Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32174-8

REVIEW ARTICLE

Bio‑mordants: a review
Hüseyin Benli1

Received: 17 August 2023 / Accepted: 20 January 2024 / Published online: 23 February 2024
© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
Due to the increasing pressure on environmentally friendly approaches and sustainable production processes, the textile
dyeing industry has focused on natural colorants. Thus, the use of bio-mordants, which are biological materials, has become
widespread as an alternative to metal salts, most of which are non-ecological, used in the application processes of natural
colorants. In natural dyeing, dyers want to use mordant substances in the dyeing processes in order to both expand the color
spectrum and improve the fastness properties. Conventional metal salts used in natural dyeing are made up of metallic ions,
which, when released into the environment as wastewater effluent at the end of the dyeing process, cause major damage to the
ecosystem. Many researchers have thought about using mordants derived from natural sources to address the environmental
problem. This article is a review of the investigation of natural mordants used instead of metallic mordants in the process of
coloring various textile materials with natural dyestuff sources. It has been determined that many substances, most of them
herbal materials, are used as mordants. In this review, mordants, except for conventional metal salts, are examined under
three main groups for a better understanding. These groups are as follows: (i) natural or bio-mordants, (ii) oil mordants, and
(iii) new-generation and non-vegetable-based mordants. Here, researchers will find an overview of the most recent develop-
ments in green mordants as well as application techniques for a variety of mordants.

Keywords Bio-mordant · Natural dyeing · Green production · Eco-friendly · Sustainability

Introduction fibers and the majority of man-made fibers. Natural dyes were
widely used before the invention of synthetic dyes, frequently
The use of dangerous substances has come under intense in conjunction with mordants like alum to dye natural fib-
scrutiny in the textile finishing industry, particularly because ers like wool, linen, cotton, and silk, but their use decreased
of the mutagenic, carcinogenic, and allergic consequences after the invention of synthetic dyes. However, due to growing
of textile chemicals and textile dyestuffs (Pereira and Alves pressure on manufacturers to provide more environmentally
2012). Research in this area has concentrated on environ- friendly substitutes for dyes derived from petrochemicals,
mentally friendly, economically viable, and sustainable pro- interest in natural dyes has been rekindled in recent years.
duction techniques. The majority of textiles are colored and Because some natural dyes have little to no affinity for textiles,
printed with petrochemical-based synthetic dyes. However, heavy metal salts are used as mordants to fix the color and
the effects of synthetic dyes on the environment, their chemi- provide color fastness. The processes of pre-, simultaneous/
cal composition, and their contents are constantly questioned meta-, and post-mordanting can all be used for natural dyeing.
and criticized nowadays. As a result, researchers, designers, In order to increase the affinity of natural dyes for textile
artists, and practitioners are interested in environmentally fiber, substances called tannins could also be used. Tannins
friendly alternative natural dyes and techniques for all natural can improve the affinity of various dyes, making them use-
ful as natural mordants in the process of natural dyeing. The
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues phenols included in tannins’ hydroxyl group are crucial for
creating crosslinks with different dyes and fibers, which
* Hüseyin Benli helps to fix color (Pisitsak et al. 2018). Tannins are phe-
hbenli@kayseri.edu.tr nolic compounds found in nature. Those with o-dihydroxy
1
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Processing
groups convert to metal chelates when the substrate is pre- or
Technologies, Mustafa Çıkrıkçıoğlu Vocational School, post-treated with metal salts. The most popular and often
Kayseri University, 38280 Kayseri̇, Turkey

Vol:.(1234567890)

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20715

used natural fiber is cotton. However, effective dye uptake Google Scholar, and EBSCO (Textile Technology Complete
is challenging due to the electrostatic repulsion between Database). The related reports that covered the specific use
the anionic cellulose structure and natural colors (Pisitsak of bio- or natural mordants on textiles were chosen.
et al. 2016). Tannin-containing mordants were discovered
to be effective when applied to cotton fibers because they
improved the way the dye adhered to the fabric (Prabhu and Mordant agents
Teli 2014). Plants with high concentrations of tannin and
chlorophyll have been used successfully as bio-mordants in Especially in recent years, different expansions have been
the natural dyeing of textiles (Singh et al. 2021). Oak bark made in the coloring of textile materials. At the beginning of
and wood (Quercus infectoria), pomegranate peel (Punica these expansions is the use of plant-based natural dyestuffs
granatum), and cutch (Acacia catechu) are a few crucial in dyeing processes. Traditionally, metal salts, called mor-
raw materials for tannins (Pisitsak et al. 2016, 2018). In one dants, are frequently used in dyeing processes with natural
study, Moringa and neem bark, rich in tannic acid and cat- dyestuffs. The Latin word “mordere,” which means “to bite,”
enoids, were used as mordant agents in dyeing wool with is where the word “mordant” originates (Cunningham et al.
cocoa fibers (Jabar et al. 2023b). In traditional natural dye- 2011; Prabhu and Bhute 2012). A mordant is a substance
ing, some metal salts are also preferred to increase affin- that can be fastened to a fiber and joins chemically with
ity. In Europe, alum has been well-known for ages. Filings natural colorants. Depending on how they are used, natural
made of iron and tin have also been employed. In Scotland dyes can be divided into two categories: substantive dyes
and Ireland, stale urine is frequently employed, though per- and non-substantive dyes. The fabric does not need to be
haps more as a cleaning agent than as a true mordant (İşmal pretreated before using the substantive dyes (e.g., indigo,
and Yıldırım 2019). Today, many researchers still use metal orchil, and turmeric). Contrarily, non-substantive dyes
salts such as iron, crom, tin, alum, zinc, and copper as mor- (such as logwood, madder/alizarin, cochineal, or fustic) can
dants in their natural dyeing studies (Davulcu et al. 2014; only color already-mordanted materials or function when
Bahtiyari et al. 2020; Benli 2017, 2021, 2022a; Benli and a mordant is added to the dyebath. Pretreatment comes in
Bahtiyari 2018, 2023, 2022b). Natural dyeing has expanded three different forms: direct (for cotton, e.g., turmeric, saf-
beyond its original uses in modern times. Particularly, the flower); acid (for silk and wool, e.g., saffron, lac); or basic
variety of natural mordants has been expanded to include (for silk and wool, e.g., berberine). Natural mordant dyes can
diverse organic wastes, which have begun to be directly sup- be either monogenetic or polygenetic; the former produces
plied from nature (İşmal and Yıldırım 2019). only one color regardless of the mordant used, while the
In this review, detailed research on the biological-based latter produces different colors (e.g., logwood, alizarin, fus-
mordants that scientists use instead of metal mordants in tic, and cochineal). According to their chemical structures,
their academic studies has been made and presented to the natural dyes are divided into the following basic groups:
readers. It has been determined that many plant materials turmeric (diarylol methane), saffron, annatto (carotenoid),
can be used as sources of bio-mordants instead of metal barberry (alkaloids), henna (quinonoid), French marigold,
mordants in natural dyeing processes. New dimensions and sandal (flavonoid), safflower (benzoquinone), alroot, and
ideas for mordant classification have consequently emerged. oyam (anthraquinone) (Roy Choudhury 2013).
Because most natural dyes do not have a strong affinity
for textile fibers, especially cellulosic, mordanting is a step
Material and methods that must be added to the dyeing process. Cotton needs to be
mordanted since it is harder to dye than wool or silk because
In this review, the most up-to-date version of natural mordant it lacks the amino- and carboxyl-groups that serve as attach-
materials that will help the dyeing process while using natu- ment sites for dye molecules (Saxena and Raja 2014). As a
ral dyes, which will make serious contributions to environ- result, transition metal salts, often known as mordants, are
mentally friendly production processes, is presented. In the employed in natural dyeing. Because outcomes vary depend-
literature review, it was determined that dozens of different ing on the plant and the type of mordant, it is impossible to
biological materials were used as natural mordant materi- offer strict rules and instructions for the mordanting process.
als. During the literature review, a compilation was made To improve the dyeing qualities, mordants bond the dye to
using very different terms that can express natural mordant the fabric and alter the pH of the medium. The majority of
substances. The terms used in the search are “natural mor- natural dyes require a mordant agent to fix the color to the
dants,” “bio-mordants,” “oil mordants,” “eco-friendly mor- fiber and increase its fastness. It is seen that mordants are
dants,” “green mordants,” “bio-fixing mordants,” “anchoring divided into different classes in the literature. Saxena and
mordants,” and “safe mordants.” Websites used for compre- Raja (2014) divided mordants into three groups: metal salts
hensive literature reviews include Web of Science, Scopus, or metallic mordants, oil mordants, and tannins. Adeel et al.

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20716 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

(2017a) classified mordants as basic mordants (chemical et al. 2013). In Anatolia, natural mordants such as salt, lemon
mordants), acidic mordants (bio-mordants), and newly dis- salt, cattle urine, vinegar, sour grapes, citrus juice, washing
covered mordants. In another study, mordants were divided soda, mole milk, baker’s yeast, ash, clay, pelit, moss, dried
into three classes as metal salts or metallic mordants, tannic yogurt, and lime were used in dyeing processes from time
acid (tannins), and oil mordants (Prabhu and Bhute 2012). to time in various proportions (Başaran and Sarikaya 2015).
In this review, mordant substances are examined in three Bio-mordants are included in the keywords of many articles.
subclasses: natural or bio-mordants, oil mordants, and new- Academic studies using bio- or natural mordant materials are
generation and non-vegetable-based mordants. Conventional listed alphabetically and briefly summarized below.
mordant substances (metal salts) are mentioned here briefly
but will not be discussed in detail. Acacia

Natural or bio‑mordants According to current knowledge, there are more than 1350
species of Acacia throughout the world. There are at least
Bio-mordant agents are used in the same way that metal- five different groupings of Acacia species, according to a
lic mordants are. Table 1 presents the bio-mordant varieties recent study on the genus. Acacia species are challenging
that have been used so far, and some of them are as follows: to categorize and identify. Several Acacia species have
oak galls, oak wood, gallnut, sumach, myrobalan, pomegran- been reported to contain amines, alkaloids, gums, non-
ate rinds, tannin, tannic acid, tartaric acid, guava, banana protein amino acids, terpenes (including essential oils,
leaves, ash, valex, rosemary, thuja, amla, roots of Rumex diterpenes, phytosterol and triterpene genins, and sapo-
hymenosepalus, chlorophyll, green tea, black tea, chitosan, nins), hydrolyzable tannins, flavonoids, and condensed
lemon juice, eggshell, natural lodhra, kenduka, gelatine, tannins (Seigler 2003). Numerous scientists have
albumen, acetic acid, caseine, lactarane, milk, urine, blood, employed the Acacia plant as a bio-mordant in their natu-
and bentonite. Bio-mordants are powerful biomolecules ral dyeing investigations. Silk fabrics were dyed using
that increase the functional properties of the plant when Acacia extract as a bio-mordant and Sticta coronata as a
interacting with substances such as cotton, wool, and silk natural dye by Mansour and Heffernan (2011). Based on
(Hosseinnezhad et al. 2022a). When these molecules are the outcomes, it is stated that the Sticta coronata dye gave
applied to the material before or after dyeing, it produces silk cloth a lovely violet hue. In a different study, gallnut,
solid and stable tones via the extra H-bond (Jabar et al. pomegranate peel, and Acacia arabica bark tannin extracts
2022). In addition, the conjugation in the molecule plays were utilized as bio-mordants to color wool. It was
a role in strong, unfading bonds by causing a special bond announced that the results of using bio-mordants in wool
with the functional region of the material (-NHCO = silk or dyeing are comparable to those of metallic mordants in
wool; -OH = cellulose) and the colorant functional points terms of color strength and fastness properties, that bio-
(-O.H. or -O.H. and -C = O) by the transfer of ions in the mordants produce quite different color gamuts than
system (Botteri et al. 2022). In this review, lots of herbal expected from a mordant and thus offer the potential to
sources have been identified that are used as bio-mordant replace metal salts in the wool dyeing process (Rather
agents. But, herein, the photographs of the plants belonging et al. 2016). In different experiments, Acacia was used as
to the only ten most cited bio-mordans by the researchers a bio-mordant when dyeing wool and cotton with natural
are given in Table 1. In natural dyeing processes between dyes. According to the results obtained, it is stated that
1993 and 2023, and especially in the last 5 years, 71 studies shades of red wool with good to excellent color fastness
on pomegranate peel, 51 studies on Acacia, 47 studies on properties were obtained (Yusuf et al. 2017a, b). Ul-Islam
tannic acid, 45 studies on myrobalan, 35 studies on turmeric, et al. (2019) proposed that by utilizing bio-mordants iso-
22 studies on oak, 21 studies on henna, 14 studies on lemon, lated from pomegranate peel (Punica granatum L.), gall-
12 studies on tamarind, and 12 studies on Aloe vera plants nut (Quercus infectoria L.), and catechu (Acacia catechu),
were found to be among the most used bio-mordant sub- wool samples may be dyed in a sustainable and metal-free
stances. Additionally, more than 80 plant sources have been manner. As a result of the analysis, the examined bio-
identified by researchers as being used as bio-mordants in mordants interact differently with the coloring components
natural dyeing. In Table 1, an attempt is made to establish a of Butea monosperma (palas) dye, producing dark brown,
relationship between the plant sources used as bio-mordans olive green, dark brown, cinnamon, burgundy, and yellow-
and the authors who used these bio-mordans. ish tones on wool. Zia et al. (2019) employed henna leaves
As well, a few examples of natural mordants include (Lawsonia inermis), turmeric rhizomes (Curcuma longa),
cupula of oak, unripe grape juice, vinegar, Seville orange pomegranate bark (Punica granatum), and Acacia bark
juice, spurge secretion, ox urine, rock algae, clay, lime, bread (Acacia nilotica) as bio-mordants to color cotton fabric.
yeast, wood ash, and mud mixed with animal urine (Ozturk With regard to the findings, it is stated that ultrasound

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20717

Table 1  Sources used as bio-mordants in the literature

Bio-mordants References Bio-mordants References

Jayalakshmi and Amsamani Deshmukh and Patil (2008)
(2007) Samanta et al. (2009)
Deshmukh and Patil (2008) Acacia Srivastava et al. (2011)
Srivastava et al. (2011) Mansour et al. (2011)
Pomegranate peel Sundrarajan et al. (2012) Sangeetha et al. (2015)
(Punica granatum L.) Chattopadhyay et al. (2013) Rather et al. (2016)
Bansal (2014) Yusuf et al. (2017a, 2017b)
Praveena et al. (2014) Hussaan et al. (2017)
İşmal et al. (2014; 2015) Adeel et al. (2018)
Sangeetha et al. (2015) Rather et al. (2018)
Adeel et al. (2016) Sen et al. (2019)
Mansour et al. (2016) Rather et al. (2019)
Rather et al. (2016) Ul-Islam et al. (2019)
İşmal (2017) Pinheiro et al. (2019)
Hosseinnezhad et al. (2017) Zia et al. (2019)
By Benli Teli and Ambre (2017) Shabbir et al. (2019)
Vadwala and Kola (2017) Brahma et al. (2019)
Jahangiri et al. (2018) By Benli Adeel et al. (2019a)
Rather et al. (2018) Rajeswari (2020)
Amutha and Annapoorani (2019) Adeel et al. (2020a)
Ul-Islam et al. (2019) Adeel et al. (2020b)
Zia et al. (2019) Adeel et al. (2020d)
Shabbir et al. (2019) Adeel et al. (2020e)
Sen et al. (2019) Amin et al. (2020)
Sangamithirai (2019) Zuber et al. (2020)
Chilukoti et al. (2019) Kiran et al. (2020)
Adeel et al. (2019a) Yaqub et al. (2020)
Adeel et al. (2019b) Rehman et al. (2021)
Agrawal and Chopra (2020) Arifeen et al. (2021)
Amin et al. (2020) Dhanania et al. (2021)
Adeel et al. (2020a) Adeel et al. (2021a)
Adeel et al. (2020b) Adeel et al. (2021b)
Adeel et al. (2020e) Khan et al. (2021)
Gong et al. (2020) Akram et al. (2022)
Kiran et al. (2020) Hayat et al. (2022)
Rani et al. (2020) Habib et al. (2022)
Zuber et al. (2020) Ul Hasan et al. (2022)
Adeel et al. (2021a) Adeel et al. (2022a)
Adeel et al. (2021b) Adeel et al. (2022d)
Ansari and Iqbal (2021) Adeel et al. (2022e)
Arifeen et al. (2021) Adeel et al. (2022g)
Kandasamy et al. (2021) Adeel et al. (2022f)
Khan et al. (2021) Adeel et al. (2022i)
Rani and Jajpura (2021) Adeel et al. (2023a)
Akram et al. (2022) Adeel et al. (2023c)
Habib et al. (2022) Adeel et al. (2023f)
Hayat et al. (2022) Hussaan et al. (2023)
Adeel et al. (2022a) Barkaat et al. (2023)
Adeel et al. (2022b) Habib et al. (2023)
Adeel et al. (2022d) Raji et al. (2023)
Adeel et al. (2022e) Kushwaha et al. (2023)
Adeel et al. (2022f)
Adeel et al. (2022g)
Adeel et al. (2022h)
Adeel et al. (2022i)
Adeel et al. (2023e)
Adeel et al. (2023f)
Adeel et al. (2023d)
Batool et al. (2022)

treatment, a green technique for natural dyeing, offers a and Himalayan rhubarb, and a bio-mordant was created
lot of potential for isolating colorants from plant sources using bark extract from the Acacia nilotica plant. Accord-
in friendly circumstances and has acceptable fastness. In ing to the findings, it was determined that the developing
a different study, wool yarn was dyed naturally with lac color was in the yellow–red coordinate of the color space

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20718 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

Table 1  (continued)
Haji et al. (2023)
Hosseinnezhad et al. (2022b)
Ul Hasan et al. (2022)
Kizhakkinayil and Nair (2022)
Rehman et al. (2022a)
Rehman et al. (2022b)
Adeel et al. (2023a)
Barkaat et al. (2023)
Abou Elmaaty et al. (2023)
Habib et al. (2023)
Wang et al. (2023)
Salman et al. (2023)
Ltaief et al. (2023)
Chan et al. (2002) Deo and Paul (2000)
Vankar et al. (2007) Myrobalan Teli et al. (2001)
Ali et al. (2010) (Terminalia chebula Retz) Jayalakshmi and Amsamani
Arroyo-Figueroa et al. (2011 ) (2008)
Prabhu and Bhute (2012) Samanta et al. (2009)
Tayade and Adivarekar (2013) Kumaresan et al. (2011)
Tannic acid
Narayanaswamy et al. (2013) Srivastava et al. (2011)
(Tannins)
Ibrahim et al. (2013) Saravanan and Chandramohan
(C76H52O46)
Bulut et al. (2014) (2011)
Gulzar et al. (2015) Kumaresan et al. (2012a;b)
Mulec and Gorjanc (2015) Chandra et al. (2012)
Adeel et al. (2016) (https://additionstudio.com/blog Kumaresan et al. (2013)
Kundal et al. 2016() s/journal/terminalia-chebula- Chattopadhyay et al. (2013)
Ebrahimi and Gashti (2016) fruit-extract Praveena et al. (2014)
Swamy et al. (2016) Sangeetha et al. (2015)
Basak et al. (2016) Tripathi et al. (2015)
Mansour et al. (2016) Pargai et al. (2016)
Mansour et al. (2017) Sheikh et al. (2016)
Adeel et al. (2017b) Jayalakshmi (2017)
Vadwala and Kola (2017) Ganesan and Karthink (2017)
Mariamma and Jose (2018) Khan et al. (2017)
Baaka et al. (2019) Jadav and Gowda (2017)
Batool et al. (2019) Vadwala and Kola (2017)
Mir et al. (2019) Teli and Ambre (2017)
Maryam et al. (2019) Mall et al. (2017)
Elsahida et al. (2019) Sinnur et al. (2018)
Perju et al. (2019) Ashrafi et al. (2018)
Azeem et al. (2019a) Jahangiri et al. (2018)
Saleh and Mohamed (2019) Teli and Pandit (2018)
Ahmed et al. (2020b) Banerjee et al. (2019)
Sudhakar (2020) Sen et al. (2019)
Ahmed et al. (2020a) Sangamithirai (2019)
Arifeen et al. (2021) Chilukoti et al. (2019)
Ghaheh et al. (2021) Agrawal and Chopra (2020)
Oancea et al. (2021) Patil et al. (2020)
El-Sayed et al. (2022) Sudhakar (2020)
Kawlekar et al. (2022) Singh and Sheikh (2020)
Sadeghi-Kiakhani et al. (2022b) Amutha et al. (2020)
Li et al. (2022) Hosseinnezhad et al. (2020)
Adeel et al. (2022e) Rani et al. (2020)
Adeel et al. (2022h) Rani and Jajpura (2021)
Baaka et al. (2023) Dutta et al. (2021)
Eryürük et al. (2023) Kandasamy et al. (2021)
Ke et al. (2023) Hosseinnezhad et al. (2022a)
Tehrani et al. (2023a) Hosseinnezhad et al. (2022b)
Madhu and Agrawal (2023) Kizhakkinayil and Nair (2022)
Tehrani et al. (2023b) Madhu and Agrawal (2023)
Hosseinnezhad et al. (2023a)

diagram, and the color tones changed toward the red mearnsii sawdust as a bio-mordant and Hibiscus sabdar-
region in Kerria lacca stained samples and toward the iffa flowers, Allium cepa peels, and Curcuma longa root
yellow region in Rheum emodi stained samples (Rather as natural dyes to color natural fibers. Based on the results,
et al. 2019). Pinheiro et al. (2019) employed Acacia pleasant changes in fiber color were seen in all samples

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20719

Table 1  (continued)
Chan et al. (2002)
Hussaan et al. (2017)
Vadwala and Kola (2017)
Raza et al. (2018)
Zia et al. (2019)
Batool et al. (2019)
Adeel et al. (2019a) Dalby (1993)
Azeem et al. (2019b) Grifoni et al. (2011)
Amin et al. (2020) Hong et al. (2012)
Adeel et al. (2020a) Avinc et al. (2013)
Adeel et al. (2020b) İşmal et al. (2014, 2015)
Turmeric Adeel et al. (2020d) Oak Akkaya and Eyupoglu (2016)
(Curcuma Longa L.) Adeel et al. (2020e) (Quercus) Rather et al. (2016)
Kiran et al. (2020) İşmal (2017)
Zuber et al. (2020) Yusuf et al. (2017)
Adeel et al. (2021a) Rather et al. (2018)
Adeel et al. (2021b) Nakpathom et al. (2018 )
Arifeen et al. (2021) Souissi et al. (2018)
Rehman et al. (2021) Ul-Islam et al. (2019)
Habib et al. (2022) Nakpathom et al. (2019)
Adeel et al. (2022a) Gong et al. (2020)
Adeel et al. (2022b) Dhanania et al. (2021)
By Benli Adeel et al. (2022c) By Benli Hosseinnezhad et al. (2021a,b)
Adeel et al. (2022d) Özomay et al. (2022b)
Adeel et al. (2022g) Özomay and Akalın (2022a)
Adeel et al. (2022f) Kandasamy et al. (2021)
Adeel et al. (2022i) Thakker and Sun (2022)
Adeel et al. (2023d) Özomay (2023)
Batool et al. (2022)
Rasool et al. (2023)
Ul Hasan et al. (2022)
Rehman et al. (2022b)
Adeel et al. (2023a)
Adeel et al. (2023f)
Barkaat et al. (2023)
Salman et al. (2023)
Batool et al. (2019)
Zia et al. (2019)
Adeel et al. (2019a)
Adeel et al. (2019b))
Sundrarajan et al. (2012)
Amin et al. (2020)
Henna powder Sigh and Purohit (2012)
Adeel et al. (2020a)
(Lawsonia inermis L.) Lemon Kanchana et al. (2013)
Adeel et al. (2020b)
(Citrus lemon L.) Singh and Purohit (2014)
Adeel et al. (2020d)
Zubairu and Mshelia (2015)
Adeel et al. (2020e)
Kilinc et al. (2015)
Kiran et al. (2020)
Maryam et al. (2019)
Zuber et al. (2020)
Manicketh and Francis (2020)
Adeel et al. (2021a)
Hosen et al. (2021)
Adeel et al. (2021b)
Manicketh et al. (2021)
Arifeen et al. (2021)
Arain et al. (2021)
Adeel et al. (2022b)
By Benli Manicketh et al. (2022)
By Benli Batool et al. (2022)
Ghaheh et al. (2022)
Rasool et al. (2023)
Tehrani et al. (2023b)
Adeel et al. (2022g)
Adeel et al. (2022f)
Adeel et al. (2022i)
Barkaat et al. (2023)
Tamarind Prabhu and Teli (2014) Nilani et al. (2008)
(Tamarindus Indica L.) Satirapipathkul et al. (2014) Aloe vera Zubairu and Mshelia (2015)
Sheikh et al. (2016) Kumari et al. (2016)
Mariselvam et al. (2018) Berhanu and Ratnapandian
Singh et al. (2019) (2017)
Agrawal and Chopra (2020) Teklemedhin and
Yaqub et al. (2020) Gopalakrishnan (2018)
Marikani et al. (2020) Maryam et al. (2019)
Sarker et al. (2020) Yaqub et al. (2020)
(https://www.artofliving.o Sudhakar (2020) El-Zawahry et al. (2021)
rg/badantogast/ayurveda/ Baseri (2022b) By Benli Bhandari et al. (2021)
natures-kitchen/tamarind) Nazir et al. (2022) Iqbal et al. (2023)

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20720 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

Table 1  (continued)
Amla
(Emblica officinalis G.)
Sumac
(Rhus coriaria L.)
Jayanthi (2009)
Prabhu et al. (2011)
Srivastava et al. (2011) Dalby (1993)
Chao et al. (2017) Gedik et al. (2014)
Teli and Ambre (2017) Jahangiri et al. (2018)
Chilukoti et al. (2019) Hosseinnezhad et al. (2018)
Agrawal and Chopra (2020) Al Alamoudi and Salem (2019)
Rani et al. (2020) Salem and Al Alamoudi (2020)
Sudhakar (2020) Abou Elmaaty et al. (2023)
Rani and Jajpura (2021)
Iqbal et al. (2023) (http://www.b4fn.org/resources/
(https://toptropicals.com/c species-database/detail/rhus-
atalog/uid/emblica_offici coriaria/)
nalis.htm)

Jahangiri et al. (2018) Mathur and Gupta (2003)

Anandhan and Prabaharan (2018) Ansari et al. (2018)
Brahma et al. (2019) Banana Ansari and Iqbal (2021)
Eucalyptus
Dutta et al. (2021) (Musa paradisiaca) Diarsa and Gupta (2022)
Agrawal and Chopra (2020) Islam et al. (2022)
Hussaan et al. (2023) Phromphen (2023)
Jayalakshmi and Amsamani Jayalakshmi and Amsamani
(2007) (2008)
Mango Neem
Wangatia et al. (2015) Jayalakshmi (2017)
(Mangifera indica L.) (Azadirachta indica L.)
Berhanu and Ratnapandian (2017) Habib et al. (2021)
Bhandari et al. (2021) Jabar et al. (2022)
Khan et al. (2021) Adeel et al. (2022c)
Manyim et al. (2023)
Mall et al. (2017)
Ghaheh et al. (2022)
Gedik et al. (2014)
Hosseinnezhad et al. (2022c)
Yavas et al. (2017)
Talib et al. (2023)
Tea Win et al. (2020) Walnut shell
Nasreen et al. (2023)
(Camella sinensis L.) Yaqub et al. (2020) (Juglans regia L.)
Adeel et al. (2023b)
Abou Elmaaty et al. (2023)
Hosseinnezhad et al.(2023a)
Madhu and Agrawal (2023)
Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al.
(2023)
Ul Hasan et al. (2022)
Adeel et al. (2023e)
Adeel et al. (2023b) Gedik et al. (2014)
Pine nut shell Adeel et al. (2023c) Manjakani Al Alamoudi and Salem (2019)
(Pinus pinea L.) Talib et al. (2023) (Quercus infectoria L.) Salem and Al Amoudi (2020)
Nasreen et al. (2023) Sudhakar (2020)
Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al. (2023)
Tehrani et al. (2023b)
İşmal et al. (2014; 2015)
Rani et al. (2020)
İşmal (2017)
Orange Rani and Jajpura (2021) Rose
Adeel et al. (2020b)
(Citrus sinensis L.) Adeel et al. (2022e) (Rosa indica L.)
Adeel et al. (2022b)
Talib et al. (2023)
Manyim et al. (2023)
Azeem et al. (2019b)
Brahma et al. (2019)
Zeera Adeel et al. (2020c) Arjun Bark
Gong et al. (2020)
(Cuminum cyminum) Habib et al. (2021) (Terminalia arjuna)
Barkaat et al. (2023)
Adeel et al. (2022c)
Srivastava et al. (2011) Zhou et al. (2020)
Bahera Camphor
Bansal (2014) Zhang et al. (2021)
(Terminalio bellirica) (Cinnamomum camphora)
Mall et al. (2017) Zhou et al. (2022)
Guesmi et al. (2013) Azeem et al. (2019b)
Harmal
Chlorophyll Souissi et al. (2018) Adeel et al. (2020c)
(Peganum harmala L.)
Gong et al. (2020) Habib et al. (2021)

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20721

Table 1  (continued)
Yameen et al. (2022)
Amutha and Annapoorani (2019) Nasreen et al. (2023)
Onion skin Pistachio
Batool et al. (2022) Habib et al. (2023)
(Allium cepa L.) (Pistacia Vera L.)
Hussaan et al. (2023) Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al.
(2023)
Guesmi and Hamadi (2018)
Mall et al. (2017) Date pits
Almond shell Baseri (2022a)
Souissi et al. (2018) (Phoenix dactylifera L.)
Ltaief et al. (2023)
Elaichi
Habib et al. (2021) Hegde et al. (2011)
(Elettaria cardamomum Garcinia indica
Adeel et al. (2022c) Hegde and Goutham (2015)
L.)
Jayalakshmi and Amsamani
Jabar et al. (2022) Karuvelam Tree Bark
Justicia carnea L. (2008)
Jabar et al. (2023a) (Prosopis Juliflora)
Jayalakshmi (2017)
Zhang et al. (2021)
Moringa Raza et al. (2018) Mugwort herb
Thakker and Sun (2022)
(Moringa oleifera Lam) Jabar et al. (2022) (Artemisia vulgaris L.)
Haji et al. (2023)
Zhang et al. (2022a) Pine cone Kilinc et al. (2015)
Musa basjoo leaf
Zhang et al. (2022b) (Pinus pinea L.) Ghaheh et al. (2022)
Sepalika flowers Wijayapala (2012) Thuja İşmal et al. (2014, 2015)
(Nyctanthes arbor-tristis) Wijayapala (2020) (Thuja orientalis L.) İşmal (2017)
Amaltas Bark
Barkaat et al. (2023) Anar phali fruit Barkaat et al. (2023)
(Cassia Fistula L.)
Black cherry stem
Thakker and Sun (2022) Chaenomeles speciosa fruit Yan et al. (2021)
(Prunus serotina)
Chestnuts Chinese tallow
Grifoni et al. (2014) Zhang et al. (2021)
(Castanea sativa Mill.) (Triadica sebifera L.)
Chinese tallow Cypress Leaf
Zhou et al. (2022) Kilinc et al. (2015)
(Sapium sebiferum L.) (Cupressus sempervirens L.)
Diospyros mollis L. Bunfueang et al. (2019) Entada spiralis Ridl Chairat et al. (2007)
Golden shower tree bark
Eurya acuminata Vankar et al. (2008b) Batool et al. (2022)
(Cassia fistula)
Gooseberry Guava
Kandasamy et al. (2021) Islam et al. (2022a,b)
(Ribes uva-crispa) (Psidium guajava L.)
Ixora javanica Iris germanica
Indrianingsih et al. (2021) İşmal (2017)
(Rubiaceae) (I. Versicolor)
Manjistha
Praveena et al. (2014) Mimosa pudica L. Baaka et al. (2023)
(Rubia cordifolia L.)
Myricaceae
Semwal et al. (2012) Mucuna pruriens L. Jabar et al. (2023a)
(Myrica esculenta)
Papaya
Rosyida et al. (2022) Peltophorum pterocarpum Mukherjee et al. (2017)
(Carica papaya L.)
Peppermint Pumpkin
Haji et al. (2023) Hosseinnezhad et al. (2022d)
(Mentha piperita L.) (Cucurbita spp.)
Quebracho tree bark
Stanculescu et al. (2017) Quercus castaneifolia Jahangiri et al. 82018)
(Schinopsis spp.)
Pyrus pashia Vankar and Shanker (2009) Rhizhophora mucronate fruits Praveena et al. (2014)
Rue herb
Rumex Hymenosepolus Haji (2010) Thakker and Sun (2022)
(Ruta graveolens)
Snep sohmylleng
Sohkhu Leaves
(Tsuga canadensis L. Banerjee et al. (2018) Banerjee et al. (2018)
(Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.)
Carr.)
Vernonia amygdalina Supari
Jabar et al. (2022) Agrawal and Chopra (2020)
leaves (Areca catechu)
White mulberry fruit Waitlam pyrthat Kurz
Hussaan et al. (2017) Banerjee et al. (2018)
(Morus alba L.) (Oroxylum indicum L.)
Willow Kavak et al. (2010)
Wheat bran Baseri and Ahmadzadeh (2022c)
(Salix alba L.) Geelani et al. (2015)
Taro
Xylocarpus moluccensis Rahman et al. (2013) Hosen et al. (2021)
(Colocasia esculenta L.)
Oleaster or Russian Olive
Coffee Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al. (2023) Hosseinnezhad et al. (2023b)
(Elaeagnus angustifolia L.)

due to the nuances produced by each natural dye, but dye- intense pink, mustard yellow, and yellow colors, respec-
ings with extracts of H. sabdariffa, A. cepa, and C. longa tively. It caused reddish-brown discoloration. In another
showed greater impregnation of A. mearnsii and showed study, pomegranate peel and Acacia were utilized as

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20722 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

bio-mordants to dye wool, while Alkanna tinctoria roots longa) rhizomes as bio-mordants to dye wool and cotton.
were employed as a natural dye. According to the results, Depending upon the findings, it is claimed that applied to
a wide range of colors were produced with good color MW-treated cotton at 55 °C for 75 min, 50 mL of acidified
quality and fastness results, and pomegranate peel extract, methanol-solubilized extract from a 5-min microwave-
iron, and babool, among other bio-mordants, improved the treated powder produced excellent results; additionally,
color yield of dyed wool (Shabbir et al. 2019). Sen et al. the use of salt of Fe as a chemical mordant and extracts of
(2019) used lac as a natural dye to dye polyester fiber and Acacia and turmeric as bio-mordants under ideal condi-
catechu, myrobalan, and pomegranate as bio-mordants. In tions has produced good to excellent fastness ratings;
accordance with the outcomes, it is claimed that the color microwave treatment also has good potential for the
strength obtained with catechu as a bio-mordant was extraction of the colorant from Arjun bark for cotton dye-
higher than with stannous chloride and comparable to that ing and its application (Adeel et al. 2022a, d, 2023f). In
with ferrous sulfate. To color nylon fabric, Rehman et al. one work, Raji et al. (2023) exploited Reseda luteola L.
(2021) employed lac insects as a natural dye and Acacia for the extract of a natural yellow dye, using the tannic
and turmeric as bio-mordants. In accordance with the find- bark of Acacia mearnsii as a bio-mordant to ensure sus-
ings, there is a claim that the pre-mordanting approach tainable dyeing of wool fabrics. Subject to the findings, it
produces the best fastness qualities, and the highest color is stated that pre-mordanting with an alternative bio-mor-
yields when 5% of Acacia and 1% of turmeric are added. dant (alum-Acacia mearnsii tannin) enhanced the fabric’s
Arifeen et al. (2021) used Acacia bark, turmeric, henna, general ability to absorb dyes, generating a spectrum of
pomegranate, and tannic acid as bio-mordants to color hues from pale yellow to dark brown while also exhibiting
nylon fabric. They also employed walnut bark as a natural outstanding resistance to washing and wet and dry rub-
dye. Subject to the findings, it is stated that in comparison bing. In one study, Kushwaha et al. (2023) reported that
to their synthetic counterparts, it has been found that using to dye pineapple fabric with coral jasmine natural dye
3% of turmeric extract as a pre-bio-mordant and 5% of using Acacia nilotica (babul bark) as a bio-mordant, the
Acacia extract as a post-bio-mordant has produced good results demonstrated that babul bark and coral jasmine
color qualities, and it is also determined that the incorpo- concentrations boosted color yield (K/S). The wash and
ration of sustainable biosources as a color modifier has rubbing fastness qualities were good to exceptional. The
added value to the natural dyeing process and improved fabric sample with the highest dye and mordant content
the color ratings of the reddish-brown dye obtained from (5% owf babul shell and 20% owf coral jasmine) showed
walnut bark by ultrasonic treatment, an environmentally antibacterial activity up to 98.23%, antioxidant activity up
friendly instrument. In a further experiment, Ficus religi- to 99.37%, and outstanding UV protection. It has been
osa bark powder was used as a natural dye to dye cotton, mentioned that there is a complex structure between the
and Acacia and pomegranate were used as bio-mordants. bio-mordan, the dye source, and the fiber.
Depending upon the findings, it is stated that 2% of pome-
granate and 4% of Acacia extracts used as a post-bio-mor- Almond shell
dant have produced good color qualities (Akram et al.
2022). Peepal (Ficus religiosa) was used by Habib et al. Green almond shells, which contain chemical structures
(2022) as a natural dye to color silk, and Acacia, turmeric, such as tannin and gallic acid, were used to strengthen dyes
and also pomegranate were used as bio-mordants. With and make them resistant to chemical treatments (Vankar and
regard to the findings, it is a claim that the use of bio- Shanker 2008a; İşmal et al. 2014). Souissi et al. (2018) used
mordants has improved the sustainability and environmen- three different metallic (Alun, Z­ nSO4, and C
­ uSO4) and bio-
tal friendliness of the process while also achieving the best logical (gall nuts, chlorophyll (a), and green almond shell)
K/S and L*a*b* values. In one study, Hayat et al. (2022) mordants to improve the absorption degree as well as the
employed Acacia and pomegranate as bio-mordants and color fastness of cotton fabrics dyed with the aqueous extract
black tea leaves as a natural dye to dye silk fabric. Based of dates. According to the results obtained, they determined
on the findings, it is stated that new color shades with that the color fastness values of dyeings made using bio-
good to outstanding fastness degrees were produced by logical mordants were higher than those made using metal
using iron (3%) and Acacia extract (2%), iron (2%), and mordants.
pomegranate extract as precursors and bio-mordant (2%)
were used as post-chemical and bio-mordant, while alu- Aloe vera
minum (3%) and pomegranate extract (3%) were used as
meta-chemical and bio-mordant. In different studies, People have recognized and used the Aloe vera plant for
Adeel et al. used pomegranate (Punica granatum) rind, thousands of years because of its advantages for their
Acacia (Acacia nilotica) bark, and turmeric (Curcuma health, looks, and skin. The name Aloe vera is derived

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20723

from the Arabic word “Alloeh,” which means “shining dye produced from the Cassia singueana plant without
bitter stuff,” and the Latin word “vera,” which denotes the use of a mordant and dying in the presence of Aloe
“truth.” The botanical name of the plant that yields Aloe vera, the findings of this experiment led to the conclusion
vera is Aloe barbadensis Miller. It belongs to the Lili- that it is possible to dye silk fabric with a range of accept-
aceae family and is a perennial, xerophytic, pea-green, able fastness attributes. In a different investigation, gelatin
shrubby, or arborescent plant. It primarily grows in the and Aloe vera extracts were employed as bio-mordants for
arid climates of Africa, Asia, Europe, and America. Aloe ecologically friendly dyeing of cotton fabric with a satis-
vera contains 75 potentially active substances, such as factory color fastness value. The relationship between the
vitamins, enzymes, minerals, carbohydrates, lignin, sapo- bio-mordan, the dye supply, and the fiber is complex, as
nins, salicylic acids, and amino acids. It provides 12 phe- was already mentioned (El-Zawahry et al. 2021).
nolic compounds called anthraquinones, which are widely
employed as laxatives. Emodin and aloin have antiviral, Amaltas (Cassia fistula L.) Bark
antibacterial, and analgesic properties (Surjushe et al.
2008). Aloe vera gel has unique characteristics like color- Amaltash is the popular name for Cassia fistula, a mem-
lessness, transparency, and viscosity and can be used as a ber of the Fabacae family. This plant is used in traditional
printing thickener, mordant, and antimicrobial for various medicine to treat leprosy, skin conditions, and syphilis, as
fabrics and colors. Aloe vera is used in pre-treatments such well as burns, constipation, convulsions, diarrhea, dysuria,
as cleaning, desizing, softening, and printing due to its and epilepsy. A rich source of tannins, flavonoids, and gly-
succulent, enzymatic, and sticky characteristics. A salty cosides can be found in Cassia fistula (Verma 2016). The
component of Aloe vera gel also allows for natural, eco- extract of this plant was used as a bio-mordant in natural
friendly coloring. Aloe vera gel is a natural antibacterial dyeing. Barkaat et al. (2023) stated that for bio-mordanting,
substitute for synthetic antimicrobials (Mosaad 2021). turmeric rhizomes, henna leaves, Acacia bark, pomegran-
Several scientists employ the Aloe vera plant as a bio- ate rind, Amaltas bark, pomegranate peel, Anar phali fruit,
mordant in their studies, according to the literature. In and Arjun bark were used in the natural dyeing process. It
one study, depending upon the findings, it is stated that is stated that before dyeing, the Arjun bark extract’s high
Aloe vera juice was utilized as a natural mordant, and strength (K/S = 25.04) and darker shade (L* = 22.3) with a
marigold petals were used as a natural dye, and when reddish yellow color (a* = 28.1; b* = 31.9) were generally
used in a 10:10 ratio with Aloe vera juice, the natural dye present, and the application of pomegranate extract, which
from marigold petals had a good dyeing impact on animal contains tannin, also created high strength (K/S = 26.1) and
fiber as opposed to plant or synthetic fiber (Nilani et al. a less red (a* = 12.1) but yellower color (b* = 29.6) follow-
2008). In a study, both metallic and organic (Aloe vera ing dyeing.
and lemon) mordants were used to color cotton garments
with a natural dye extract made from onion peel. Subject Amla (Emblica officinalis G.)
to the findings, it is stated that natural mordants gave pale
yellow colors, while synthetic mordants such as copper The tree Emblica officinalis G., often known as amla in
sulfate and alum also gave yellow colors, and on the other Hindi, belongs to the tiny genus Emblica and is indigenous
hand, iron sulfate gave darker shades of color (Zubairu to China, India, Ceylon, and India. Emblica is known to
and Mshelia 2015). Kumari et al. (2016) evaluated the be a good source of flavones, tannins, and other bioactive
dyeing effects on synthetic fibers by using the chemicals substances. Tannin, which makes approximately 28% of the
produced from Morus alba bark as a natural dye and Aloe fruit of Emblica officinalis G, includes a phenolic hydroxyl
vera extract as a natural mordant. In a study, the potential group that can help colored molecules in natural fabrics
for employing the extracts from the bark of the Cassia take on their color. In other words, tannin can improve the
singueana plant as a natural dye and the extracts from way plant dyes bind to fibers, intensifying the color of fab-
Aloe vera and mango peels as bio-mordants in the color- rics dyed with plant dyes like cotton and silk (Prabhu et al.
ing of tanned sheep skin was examined. The majority of 2011). Listed below are numerous articles in which amla is
samples showed that the fastness result fell between good used as a bio-mordant in natural dyeings. In a study, it was
and excellent (Berhanu and Ratnapandian 2017). Tekleme- emphasized that the tannin found in the dried fruits of the
dhin and Gopalakrishnan (2018) used Aloe vera extract as Emblica officinalis plant can be a good mordant for dye-
a bio-mordant for dyeing silk fabrics. When dyed directly ing cotton fabrics with direct dye (Jayanthi 2009). Prabhu
without a mordant and when dyed with copper sulfate and et al. (2011) reported that tannin extracted from the dried
Aloe vera mordants, the results for washing fastness, rub- fruits of Emblica officinalis can be used alone as a natural
bing fastness, and light fastness were nearly identical and mordant and can also be combined with copper sulfate for
recorded in the very good to excellent range. Using natural dyeing cotton and silk fabrics. It is stated that the inclusion

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20724 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

of Emblica officinalis G. tannin, which serves as a mordant

and contains phenolic hydroxyl groups that form complexes
with the dye molecules and increase the fixation of dye
on cotton fabric, was responsible for the improvement in
dyeing depth. In another study, it was reported that cotton
and silk fabrics could be dyed using the natural mordant
tannin extracted from amla using five different natural dye
sources and copper sulfate, a metal mordant, and the K/S
and UFP (ultraviolet protection factor) values of dyed fab-
rics increased significantly (Chao et al. 2017). In a different
study, natural indigo and marigold were used as natural
dyes, and amla, harda, and pomegranate rind were used
as natural mordants in the coloring of cotton and cotton/
viscose fabrics, and it was reported that natural mordants
could be promising in the future (Teli and Ambre 2017).
Chilukoti et al. (2019) stated that cotton fabrics can be dyed
using the extract obtained from onion peel as a natural dye
by using the Soxhlet device and using amla, myrobalan,
pomegranate peel, and chitosan as natural mordants. It is
stated that in the pre-mordanting procedure, chitosan was
found to have the highest K/S values among the four distinct
mordants, and the fastness characteristics of nearly all the
samples were found to be average. In another study, it was
stated that bio-mordants (harda powder, pomegranate peel, Fig. 1  Complex structure formed between bio-mordant, wool, and
dye (this figure was adapted from Iqbal et al. 2023)
orange peel, and amla powder) can replace metal mordants
in wool dyeing due to the dyeing of protein fabrics using
natural tannin extracts as well as metal salts (ferrous sul- bio-mordanting, turmeric rhizomes, henna leaves, Acacia
fate, alum, and copper chloride). Dyed fabrics, especially bark, pomegranate rind, Amaltas bark, pomegranate peel,
wool, exhibited a very large enhancement in UV protec- Anar phali fruit, and Arjun bark were used in the natural
tion, and it is also stated that dye extract and dyed samples dyeing process.
have very good anti-microbial behavior (Rani et al. 2020).
In one study, Iqbal et al. (2023) stressed the use of bio- Arjun bark (Terminalia arjuna)
mordants like Aloe vera and Emblica officinalis (amla) to
accomplish sustainable natural dyeing utilizing Dalbergia Terminalia arjuna (family Combetaceae), a versatile medici-
sissoo on wool. Results indicate that utilizing natural mor- nal plant with a wide range of biological activities and a
dants improved the fixing of natural dyes and also enhanced large-sized fluted tree with a usually buttressed trunk, is
their antibacterial activity. The complex structure between found in the South Asian region. The presence of active
the bio-mordant, the dye source, and the wool is presented substances, such as phytosterol, lactones, flavonoids, phe-
in Fig. 1. nolic compounds, tannins, and glycosides, was detected
through phytochemical screening in high concentrations
(Mandal et al. 2013). Arjun bark, which is used as a natural
Anar phali fruit dye source in some studies, has been reported by Brahma
et al. (2019) as being used as a bio-mordant in their study.
Mexico is the native home of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.), They used marigold, Eucalyptus leaf, and henna as natural
also known as the prickly pear, barbary pear, cactus dyes and Eucalyptus bark, Arjun bark, and Khair as natu-
pear, Indian pear, Indian fig, tuna fig, mission cactus, ral mordants for dyeing cotton fabric. It can be seen that
nopal, nopalito, amar phali, chittarthohar, and nagphani. brighter colors generally result from higher quantities of
Kaempferol, quercetin, kaempferol 3-methyl ether, narcis- natural mordants. Eucalyptus bark exhibits higher color pro-
sin, ( +)-dihydroxykaempferol (aromadenrin), ( +)-dihy- duction than Arjuna and Khair among the natural mordants.
droxyquercetin (taxifolin), and eriodictyol are among The yield of color increases as mordant’s concentration is
the flavonoids found in nopal fruit (Khan and Shau- increased. Higher color strength and washing fastness have
kat 2006). Anar phali fruit was used as a bio-mordant been noted to be challenging to attain with natural mordants
in natural dyeing. Barkaat et al. (2023) stated that for (Brahma et al. 2019).

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20725

Bahera (Terminalia bellirica Roxb.) light yellow, and silk fabrics dyed with banana stem extract
came out a similar color. Tannic acid was used to dye the
One of the first medicinal plants used in Southeast Asia, fabric, yielding a pale yellow color, and all the dyed samples
India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, was Ter- had good rubbing and washing fastness with no color change
minalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. With about 200 species, (Mariamma and Jose 2018). Mathur and Gupta (2003)
the genus Terminalia ranks second in size among the Com- obtained concentrated aqueous natural mordants by extrac-
bretaceae family behind Combretum (Gupta et al. 2020). tion of banana flower petaloid in a study they conducted. The
Alkaloids, flavones, lignans, tannins, phenols, coumarin, turmeric-dyed (Curcuma longa) Bharat Merino sheep wool
terpenoids, glycosides, and saponins are only a few of the yarn was then treated separately with natural mordant and
various bioactive secondary metabolites present in T. bel- chromium metal salt. They reported that the color fastness
lirica, which have a wide range of pharmacological activity and K/S values of dyeings made using natural mordants and
(Abraham et al. 2014). The article showing that T. bellirica chromium salt were similar. In a different study, in which
can be used as a bio-mordant is presented below. One study Senegalia catechu flowers were used as a natural dye for dye-
used Rheum emodi as a source of colored extracted dye and ing wool, it was shown that banana pseudostem sap could be
Myrobalan or harda fruit skin (Terminalia chebula), anar used as a bio-mordant (Ansari et al. 2018). In another study,
rind (Punica granatum), amla (Emblica officinalis), Bahera Ansari and Iqbal (2021) used Butea monosperma and Tagetes
(Terminalia bellirica), and Katha (Acacia catechu) as bio- erecta flower extracts as natural dyes, banana pseudostem
mordants to dye silk fabrics. It is reported that the fastness sap, and Punica granatum rinds as bio-mordants to investi-
results of all metallic mordants were very good to washing gate the antibacterial activity of selected herbal products used
and sunlight, except tin chloride, and the hues produced by in fabric dyeing. In another study, Diarsa and Gupte (2022)
natural mordants, such as amla and Katha, were also viewed reported that color fastness and dye uptake improved when
as quite positive (Srivastava et al. 2011). In one study, they used banana pseudostem sap as a natural mordant and
Carissa carandas L. was used as a natural dye to dye silk, marigold (Tagetes erecta) as a natural dye. It is stated that
and Terminalia bellirica Roxb. and Punica granatum were the simultaneous mordanting process produced cotton and
used as bio-mordants. It is claimed that Carissa carandas silk fabrics with the highest color strength, brightest yellow
imparted a brown color range on silk, and as natural mor- tones, and lowest L value. In one study, Phromphen aimed to
dants, Terminalia bellirica and Punica granatum showed optimize the dyeing process of marigold flower dye by using
increased physical properties with good to very good sun- banana peel extraction as a bio-mordant in cotton fabrics.
light and washing fastness properties (Bansal 2014). It is stated that the washing and light fastness of the cotton
fabrics that had been mordanted had both improved (Phrom-
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) phen 2023).

The herbaceous plant known as the banana (Musa para-

Black cherry stem (Prunus serotina)
disiaca) is a member of the Musaceae family. It is widely
accepted that it came from a tropical part of southern Asia.
Thakker and Sun (2022) reported that hops can be used as
Bananas also produce a significant amount of biomass as
a natural dye in dyeing cotton fabric and as natural mordant
waste in the form of pseudostems, leaves, suckers, etc. Api-
agents in oak bark, mugwort herb (Artemisia vulgaris L.),
genin glycosides, myricetin glycoside, myricetin-3-O-ruti-
rue herb (Ruta graveolens), and black cherry stem (Prunus
noside, naringenin glycosides, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside,
serotina). While the dyed samples had very good rubbing
quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, dopamine, and N-acetylseroto-
and washing fastnesses, moderately light fastness values
nin were the main substances identified in the banana sap
were obtained. Bio-mordant, cotton, and dye have a complex
(Pothavorn et al. 2010). Some papers in which different
structure, shown in Fig. 2.
parts of the banana are used as bio-mordant are given as
follows. It is reported that different shades were obtained
due to varying concentrations of dye, and the simultaneous Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora)
mordanting method gave very good to excellent results for
dyed wool samples (Ansari et al. 2018). As tannin, a poly- Camphor is a substance with a strong odor and pungent
phenolic substance found in banana pseudo stem sap, has taste, obtained from camphor laurel (Cinnamomum cam-
great characteristics for the fixing of the pigment molecules. phora) and other related trees of the laurel family. Topi-
Strong hydrogen bonds provide a cross-link, which improves cal analgesic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antipruritic, anti-
the dye’s stability and results in an excellent fastness prop- inflammatory, anti-infective, anti-redness, contraceptive,
erty. It is stated that using the two mordants, banana stem mild expectorant, nasal decongestant, cough suppressant,
extract produces a color ranging from light vanilla cream to etc. Camphor has many pharmaceutical applications.

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20726 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

Fig. 2  Complex structure formed between bio-mordant, cotton, and dye (this figure was adapted from Thakker and Sun 2022)

Cinnamomum camphora leaf contains camphor as the main Chestnuts (Castanea sativa Mill.)
ingredient along with cineol, linalool, eugenol, limonene,
safrole, α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrecene, α-humulene, Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) is a versatile plant that
p-cymene, nerolidol, borneol, camphene, and some other is grown for lumber, nuts, and tannin and makes a posi-
ingredients (Hamidpour et al. 2013). Zhou et al. (2020) tive contribution to the forestry environment. It is pri-
dyed woolen fabrics with a bio-mordant agent derived from marily found in the Northern Hemisphere, in Southern
camphor green leaves (chlorophyll extract) and a natural Europe, from Turkey to the Atlantic Islands, in Asia,
dye derived from tannin-rich waste, Chinese tallow/Sapium primarily in China, Korea, and Japan, and in the USA
sebiferum L. It is stated that the use of two metal mordants (Pereira-Lorenzo et al. 2006). Chestnut wood, bark, and
(ferrous sulfate and alum) and one bio-mordant (chlorophyll flesh tannin extracts’ chemical makeup has been identi-
extract) enhanced and widened the shade palette, ranging fied, and they all fall within the category of hydrolyz-
from dark black (ferrous sulfate) to dark yellow (chlorophyll able tannins (Vázquez et al. 2008). Grifoni et al. (2014)
extract) shades. demonstrated that using the tannin found in chestnut as
a bio-mordant, vegetable fibers (cotton and jute) can be
Chaenomeles speciosa fruit dyed with various natural dyestuff sources (Helichrysum
italicum Roth (Roth), Rubia peregrina L. (wild madder),
In China, the Chaenomeles speciosa (CSP) and Chaenome- Daphne gnidium L. (daphne), Lavandula stoechas L.
les sinensis (CSS) species are commonly farmed, and their (wild lavender), and Cynara scolymus L. (artichoke)). It
fruits are always plucked just as they are starting to ripen. is stated that flax samples dyed with Helichrysum extract
In China, CSP and CSS are well-known and can be used showed an improvement in UV protection properties when
to make a variety of popular canned foods, preserves, fruit mordanted with potassium alum instead of tannins; chest-
wines, fruit vinegars, juices, and other products. The active nut tannins provided a slight support in phenol uptake
components of CSP and CSS have been identified as flavo- for Lavandula and Helichrysum plant dyes with respect
noids (such as quercetin, luteolin, catechin, epicatechin, and to potassium alum, but without an improvement of the
procyanidin B1 and B2), triterpenes (such as oleanolic acid fabrics UV protection properties.
and ursolic acid), phenolics (such as chlorogenic acid), car-
bohydrates, amino acids, proteins, and tannins (Miao et al.
2016). Yan et al. (2021) stated that dye extracts obtained Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera L.)
from dried Buddleja officinalis flowers can be used in dye-
ing hemp fabric with 2 different metals (alum) and ferrous Due to a unique combination of rapid growth and excel-
sulfate and 3 different natural mordants (Chaenomeles spe- lent stress tolerance, Chinese tallow is the most pervasive
ciosa fruit, gum rosin, and plant ash). Natural mordants have non-native tree species in southern US woods and aggres-
similar effects to metallic ones on fastness after washing, and sively displaces native tree species (Gan et al. 2009).
acid perspiration, and dyed samples. The large number of flavonoids and phenolics (gallic

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20727

Fig. 3  Complex structure formed between wool, bio-mordant, and natural dye (this figure was adapted from Zhang et al. 2021)

acid, quercetin, kaempferol, etc.) found in bio-mordants Chlorophyll

like Chinese tallow displays strong antioxidant activity
and is consistent with the relative concentration of the Chlorophyll (a) is a plant pigment that gives plants their
majority of known phenolic components. Zhang et al. green color. Research has shown that using chlorophyll
(2021) used the seed pods of Eriobotrya japonica L. as (a) increases wool’s ability to absorb natural colors
a natural dye source and the flora leaves of Chinese tal- (Guesmi et al. 2013). Various studies showing that chlo-
low (tannins), Folium artemisiae argyi (eupatilin), and rophyll (a) is used as a natural mordant in dyeing pro-
Cinnamomum camphora (chlorophyll) as bio-mordants cesses are listed. In one study, dyes were extracted from
for the coloring of the woolen fabric and for the bio- Opuntia ficus-indica by ultrasound, and the dyeing of
functional finish. The complex structure formed between wool fabric was investigated using betanin as the natu-
wool, bio-mordant, and natural dye is presented in Fig. 3. ral dye and chlorophyll-a as a bio-mordant. The results
It is claimed that due to the high contact between fiber show an increase in color strength values with increas-
and dye molecules activated by functional groups (such ing bio-mordant concentrations, and mordanted sam-
as phenolic groups), fabric mordanted with tannin-rich ples also have good fastness properties (Guesmi et al.
bio-mordant had the best color strength and excellent 2013). Gong et al. (2020) investigated the possibility
functional behavior. of dyeing wool with natural dye obtained from middle-
aged or mature leaves of Cinnamomum camphora. They
Chinese tallow (Sapium sebiferum L.) reported that the application of different bio-mordants,
such as gallnut, pomegranate peel, Arjun bark, chloro-
Originating in China, the Chinese tallow tree (Sapium phyll extract, and citric acid, produced a range of envi-
sebiferum L.) (Euphorbiaceae) today mostly thrives in ronmentally friendly shades with a highly diverse color
subtropical areas of the world and is frequently grown as gamut and high color fastness. It is stated that in gen-
an ornamental plant. Gallic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, eral, the color and fastness findings of pre-biomordanted
sitosterol glycoside, astragalin, 6-O-galloyl-d-glucose, wool fibers with P. granatum, citric acid, and chloro-
methyl gallate, and methyl-3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate have phyll extract were equivalent to those of metal-treated
all been found in the leaves of Sapium sebiferum (Fu et al. samples.
2013). In one study, this herb was used as a bio-mordant.
In this study, Gingko biloba L. leaf extract was used as a Coffee
natural dye, and Sapium sebiferum L. and Cinnamomum
camphora extracts were used as bio-mordants for dyeing According to Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al. (2023), nylon 6
wool fabrics. While metal salts showed adverse effects cloth was dyed a brown color using rhubarb flower pieces.
on the antibacterial performance of dyed wool fabric, Four natural mordants, including walnut husks, pistachio
most of the bio-mordants showed improved antibacterial hulls, pine cones, and green coffee, were used to obtain sat-
performance. With metals and bio-mordants, the natural isfactory color fastness. The strongest color was obtained
dye made from G. biloba L. waste leaves created brown by 10% of walnut husk; however, several natural mordants
colors in a range of shades and tones. The produced colors all produced the same color (brown). The remarkable color
included shades of reddish-brown, dark brown, and light fastness of samples that have been bio-mordanted makes
brown (Zhou et al. 2022). them a useful alternative to metal mordants. The complex

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20728 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

Fig. 4  Complex structure

formed between nylon 6,
bio-mordant, and natural dye
(this figure was adapted from
Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al. 2023)

structure formed between nylon 6, bio-mordant, and natural molecules, including proteins, alkaloids, steroids, vitamins,
dye is presented in Fig. 4. phenols, triterpenes, and other groups of chemicals, were
discovered through phytochemical and chromatographic
Cypress leaf (Cupressus sempervirens L.) screening (Alshowiman 1990). In one of the studies using
date seeds, Guesmi and Hamadi (2018) reported that cotton
Twelve species of the Cupressus genus (Cupressaceae) are can be dyed with the same extract using the bio-metals found
found at high altitudes in North America, the Mediterranean in the date pits (Guesmi and Hamadi 2018). In another study,
Basin, and subtropical Asia. Due to its therapeutic and phar- Baseri (2022a) suggested that wool yarns can be dyed with
macological benefits, C. sempervirens is frequently used as high fastnesses by using date seeds as an environmentally
a cosmetic ingredient in soap and fragrance, including its friendly mordant and Zenian as a dye. In one study, Ltaief
essential oil, which is extracted from the shoots (Selim et al. et al. (2023) stated that to dye cotton, Citrullus colocyn-
2014). The prominent structures in the chemical composition this leaves were used as a dye source, biomordanting with
of Cupressus (Cupressaceae) cones, leaves, and seeds are pomegranate peel and date palm pits. It is expressed that
α-pinene, Δ3-carene, β-mircene, limonene, and α-terpinolene pre-biomordanting with pomegranate peel and date palm
(Tumen et al. 2010). Kilinc et al. (2015) suggested that this pits and polyethyleneimine, a co-polymer of dimethyl diallyl
plant can be used as a bio-mordant. In their study, they used ammonium chloride and diallylamin, considerably improved
the extract obtained from Chamaecyparis lawsoniana cones the color strength and exhaustion outcomes when applied to
as a natural dye to dye wool fabrics and the extracts obtained cotton fabric.
from Cupressus sempervirens, lemon peel, and larch cones
as mordant materials. It is stated that mordanting with larch, Diospyros mollis L.
lemon peel, and cypress generated better K/S values, and the
lower mordant concentrations gave, in general, better color The genus Diospyros L. (Ebenaceae), distributed in regions
change and lower staining values. such as India, Thailand, Japan, Nigeria, South Africa, and
the Philippines, is characterized by its ability to produce
Date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) pits triterpenes from the lupine family. It has been reported that
there are chemical structures such as luperol, a-amyrine,
In dry and semiarid areas of the world, including North b-cytostreol, diospyrol, 1,8-dihyroxynapthalene, 8-dihyroxy-
Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and South Asian nations, 2-acetyl-3-methyl, and napthalene in the fruits of Diospyros
date palm is widely grown (Shi et al. 2014). In numerous mollis Griff (Maridass 2008). Bunfueang et al. (2019) stated
studies, the chemical makeup of date pits has been deter- that people in the north of Thailand use the extracted aque-
mined (Ali-Mohamed and Khamis 2004). Other organic ous liquid from the fruit of Diospyros mollis as a natural

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20729

mordant agent for the dyeing of cotton with natural dyes, have good wash fastness, although natural mordants exhibit
and the dyed cotton exhibits good wash and light fastness results that are almost identical. A greater K/S value was
properties. reportedly obtained for natural mordant in together mordant-
ing compared to synthetic mordant; on the other hand, it was
Elaichi (Elettaria cardamomum L.) claimed that mixing natural and synthetic mordant produced
the best results in together mordanting.
Small cardamom, green cardamom, and genuine carda-
mom are all names for the Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Eurya acuminata
plant, which is produced in Tanzania, India, Guatemala, Sri
Lanka, and Nepal (Garg et al. 2016). According to reports, Eurya acuminata is a tall evergreen shrub with 5–7.6 cm
different polyphenolic components and antioxidant proper- long, narrowly oblongelliptic, serrulate, attenuate leaves. It
ties are present in cardamom extract from different spices is found widely in Japan, China, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
(Shan et al. 2005; Naveed et al. 2013). Adeel et al. (2022c) Vietnam, Taiwan, and in the hilly forests of Bangladesh.
described a sustainable, green dyeing procedure for silk that In the chemical analysis of different Eurya species, many
included neem, elaichi, turmeric, and zeera as bio-mordants chemicals were found, including anthrocyanins, ellagic acid,
and Esfand (Peganum harmala) as a natural dye. The color caffeine, flavone, flavonols, β-D-glucopyranoside, eury-
coordinates are said to show that most of the samples have anoside, and chrysoeriol (Faisal et al. 2016). Vankar et al.
brighter, redder, and yellower hues; however, the best fabric (2008b) reported that environmentally friendly dyeing can
dyed after ultrasound exposure for up to 30 min has pro- be done by using Rubia cordifolia as a natural dye and Eurya
duced brighter shades with a yellowish red tone, and simi- acuminata as a bio-mordant to dye cotton fabric. Accord-
larly, the acidic extract has produced a brighter shade with ing to the claim, using a bio-mordant not only improves the
a redder and more yellowish tone, while the methanolic fastness qualities but also provides useful colorimetric infor-
extract has produced a brighter tint with a reddish-yellow mation on dyeing, and even the fastness properties in this
hue. instance produce positive outcomes.

Entada spiralis Ridl Garcinia indica

Malaysia is home to the woody climber Entada spiralis Ridl Garcinia indica is a member of the genus Garcinia and the
(Leguminoceae), whose stem bark has historically been used family Clusiaceae. It is indigenous to India and can be found
as shampoo, soap, and a remedy for syphilis and insect bites. growing there, as well as in forests, along rivers, in waste-
Also, in many reports, Entada sp. has been shown to have lands, and in the western ghats of southern India. Mangostin,
antimicrobial and antifungal activity against various fungal normangostin, betamangostin, gamma-mangostin, and iso-
pathogens (Aboaba et al. 2006). In one study, Chairat et al. mangostin are the primary xanthone derivatives found in the
(2007) investigated the dyeing effect of cotton and silk yarn fruit hull (Hegde et al. 2011). Hegde et al. (2011) reported
with an extract obtained from dried fruit peels of mango- that to dye cotton fabrics, Punica granatum, Rubia cordifo-
steen (Garcinia mangostana L.) and a natural mordant solu- lia, Terminalia chebula, Rheum emodi, turmeric (Curcuma
tion obtained from the stems of Entada spiralis Ridl. It is longa) root, and annatto (Bixa orellana) seed extracts can be
claimed that pre-mordanting with the natural Entada spiralis dyed using natural dyes and Garcinia indica fruit shell as a
mordant solution increased the K/S value of the dyed cotton bio-friendly mordant. It is stated that Garcinia indica fruit
compared to pre-mordanting with conventional mordants. extract, as a natural mordant dyed with turmeric and applied
to organic woven cotton, exhibits fair staining and good
Eucalyptus washing resistance. In another study, Hegde and Goutham
(2015) stated that to dye silk fabrics, turmeric (Curcuma
In their study, Anandhan and Prabaharan (2018) used the longa) root and annatto seed extracts can be dyed using natu-
extract obtained from the pomegranate peel as a dye to dye ral dyes and Garcinia indica fruit shell as an eco-friendly
cotton fabric, and the extract obtained from the Eucalyptus mordant.
bark as a natural mordant and reported that the obtained dye-
ing results could be compared with the dyeings made with Golden (Cassia fistula) shower tree bark
metal mordants (such as aluminum sulfate, copper sulfate,
and ferrous sulfate). Dutta et al. (2021) proposed that onion The semi-wild Indian labernum Cassia fistula Linn., com-
peel extract can be used as a natural dye and Eucalyptus and monly known as the golden shower, has been widely dis-
myrobalan can be used as bio-mordants to dye cotton-knitted persed in a number of nations, including Brazil, Mexico,
fabrics in another study. It is stated that synthetic mordants the West Indies, India, South Africa, Mexico, and China.

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20730 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

It is well recognized that the plant organs of C. fistula as bio-mordants for extracts from banana (Musa paradai-
constitute a significant source of secondary metabolites, sica L.) peel and guava (Psidium guajava) leaves by using
particularly phenolic chemicals. It has been reported that natural dyes extracted from onion skin. In line with the
there are chemical structures such as oxyanthraquinone and results obtained, it has been suggested that banana peel
dihydroxyanthraquinone, especially in the bark of the tree and guava leaves, which are used as bio-mordants, can be
(Bahorun et al. 2005). Bitter gourd leaf extract can be used an alternative to metallic mordants. It is stated that extracts
as dyes, and turmeric (curcumin), henna (lawson), golden from guava leaves produce better color strength outcomes
shower peel (tannin), onion peel (quercetin), and pomegran- (Islam et al. 2022a, b).
ate peel (tannin) can be used as bio-mordants to dye cot-
ton with sufficient color fastness, according to Batool et al. Harmal (Peganum harmala L.)
(2022). According to pre-bio-mordanting experiment find-
ings, applying extracts of golden shower bark, pomegran- Harmal (Peganum harmala L., family Zygophyllaceae) is a
ate peels, turmeric, henna, and onion peel before dying has perennial, glabrous plant that is native to the eastern Medi-
produced a darker hue. This is a result of extra H-bonding terranean region and grows naturally in semi-arid climates,
between the flavonoid (colorant), cellulosic cotton, and the steppe areas, and sandy soils. Studies on the chemical struc-
(-OH) of the bio-mordant. ture of the extracts reveal that the important components of
the plant are quinazoline alkaloids and beta-carboline (Mol-
Gooseberry (Ribes uva‑crispa) oudizargari et al. 2013). An example of its application in the
textile industry: Azeem et al. (2019b) used logwood extract
Gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa L.) has been evaluated as as a natural dye and zeera (Cuminum cyminum), harmal
a potential source of bioactive compounds with outstand- (Peganum harmala), and turmeric (Curcuma longa) extracts
ing antioxidant activity due to its phenolic, flavonoid, and as bio-mordants to dye wool fabrics with natural dyes with
anthocyanin contents (Orsavová et al. 2019). In one study, the help of ultrasonic energy. It is stated that fabrics dyed
the dyeing potential of waste sawdust (Pterocarpus indi- with various bio-mordants are much brighter, much redder,
cus Willd.) was investigated, and an ultrasound-assisted and much more yellow.
extraction method was applied to extract the natural dye
from this sawdust. The resulting extract was used in dyeing Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.)
cotton and silk fabrics using various metallic and natural
mordants such as alum, stannous chloride, copper sulfate, Henna, also known as Lawsonia inermis L. (sometimes
gall nut (Quercus infectoria), pomegranate peel (Punica known as Lawsonia alba), is the only species in the genus
granatum L.), and gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa L.), and and a member of the Lythraceae family. From various
the process was optimized. In addition, the effect of differ- plant sections, around 70 phenolic chemicals have been
ent pretreatments, such as chitosan and myrobalan, on fabric identified. Lawsone, a coloring ingredient in naphthaqui-
dyeing was also investigated. It is stated that the preparation nones, has been connected to a number of medicinal
of naturally colored cotton and silk fabrics with chitosan actions. The strong scent of the essential oil extracted
and myrobalan is said to considerably improve their color from the flowers is mostly due to the terpene ionone. In
strength, color fastness, and UV protection qualities, and addition to various volatile terpenes, the plant has also
also that the positive a* and b* readings of all dyed materi- yielded some non-volatile terpenoids, one sterol, two
als indicate that they are all in the reddish to yellowish color alkaloids, and two derivatives of the dioxin (Semwal
range (Kandasamy et al. 2021). et al. 2014). Henna has been used as both a dye and a
bio-mordant in natural dyeing. Some research on their
Guava (Psidium guajava L.) use as a bio-mordant is presented below. Adeel et al.
(2019b) used microwave energy to dye wool fabrics
The guava tree (Psidium guajava L.), like most fruit tree with cochineal-based natural dye (carminic acid) and
species, exhibits various phenological stages over the claimed that excellent fastness colors could be obtained
course of its vegetative life in response to environmental by using henna and pomegranate as bio-mordants. It is
factors (Salazar et al. 2006). The guava (Psidium guajava reported that, comparing the application of bio-mordants
L.) plant’s green leaves are a reliable source of phenolic to chemical mordants, the color has improved overall
substances like tannins. The presence of gallic acids, cat- and has outstanding qualities. In another study, Batool
echin, ellagic acid, and their derivatives has been men- et al. (2019) used black carrot (Daucus carota L.) to dye
tioned. Additionally, it has coloring molecules called cotton and chemical (tannic acid and iron sulfate) and
myricetin-3-O-β-D-glucoside. In a study, it was investi- bio-mordants (turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and henna
gated whether jute-cotton combined fabrics can be used (Lawsonia inermis L.) to increase color strength. Cotton

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20731

fabrics that had been dyed showed the best color fastness showed antibacterial properties, and colors in orange, brown,
characteristics in terms of exposure to light, washing, and and green tones were obtained.
dry and wet rubbing. In another study, Zuber et al. (2020)
suggested that bio-mordants could be used to make the Iris germanica (I. versicolor)
natural coloring process more environmentally friendly.
They used neem (Azadirachta indica) bark extract as a Iris germanica (I. versicolor) is a member of the Iridaceae
natural dye by microwave energy in dyeing silk fabrics, family and includes tannin, volatile oil, starch, salicylates,
as well as turmeric (Curcuma longa), henna (Lawsonia and acrid resin (irisin). It is a blood purifier and helps with
inermis), pomegranate (Punica granatum), and Acacia skin issues (Mabey 1988). Nine isoflavonoids isolated from
(Acacia nilotica) as bio-mordants in their work. It is Iris germanica L. were tested for their anti-inflammatory
reported that when used before dying the irradiated silk properties using activated human neutrophils in a spectro-
with colorant extracted from neem bark after microwave photometric assay (Rahman et al. 2003). In his study, İşmal
treatment for 2 min, lawsone extracted from henna, cur- (2017) used pomace extract as dye and Iris germanica (I.
cumin extracted from turmeric, quercetin from Acacia, versicolor), valex (acorn of Quercus ithaburensis ssp. mac-
and tannin extracted from pomegranate rind have excel- rolepis), pomegranate rind (Punica granatum L.), rosemary
lent color strength. Adeel et al. (2020b) used yellow dyes (Rosmarinus officinalis), and thuja (Thuja orientalis) as
obtained from cinnamon bark to dye silk, Al and Fe salts bio-mordants to dye woolen fabrics with a clean and sus-
as sustainable chemical mordants, and Acacia, henna, tainable production approach. It is stated that, compared
rose, pomegranate, and turmeric extracts as bio-mor- to the control sample, large quantities of thuja, iris, and
dants and emphasized that the results could be obtained rosemary generally seemed to improve darkness.
at sufficient fastness values. Amin et al. (2020) also used
henna as a bio-mordant in their studies. They used henna Justicia carnea L
leaves, Acacia bark, turmeric, and pomegranate bark as
bio-mordants for green and sustainable processes from Justicia carnea L. is a flowering plant commonly found in
cochineal insects extracted with the help of microwaves in various parts of Africa. It has been reported that there are
the coloring of silk fabrics and obtained high fastnesses. chemical structures such as terpenoids, phenols, and flavo-
In the study, where licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) noids within the plant (Onyeabo et al. 2017). In one study,
was used as a natural dye source, cotton fabric was dyed Jabar et al. (2022) used Justicia carnea L. leaves, Moringa
with the effect of ultrasonic waves, while Acacia, henna, oleifera L. bark, Azadirachta indica L. bark, and Vernonia
turmeric, and pomegranate extracts were used as bio- amygdalina leaves as bio-mordant agents to dye cotton fabric
mordants. It is stated that fastness characteristics after with natural dyes. It has been reported that different colors
bio-mordant application revealed that functional potent can be obtained, from yellow to chocolate, depending on the
molecules interacted with the functional moiety of the type of mordant applied.
colorant and cotton fabric (-OH) so tightly that the shade
developed resists fading to a significant degree when Karuvelam (Prosopis juliflora) tree bark
exposed to heat, light, crocking, dry cleaning, and per-
spiration agents (Adeel et al. 2022i). Rasool et al. (2023) Another herb used as a bio-mordant is Karuvelam bark.
also reported that henna can be used as a bio-mordant; in Karuvelam is a difficult plant to remove by hand due to its
their study, they used the extracts of bougainvillea (Bou- spines and deep roots that suppress the growth of neigh-
gainvillea glabra) flowers as dyes and henna and turmeric boring plants (Devadharshini et al. 2018). Jayalakshmi and
as bio-mordants in the dyeing of cotton and silk. Amsamani (2008), and Jayalakshmi (2017) emphasized that
annatto, catechu, and eclipta extracts can be used as natural
Ixora javanica (Rubiaceae) dyes, and Karuvelam, myrobalon, and neem bark can be
used as bio-mordants. It has been reported that both good
The lovely red-blooming plant Ixora javanica, which washing and light fastness can be obtained in dyeings made
belongs to the Rubiaceae family, is noted for having a lot by using bio fixing agents together with natural dyes.
of flavonoid chemicals in it, notably in its flowers. Stud-
ies on I. javanica’s phytochemistry revealed the presence Lemon (Citrus lemon L.)
of flavonoids such as quercetin, formononetin, and antho-
cyanin (Dontha et al. 2015; Vishwanadham et al. 2016). Lemons and limes are the fruits that have the highest cit-
Indrianingsih et al. (2021) used G. mangostana extract as a ric acid overall. Citrus fruits naturally contain a high con-
dye source and Ixora javanica leaves as a natural mordant centration of the weak tricarboxylic acid known as citric
to color cotton fabrics and reported that the dyed fabrics acid (Penniston et al. 2008). Citric acid, found in lemon

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20732 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

juice or peel, has been used as a bio-mordant in differ- and triterpenoids. Isomangiferin, tannins, and gallic
ent studies. Sundrarajan et al. (2012) investigated the silk acid derivatives are the main bioactive components of
dyeing properties of Parijatak (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis) the xanthone glycoside mangiferin (Shah et al. 2010).
flowers and used pomegranate, tannin, and lemon juice Jayalakshmi and Amsamani (2007) used manjistha and
as natural mordants as well as metal mordants. In another ratanjot as natural dyes to dye wool yarn, and pomegran-
study, it was used in the natural dyeing process of wool by ate peel and mango peel as bio-mordants. In order to cre-
combining it with lemon juice, copper sulfate, potassium ate environmentally friendly hues, Wangatia et al. (2015)
dichromate, and iron sulfate in different proportions. It investigated the application of mango tree bark mordant
has been stated that, depending on the mordant substance, to cotton using a pre-mordanting or post-mordanting
dyeings can be obtained in perfect colors from yellow to approach. They used a natural dye made from bitter
green (Singh and Purohit 2012, 2014). Kanchana et al. plants and discovered that post-mordanting with mango
(2013) used Clitoria ternatea (clitoria flowers), Tagetes produces stronger colors and better color fastness than
erecta Linn (Marigold) flowers, Punica granatum (pome- pre-mordanting. Other researchers using mango peel as a
granate) peel as natural dyes, and lemon as a natural mor- natural mordant are Bhandari et al. (2021). In their work,
dant in their research to dye cotton and synthetic fabrics. they used the bark of Castanopsis indica as a dye to dye
Maryam et al. (2019) were among the researchers who the fabric and Aloe vera and mango bark extract as natural
used lemon juice as a mordant agent. They used Allium mordants. It has been reported that colors in brown tones
cepa onion skin to dye cotton fabric and tannic acid, Aloe are obtained depending on the mordant substance. In one
vera, and lemon juice as natural mordants. It has been study, the effects of bio-mordants on the dyeing qualities
reported that different color tones can be obtained, from of Euclea divinorum Hiern (Ebenaceae) dye extract were
brown to purple, depending on the mordant material and evaluated using several mordanting techniques on cot-
the mordanting method. A series of studies using lemon ton fabric, according to Manyim et al. (2023). For cotton
juice as a mordant can be summarized as follows: alum, fabric that has been dyed, the bio-mordants increased the
acetic acid, C ­ uSO 4, and lemon juice were used to dye color strength from 0.612 to 0.863 and 0.911 for mango
cotton, silk, and polyester yarns using different natural and rosemary, respectively.
dye sources such as sepals of Mussaenda hybrid, fruits of
Carissa carandas, Syzygium cumini, pink leaves of Cor-
dyline fruticosa, and red sepals of Mussaenda erythro- Manjakani (Quercus infectoria)
phylla. It has been reported that different color tones can
be obtained, from pale yellow to green, depending on the Because it is believed to contain significant amounts of
mordant agents (Manicketh and Francis 2020; Manicketh bioactive components such as tannin, gallic acid, syringic
et al. 2021, 2022). Arain et al. (2021) used lemon as a acid, ellagic acid, P-sitosterol, amentoflavone, and hexa-
bio-mordant to provide an environmentally friendly dye- methyl ether, Quercus infectoria has been widely utilized
ing process for polyester fabric with henna. In one study, as a medicinal plant since ancient times (Ab Rahman
Tehrani et al. (2023b) stated that pre-, meta-, and post- et al. 2015). In another study, myrrh (Commiphora mol-
mordanting techniques were used to dye silk fibers using mol) extract was used as a natural dye, and sumac (Rhus
a dye that was derived from spent coffee grounds (SCGs) coriaria) and manjakani (Quercus infectoria) were used
with various metallic and natural mordants. Mordants as bio-mordants to dye wool and silk fabrics. According
included natural substances like pinecone, tannic acid, to the findings, samples dyed with sumac have a stronger
and lemon peel, in addition to metal salts like tin chloride hue than those colored with manjakani (Al Alamoudi and
and copper sulfate. According to the findings, metal sam- Salem 2019).
ples displayed stronger color in all methods compared to
bio-mordant samples. Additionally, in terms of fastness Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia L.)
criteria, the utilized bio-mordant might be a good replace-
ment for metal mordants. A species of flowering plant belonging to the coffee fam-
ily, Rubiaceae, is called Rubia cordifolia, also referred to
as Common Madder or Indian Madder. Manjistha is a key
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) tree bark herbal medication used in Indian medicine. Its scientific
name is Rubia cordifolia L. (family Rubiaceae). The plant
Mangifera indica, usually referred to as the mango, has contains chemical structures such as anthraquinone, mun-
long played a significant role in both Ayurvedic and tra- jistin, purpurin, pseudopurpurin, and triterpenoids (Verma
ditional medical practices. The plant’s various chemi- et al. 2016). In one study, manjistha was used as a natural
cal components, including its polyphenols, flavonoids, mordant along with myrobalan, pomegranate rind, and

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20733

Rhizophora mucronata fruits. It is stated that the fruits of Mucuna pruriens as a bio-mordant in natural dyeing. They
Rhizophora mucronata function as a better mordant than used mango peels as a natural dye and Mucuna pruriens
the other natural mordants when they are utilized, and the L. and Justicia carnea L. as bio-mordants for dyeing silk
fact that natural mordants outperformed metal salts like fabrics.
­SnCl2 in terms of color strength is particularly noteworthy
(Praveena et al. 2014). Mugwort herb (Artemisia vulgaris L.)

With more than 500 species, the Artemisia genus is part

Mimosa pudica L. of the subtribe Artemisiinae of the tribe Anthemidae in
the Asteraceae family. These species are found around the
A subshrub with delicate soft gray-green leaves that planet, but they are most prevalent in regions with moderate
fold and droop at night or when touched and chilled, climates, such as those in Europe, East Asia, the Americas,
Mimosa pudica L. (Mimosaceae) is a prostrate or semi- North Africa, and Australia. Additionally, they are a good
erect species native to tropical America, Australia, and source of phenolic acids, coumarins, and flavonoids (Ekiert
India. Alkaloids, a non-protein amino acid (mimosine), et al. 2020). Thakker and Sun (2022) reported that hops can
flavonoids (C-glycosides), sterols, terpenoids, tannins, be used as a natural dye in dyeing cotton fabric and as natu-
and fatty acids have all been identified in phytochemical ral mordant agents in oak bark, mugwort herb (Artemisia
research on M. pudica (Ahmad et al. 2012a). This plant vulgaris L.), rue herb (Ruta graveolens), and black cherry
was also used as a bio-mordant. In dyeing wool and nylon stem (Prunus serotina). It is stated that very good rubbing
fabrics, date palm fiber fibrillium was used as a natural and washing fastnesses and moderate light fastness values
dye and Mimosa pudica, and tannic acid as bio-mordants. were achieved for the dyed samples.
It is reported that the dyeability and fastness qualities
are improved when mordants are combined with extracts Musa basjoo leaf
(Baaka et al. 2023).
Musa basjoo is a member of the Musaceae family. It has
been found that Musa basjoo contains anthraquinone, flavo-
Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam) noids, coumarins, phenols, cyanide, amine, coumarin, and
other chemicals that can interact with certain dyes and fabric
A tree known as Moringa oleifera Lam is seen grow- macromolecules simultaneously. Textiles (wool, silk) have
ing profusely in many tropical and subtropical nations. been dyed using the leaves, bark, and fruit rinds of Musa
Commercial cultivation of it is practiced in India, Africa, basjoo as a mordanting agent. Wool and silk fabrics can be
South and Central America, Mexico, and Hawaii, as well functionally dyed while also achieving ecological dyeing
as throughout all of Asia and Southeast Asia. In tradi- thanks to the tannin in Musa basjoo leaves used as a bio-
tional medicine, seeds, leaves, oil, sap, bark, roots, and mordant (Zhang et al. 2022a, b).
flowers are frequently employed. According to reports, the
leaves contain a variety of antioxidant substances, includ- Myricaceae (Myrica esculenta)
ing ascorbic acid, flavonoids, phenolics, and carotenoids
(Stohs and Hartman 2015). In one study, Moringa was The evergreen, sun-tolerant tree Myrica esculenta (Myri-
used as a natural mordant along with turmeric to dye vis- caceae), also referred to as “Katphala,” can reach a height
cose fabric with natural dyes. Depending on the mordant of 12 m. Myrica esculenta bark is said to have a wide range
used, it has been stated that color tones can be obtained of therapeutic benefits. The bark has been shown to contain
from light yellow to pale pink (Raza et al. 2018). a variety of phytochemicals, including gallic acid, myrican-
one, myricanol, and tannins, including epigallocatechin-3-o-
Mucuna pruriens L. gallate (Jain and Jain 2010). Semwal et al. (2012) used metal
and natural mordant materials (the extract of the stem bark
Mucuna pruriens is a member of the Fabaceae family, also of Myrica esculenta) to dye cotton fabrics and yarns with
known as the cowage plant. Mucuna pruriens leaves are natural dyes.
used to treat syphilis, ringworm, scorpion stings, coughs,
dog bites, discomfort, pleuritis, and fractured bones. Alka- Myrobalan (Terminalia chebula Retz)
loids, reducing sugar, anthraquinones, flavonoids, sapo-
nins, tannins, cardiac glycosides, phenols, and steroids It is among the most significant and popular mordants used
were found in Mucuna pruriens during phytochemical in dyeing procedures. It can be used as both a dye and
screening (Divya et al. 2017). Jabar et al. (2023a) used a mordant. Fruits of Terminalia chebula, most popularly

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20734 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

colors can be obtained with high color fastnesses by using

different mordant combinations (Kumaresan et al. 2011,
2012a, b). Similarly, baked cotton fabric was dyed using
Tecoma stans flowers, while myrobalan and cow dung
were used as natural mordants (Chandra et al. 2012). In
another study, flower extracts of Spathodea campanulata
and Cordia sebestena as natural dyes and myrobalan as
a natural mordant were used for dyeing cotton samples.
It is stated that various colors with good color fastnesses
can be obtained by using different mordant combinations
(Kumaresan et al. 2013). Chattopadhyay et al. (2013) also
used myrobalan as a bio-mordant. In their work, they used
manjistha, annatto, ratanjot, and babool as natural dyes,
and myrobalan and pomegranate as bio-mordants for dye-
ing jute fabric.
It is stated that after premordanting with a bio-mordant
and chemical mordant mixture, any naturally dyed jute
cloth generates exceptionally good UV protection quali-
ties. It was emphasized that while natural dyes like pome-
granate and marigold (Tagetes eracta Linn.) were used in
the coloring of cotton and synthetic fabrics, tannin-based
harda could be used as a natural mordant (Tripathi et al.
2015). Stinging nettle fabric was dyed using Acacia cat-
echu and madder (Rubia cardifolia), while myrobalan was
used as a natural mordant. It is stated that the highest UPF
was observed in the sample mordanted with myrobalan
(Pargai et al. 2016). While silk fabric was dyed with a
natural dye extract obtained from red prickly pear fruit
Fig. 5  Chebulagic acid, metal ions, and functional groups in wool (Opuntia ficus-indica), myrobalan was used as a natural
fiber produce a complex (this figure was adapted from Shabbir et al.
2017; Kasiri and Safapour 2013) mordant. It is reported that, compared to natural mor-
dant-dyed fabrics, synthetic mordant-dyed fabrics have
stronger color retention (Ganesan and Karthik 2017). In
referred to as “harda,” are used to make myrobalan mor- the trials where Indian rhubarb (Rheum emodi) was used
dant. It gives textiles a soft yellow tint. The largest sig- as a natural dye source to obtain dark and bright tones
nificant source of tannin is myrobalan (Khan et al. 2005). in wool yarn samples, myrobalan was used as a natural
There are many studies available for the use of myroba- mordant (Khan et al. 2017). Jadav and Gowda (2017) used
lan as a mordant agent. The basic chemical structure of myrobalan as a natural mordant agent to dye cotton with
myrobalan is presented in Fig. 5. In a study, it was empha- natural dyes. The mordanting process not only increased
sized that using a combination of harda and tartaric acid the color strength of the natural dye but also resulted in
as natural mordants in the coloring of ecru denim fab- a large number of different color tones, and it was also
rics showed a synergistic effect (Deo and Paul 2000). In stated that all mordanted samples showed excellent color
another study, Teli et al. (2001) used eco-friendly alum strength, moderate to good color fastness values, and
and natural mordant harda while dyeing denim fabrics strong antioxidant activity. In another study, the UV pro-
with onion extract. In addition, they reported that alum tection properties of dyed material using pomegranate
and harda can be used alone or together. The bleached peel as a natural dye and myrobalan as a natural mor-
jute fabric was colored with natural mordants such as dant were investigated (Sinnur et al. 2018). Ashrafi et al.
babool (Acacia arabica) and mirobolan using different (2018) used myrobalan as a bio-mordant in their research.
natural dyes (Samanta et al. 2009). The silk fabric was It is stated that the red color created by myrobalan extract
colored with the flower of Cordia sebestena, while myrob- as a bio-mordant had medium fastness capabilities, offer-
alan (Terminalia chebula) was used as a bio-mordant. In ing full potential to substitute metal salts in the dyeing
another study, bleached cotton fabric was colored with process. It has been reported that dyeing fabric with high
natural dyes, while myrobalan (Terminalia chebula) was fastnesses can be obtained by using myrobalan as a bio-
used as a natural mordant. It has been reported that various mordant in coloring linen fabric with natural dyes (Teli

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20735

and Pandit 2018). Parkia speciosa, Punica granatum, Oak (Quercus)

Rubia cordifolia, Caesalpinia sappan, and Clerodendrum
indicum as natural dyes, and myrobalan as an environ- In the northern hemisphere, the genus Quercus (com-
mentally friendly mordant, were used for dyeing silk and monly named oaks) is among the most significant clades
cotton fabrics. During printing with natural colorants, all of woody angiosperms in terms of species diversity, eco-
fabrics are first treated with myrobalan and then printed logical dominance, and economic importance (Nixon
with metallic salts. It is reported that silk and cotton dyed 2006). Bioactive groups such as ellagic acid, gallotannin/
in this way show good washing and rubbing properties ellagitannin, phenolic compounds (flavonoids), tannins,
(Banerjee et al. 2019). Myrobalan was used as a natu- and triterpenoids were detected in the leaves, bark, galls,
ral mordant for dyeing wool and silk fabrics with natu- shells, and acorns of the oak tree (Morales 2021). It is
ral dyes. It is stated that with and without mordanting, possible to come across the fact that very different parts
treated fabrics showed appropriate wash, light, and rub- of the oak tree are used in the process of coloring textile
bing fastness, and with mordanting, treated silk and wool materials with natural dyes. Studies related to these are
fabrics demonstrated good to very good UV protection presented below. Grifoni et al. (2011) investigated the
properties (Patil et al. 2020). Singh and Sheikh (2020) UV protection properties of fabrics such as cotton, linen,
also used myrobalan as a bio-mordant. In the study, they hemp, and ramie dyed with natural dyes using a tannin-
obtained sufficient fastness values from the dyes they based natural mordant substance (the galls of Quercus
made using bio-mordant. In one study, myrobalan was infectoria). It is stated that when fabric construction was
used as a natural mordant to dye silk, cotton, and nylon appropriate, the employment of the tannin-based mordant
with natural dyes (Terminalia arjuna and Thespesia pop- boosted the UV protection level up to the very high and/
ulnea trees). It is stated that in contrast to the pale yel- or excellent protection categories, even without dyeing.
low tone in cotton, both dyes produced a vibrant yellow In another study, it was emphasized that cotton fabrics
color in silk and nylon materials (Amutha et al. 2020). showed high antioxidant and antibacterial properties
Rajeswari (2020) also used myrobalan as a natural mor- when the gallnut of the oak tree was used as a natural
dant in his natural dye work. Hosseinnezhad et al. (2020, mordant and the roots of gromwell (Lithospermum eryth-
2022a) colored wool fibers using madder as natural dyes rorhizon) were used as a natural dye source (Hong et al.
and yellow myrobalan and black myrobalan as natural 2012). In another study, it was reported that dyed fabrics
mordants. It has been found that the washing, light, and with high color fastness could be obtained by using the
rubbing fastnesses of dyeing on the fibers increase when extract obtained from the wastes of red pine (Pinus bru-
bio-mordants are used in the dyeing process. tia Ten.) timber as a natural dye and oak ash as a natural
mordant in dyeing things like cotton, linen, wool, silk,
Neem (Azadirachta indica L.) tencel, polyamide, and acrylic (Avinc et al. 2013). In a
study, the usability of natural dye extracts obtained from
For more than 2000 years, the Indian subcontinent has rec- Helichrysum arenarium and natural mordant obtained
ognized Azadirachta indica, also known as neem, as one of from Quercus aegilops in dyeing Karabük Eflani cloth, a
the most adaptable medicinal plants with a wide range of local weave, was examined. It is reported that all the dye-
biological activity. More than 140 chemically diverse and ings were red-nuanced in terms of lightness and darkness,
structurally complex active compounds have been identi- and also in terms of yellowness and blueness, blue nuance
fied from various neem components (Subapriya and Nagini was higher in the sample at 5% concentration, and yellow
2005). While neem extract has been used as a natural dye nuance was higher in other samples (Akkaya and Eyupo-
source in some studies, Habib et al. (2021) used neem as glu 2016). While investigating the dyeing of wool yarn
a bio-mordant in their research. In their study, they used with Adhatoda vasica extract as a natural dye, natural
the extract they isolated from natural dye in Arjun bark to tannin extracts (gallnut (Quercus infectoria), pomegranate
dye cotton fabric with natural dye and neem (Azadirachta (Punica granatum) bark, and babool bark (A. nilotica))
indica), zeera (Cuminum cyminum), elaichi (Elettaria car- were evaluated comparatively. It is stated that gallnut may
damomum), and harmal (Peganum harmala) extracts as be a useful and possible replacement for metal mordants
bio-mordants. It is stated that the color coordinates show because it guarantees the most comparable and improved
that the bio-mordants have primarily produced much dyeing results among the bio-mordanted samples when
brighter shades with a reddish-yellow hue, but a fabric combined with A. vasica (Rather et al. 2016). In another
dyed while applying 10% zeera extract after US treatment study in which gallnut (Quercus infectoria) was used as a
using an acidified methanolic extract of Arjun bark has bio-mordant, it was reported that dyeing wool yarns with
produced much darker shades with a reddish-yellow tone anthraquinone obtained from Indian madder (Rubia cor-
(Habib et al. 2021). difolia) was obtained with sufficient color fastness (Yusuf

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20736 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

et al. 2017a). Nakpathom et al. (2018, 2019) performed Onion (Allium cepa L.) skin
natural dyeings on cotton and polyester fabric using pur-
ple corncob and annatto extract as natural dyes and gall- Quercetin and its derivatives have been shown to be abun-
nut (Quercus infectoria Olivier) as a mordant. It is stated dant in onion skin (Świeca et al. 2013). In many studies,
that when potassium aluminum sulfate, ferrous sulfate, onion peel has been evaluated as a natural dye source.
and gallnut mordants were used throughout the dyeing However, it has been reported that onion peel can be used
process, the color strength decreased but the color fast- as a natural mordant. In a study, Amutha and Annapoorani
ness qualities remained practically the same. In the other (2019) reported that banana leaves can be used as a natu-
study, babul bark (Acacia nilotica L.) was used as a natu- ral dye to dye cotton, and onion (Allium cepa) and pome-
ral dye, and gallnut (Quercus infectoria) as a bio-mordant granate (Punica granatum) rinds can be used as natural
was used to dye cotton fabric. It is stated that the high mordants. Acceptable color fastnesses have been reported
UPF value obtained by the absorption of UV light by gal- to be achieved. In another study, onion skin was similarly
lotannins in thuja and Babylon bark shows good UV pro- used as a bio-mordant. It has been reported that cocklebur
tection properties in dyed cotton fabrics (Dhanania et al. (Xanthium strumarium L.) leaves can be used as natural
2021). In order to obtain a green, clean, environmentally dyes, and onion peel, Acacia, and Eucalyptus can be used
friendly yarn dyeing, two natural dyes, Iranian madder as bio-mordants in dyeing cotton fabric. It is stated that
and weld, and tannin-rich oak extract as a bio-mordant the usage of bio-mordants revealed notable differences in
were used for carpet yarn dyeing (Hosseinnezhad et al. color intensity, color shade, and fastness characteristics
2021a). In one of the studies, the usability of the natural depending on the scope of interaction generated between
dye obtained from the leaves of the olive tree in cotton functional mordant molecules, cotton, and dye molecules
fabrics woven with handmade threads was investigated, (Hussaan et al. 2023).
while Quercus aegilops L. (Valonia oak) was also used
as a natural mordant along with citric acid (Özomay et al. Orange (Citrus sinensis L.) peel
2022b). While examining the use of natural dye obtained
from the Sambucus ebulus L. plant in hemp fabric dye- Three different forms of flavonoids are found in citrus fruit:
ing, gallnut extract (Quercus aegilops L.) was used as flavanones, flavones, and flavonols. Hesperidine, nariru-
a natural mordant. It is stated that the best dyeing char- tin, naringin, and eriocitrin are the principal flavonoids
acteristics were obtained using a 15% concentration of present in Citrus species (Hegazy and Ibrahium 2012).
Quercus aegilops natural mordant, which was used to dye In one study, extracts of harda, amla, pomegranate, and
hemp fabric with Sambucus with the least amount of color orange were used as natural mordants in an approach to
difference and the greatest amount of color efficiency using natural colorants from various plant sources, such
(Özomay and Akalın 2022a; Özomay 2023). as Kalanchoe-pinnata, papaya, peepal, and banyan, for
dyeing wool fabric (Rani and Jajpura 2021). In another
study, Adeel et al. (2022e) used coral jasmine (Nyctanthes
Oleaster or Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia L.) arbortristis) as a natural dye for dyeing wool and Acacia
bark, orange peels, pomegranate peels, and tannic acid
The family Elaeagnaceae, widely known as the Russian as bio-mordants. It has been reported that, depending on
olive and wild olive, includes oleaster, scientifically known the mordant material, green and gray color tones can be
as Elaeagnus angustifolia L. The Semnan region of Iran is obtained with sufficient fastness values.
home to a large population of this species, which is found
around the world but primarily in tropical areas. This tree Papaya (Carica papaya L.)
typically lives a long time and begins to produce fruit after
5 years. This tree produces fruit that is highly nutritious One of the most important fruit crops grown in tropical and
and abundant in protein, vitamins, minerals, and tannins. subtropical regions is papaya, Carica papaya L., which
According to Hamidpour et al. (2017), E. angustifolia L., contains two important active compounds such as chymo-
which accounts for roughly 78 mg per 100 g of the fruit’s papain and papain (Silva et al. 2007). In addition to phe-
dry weight, is the fruit’s most significant phenolic group. nolic compounds such as erulic acid, caffeic acid, and rutin
In one study, the oleaster, or Russian olive, and its parts, in papaya fruit, lycopene, β-cryptoxanthin, and β-carotene
which are one of the sources rich in tannin, were used as were identified as carotenoids (Rivera‐Pastrana et al. 2010).
natural mordants. It is stated that with the different bio- According to Rosyida et al. (2022), cotton fabrics could be
mordants used, different color tones of red can be obtained dyed with jackfruit wood extract, papaya fruit extract as a
with sufficient fastness and color strength (Hosseinnezhad bio-mordant agent, and metallic mordants in one study. It
et al. 2023b). has been reported that, depending on the mordant agents,

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20737

green, purple, and gray color tones can be obtained with Pine (Pinus pinea L.) nut shell
sufficient fastness properties.
The most significant edible wild seed gathered from Medi-
terranean woodlands is the Pinus pinea pine nut. Stone
Peltophorum pterocarpum pine, P. pinea L., is a valuable species that is also used to
produce timber, but it is best known for producing pine
Peltophorum pterocarpum is a member of the Fabaceae kernels, which are highly appreciated on the market for
family native to tropical Southeast Asia and is a widely their excellent nutritional value and delicate flavor (Que-
cultivated ornamental tree worldwide. It has been reported irós et al. 2020). Pine nut shells have been used as a bio-
that chemical structures such as leucocyanidin and mordant in some studies. According to Ul Hasan et al.
leucocyanidin-3-O-α-D-galactopyranoside are found in the (2022), Cassia ovata has been valued as a natural yellow
bark of the plant (Jash et al. 2013). In a study, it was empha- dye source for nylon dyeing with sustainable bio-mordants
sized that Peltophorum pterocarpum can be used as a bio- (turmeric rhizomes, pomegranate peels, Acacia bark, and
mordant for dyeing yarn. It is shown that the presence of pine nut hull). It is claimed that bio-mordants have pro-
betalain as a pigment gives a reddish color (Mukherjee and vided great color strength in addition to relaxing tints. In
Kanakarajan 2017). another study, coral jasmine flowers were used as a natural
dye and pine nuts and walnut shell as bio-mordants in the
Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) dyeing of wool fabric in a microwave environment. Walnut
shell and pine nut shell used as bio-mordants have been
A perennial aromatic herb in the Lamiaceae (Labiatae) reported to create yellowish-green hues on wool (Adeel
family, peppermint or mint (Mentha piperita L.) is a natu- et al. 2023b). In another study, Butea monosperma plants
ral hybrid of water mint (Mentha aquatic L.) and spear- were used as a natural dye and pine nut hulls and Acacia
mint (Mentha spicata L.). Chemical structures such as as bio-mordants in the dyeing of silk fabric in a micro-
menthol, isomenthone, menthone, and cineole have been wave environment (Adeel et al. 2023c). According to Talib
defined in the mint plant (Loolaie et al. 2017). Accord- et al. (2023) they used black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) as a
ing to Haji et al. (2023), they used dragon’s blood resin natural dye, walnut shells (Juglans regia), pine nut shells
extract as a natural dye and 4 different bio-mordants (Pinus pinea L.), and orange peel (Citrus sinensis) as bio-
(including peppermint, mugworts (Artemisia), Dorema mordants in their work. Adeel et al. (2023e) mentioned in
ammoniacum gum, and pomegranate rind) as natural dyes one study that an attempt was made to determine whether
to dye nylon fabric with natural dye. It has been reported Rheum emodi (rhubarb) extract might be utilized as a natu-
that the color strength of dyed fabrics mordanted with all ral dye for wool dyeing in order to replace synthetic dyes.
mordants increased and also improved color fastness to The treatment of wool cloth with microwave (MW) rays
washing. was done in order to color it. A magnificent color palette
of hues and tones was produced by blending different mor-
dants. To determine the best mordant for each application,
Pine (Pinus pinea L.) cone a comparative analysis of the effects of various chemical
mordants (aluminum salt, iron salt, tannic acid, and cream
One of the most widespread species in both Europe and of tartar) and bio-mordants (pomegranate extract and pine
North America is the pine tree, although its production and nut hull extract) on the characteristics of dyed wool sam-
consumption importance are at their peak in the Mediterra- ples was conducted.
nean region (Ayrilmis et al. 2009). Pine cone extracts have
been reported to include tannins and other lignin-related Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.)
substances that may have antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-
cancer effects (Micales et al. 1994). Ghaheh et al. (2022) The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) belongs to the Anacardi-
used pine cone as a bio-mordant in their studies. They used aceae (Barghchi and Alderson 1989); the pistachio, or Pista-
H. sabdariffa L. extract as a natural dye and sodium alginate, cia vera L., is a tree native to the arid regions of Central and
walnut hull, lemon peel, and pine cone as bio-mordants to West Asia and is widely cultivated throughout the Mediter-
dye viscose rayon fabric in their studies. It is stated that ranean region (Tomaino et al. 2010) sometimes known as
the inclusion of walnut, lemon, and pinecone mordants the cashew family. Pistachio hull is a different source of
increased the colored fabric’s light fastness rating, which physiologically active substances because of its high phe-
ranges from 5 to 6, as well as the highest wash and light nolic content and antioxidant activity (Özbek et al. 2020).
fastness, which was also attained when the post-mordanting Pistachio shells used for different purposes were also used as
procedure was applied. bio-mordant material. Habib et al. (2022) used turmeric as a

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20738 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

natural dye and Acacia, pomegranate, and pistachio extracts microwave environment to dye cotton fabrics. It has been
as bio-mordants to dye wool in a microwave environment. stated that pomegranate peel extract produces dyes with high
It has been reported that samples in dark yellow and pink color strength. In another study, Terminalia catappa (tropi-
tones were obtained, depending on the mordant substance. In cal almond) leaf extract was used as a natural dye to dye
another study, haar singhar (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis) flowers silk fabrics, and Terminalia chebula, Curcuma longa, tannic
were used as a natural dye and pistachio as a bio-mordant acid, and Punica granatum were used as bio-mordants. It
to dye cotton fabric. It is stated that, as a natural mordant has been reported that light yellow-orange color tones can
of pistachio shell, deep color tones can be obtained on cot- be obtained depending on the bio-mordant (Vadwala and
ton fabrics (Yameen et al. 2022). In one study, bio-mordant Kola 2017). Hosseinnezhad et al. (2017) used pomegranate
included extracts of pine nutshell (Pinus gerardiana), walnut peels as a bio-mordant in the dyeing of silk fabrics. It has
shell (Juglans regia), and pistachio shell (Pistacia vera). It been reported that reddish-blue color tones can be obtained
is stated that the pistachio shells used as a bio-mordant pro- depending on the bio-mordant. In another study in which
duced reddish-yellow colors of excellent quality (Nasreen A. vasica extract was used as a natural dye, it was reported
et al. 2023). that gallnut, pomegranate rind, and babool were used as bio-
mordants. It is stated that in acidic, neutral, and alkaline
Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) rind environments, each bio-mordant combination utilized in this
study produced tasteful and vibrant colors ranging from light
The pomegranate, or Punica granatum L, is a fruit crop with yellow, reddish yellow, and brown to deep brown (Rather
great agro-climatic adaptability. It is a Punicaceae family et al. 2018). Pomegranate peel was used as a natural mor-
member and a deciduous fruit-bearing shrub or small tree. dant in the printing process on cotton fabric. In the study,
Iranians are the original cultivators of the pomegranate fruit, in which marigold (Tagetes erecta Linn.) flower extract was
which is mostly grown in Tunisia, Turkey, Spain, Egypt, used as a natural dye, gum Arabic and environmentally
Morocco, the USA, China, India, Argentina, Israel, and friendly mordants such as mirobalon and pomegranate peel
South Africa. It has a wide range of phenolic compounds, were used as thickeners (Sangamithirai 2019). Kiran et al.
which are sources of natural antioxidants and have drawn (2020) emphasized that Al, Fe, and tannin can be used as
the interest of numerous researchers and medical profes- chemical mordants, and pomegranate, Acacia, henna, and
sionals. These substances can be further separated into a turmeric can be used as bio-mordants to dye coconut (Cocos
number of subgroups, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, nucifera) coir and silk in the microwave environment. It has
and tannins, mostly based on the structural components that been stated that dyeings with sufficient fastness values in
link benzene rings and the quantity of attached hydroxyl different colors can be obtained with different bio-mordants.
groups (Belemkar and Ramachandran 2015; Singh et al. According to Adeel et al. (2021a), tannin-containing coco-
2018). Pomegranate peel is one of the vegetable sources nut can be used as a dye, and Acacia, henna, pomegranate,
used both as a natural dye and as a bio-mordant. Studies and turmeric can be used as bio-mordants in the dyeing of
on their use as a bio-mordant are presented below. Desh- wool fabrics. It has been stated that wool fabrics with suf-
mukh and Patil (2008) used Carissa carandas as a natural ficient fastness values in different colors can be obtained
dye, pomegranate rind, and babul bark as bio-mordants to with different bio-mordants. In a study, Acacia bark, pome-
dye cotton yarn. It has been reported that dyeings with suf- granate peel, and mango bark were used as bio-mordants
ficient fastness can be obtained. In another study, lemon while investigating the coloring potential of durum (Triticum
peel (C. limetta) extract as a natural dye, Punica granatum durum Desf.) and bread (Triticum astivum L.) wheat bark.
(pomegranate rind), Terminalia chebula (myrobalan), and It has been reported that the use of pomegranate peel and
Acacia nilotica (babul bark) as bio-mordants were used to Acacia bark is more effective in obtaining high color depth
dye silk fabric. It has been stated that beige-light yellow- in cellulosic fabrics dyed with an alkaline extract of durum
green color tones can be obtained depending on the mordant wheat bark (Khan et al. 2021). In another study, Eleutherine
substance (Sangeetha et al. 2015). Mansour et al. (2016) bulbosa bulbs were used as a natural dye, and myrobalan
also used pomegranate peel as a bio-mordant. In their stud- fruit extract and pomegranate peel extract were used as bio-
ies, they used Vitis vinifera L. leaf extract as a natural dye, mordants for dyeing cotton fabric (Kizhakkinayil and Nair
tannic acid, and pomegranate peel extract as bio-mordants 2022). Caffeine, chlorogenic acid, polyphenols, flavonoids,
to dye linen and silk fabrics. It has been reported that dye- alkaloids, and other phytochemicals are the important ones,
ing in brown tones with sufficient fastness can be obtained. while polyphenol (chlorogenic acid) is the main functional
Other researchers using pomegranate peel as a bio-mordant moiety. Adeel et al. (2023d) dyed cotton in a microwave
are Adeel et al. (2016). In their research, they used golden environment with the dye obtained from coffee beans and
Duranta (Duranta repens) leaf extract as a natural dye, using bio-mordants obtained from turmeric and pomegran-
pomegranate peel, and tannic acid as bio-mordants in a ate peel extracts. It has been stated that reddish-yellow tones

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20739

can be obtained from dyeing, depending on the MW rate and Quebracho (Schinopsis spp.) tree bark
bio-mordant. Adeel et al. (2022h) suggested that Esfand (P.
harmala) seed extract as a natural dye, pomegranate peel, Tannic acid can potentially be produced from the wood of
and tannic acid can be used as bio-mordants in the dyeing of the Quebracho tree (Vera et al. 2022). One of the rarest bio-
polyamide fabric. In general, it has been stated that bio-mor- mordants is this resource. In one study, nut shell extract was
dants give better results in terms of color fastness. Rehman used as a natural dye, and Quebracho bark tree extract was
et al. (2022a) also used pomegranate peel as a bio-mordant. used as a bio-mordant for dyeing wool/angora blended yarn.
They used Alkanna tinctoria dye as a natural dye, pome- It is stated that the samples bio-mordanted with Quebracho
granate peel, and turmeric as bio-mordants for dyeing silk exhibit significantly increased color fastness to light for both
fabric. It has been stated that the main reason for the very radiation levels examined (Stanculescu et al. 2017).
good fastness of the samples colored with bio-mordants such
as light, washing, and rubbing is that both the colorant and Quercus castaneifolia
the bio-mordant provide protection against external effects
due to their nature. In another study, madder was used as a There are phenolic acids, tannins, flavonoids, lignans, stil-
natural dye, and myrobalan and pomegranate peel were used benoids, coumarins, monoterpenes, triterpenes, and steroids
as bio-mordants for dyeing wool yarns (Hosseinnezhad et al. in the Quercus L. (Fagaceae) genus (Şöhretoğlu and Renda
2022b). In one study, melanoidin was successfully extracted 2020). In another study, madder (Rubia tinctorum L.) extract
and purified from Lycium barbarum residues, and in the was used as a natural dye for dyeing wool yarns, and Rhus
dyeing process, instead of the traditional metal mordant, the coriaria, Eucalyptus, Terminalia chebula, Quercus castanei-
eco-friendly bio-mordant pomegranate peel was used to dye folia, and pomegranate extracts were used as bio-mordants
wool fabrics. It has been reported that a brown color tone (Jahangiri et al. 2018).
was obtained at the end of dyeing (Wang et al. 2023).
Rhizophora mucronata fruits
Pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.)
In one study, manjistha was used as a natural mordant
along with myrobalan, pomegranate rind, and Rhizophora
The vegetable pumpkin, which is a member of the Cucurbi-
mucronata fruits. It is reported that the fruits of Rhizophora
taceae family, is grown extensively around the world (Dhi-
mucronata function as a better mordant than the other natu-
man et al. 2009). Numerous phytoconstituents from the
ral mordants when they are utilized (Praveena et al. 2014).
alkaloids, flavonoids, and palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acid
categories are present in it (Yadav et al. 2010). Hosseinn-
Rose (Rosa indica L.)
ezhad et al. (2022d) reported that Reseda luteola and madder
can be used as natural dyes in the dyeing of wool yarns, and
Rosa indica L. is a species of perennial flowering shrub.
pumpkin extract can be used as a bio-mordant. It was stated
It is a member of the Rosaceae family, which includes rhi-
that the fastness properties of dyed yarns increased signifi-
zomatous, thorny, or climbing herbs, shrubs, and trees. In
cantly with mordanting.
one study, quinic acid, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, pyrogallol,
levoglucosan, and 4H-pyran-4-one,2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihy-
Pyrus pashia droxy-6-methyl were identified as the major components in
the methanolic extract of indica petals (Rasheed et al. 2015).
In temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, Pyrus pashia, Using a natural dye made from cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum
a medium-sized fruiting tree belonging to the Rosaceae fam- verum), Adeel et al. (2020b) investigated the fixing character-
ily, is sometimes referred to as Indian pear, Himalayan pear, istics of Acacia (Acacia nilotica), henna (Lawsonia inermis),
or Mehal. It has about 38 species. After pharmacognostic turmeric (C. longa), pomegranate (P. granatum), and rose
research on the plant, the presence of secondary metabolites (Rosa indica). It is stated that the conjugation of plant-derived
such as alkaloids, flavonoids, sterols, triterpenoids, and phe- anchors and bio-mordants, as well as the production of extract
nolic compounds was revealed (Ali and Juyal 2018). In one H-bonding, all play important roles in the establishment of
study, Vankar and Shanker (2009) used Delonix regia flower shade when utilizing extracts of bio-mordants.
extracts together with enzymes (protease, amylase, diasterase,
and lipase) as a natural dye source for silk dyeing and Pyrus Rue herb (Ruta graveolens)
pashia fruit, which is copper-containing, as a bio-mordant
source. It has been stated that enzymatic and bio-mordant Thakker and Sun (2022) reported that hops can be used as
treatments can impart good color strength to silk fabric using a natural dye in dyeing cotton fabric and as natural mordant
the Delonix flower as a dye source. agents in oak bark, mugwort herb (Artemisia vulgaris L.),

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20740 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

rue herb (Ruta graveolens), and black cherry stem (Prunus Sumac (Rhus coriaria L.)
serotina). It is reported that very good rubbing and washing
fastnesses and moderate light fastness values were achieved The sumac species Rhus glabra is frequently referred to as
for the dyed samples. “rhubarb.” Sumac is a spice widely used in Turkey and the
Middle East. The fruits have one seed and are red in color.
Rumex hymenosepalus Due to their high tannin content, their dried and crushed
leaves have been employed as tanning agents. This plant’s
Rumex species are abundant in anthraquinones, naphtha- leaves were found to contain flavones, tannins, anthocya-
lenes, flavonoids, stilbenoids, triterpenes, carotenoids, nins, and organic acids, according to previous phytochemical
and phenolic acids, according to numerous phytochemical investigations (Kosar et al. 2007). Due to its rich chemi-
studies on this genus (Vasas et al. 2015). Large amounts of cal content, different studies have been found on the use of
tannin found in Rumex hymenosepalus roots are used as a sumac both as a natural dye and as a bio-mordant. Dalby
bio-mordant in the dyeing of wool. In one study, Berberis (1993) pointed out that oak galls, sumac, barks, and bark
vulgaris wood extract was used as a natural dye for dye- resins are all suitable sources of tannin that can be used
ing wool yarns, and tannin from the roots of Rumex hyme- for fixing natural dyes to cellulose fibers. It has also been
nosepalus was used as a bio-mordant. It is stated that when stated that the amount of tannin obtained from these natural
applied as a bio-mordant to wool, the tannin found in the products may vary from source to source, and the use of
roots of Rumex hymenosepalus strengthened the color of the natural tannin as a suitable stabilizer would be more accept-
dyed items (Haji 2010). able than its synthetic counterpart when producing com-
pletely environmentally friendly yarns. Hosseinnezhad et al.
Sepalika (Nyctanthes arbor‑tristis) flowers (2018) used madder and reseda as natural dyes and sumac as
a bio-mordant to dye silk fibers. It is stated that the dyeing’s
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, a member of the Oleaceae family, wash, light, and rubbing fastness were all improved by the
produces sepalika flowers. The flower has an orange calyx and application of green mordanting. In another study, myrrh
white petals. It has been discovered that Nyctanthes stems are (Commiphora molmol) extract was used as a natural dye
a great source of antioxidants. The flower’s aqueous extracts, for dyeing wool and silk, and sumac (Rhus coriaria) and
calyx, and petals were tested for their ability to fix colors to manjakani (Quercus infectoria) were used as bio-mordants
fabric when used for cotton dyeing. In one study, cotton was (Salem and Al Amoudi 2020).
dyed using natural dye sources such as Chinese rose, Aparajitha
flower, and balsam flower, as well as sepalika (Nyctanthes arbor- Supari (Areca catechu)
tristis) as a bio-mordant. It has been stated that bio-mordants
such as sepalika can be used to improve the fastness properties Areca catechu, sometimes referred to as Supari, is a type of
of dyed fabrics (Wijayapala 2020). dried, ripe nut that belongs to the Arecaceae family and is
grown in India and Southeast Asia’s tropical regions. Tan-
Snep sohmylleng (Tsuga canadensis L. Carr.) nins are the main component of A. catechu (Ansari et al.
2021). In one study, teak leaf extract as a natural dye, harda
In one study, Banerjee et al. (2018) used tea leaves, onion (Terminalia chebula), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus)
peel, land ac insect as natural dyes, Sohtung leaves (Termi- leaves, Supari (Areca catechu), iron filings and jaggery,
nalia chebula), Tsuga canadensis L. Carriere (snep sohm- pomegranate peel (Punica granatum L.), tamarind (Tamarin-
ylleng), Oroxylum indicum L. Kurz (waitlam pyrthat), and dus indica), and amla (Phyllanthus emblica) as bio-mordants
Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. (Sohkhu leaves) as bio-mordants were used to dye selected natural and synthetic fabrics. It has
to dye silk yarns. It has been reported that dyeing in bur- been stated that colors in purple, pink, and burgundy tones
gundy-gray-brown tones can be obtained depending on the can be produced depending on the bio-mordants (Agrawal
bio-mordant variety. and Chopra 2020).

Sohkhu (Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.) leaves Vernonia amygdalina leaves

In one study, Banerjee et al. (2018) used tea leaves, onion peel, In one study, Jabar et al. (2022) used Justicia carnea L.
land ac insect as natural dyes, Sohtung leaves (Terminalia cheb- leaves, Moringa oleifera L. bark, Azadirachta indica L.
ula), Tsuga canadensis L. Carriere (snep sohmylleng), Oroxylum bark, and Vernonia amygdalina leaves as bio-mordant
indicum L. Kurz (waitlam pyrthat), and Baccaurea ramiflora agents to dye cotton fabric with natural dyes. It has been
Lour. (Sohkhu leaves) as bio-mordants to dye silk yarns. It was stated that pink-brown colors can be obtained depending
reported that dyed silks had sufficient fastness values. on the bio-mordant.

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20741

Waitlam pyrthat (Oroxylum indicum L.) Kurz Kavak et al. (2010) used onion peel (Allium cepa) as a natural
dye, willow (Salix alba) extract as a bio-mordant, and AAUS
In one study, Banerjee et al. (2018) used tea leaves, onion (Artifical Animal Urine System) together to dye wool, cotton,
peel, and land ac insect as natural dyes, Sohtung leaves (Ter- feathered-leather fibers, and wood materials. It is reported
minalia chebula), Tsuga canadensis L. Carriere (snep soh- that the brilliance of natural fibers and wood products is con-
mylleng), Oroxylum indicum L. Kurz (waitlam pyrthat), and tributed by willow extract in addition to AAUS.
Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. (Sohkhu leaves) as bio-mordants
to dye silk yarns. It was reported that dyed silks had suffi- Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.)
cient fastness values.
Tamarindus indica L. belongs to the leguminaceae family
Wheat bran and the subfamily Caesalpinaceae. The genus Tamarindus is
monotypic, meaning it contains a single species. Tamarindus
Another interesting bio-mordant used in natural dyeing is indica is commonly known as tamarind. Tamarind grows in
wheat. Baseri and Ahmadzadeh (2022c) reported that color more than 50 countries in Africa, Asia, and Central America
fastness increases when wheat bran and citric acid are used and is common across the tropics and subtropics (Yahia and
as bio-mordants in addition to natural dyes to dye wool. Cit- Salih 2011). Tamarind seed kernels contain a comparatively
ric acid and wheat bran could be employed as bio-mordants high phenolic content and antioxidant activity (De Caluwé
to enhance the dye fastness qualities of wool yarns and boost et al. 2010). In addition, tannin was also extracted from the
their affinity for the dye extract. tamarind seed coat, and the tannin class was determined
(Belemkar and Ramachandran 2015). Tamarind has been
White mulberry (Morus alba L.) fruit used as a bio-mordant in addition to natural dyes in many
different studies. In one study, mango (Mangifera indica L.)
Red mulberry was first cultivated in North and South Amer- seed was used as a natural dye for dyeing cotton fabric, and
ica, black mulberry in Southern Russia, and white mulberry Tamarindus indica seed was used as a bio-mordant. It is
in Western Asia, which includes Turkey. Mulberry fruits claimed that the treated fabrics mixed with natural mordant
are among the berries that are high in phenolics and antho- were more effective in terms of antibacterial activity against
cyanins (Gungor and Sengul 2008). Hussaan et al. (2017) the two tested microorganisms (Satirapipathkul et al. 2014).
used bio-mordants (Morus alba fruit, Acacia nilotica bark, In another study, turmeric, pomegranate peel as natural dyes,
and Curcuma longa) as well as chemical mordants to dye and tamarind seed coat tannin as a bio-mordant were used
cotton fabrics with natural dyes. It is stated that the use of for dyeing cotton, wool, and silk fabrics. It is stated that
bio-mordants enhanced the color intensity and gave cotton the tamarind seed coat mordant alone can be used to cre-
materials new colors, and during bio-mordanting, A. nilotica ate fabrics with good antibacterial action (Prabhu and Teli
bark extract outperformed M. alba fruit and C. longa tuber 2014). Sheikh et al. (2016) reported that turmeric and henna
as pre-mordants in terms of color strength. as natural dyes and harda and tamarind seed coat as bio-
mordants can be used for dyeing wool fabrics. It is reported
Willow (Salix alba L.) that with changing mordant and natural dye concentrations,
several hues ranging from light to deep can be produced. In
One of the most well-known and widely distributed spe- another study, Mariselvam et al. (2018) used Pterocarpus
cies in the Salix genus is Salix alba L. It has been used as a santalinus tree extract as a natural dye and tamarind as a
medicine since ancient times and is rich in many biologically bio-mordant for dyeing natural fibers. It is stated that pale
active chemicals, particularly phenolic compounds (Vasfilova red-burgundy colors can be obtained in dyeings made using
2020). The presence of at least 11 related salicylate com- tamarind. Singh et al. (2019) used kapok flower extract as a
pounds, including salicin, saligenin, salicylic acid, isosalicin, natural dye and tannin-based tamarind seed coat extract as
salidroside, picein, triandrin, salicoylsalicin, salicortin, iso- a bio-mordant to dye wool. The relationship between wool,
salipurpuroside, and salipurpuroside, has been demonstrated bio-mordant, and coloring matter is intricate, as shown in
by HPLC mass spectrometry analysis of aqueous extracts of Fig. 6. In another study, the extract obtained from the dry
willow bark (Shara and Stohs 2015). In one study, Quercus leaves of Tridax procumbens as a natural dye to dye silk was
robur L. (fruit cups) extract was used as a natural dye, and used as a bio-mordant, gall nut (Quercus infectoria), dried
Salix alba L. wood extract was used as a bio-mordant for fruits of amla (Phyllanthus emblica), dried fruits of bahera
dyeing wool and pashmina fabrics. It is reported that the (Terminalia bellirica), myrobalan (Terminalia chebula),
extracted dye displayed a diversity of color tones when used tamarind seed coat (Tamarindus indica), and laboratory-
in combination with natural mordants using various mor- grade tannic acid were used. It is stated that, in comparison
danting techniques (Geelani et al. 2015). In another study, to the unmordanted sample, all of the bio-mordants utilized

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20742 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

Fig. 6  Complex structure

between wool, bio-mordant, and
coloring matter (this figure was
adapted from Singh et al. 2019)

Fig. 7  Complex structure between bio-mordant, cellulose, and natural dye (this figure was adapted from Baseri 2022b)

in the investigation produced a significant improvement in during pre-mordanting (step 2), and reacting marzangoosh
color strength (Sudhakar 2020). Marikani et al. (2020) used molecules with tamarind hull-treated cotton strands (step
Bixa orellana extract as a natural dye in the dyeing of cot- 3) (Baseri 2022b). Nazir et al. (2022) used sugarcane meal,
ton fabric and tamarind seed powder as a bio-mordant. In wheat bran, and rice husk as natural dyes and Tamarindus
another study, turmeric powder was used as a natural dye to indica L. seed coat extract as a bio-mordant to dye cotton
dye silk fabric, and tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) seed fabric in their study. It has been stated that colors with suffi-
coat tannin was used as a bio-mordant. It is reported that cient fastness can be obtained in light yellow and beige tones.
the color strength value and general fastness attributes are
enhanced by tannin mordanting (Sarker et al. 2020). Baseri Tannic acid (Tannins) ­(C76H52O46)
(2022b) also used tamarind in his study. In that study, he
used marzangoosh leaves as a natural dye to dye cotton In this section, brief information was given about tannins
threads and tamarind hull as a bio-mordant. used as mordant materials. Tannins are used as mordants in
Figure 7 shows a potential process for cationizing cotton dyeing textiles. Numerous naturally occurring polyphenols
(step 1), interacting tamarind shell with cationized cotton go by the term “tannin,” which is derived from the French

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20743

word “tanin” (tanning substance). In nature, tannins are Mohamed 2019; Kawlekar et al. 2022; Sadeghi-Kiakhani
present in many different families of higher plants, includ- et al. 2022b; Li et al. 2022; Ke et al. 2023). In another study,
ing plant galls, chestnut and oak wood, Divi-Divi, sumac, tannic acid, used in denim dyeing, was used as an environ-
myrobalan, trillo, and valonia. The chemistry of tannins mentally friendly alternative to metal mordants (Eryürük
varies significantly depending on where they are found in et al. 2023).
nature. Nearly every component of the plant, including the
bark, wood, leaves, fruit, roots, and seeds, has high levels of Taro (Colocasia esculenta L.)
tannin. The tannins are glossy, practically colorless, loose
masses that are light yellow or white in color and have an Colocasia esculenta (L.) is an annual herbaceous plant
astringent flavor and very peculiar smell. Tannins are used belonging to the Araceae family (Prajapati et al. 2011). C.
to create cationic dyes (tannin dyes) in the dyestuff industry esculenta has some phenolic compounds, such as anthocya-
as caustics. Tannins are polyphenolic secondary metabolites nin like cyanidin and pelargonidin derivatives, and also fla-
of higher plants. Tannins are divided into four main groups: vones like apigenin and luteolin derivatives (Gonçalves et al.
gallo-tannins, ellagitannins, complex tannins, and condensed 2013). Hosen et al. (2021) reported that the cotton fabric
tannins. Tannins are polyphenolic secondary metabolites of was dyed with turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) extract as a
higher plants and are either galloyl esters and their deriva- dye and citrus lemon and Colocasia esculenta bulk extracts
tives, in which galloyl moieties or their derivatives are as bio-mordants, and also that the bio-mordant-pretreated
attached to a variety of polyol-, catechin-, and triterpenoid sample’s color strength (K/S) was two times greater than the
cores (gallo-tannins, ellagitannins, and complex tannins), or metal-mordanted sample’s.
they are oligomeric and polymeric proanthocyanidins that
can possess different interflavanyl coupling and substitution Tea (Camellia sinensis L.)
patterns (condensed tannins) (Khanbabaee and Ree 2001).
Rosaceae, Geraniaceae, Leguminosae, Combretaceae, Rubi- The cultivated evergreen plant known as tea, Camellia
aceae, Polygonaceae, Theaceae, and other plant families are sinensis L., originated in China and then spread to India,
rich in both of the aforementioned categories of tannins. On Japan, Europe, and Russia before making its way to the
the other hand, the members of the families Papaveraceae New World in the late seventeenth century. Polyphenols
and Cruciferae are completely free of tannins. Table 2 lists (catechins and flavonoids), alkaloids (caffeine, theobro-
the main plants that produce tannin along with their tan- mine, theophylline, etc.), volatile oils, polysaccharides,
nin concentration. Tannins are amorphous, non-crystallis- amino acids, lipids, vitamins (like vitamin C), and inor-
able chemicals. They are soluble in diluted alkalis, water, ganic elements (like aluminum, fluorine, and manganese)
ethyl alcohol, glycerol, and acetone. They exhibit an acidic are just a few of the chemical substances found in tea leaves
response and a strong, astringent flavor in their aqueous (Sharangi 2009). It is possible to come across studies in
solution. The majority of tannin compounds cause solutions which tea leaves are used as both a dye and a mordant agent
of alkaloids, glycosides, gelatin, and heavy metal salts of in natural dyeing. In one study, madder (Rubia tinctorum)
copper, lead, and tin to precipitate (Prabhu and Bhute 2012). was used as a natural dye to dye polyester fabrics, and oak
Tannins are important in textile dyeing for a number of wood ash, green tea, black tea, sumac, and gallnut were
reasons, including their usage as a mordant in dyeing, the used as bio-mordants. It is stated that, in conjunction with
production of ink, the sizing of paper and silk, and for print- chemical and natural mordants, dyeing using Rubia tinc-
ing cloth. In the beginning, they create vital mordants for torum has produced various hues of orange, brown, pink,
dying plant fibers like cotton and linen. Second, they fre- and reddish green (Gedik et al. 2014). In another study,
quently work with the yellow, orange, red, and violet color- madder was used as a natural dye, and green tea was used
ants in plants. Their own pigment in the dye bath intensi- as a bio-mordant to dye 100% nettle-bast bio-fiber fabric.
fies these colorants’ hues. Tannin-dyed materials have good It is stated that all nettle-dyed fabrics displayed extremely
light- and wash-fastness (Prabhu and Bhute 2012). Many high and marketable wash, dry-rub, alkaline-perspiration,
researchers used tannic acid as a mordant agent when dyeing acidic-perspiration, and water-fastness qualities (Yavas
textile materials with natural dyes (Ali et al. 2010; Arroyo- et al. 2017). Win et al. (2020) also used beetroot (Beta
Figueroa et al. 2011; Prabhu and Bhute 2012; Tayade and vulgaris), hin-nu-new (Amaranthus viridis L.) leaves as
Adivarekar 2013; Narayanaswamy et al. 2013; Ibrahim et al. natural dyes, and tea leaves (Camella sinensis) as a bio-
2013; Mulec and Gorjanc 2015; Kundal et al. 2016; Ebra- mordant to dye cotton fabrics. It has been reported that,
himi and Gashti 2016; Swamy et al. 2016; Basak et al. 2016; depending on the bio-mordant, colors in gray and beige
Mansour et al. 2017; Adeel et al. 2017b; Mariamma and tones can be obtained. In another study, onion peel (Allium
Jose 2018; Baaka et al. 2019; Mir et al. 2019; Elsahida et al. cepa L.) as a natural dye and tea leaves, tamarind, Acacia
2019; Gulzar et al. 2015; Azeem et al. 2019a; Saleh and bark ash, and Aloe vera as bio-mordants were used to dye

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20744 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

Table 2  Some tannin-producing Botanical name (common name) Parts Tannin content (%)
plants and their tannin content
(Prabhu and Bhute 2012) Acacia catechu (khair) Wood 57–60
Acacia mollissima (mimosa) Bark 35–65
A. mearnsil (black wattle) Bark 35
A. nilotica (babool) Bark 12–18
Anogeissus latifolia (dhawada) Leaves 16–18
Anacardium occidentale (cashew) Leaves 20–25
Astronium balansae (urun day) Wood 10
C.coriaria (Divi-divi) Pods 35–50
Cassia auriculata (avaram) Bark 15–20
Ceriops roxburghiana (goran) Bark 20–40
C. fistula (amaltas) Bark 9–12
Castanea spp. (chestnut) Wood 30
Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarina) Bark 7–8
Ceriops roxburghiana (Goran) Bark 20–40
C. Tagal (Goran) Bark 20–40
Cleistanthus collinus (karad) Bark 23–27
Emblica officinails (amala) Stem bark, fruit, leaves 8–9, 21–24
Ecualyptus occidentalis (mallet) Bark 40
Eucalyptus spp. (Eucalyptus) Bark and wood 55
Eugenia jambolana (jamun) Bark 13–19
Hopea parviflora (Hopea) Bark 21
Larix spp. (larch) Bark 10
Mangifera indica (mango) Bark 17
Peltophorum ferrugineum (peltophorum) Bark 20–22
Pithecelobium dulce (jungle jalebi) Bark 30–35
Punica granatum (pomegranate) Fruit rind 26
Quebracho colorado Heart wood 20–27
Quercus aegilops (oak) Bark 30
Q. marolepis (valonia) Cup and bread 23–35
Q. montana (chestnut oak) Bark 6–15
Rhizophora mucronata (mangrove) Bark 30
Rhus. spp. (sumach) Leaves 20–35
Rhus pentaphylla (tizrah) Roots and wood 30
Shorea robusta (sal) Bark 7–9
Terminalia alata (saja, laurd) Bark 15
T. arjuna (Arjun) Bark 23
T. bellirica (beheda) Nut 12
T.chebula (myrobalan) Nut 30–55
T.tormentosa Fruit 10–23
T. suga (hemlock) Bark 25
T. heteropkylla (West.hemlock) Bark 25
Tamarindus indica (tamarind) Fruit 20
Uncaria gambir (gambier) Leaves 35–40

silk fabric. It is stated that the outcomes of the yellow, red, dyeing. It has been reported that fabrics dyed in brown
and brown dyes produced with these bio-mordants were tones with bio-mordants have better color and fastness
good in terms of colorfastness (Yaqub et al. 2020). In one properties than fabrics dyed with metal mordants (Abou
study, the peels of P. granatum, flowers of Rhus coriaria Elmaaty et al. 2023). In one study, three different natural
(R. coriaria), and powdered leaves of Camellia sinensis mordants, namely tea leaves, tannic acid, and harde, were
(C. sinensis) were utilized as bio-mordants during wool used to dye cotton and viscose rayon. It has been reported

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20745

that colors in gray tones can be produced according to the Walnut (Juglans regia L.) shell
bio-mordanting method (Madhu and Agrawal 2024).
The walnut tree belongs to the Juglandaceae family. Due to
Thuja (Thuja orientalis L.) its excellent kernels, it is the most common nut-bearing tree
and is cultivated in several regions of the world. Many dif-
A well-known medicinal plant, Thuja orientalis, often ferent phenols and derivatives have been identified in walnut
called arbor vitae, white cedar, or morpankhi, is a member shell pyroligneous, acids such as phenol, 4-methyl-pheno,
of the Cupressaceae family. It is believed to have come 1,2-benzenediol (Jahanban-Esfahlan and Amarowicz 2018).
from Central Asia, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Siberia, and In one study, Mall et al. (2017) used Butea monosperma
northern and north-eastern China. Fresh plants contain leaves as a natural dye and almond shell, walnut shell, rinds
essential oils, reducing sugars, water-soluble polysaccha- of bahera fruits, and rinds of harad (Myrobalan-Terminalia
rides, water-soluble minerals, free acid, tannin-producing chebula) fruits as bio-mordants to dye cotton fabric. It is
substances, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, and alkaloids, stated that the chemical and natural mordants were both
according to biochemical research (Jain and Sharma 2017). found to be equally effective, and all mordanted samples
İşmal et al. (2014, 2015) reported that this plant could be had greater K/S values than the control samples, indicating
a bio-mordant for dyeing wool fabric. In their study, they a significant affinity for cotton. In another study, madder
used powders of valex (acorns of Quercus ithaburensis ssp. and Reseda luteola were used as natural dyes for dyeing
macrolepis), pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) rind, rose- wool, and walnut husk was used as a bio-mordant. It has
mary (Rosmarinus officinalis), and thuja (Thuja orientalis been stated that, as a result of dyeing, colors in brown, pink,
L.) as bio-mordants. It is stated that based on the control and burgundy tones can be obtained (Hosseinnezhad et al.
sample, Thuja was ineffective for both washing and light 2022c, 2023a).
fastness, while valex and pomegranate rind enhanced both,
and rosemary was ineffective for both light and washing
fastness. Xylocarpus moluccensis

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) One of the different bio-mordant materials used in natural
dyeing is the bark of Xylocarpus moluccensis. In one study,
One of the plants used both as a natural dye and as a bio- Rahman et al. (2013) used heartwood as a natural dye and
mordant is turmeric. It is widely cultivated in Asia, primar- the bark of Xylocarpus moluccensis as a bio-mordant to dye
ily in India and China. The Zingiberaceae (ginger) family silk fabric.
includes the herbaceous, evergreen plant known as turmeric.
Numerous metabolites, including curcuminoid, oil content,
flavonoids, phenolics, a few crucial amino acids, protein, and Zeera (Cuminum cyminum)
high alkaloid content, are present (Verma et al. 2018). Adeel
et al. used turmeric as a bio-mordant in their research at dif- Due to its unique aromatic effect, Cuminum cyminum (cumin),
ferent times. They used henna, turmeric, Acacia nicotica, often known as “zeera,” is a significant and well-liked spice
and pomegranate as bio-mordants in their works (Adeel et al. that is utilized in food. C. cyminum’s fruit is made up of vola-
2019a, 2020a, e, 2021b, 2022f, g, 2023a). Rehman et al. tile oils, proteins, and oil. The volatile oil that makes up 30 to
(2022b) used saffron (Crocus sativus), safflower (Carthamus 50% of cumin aldehyde is the primary component, with small
tinctorius L.) leaves as natural dyes, turmeric, and pome- contributions from phellandrene, hydrocuminin, α-pinene,
granate as bio-mordants to dye polyamide fabric. In one hydrated cumin aldehyde, cuminic alcohol, and β-pinene
study, Salman et al. (2023) highlight the use of aqueous, (Mughal 2022). In one study, Adeel et al. (2020c) used saf-
alkaline, acidic, and basified methanol as solvents to explore fron and madder as natural dyes and zeera and harmal seeds
roses containing anthocyanin as a source of yellowish-pink as bio-mordants to dye woolen yarn. It is stated that zeera and
natural colorant for wool dyeing. Turmeric and pomegran- harmal used together with saffron extract showed high color
ate were utilized as bio-mordants, while salts of iron (­ Fe+2), strength and sufficient fastness properties.
aluminum ­(Al+3), and tannic acid (Tn) were used as chemi-
cal mordants to increase the colorfastness properties. The Oil mordants
findings suggest that wool fabric dyed with naturally occur-
ring rose petals can be used as a valuable antibacterial fabric Oil mordants are naturally occurring oils that contain fatty
since it has a variety of bioactive components that counteract acids and their glycerides, including palmitic, stearic, oleic,
the effects of fabrics dyed with synthetic dyes that can cause and ricinolic acids (Kumar and Sinha 2004). Stearic, oleic,
allergies. ricin, and other fats containing fatty acids occur naturally

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20746 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

in oil mordants and their glycerides; the main function of Ammonium acetate
an oil mordant is to form a complex and then use it as a
mordant (Ragab and Hassabo 2021). Castor oil or Turkey Some organic compounds are used directly as organic mor-
red oil (TRO) are oil-type mordants (İşmal and Yıldırım dant agents in reactive dyes. Baig et al. (2019) used sodium
2019). It was previously used as an oil mordant in sesame citrate, ammonium acetate, and potassium acetate as organic
(til) oil (Aggarwal 2021). Oil mordants are used mainly in mordants in their study. It is reported that out of these three
the dyeing of Turkey red color from madder. The primary salts, sodium citrate demonstrated superior fastness char-
purpose of the oil mordant is to create a complex with the acteristics in comparison to other salts, while organic salts
principal mordant, alum. Due to the presence of the sul- displayed greater K/S ratios at lower concentrations.
fonic acid group, sulfonated oils have a greater ability to
bind metal ions than natural oils (Vankar 2000). Alum is Caffeic acid
easily removed from treated cloth because it is soluble in
water and has no attraction to cotton. Fatty acids like pal- Phan et al. (2020) used anthocyanins in blueberry waste as
mitic, stearic, oleic, and others, as well as their glycerides, a dyestuff source and reported that cotton materials could
are present in naturally occurring oil. Fatty acid’s -COOH be dyed by using caffeic acid as a bio-mordant agent. At the
group reacts with metal salts to form -COOM, where “M” same time, they reported that there are very small interaction
stands for the metal. The introduction of the sulphonic acid energies for dye molecules related to bio-mordants. Gallic
group, -SO3H, caused by the treatment of oils with concen- acid and caffeic acid were chosen to reconstruct the stability
trated sulfuric acid results in sulphonated oils, which have achieved by co-pigmentation, or π-π interactions.
stronger metal-binding capacity than natural oils. Metal and
sulphonic acid can react to form -SO3M. With a mordant Chitosan
dye like madder, this bonded metal can form a complex
to produce Turkey red, a color with exceptional fastness A significant amount of research on this polymer and its pos-
and hue. Turkey red oils (TRO) was the name given to the sible applications has been published over the past few years.
sulphonated oils as a result. These days, only sulphonated It is easily obtained by deacetylation of chitin, a polysaccha-
castor oil is referred to as TRO (Prabhu and Bhute 2012). ride commonly found in nature (e.g., crustaceans, insects,
and some fungi). Chitosan is a linear copolymer of β (1–4)
New‑generation and non‑vegetable‑based linked 2-actamido-2-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranose and 2-amino-
mordants 2-deoxy-β-d-glycopyranose (Fig. 8). Chitosan is better suited
for industrial uses because chitin is only partially soluble
The new-generation and non-vegetable-based mordant in aqueous solutions. Chitosan is biocompatible with both
(Table 3) materials have also interestingly entered the natu- healthy and sick human skin and has no irritating or allergic
ral dyeing industry. It has been reported here that many dif- effects (Dodane and Vilivalam 1998).
ferent materials can be used as mordant agents in natural There are many different applications of chitosan in the
dyeing processes. textile industry, but in this section, the use of chitosan as a
bio-mordant in the coloring of textile materials along with
Al‑hyperaccumulating plants natural dyes has been investigated. Kampeerapappun et al.
(2011) treated knitted cotton fabric with different concen-
Some plants are known to contain certain metals. Such plant trations of chitosan to find a suitable concentration for the
sources can be used as bio-mordanting agents in natural dye- dyeability of Ruellia tuberosa Linn, investigated the dye-
ing processes. For example, plants that accumulate aluminum ing properties of chitosan and mordants, and examined the
have been used as aluminum mordants. As an organic source effects of mordanting methods on dyeing. It is stated that
of mordants, metal hyperaccumulating plants offer improved fabric that had been treated with chitosan and dyed with pop-
adherence to the dyes since they tightly chelate to the dye ping pods displayed a yellowish-brown hue when mordanted
molecules. The use of Al-hyperaccumulating plants as mor- with stannous sulfate, manganese sulfate, sodium chloride,
dants is common in Indonesia. It is stated that traditional dye- lime juice, and ash. It has been stated that silk fiber can be
ing processes in Indonesia have used Al mordants obtained dyed in various shades by using anthocyanins extracted with
from plants or metallic salts of iron found in mud. It is stated an ethanol solution from red onion peels as a natural dye
that most of the world’s 250 Symplocos species, which are source and chitosan and some metal salts ­(Fe2+, ­Fe3+, ­Mg2+,
characterized as Al-hyperaccumulators, could probably be ­Al3+, ­Cu2+, ­Mn2+) as mordants. It is reported that using chi-
used as natural mordants. These natural metallic mordants tosan and various salts of transition elements as mordant
could be employed as an alternative to mordants that include agents, the different colors of dusky brown, brown, faint
hazardous metal ions (Cunningham et al. 2011). yellow, light green, reddish brown, cyan, and green could

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20747

Table 3  Sources used as non-vegetable-based mordants in the literature

No Non-vegetable-based mordants References No Non-vegetable-based mordants References

1 Chitosan Kampeerapappun et al. (2011) 2 Citric acid Bulut and Akar (2012)
Lu (2011) Bulut et al. (2014)
Teli et al. (2013) Karaboyacı and Uğur (2014)
Saravanan et al. (2015) Park and Jung (2014)
Mehrparvar et al. (2016) Ammayappan and Shakyawar
Azarmi and Ashjaran (2017) (2016)
Chilukoti et al. (2019) Zhang et al. (2020)
Safapour et al. (2019) Perju et al. (2019)
Alebeid et al. (2020) Kaynar and Ucar (2019)
Syrine et al. (2020) Yıldırım and İşmal (2019)
Ul-Islam and Butola (2020) Ismal and Yıldırım (2020)
Zhao et al. (2020) Gong et al. (2020)
Kandasamy et al. (2021) He et al. (2021)
Krifa et al. (2021) Oancea et al. (2021)
Dulo et al. (2022) Baseri and Ahmadzadeh (2022c)
Ltaief et al. (2022) Pancapalaga et al. (2022)
Sadeghi-Kiakhani et al. (2022a) Tu et al. (2023)
Toprak-Cavdur et al. (2022)
Lambrecht et al. (2023)
El Sayed et al. (2023)
Grande et al. (2023)
Rahman et al. (2023)
Do et al. (2023)
Fang et al. (2023)
3 Wood ash Kampeerapappun et al. (2011) 4 Gelatin Bydoon (2016)
Cunningham et al. (2011) Ahmed et al. (2020a)
Tajuddin et al. (2011) Ahmed et al. (2020b)
Ahmad et al. (2012a) El-Zawahry et al. (2021)
Gedik et al. (2014) El-Sayed et al. (2022)
Geelani et al. (2017)
Yaqub et al. (2020)
Yan et al. (2021)
5 Clays Liu and Chen (2012) 6 Rare earth compounds Zheng et al. (2011)
Gashti et al. (2014) Liu et al. (2011)
Pour et al. (2020b) Liu and Bai (2012)
7 Hyperbranched polymers Davulcu (2015) 8 Cow dung Saravanan and Chandramohan
Mehrparvar et al. (2016) (2011)
Sadeghi-Kiakhani et al. (2022a) Chandra et al. (2012)
9 Sodium alginate Ghaheh et al. (2022) 10 Vinegar Geetha and Sumathy (2013)
Tehrani et al. (2023a) Kashyap et al. (2016)
11 Whey Başaran and Sarikaya (2015) 12 Lime Kampeerapappun et al. (2011)
Baseri (2020) Feiz and Norouzi (2014)
13 Caffeic acid Phan et al. (2020) 14 Dorema ammoniacum gum Haji et al. (2023)
15 Egg shells Chan et al. (2002) 16 Gum rosin Yan et al. (2021)
17 Human hair keratin Baseri (2022d) 18 Potassium acetate Baig et al. (2019)
19 Jaggery Agrawal and Chopra (2020) 20 Ammonium acetate Baig et al. (2019)
21 Lye Başaran and Sarikaya (2015) 22 Mud Masae et al. (2017)
23 Mushroom Başaran and Sarikaya (2015) 24 Oyster shells Kim et al. (2005)
25 Sodium citrate Baig et al. (2019) 26 Urine Ado et al. (2014)
27 Soy protein Periyasamy (2022) 28 Al-hyperaccumulating plants Cunningham et al. (2011)
(Symplocos species)
29 Yeast Başaran and Sarikaya (2015)

be obtained (Lu 2011). In another study, it was reported fact that the color values varied depending on the dye and
that using chitosan at different concentrations as a mordant, mordant combination, the chitosan mordant displayed good
cotton can be printed on fabric with natural dyes such as color values (Teli et al. 2013). Saravanan et al. (2015) treated
catechu, turmeric, and marigold. It is stated that despite the cotton fabric with different concentrations of chitosan to find

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20748 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

characteristics by acting as a bio-mordant by curing cotton

fabric with a double-layered chitosan coating and producing
a protective layer on it. It is reported that the wash fastness
of cotton fabric dyed with sodium copper chlorophyllin can
be increased from 3 to 5 by adding a second chitosan layer
and curing it using the cross-linking technique. Another
study proposed an environmentally friendly process in which
wool fibers are dyed in the presence of chitosan using natural
dyes extracted from henna leaves in decamethyl cyclopenta-
siloxane. An efficient, eco-friendly method that can be used
to avoid using excessive amounts of water during the dyeing
process and lessen heavy metal contamination is to dye chi-
Fig. 8  Chemical structure of chitosan with x, degree of acetylation; tosan-treated wool fibers with henna extract in a decamethyl
n, number of sugar units per polymer (this figure was adapted from cyclopentasiloxane medium (Alebeid et al. 2020). Syrine
Dodane and Vilivalam 1998) et al. (2020) examined the treatment of cotton fabric with
different amounts of chitosan biopolymer, dimethyl dialyl

Fig. 9  Mechanism of the chitosan-cellulose-Curcuma longa reaction (this figure was adapted from Toprak-Cavdur et al. 2022)

a suitable concentration for dyeability with a natural dye ammonium chloride, dialylamine copolymer, and alum and
obtained from the bark of Odina wodier Roxb, and they emphasized that the dyeing behavior and color fastness val-
found that fabrics treated with chitosan had higher dyeabil- ues were good with an ecological extract of Pistacia vera
ity and fastness values. In one study, Azarmi and Ashjaran hull by-products. In another study, logwood dye was applied
(2017) stated that silk fabrics can be colored using inorganic to a polyester fabric treated with atmospheric plasma. The
salts, the biological mordant chitosan, and curcumin as a fabric is treated with environmentally friendly substances
natural dye. It has been stated that it can show sufficient fast- such as a formaldehyde-free acrylate binder and chitosan. It
ness and antibacterial properties in silk fabric dyeing using has been reported that dyeing plasma-treated polyester fiber
chitosan. Safapour et al. (2019) suggested that when wool while imparting antibacterial properties with a bio-based log
yarn is treated with the prepared chitosan-cyanide chloride wood dye without the addition of any metallic mordant may
hybrid (Ch-Cy as a bio-mordant), dye uptake will increase, be a viable eco-option to replace some hazardous dyes and
dyeing time and temperature will decrease, and Ch-Cy may intermediates used in textiles (Krifa et al. 2021). In a study,
be an environmentally friendly product. Ul-Islam and Butola during the investigation of Limoniastrum monopetalum
(2020) reported that the combination of chitosan with Cit- leaves as an ecological dye source in cotton fabric dyeing,
rus sinensis bark extract biomolecules offers full potential alum, chitosan, and pomegranate peel were used as mor-
in natural dyeing technology as an approach to improving dants, and the fastness properties of the colored cotton sam-
the natural dyeing performance of cotton fabric. Accord- ples obtained at the end of dyeing were found to be good. It
ing to Zhao et al. (2020), the structure boosts color fastness has been stated that cotton fabrics colored with natural dye

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20749

in the presence of chitosan can be obtained in dark yellow Citric acid

and brown tones (Ltaief et al. 2022). Dulo et al. (2022),
while investigating the coloring potential of the extracts Due to its low toxicity compared to other acidulants used
obtained from the shells of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), mostly in the pharmaceutical and food industries, citric
cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.), coconut (Cocos acid is in high demand globally. In addition to these uses,
nucifera L.), and macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifolia citric acid also appears in cosmetics, cleaning supplies, and
L.), used chitosan, alum, and ferrium sulfate as mordant other products (Soccol et al. 2006). The following are some
agents. Toprak-Cavdur et al. (2022) stated that dyeing recy- citric acid-based natural dyeing studies: Bulut and Akar
cled cotton fibers with natural dyes from Curcuma longa and (2012) investigated the ecological dyeing of cotton fabric
Pterocarpus santalinus and bio-mordant chitosan. It is stated and wool yarn with bio-mordants by using plant wastes
that according to the dye, different molecular weights of chi- as dyestuffs. Ecological dyeing on cationized cotton fab-
tosan had varying effects on the color depth. The mechanism ric and wool yarn, which do not contain metal salts, was
of the complex reaction between chitosan, cellulose, and obtained by using the residues of rosemary, rose, lavender,
Curcuma longa is given in Fig. 9. and mate tea extracts as natural dyes. The use of citric acid
Lambrecht et al. (2023) used red tea as a natural dye instead of C ­ uSO4 as a bio-mordant provided high color
and chitosan as a bio-mordant in their study. It has been strength and moderately good fastness values in cellulose-
stated that pink color tones can be obtained by dyeing with extracted wool yarn. In another study, natural dyes for the
chitosan. In a study, it was reported that when onion skin coloring of wool yarns were obtained from extracts of lav-
is used as a natural dye, and chitosan is used as a mordant ender (Lavandula hybrida) and broom (Spartium junceum)
in dyeing cotton, fabrics in red and purple colors and with flowers after oil extraction and from the extract of Dimrit
sufficient washing and rubbing fastness can be obtained grape red wine. During the dyeing of wool yarns with these
(Grande et al. 2023). In one work, a sustainable method natural dyes, ecological wool dyeing was obtained by using
for dying linen with natural lac dye using microwave heat- an ecological mordant (citric acid) (Karaboyacı and Uğur
ing following cationic bio-mordant treatment with chitosan 2014). While examining the natural dyeing method using
is introduced. It is stated that fabrics with close to black the Phytolacca americana L.-berry, five different mordants
color tones and sufficient levels of washing and perspira- were combined: copper acetate, aluminum potassium sul-
tion fastness can be produced from the dyeings obtained fate, sodium tartrate plus citric acid, ferric II sulfate, and
(El Sayed et al. 2023). In one study, Rahman et al. (2023) potassium dichromate. It has been determined that the dye
designed an eco-friendly dyeing process for cotton fibers extracted from the fruits sufficiently dyes silk fabrics (Park
using the natural dye curcumin and bio-mordant chitosan. and Jung 2014). In one of the studies, a natural dye called
According to one study, Do et al. (2023) used chitosan as cochineal from Dactylopius coccus cacti was extracted by
a bio-mordant together with a dye extract from the roots of the aqueous extraction method and applied to wool yarn
Rubia cordifolia L. to functionalize silk with antibacterial in the presence of five different mordants in single and
and UV protection qualities. For comparison, the dyeing combination forms. Aluminum sulfate, tin chloride, ferrous
procedure also included the use of an alum mordant. The sulfate, citric acid, and potassium hydrogen tartrate were
dyed silk samples had a good wash, rubbing, and illumi- used as mordants. It has been stated that at the end of all
nation resistance. With maximal inhibitions of 96.71% dyeings, wool yarns with sufficient fastness can be obtained
and 99.08% against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus with a wide color palette from red to purple (Ammayap-
aureus, respectively, and just 2.3% spore germination of pan and Shakyawar 2016). In another study, Zhang et al.
white mold (Aspergillus spp.), the chitosan-mordanted- (2020) accepted alum (KAl(SO4)212H2O), calcium acetate
dyed silk demonstrated exceptional antibacterial character- (Ca(CH3COO)2), and citric acid (­ C6H8O7) as different eco-
istics. Likewise, the chitosan-modified-dyed silk acquired friendly mordants and came up with the conclusion that
a superb UV protection factor. In one study, Fang et al. wool can be dyed with the extract obtained from buckwheat
(2023) stated that the natural dye was extracted from bio- hull. It was determined that the results obtained from dye-
mass lotus seedpod waste; the effects of temperature, time, ing cotton in the presence of anthocyanins obtained from
pH, and a metal mordant on fabric dyeing performance Hibiscus sabdariffa as a natural dye and bio-mordants such
were investigated; and it was then utilized for eco-dyeing as citric and tannic acids were comparable to dyeing using
and functional finishing of cotton fabric along with the bio- copper sulfate (Perju et al. 2019). Wool carpet yarns were
mordant chitosan. The chitosan pretreatment-dyed cotton colored with 9 different mordant substances, including cit-
fabric outperformed other fabrics in terms of UV protec- ric acid, using 28 different vegetable dye sources obtained
tion factor (UPF value = 63.4) and E. coli and S. aureus from nature, and dyed yarns were reported to have satisfac-
inhibition (99.86 and 99.99% initial inhibition, 99.08 and tory color fastness values (Kaynar and Ucar 2019). In an
98.21% after ten cycles of washing). article by Yıldırım and İşmal (2019), they wanted to show

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20750 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

the dyeing effect by using banana peel and various mor- Cow dung
dants in dyeing polyamide fabric, and they said that citric
acid, tartaric acid, and oxalic acid can be used as alterna- Saravanan and Chandramohan (2011) made one of the differ-
tives to metallic mordants. A study was conducted to reveal ent bio-mordant applications. They used natural dye obtained
the potential of using faba bean husk as a natural dye in from the bark of Ficus religiosa L. as dye and myrobalan and
dyeing polyamide/elastane fabric, to create a color gamut, cow dung as natural mordants to dye bleached silk fabrics. At
and to observe the effect of different mordants. Mordant the end of the trials, it is stated that orange and pink colors
materials such as alum, ferric sulfate, tin II chloride, copper can be obtained with sufficient fastnesses.
II sulfate, citric acid, tartaric acid, oxalic acid, ammonium
sulfate, sodium acetate, alum-iron, iron-tin, and alum-tin Dorema ammoniacum gum
were used here to assist dyeing (Ismal and Yıldırım 2020).
He et al. (2021) obtained the colored substance from the According to Haji et al. (2023), they used dragon’s blood
lotus seedpod, the natural pigment of oligomeric procya- resin extract as a natural dye and four different bio-mor-
nidins, to dye Tussah silk fabric. Subsequently, the dyed dants (including peppermint, mugworts (Artemisia), Dorema
samples were treated with different concentrations of citric ammoniacum gum, and pomegranate rind) as natural mor-
acid solution to improve their color fastness. Here, they dants to dye nylon fabric with natural dye.
used citric acid as a crosslinking agent to bind fiber and
dye molecules. In a study, it was explained that dyeing Egg shells
processes can be performed in the presence of anthocyanins
obtained from the extraction of peony (Paeonia officinalis In one study, Chan et al. (2002) reported that tea wastes and
L.) flowers and tannic and citric acids as bio-mordants in wilted flower petals as natural dyes, egg shells, tannic acid,
the dyeing of cotton. At the end of dyeing, it was stated that and turmeric as bio-mordants can be used to dye wool. It is
cotton samples colored in red tones could be obtained with stated that it is possible to use natural mordants (egg shells,
citric acid (Oancea et al. 2021). Pancapalaga et al. (2022) turmeric) extracted from waste to replace harmful traditional
used 20 sheepskin crusts and mangrove bark extracts in mordants.
their study to evaluate the color fastness and bark quality
of eco-printed leather by using various types of mordants in Gelatin
the natural dye of mangrove extract. The study was done in
a completely random design (CRD) using materials such as Gelatin is a largely pure protein obtained by thermal
aluminum sulfate, calcium carbonate, citric acid, and iron denaturation of collagen, the most common protein. Gel-
sulfate as mordants. In one study, Tu et al. (2023) claimed atin is a high-molecular-weight polypeptide and impor-
that fabric pretreatment and aftertreatment procedures were tant hydrocolloid that has proven popular with the general
an easy and effective technique to increase dye exhaustion public and has found use in a wide variety of food prod-
and color fastness of cotton fabrics dyed using Coptis chin- ucts, largely due to its gelling and thickening properties
ensis (C. chinensis) extract. In order to boost the capacity (Mariod and Fadul 2013). In this section, the possibili-
of their anionic sites, the cotton textiles were first treated ties of using gelatin, which has been used for different
with critic acid (CA). According to the findings, pretreated purposes, as a bio-mordant have been compiled. Bydoon
cotton fabrics had stronger colors than untreated materials. (2016) reported that cotton fabrics can be colored with
The colored fabrics treated with water-repellent substances sufficient fastness by using tea leaves as natural dyes and
also showed improved washing fastness. The ultraviolet gelatin as a bio-mordant along with metal salts. In a study
protection factor (UPF) value of colored fabric increased by Ahmed et al. (2020a), the cotton fabric pretreated with
to 349.69, and the antibacterial activity increased by 98%. tannic acid and gelatin, which they previously defined as
Additionally, the colored materials showed outstanding bio-mordants, was produced with madder (CI Natural Red
waterproof and wrinkle-resistant qualities. 9), curcumin (CI Natural Yellow 3), rhubarb (CI Natural
Yellow 23), and alkanet (CI Natural Red), stating that it
Clays can be dyed with natural dyes. Similarly, Ahmed et al.
(2020b) stated in the second part of their study that it can
Some of the interesting mordant materials used are clays. be used as a printing paste content in the printing of cot-
Liu and Chen (2012) used mugwort as a natural dye and ton fabrics treated with gelatin-tannic acid (bio-mordant).
montmorillonite as a bio-mordant to dye silk fabrics. Gashti A similar study by El-Sayed et al. (2022) first treated
et al. (2014) used bentonite-type clays as mordants. They cotton fabric with a gelatin-tannic acid combination (as
used madder as a natural dye and bentonite-type clays as a a bio-mordant), then printed with madder using natural
bio-mordant to dye wool yarn. and synthetic thickeners.

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20751

Gum rosin Mud

A gum exudate called gum rosin is obtained from pine trees. Sludge has been used as a mordant agent in different stud-
Neoabetic acid, palaustric acid, and abiatic acid are the main ies on the coloring of textile materials with natural dyes.
components (Sigma Aldrich 2023). Yan et al. (2021) have Most likely, the sludge content also varies depending on the
used it as a bio-mordant agent in the natural dyeing process. regions where the sludge is obtained. Masae et al. (2017)
It is stated that natural mordants have effects on fastness used mud together with aluminum potassium sulfate, iron
after washing and perspiration that are comparable to those chloride, and sodium hydroxide to dye silk fabric.
of metallic ones.
Mushroom
Human hair keratin
Başaran and Sarikaya (2015) used mushroom as a mordant
One of the unusual mordant substances is human hair keratin.
in their studies. It has been stated that khaki color tones can
In one study, Baseri (2022d) reported that keratin from sal-
be obtained at the end of the process.
vaged human hair can be a bio-mordant that improves the dye
absorption of extract from Matricaria recutita flowers in dye-
ing cotton fabrics. It is stated that the color strength and fast- Oyster shells
ness values of the material treated with keratin can be good.
Today, there are many different studies on the evaluation of
Jaggery seashells; however, here is an example of its use in natural
dyeing that has been examined. In one study, extract from
Jaggery is a traditional, unrefined sugar used throughout Coreopsis drummondii was used as a natural dye to dye
South and Southeast Asia. In one study, teak leaf extract silk, and lime juice from Camellia japonica, oyster shells,
as a natural dye, harda (Terminalia chebula), Eucalyptus Symplocos chinensis (Lour) Druce for. pilosa (Nakai) Ohwi
(Eucalyptus globulus) leaves, Supari (Areca catechu), iron were used as natural mordants. It has been stated that the
filings and jaggery, pomegranate peel (Punica granatum use of natural mordants increases the color’s strength (Kim
L.), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), and amla (Phyllanthus et al. 2005).
emblica) as bio-mordants were used to dye selected natu-
ral and synthetic fabrics. Depending on the bio-mordants, Potassium acetate
it has been claimed that colors with purple, pink, and bur-
gundy tones can be created (Agrawal and Chopra 2020). Baig et al. (2019) used sodium citrate, ammonium ace-
tate, and potassium acetate as mordants in their studies.
Lime According to the paper, among these three salts, sodium
citrate showed superior fastness properties to other salts,
Lime is a type of white, inorganic-based binder that is while organic salts showed higher K/S ratios at lower
obtained as a result of firing limestone at various temperatures concentrations.
(850–1450 °C), which, when mixed with water, solidifies in
air or water depending on its type (Wikipedia 2023). It is seen Rare earth compounds
that it is frequently used in natural dyeing work done in rural
areas. In a different study, lime was used as a mordant in addi- Another study, Zheng et al. (2011), used rare earth com-
tion to metal mordant substances in the process of coloring pounds (lanthanum-rich) as bio-mordants to dye ramie fab-
wool fabrics with madder. It is stated that it gives higher color rics with natural dyes. It is reported that the colored fabrics
strength in post-mordanting with lime; brownish red color is showed greater color and shade stability when rare earth
obtained in post-mordanting; and red color is obtained in meta compounds were used as mordants. In other studies, “rare
and pre-mordanting (Feiz and Norouzi 2014). earth element” (Liu et al. 2011), “praseodymium chloride”
(Liu and Bai 2012), and “montmorillonite,” (Liu and Chen
Lye 2012) as mordant, in cotton fabric-turmeric, silk fiber-
monascorubrin pigment, and silk fabric-mugwort combi-
Başaran and Sarikaya (2015) used lye as a mordant in their stud- nations, respectively, were used. It is stated that the dye
ies. It is stated that the light fastness obtained while pre-mordant- absorption and K/S value of silk fabrics were successfully
ing cotton fabric samples with lye, yeast, whey, and mushroom increased by mordanting with terrae rare (Praseodymium
extract is at a medium level, with the exception of whey. chloride) and monascorubrin pigment.

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20752 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

Fig. 10  Interaction of cotton, natural dye, and bio-mordant (this figure was adapted from Periyasamy 2022)

Sodium citrate Soy protein

Baig et al. (2019) used sodium citrate, ammonium acetate, Another interesting source of bio-mordant is soy protein.
and potassium acetate as mordants in their studies. In the Periyasamy (2022) used Syzygium cumini fruit extract as a
study, sodium citrate outperformed other salts in terms of natural dye and soy protein as a bio-mordant to dye cotton
its fastness properties, while organic salts displayed better fabric. The complex structure formed is presented in Fig. 10.
K/S ratios at lower concentrations.

Urine
Sodium alginate
It is pointed out that traditionally, mordants were found in
One of the rare bio-mordants is sodium alginate. Ghaheh nature; wood ash or stale urine have been used as alkali mor-
et al. (2021) and Tehrani et al. (2023a) used sodium algi- dants, and acids are found in acidic fruit or rhubarb leaves
nate as a bio-mordant. They used Hibiscus sabdariffa L (which contain oxalic acid), for example (Ado et al. 2014).
extract as a natural dye, tannic acid, pine cone, lemon peel,
and sodium alginate as bio-mordants to dye cotton fabrics.
The findings show that sodium alginate and calcium ligno- Vinegar
sulfonate, along with the meta-mordanting technique, have
produced the highest color strength. Another type of bio-mordant that traditional natural dyers
use is vinegar. In their research, Geetha and Sumathy (2013)

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20753

in their research and wood ash obtained from Salix alba L.

and Populus deltoides Bartram ex marsh as a bio-mordant.
It is reported that with Populus deltoides (wood ash) mor-
dant on the pashmina fabric, which used the pre-mordanting
procedure, the highest value of the percent absorption was
discovered. Wood ash has also been commonly used in natu-
ral mordanting processes in Indonesia, particularly Stercu-
lia foetida L. (fruit peels), Ixora coccinea L., Schleichera
oleosa Merr., or Tamarindus indica L. (wood) and the ashes
of these plants (Cunningham et al. 2011).

Yeast

One of the interesting mordant substances used in natural dye-

ing is yeast. Başaran and Sarikaya (2015) used Quercus infec-
Fig. 11  Diagram showing the chemical interactions between pome- toria as a natural dye to dye cotton fabrics and whey, yeast,
granate rind dye, WPI, and cotton (this figure was adapted from lye, and mushroom extract as bio-mordants in their research. It
Baseri 2020)
is claimed that, with the exception of whey, the light-fastness
produced after pre-mordanting cotton fabric samples with lye,
used plant sources such as Bougainvillea glabra, beetroot, yeast, whey, and mushroom extract is at a medium level.
and red cabbage as natural dyes and vinegar as a bio-mor-
dant to dye cotton fabrics. It has been stated that different Hyperbranched polymers
colors can be obtained if vinegar is used as a mordant. In
another study, coconut husk powder extract and vinegar as a In this form of dendrimer application, dye molecules
bio-mordant were used to dye cotton fabric. It is stated that connect with the end groups, branches, or core of a den-
the rubbing, washing, and light fastness characteristics of drimer molecule. The interaction causes a change in the
the tested colored materials were found to be good (Kashyap dye’s absorption or emission behavior, which can reveal
et al. 2016). details about the structure of the dendrimer or how it inter-
acts with its surroundings (Froehling 2001). Walnut bark
(Juglans regia L.), oak tree (Quercus infectoria), chamo-
Whey mile (Anthemis tinctoria), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and
buckthorn (Rhamnus petiolaris) as natural dye sources, and
One of the different mordant substances used in natural polypropylene with the addition of hyperbranched polymer
dyeing is whey. Baseri (2020) used pomegranate peel as a (HBP) by melt spinning technique, it has been reported that
natural dye and whey as a bio-mordant to dye cotton fabric. PP fiber can be dyed. It is stated that the addition of HBP
It has been stated that samples with sufficient color fastness improved the ability of PP fibers to take color from natu-
and color strength can be obtained. The complex structure ral sources (Davulcu 2015). In another study, madder as a
between the components is shown in Fig. 11. natural dye and chitosan-polypropylene imine dendrimer
hybrid (CS-PPI) was used as a bio-mordant for dyeing
Wood ash wool. It is stated that CS-PPI can be employed as a prom-
ising antibacterial finishing ingredient for the creation of
Wood ash is one of the natural mordant materials that rural hygienic colored wool textiles as well as an alternative “bio-
natural dyers frequently use. A study on the use of paddy ash mordant” in place of the metallic mordant typically used
as a natural mordant in natural dyeing is reviewed. Tajud- in wool dyeing with madder dye (Mehrparvar et al. 2016).
din et al. (2011) used Xylocarpus moluccensis heartwood Sadeghi-Kiakhani et al. (2022a) used cochineal and mad-
extract as a natural dye and paddy ash as a natural mordant der as natural dyes and a chitosan-poly (amidoamine) den-
to dye viscose rayon. In one of these studies, Ahmad et al. drimer (Ch-PAMAM) hybrid as a bio-mordant to dye wool
(2012b) used Melastoma malabathricum L.’s (Senduduk) yarn. It is stated that the Ch-PAMAM hybrid can be used
plant extract as a natural dye and wood ash as a natural mor- successfully as a green potential agent for multifunctional
dant for dyeing silk fabrics. It has been stated that the natural wool treatment with its improved natural dyeing quality and
mordants used increase the color fastness values. Geelani antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Additionally, it has
et al. (2017) used a natural dye extract from Quercus robur been reported by some researchers that the dyeing abili-
L. (fruit cups) to dye wool, cotton, silk, and pashmina fabrics ties of cotton fabrics can be improved by modifying their

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20754 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

surfaces with some polymers (e.g., poly (4-vinyl pyridine), was obtained in fabric printing. In explaining the for-
quaternary ammonium salts, polyethyleneimine, polyamine mation of quinone derivatives in the structure of natural
dendrimers) (Zhang et al. 2022c). dyes with the laccase enzyme, El-Hennawi et al. (2012)
stated as follows: They stated that the laccase reaction
Enzymes probably proceeds with the formation of a radical cation,
and deprotonation of the hydroxyl group occurs to give
Because of their flexibility, reliability, and energy and a subsequent radical. That is, according to the statement,
water savings, enzymes are gaining an increasing role the laccase processes most likely start with the creation
in textile wet processes. In recent years, novel recombi- of a radical cation, which is followed by the hydroxyl
nant and/or bioengineered enzymes, such as cellulases, group’s deprotonation to produce a radical. After that, the
have been added to the process of processing and finish- radical can transform into a derivative of quinonoid. Bai
ing textiles in dye factories. A number of researchers are et al. (2016) used Chinese gallnut, turmeric, and grape
experimenting with enzymatic treatment of cotton and seed extract as natural dyes and the enzyme laccase as a
wool fabric to enhance softness and surface appearance, mordant agent to dye wool fabrics. The outcomes demon-
speed up the dyeing process, and other purposes (Vankar strated that laccase had a significant impact on Chinese
and Shanker 2008a). It has been found that enzymes are gallnut dyeing performance. The chemical interaction and
also used in natural dyeing processes. Some of these binding mechanism of the laccase enzyme between phe-
enzymes are as follows: laccase, protease, amylase, cel- nolic hydroxyl-based natural dyes and wool are explained
lulase, diasterase, xylanase, and m-TGase. For example, as follows: It has been reported that the phenolic hydroxy
Dumitrescu et al. (2012) mentioned in their study that (-OH) group of natural dyes turns into quinones by oxi-
some enzymes (cellulose, protease, and amylase) instead dation of the laccase enzyme, and then the reaction pro-
of metal salts could increase the dye yield. Sricharussin ceeds by spontaneously forming covalent bonds under
et al. (2009) cleaned the pineapple leaf fibers with pecti- the catalyst of laccase. Alves et al. (2022) used madder
nase and cellulase enzymes before dyeing and then dyed as a natural dye, Quebracho tree sap (Schinopsis spp.),
them with five different natural dyes. Accordingly, it has and laccase enzyme as bio-mordants to dye cotton fabric.
been reported that it can be effective for dyeing pineap- Atav et al. (2022) used laccase-catalyzed enzymatic dye
ple leaf fibers with natural material without resorting to synthesis to dye cotton fabrics with St. John’s wort and
potentially toxic mordants. It is emphasized that enzyme white onion peel extracts as an alternative to traditional
treatments effectively remove non-celulosic materials, mordants. They explained the function of the enzyme in
and this results in a hyrophilic surface, and improved wet- the dyeing medium as follows: The phenolic active chemi-
tability, and may have dyeability. In one study, the tannic cals in the natural dyes’ structures alter structurally when
acid-enzyme (protease-amylase, diasterase, and lipase)- laccase enzyme is present in the surrounding environ-
natural dye (Terminalia arjuna, Punica granatum, and ment during dyeing. It is likely that the laccase processes
Rheum emodi) combination method offered an environ- start with the production of a radical cation, which is fol-
mentally friendly alternative to metal-mordanted natural lowed by the hydroxyl (-OH) group being deprotonated
dyeing. According to reports, the enzymes are adsorbed to produce a radical. The radical may then proceed via
onto the silk fabric through a variety of ionic and non- quinonoid derivative production (Fig. 12). Enzymes cause
ionic modes of attraction, including electrostatic forces, phenolic chemicals to change into polymeric compounds,
hydrogen bonding, and dipole–dipole interactions. In which increases the molecular weight of the former. It
order to prevent the dye from washing out, an enzyme-dye indicates that the natural dyes produce darker colors when
complex is created on the surface of the colored silk cloth enzymes are present. Because of their strong reactivity,
(Vankar and Shanker 2009; Vankar et al. 2007). Another quinones have the ability to spontaneously polymerize
enzyme used in natural dyeing processes is laccase. It is into molecules with large molecular weights. One study
stated that a multicopper oxidase known as laccase cata- used green tea (Camellia sinensis) as a natural dye to
lyzes the oxidation of phenolic compounds by transferring create multipurpose wool fabric. In situ polymerization
a single electron, which results in the oxidation of oxygen of Camellia sinensis phenolic compounds on wool was
to water. Tyrosine is found in wool, and it can interact accomplished using the enzyme laccase. It is reported that
with natural colors through covalent bonding through an increase in the enzyme’s uses led to more polymeric
laccase-assisted polymerization to produce effects that dyes based on the phenolic components of natural dyes,
are washable and multifunctional (Garg et al. 2023). In a which resulted in a striking improvement in the dyed
study, laccase enzyme was used instead of harmful mor- wool materials’ color strength (K/S). Green tea includes
dants in the fixation of three different flavonoids (natural polyphenolic chemicals, which the laccase enzyme can
dyes), rutin, morin, and quercetin, and high color fastness oxidize inside the amorphous area of wool fiber. Through

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20755

Fig. 12  Quercetin’s conversion to o-benzoquinone and laccase’s polymerization of it (this figure was adapted from Atav et al. 2022)

Fig. 13  The mechanism of laccase-assisted wool dyeing using green tea extract (this figure was adapted from Garg et al. 2023)

the polymerization of phenolic chemicals, it was demon- The current approach uses an enzyme to dye wool sus-
strated that natural colors can be fixed to wool without the tainably and naturally without using metal mordants, which
use of a mordant. Epicatechin, a polyphenolic molecule can have hazardous effects. Here, it is stated that dyeing
found in green tea, has been polymerized using laccase, occurs by forming hydrogen and covalent bonds in the pres-
as reported in the literature. It is said that the dyed wool ence of laccase enzyme and oxygen through the hydroxyl
fabrics had strong dye-fiber interactions because poly- (-OH) groups of wool and catechin (Fig. 12) (Garg et al.
meric dyes and wool formed a greater number of strong 2023).
covalent and hydrogen bonds (Garg et al. 2023). Figure 13 In a study, it was reported that polyamide fiber could
shows the proposed reaction strategy. be dyed with sufficient fastness using pomegranate peels

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20756 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

and walnut barks as natural dye sources after being modi- a rough surface for the placement of dye molecules during
fied with pepsin and trypsin enzymes (Bahtiyari and Benli the dyeing process. It was stated that the surface modifica-
2016). In another study, Vankar and Shanker (2008a, 2009) tion significantly affects the obtained color strength (Pour
reported that more efficient dyeing can be obtained when et al. 2020b). It is seen that some enzymes can be used in
cotton fabric pretreated with some enzymes (protease and natural dyeing processes, but it would be more appropriate
amylase, lipase, and diasterase) is dyed with selected natu- to classify them as auxiliary substances that can increase
ral dyes such as Acacia catechu and Tectona grandis. In one the color yield of textile materials rather than directly call-
study, natural pigment obtained from sappan was used for ing them mordants.
dyeing wool fabrics after treatment with protease and trans-
glutaminase. It has been emphasized that the enzymatically Conventional mordants (metal salts)
modified wool fabric has sufficient fastness (Zhang and
Cai 2011). They explained the relationship between natural A fixer is needed to bind the dye to the fiber because the
dyes and enzyme-wool dyeing as follows: Wool samples majority of natural dyes have a relatively poor affinity
that have previously been treated with hydrogen peroxide for textile fibers (Iqbal and Ansari 2021). Mordants are
are then treated with protease and transglutaminase. Pro- substances that form complexes and contain metal ions.
tease catalyzes the proteolytic reaction to the wool’s scales, That is, a highly intricate chemical structure develops
breaking the disulfide crosslink and allowing more dyes between the dye, the fiber, and the mordant material dur-
to permeate the treated wool fibers. Nazari et al. (2014) ing the natural dyeing process. The authors have put for-
emphasized that wool fabric has high dye absorption when ward different theories to explain this complex structure
dyed with natural dyes (madder and cochineal) after pre- (Kasiri and Safapour 2013; Shabbir et al. 2017; Singh
treatment with the denture enzyme. The enzyme-dye rela- et al. 2019; Baseri 2020; Zhang et al. 2021; Thakker and
tionship is expressed as the dye affinity increasing due to Sun 2022; Shahmoradi Ghaheh et al. 2023). For example,
the protease enzyme hydrolyzing some peptide bonds in a complex chemical structure is formed through the amino
the protein molecule. In a study, Rubia cordifolia extract and carboxylic groups of wool and the hydroxy groups
was used as a natural dye to dye silk fabric, and different of phenolic groups of plant structures. Thus, the dyeing
enzymes (protease, amylase, xylanase, pectinase, phytase) of the fiber takes place. Mordants are used to alter the
as a mordant were used simultaneously and in two stages. color, shade, and fastness properties of dyes as well as to
It is reported that protease was the finest choice for the one- improve dye uptake and fixation. The three mordanting
step dying procedure, and the reactivity of the enzymes was techniques and the type of mordant have a considerable
as follows: protease > phytase > xylanase > amylase > pec- impact on color strength and color coordination (Tang
tinase. It is stated that Rubia can be used as a dye source in et al. 2010; Benli and Bahtiyari 2015a, b; Jabar et al.
enzymatic treatment to produce silk fabric with good color 2020, 2021). Heavy metal ions used as mordants include
strength and has good commercial dyeing potential. They copper, iron, chromium, cobalt, nickel, and aluminum,
stated that hydrogen bonds, dipole–dipole interactions, and whose residue in dyeing wastewater causes major prob-
electrostatic forces are some of the ionic and non-ionic lems with effluent disposal (Kasiri and Safapour 2013).
factors of attraction that cause the enzymes to be adsorbed Both the natural dyes with ligands such as -OH, -NH2,—
onto the silk fabric. Additionally, they reported that since COOH groups, and the textile fibers with active sites
the majority of the material in silk fibers is proteinaceous, such as –NH2, -COOH groups can make a complex with
with starches and pectins serving as binding agents, com- a metal ion of the metallic mordant thereby enhancing the
mercially available enzymes such as protease, amylase, and extent of fabric-mordant-dye interactions (Ibrahim et al.
pectinase have been used to loosen the surrounding mate- 2013). Recently, the most important source of concern in
rial, improving dye molecules’ absorption into the fabric natural dyeing circles is the harm that metal-mordant sub-
under milder conditions (Vankar et al. 2017). In one study, stances can cause to the environment such as chromium.
madder was used as a natural dye, and alum and the trans- Residual heavy metals and all dyestuffs should conform to
glutaminase (m-TGase) enzyme were used as mordants the Ecological and Toxicological Association of the Dye-
for dyeing wool fabric (Pour and He 2020a). In another stuff Manufacturing Industry (ETAD) regulations. Limits
study, Pour et al. (2020b) used m-TGase and bentonite for tracing some metals in compounds have been proposed
as bio-nano-mordants for dyeing wool. They modified the by ETAD as follows: chromium (Cr) 100 ppm, silver (Ag)
surface of the wool by adding the appropriate amount of 100 ppm, nickel (Ni) 200 ppm, tin (Sn) 250 ppm, copper
m-TGase due to the cross-linking reaction between the two (Cu) 250 ppm, zinc (Zn) 1500 ppm, iron (Fe) 2500 ppm
main amino acids of the wool, glutamine and lysine. The (Roy Choudhury 2013). Since the main target of this
inhomogeneous surface of the obtained hydrophilic wool review is not metallic mordants, the research made with
interacted with the hydrophilic bentonite and thus provided these mordants is not mentioned.

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771 20757

Outlooks for the future biological natural materials having metal ion(s), tannins,
etc. that mostly come from vegetable sources and act as
Although the use of natural dyes has advanced tremendously, mordants in natural dyeing processes. Some plants and
much more work has to be done before plant-based colorants plant parts with high tannin or metal content may pre-
and bio-mordants can be considered competitive alternatives sent mordanting effects to various extents depending on
to their synthetic equivalents. More study is needed on the their chemical structure and the amount of metal present
toxicity, safety, and quality of colorants made from plants in them (Rather et al. 2016). Researchers have advised the
and bio-mordants before they may be used commercially. use of natural mordants (bio-mordants) in place of metallic
Poor fastness qualities, long extraction processes, and non- salt mordants in terms of an effective and safe alternative
reproducibility are the main problems faced by dyers and considering environmental aspects of pollution and their
finishers using natural materials in textile work. To these biodegradable nature; hence, they can be discharged into
difficulties can also be added the environmental pressure of the environment without any chemical or physical treat-
metal mordants, which significantly affects the color tone. ment (e.g., precipitation or filtration).
In the future, it is seen as a great possibility that the use Until the discovery of synthetic dyestuffs, human beings
of natural resources will increase and become widespread used materials obtained from natural sources as dyestuffs.
in the process of coloring textile materials by overcom- After the discovery of synthetic dyestuffs, natural dyestuffs
ing the abovementioned difficulties without harming the continued to be used, albeit partially. In this context, the most
environment. preferred natural resource has been plants because access to
During the research, although it was observed that plant plant resources is quite easy and cheap. In addition, they do
materials were used more as mordant substances compared not have harmful effects on the environment. In particular,
to other mordants, it was determined that different mate- vegetable sources were used as a natural dye source before
rials were used as mordants. Particularly, new-generation being used as a bio-mordant material. It is possible to find
and non-vegetable-based mordants have a high potential for many academic studies on this subject. In light of the techno-
natural dyeing processes. Because nature offers incredibly logical developments in recent years, it is predicted that some
different materials to human beings, it is thought that these plant resources can also be used as bio-mordants. It is likely
will be brought to light with studies carried out over time. that in the coming years, many different herbal sources will
Additionally, due to the potential of oil-based plant materials be used both as dyestuffs and as bio-mordants. In many parts
to be used in foodstuffs, they are thought to have limited use of the world, it has been found that herbal resources are used
and development as mordants. in natural dyeing. This diversity comes to the fore in coun-
tries with a very large plant flora, especially in the Eurasian
Belt. Starting from rare plants that grow depending on the
Conclusions region (Asia, Europe, etc.) and climatic conditions, there are
common plants that spread to very wide geographies, and
Sustainability is the practice of avoiding the depletion of these have found use in natural dyeing.
natural resources in order to maintain ecological balance Recently, a large number of scientists have been research-
and preserve the standard in living of society. Natural dyes ing and developing new and effective bio-mordants to
gain importance again in the coloring processes of textile replace synthetic mordants. As a result of the examination,
materials for the textile dye industry. In this context, the the following conclusions can be clearly expressed:
sustainability of natural dyeing processes is an important
issue. Large-scale use of natural dyes promotes sustain- 1. A total of 84 different herbal sources were used as bio-
able development, which satisfies existing needs without mordants.
jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet their 2. There are 30 different types of new-generation and non-
own. The economy, society, and the environment are the vegetable-based mordants.
three pillars of sustainability. The relationship between the 3. The first traces of the use of herbal mordants date back
use of natural dyes and sustainability is then emphasized to the 1990s.
by the three fundamental principles of sustainable devel- 4. In the last 5 years, herbal resources have been exten-
opment: profit, people, and planet. To address climatic sively used as bio-mordants.
challenges and restore sustainability, natural dyes provide 5. Most of the vegetable sources were used both as a dye
some valuable benefits for the environment, economy, and a mordant.
and society (Iqbal and Ansari 2021). In this respect, it 6. It was determined that herbal-based bio-mordants are
is important not to use metal salts that are harmful to the mostly used in Asian countries. It is thought that the rea-
environment when using natural dyes. Bio-mordants are son for this situation may be due to its rich vegetation.

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20758 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:20714–20771

Author contribution Material preparation, data collection, and analysis Adeel S, Zia KM, Abdullah M et al (2019a) Ultrasonic assisted improved
were performed by Benli. The first draft of the manuscript was written extraction and dyeing of mordanted silk fabric using neem bark
by Benli, who commented on previous versions of the manuscript. The as source of natural colourant. Nat Prod Res 33(14):2060–2072.
author read and approved the final manuscript. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​14786​419.​2018.​14844​66
Adeel S, Hussaan M, Rehman FU et al (2019b) Microwave-assisted
Funding Open access funding provided by the Scientific and Techno- sustainable dyeing of wool fabric using cochineal-based carminic
logical Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK). The author declare acid as natural colorant. J Nat Fibers 16(7):1026–1034. https://​
that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the prepa- doi.​org/​10.​1080/​15440​478.​2018.​14483​17
ration of this manuscript. Adeel S, Naseer K, Javed S et al (2020a) Microwave-assisted improve-
ment in dyeing behavior of chemical and bio-mordanted silk
Declarations fabric using safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L) extract. J Nat
Fibers 17(1):55–65. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​15440​478.​2018.​
Ethics approval and consent to participate The author is giving ethical 14658​77
approval and consent for the said paper. Adeel S, Habib N, Arif S et al (2020b) Microwave-assisted eco-dyeing
of bio mordanted silk fabric using cinnamon bark (Cinnamo-
Consent for publication The authors are giving their consent for the mum Verum) based yellow natural dye. Sustain Chem Pharm
said paper to be published in ESPR. 17:100306. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​scp.​2020.​100306
Adeel S, Salman M, Bukhari SA et al (2020c) Eco-friendly food prod-
Competing interests The author declares no competing interests. ucts as source of natural colorant for wool yarn dyeing. J Nat
Fibers 17(5):635–649. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​15440​478.​2018.​
15217​62
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- Adeel S, Rehman FU, Kaleem Khosa M et al (2020d) Microwave
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- assisted appraisal of neem bark based tannin natural dye and its
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long application onto bio-mordanted cotton fabric. Iran J Chem Chem
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, Eng 39(2):159–170
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes Adeel S, Rehman FU, Hameed A et al (2020e) Sustainable extraction
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are and dyeing of microwave-treated silk fabric using arjun bark col-
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated orant. J Nat Fibers 17(5):745–758. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 080/1​ 5440​
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in 478.​2018.​15341​82
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not Adeel S, Kiran S, Yousaf MS et al (2021a) Eco-friendly isolation of
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will tannin based natural colorant from coconut coir (Cocos nucifera)
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a for dyeing of bio-mordanted wool fabric. Glob Nest J 23:65–72
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Adeel S, Rehman FU, Zia KM et al (2021b) Microwave-supported
green dyeing of mordanted wool fabric with arjun bark extracts.
J Nat Fibers 18(1):136–150. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​15440​478.​
2019.​16128​10
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