
..-:-.^- rL^
LL, Lrie -..----^r^
rr Erj.-r(J,r.r tsr l-rirvaLe rjgcL(ri aii(i c jlcoui'ager r tp U L a.Ll i ()r'(-:t glt
investmcnL is rcgulated by lrcliticai prol,.ssc"I.[t us, eve' th-is
lrhenomenon oi globalisation proves i.iral poiitjc-s and economics
are i nscparablc and interdcpencler rt.