INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION

1
I
ndia is one of the ancient civilisations in the The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the
world. It has achieved multi-faceted socio- country into almost two equal parts. To the
economic progress during the last five southeast and southwest of the mainland, lie
decades. It has moved forward displaying the Andaman and Nicobar islands and the
remarkable progress in the field of Lakshadweep islands in Bay of Bengal and
agriculture, industry, technology and overall Arabian Sea respectively. Find out the extent
economic development. India has also of these groups of islands from your atlas.
contributed significantly to the making of
world history. • The southernmost point of
the Indian Union– ‘Indira Point’ got submerged under
the sea water in 2004 during the Tsunami.
LOCATION
India is a vast country. Lying entirely in the SIZE
Northern hemisphere (Figure 1.1) the main The land mass of India has an area of 3.28
land extends between latitudes 8°4'N and million square km. India’s total area accounts
37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E. for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical
180°W 150° 120° 90° 60° 30°W 0° 30°E 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°E

75°N

60°
North
America Europe 45°
Asia

30°

PACIFIC ATLANTIC Africa PACIFIC 15°N

OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN
0°
South INDIAN
America OCEAN
15°S

Australia
30°

45°

60°

Antartica 75°S

Figure 1.1 : India in the World

2021–22
area of the world. From Figure 1.2 it is clear
that India is the seventh largest country of
• Why 82°30'E has been selected as the Standard
the world. India has a land boundary of Meridian of India?
about 15,200 km and the total length of the • Why is the difference between the durations
coastline of the mainland, including of day and night hardly felt at Kanniyakumari
Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep, but not so in Kashmir?
is 7,516.6 km.
India is bounded by the young fold INDIA AND THE WORLD
mountains in the northwest, north and The Indian landmass has a central location
northeast. South of about 22° north between the East and the West Asia. India is a
latitude, it begins to taper, and extends southward extension of the Asian continent. The
towards the Indian Ocean, dividing it into trans Indian Ocean routes, which connect the
two seas, the Arabian Sea on the west and countries of Europe in the West and the
the Bay of Bengal on its east. countries of East Asia, provide a strategic central
Look at Figure 1.3 and note that the location to India. Note that the Deccan Peninsula
latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the protrudes into the Indian Ocean, thus helping
mainland is about 30°. Despite this fact, the India to establish close contact with West Asia,
east-west extent appears to be smaller than Africa and Europe from the western coast and
the north-south extent. with Southeast and East Asia from the eastern
From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh, coast. No other country has a long coastline on
there is a time lag of two hours. Hence, time the Indian Ocean as India has and indeed, it is
along the Standard Meridian of India India’s eminent position in the Indian Ocean,
(82°30'E) passing through Mirzapur (in which justifies the naming of an Ocean after it.
Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time
for the whole country. The latitudinal extent Since the opening of the
influences the duration of day and night, as Suez Canal in 1869, India’s distance from Europe
one moves from south to north. has been reduced by 7,000 km.

Source : United Nations Demographic Year Book 2015

Figure 1.2 : Seven Largest Countries of the World

2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 1.4 : India on International Highway of Trade and Commerce

India’s contacts with the World have

continued through ages but her relationships • The number of Union Territories
along the western and eastern coasts.
through the land routes are much older than • Area-wise which is the smallest and which is
her maritime contacts. The various passes across the largest state?
the mountains in the north have provided • The states which do not have an international
passages to the ancient travellers, while the border or lie on the coast.
oceans restricted such interaction for a long time. • Classify the states into four groups each
These routes have contributed in the having common frontiers with
(i) Pakistan, (ii) China, (iii) Myanmar, and
exchange of ideas and commodities since (iv) Bangladesh.
ancient times. The ideas of the Upanishads
and the Ramayana, the stories of Panchtantra,
India shares its land boundaries with
the Indian numerals and the decimal system
Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest,
thus could reach many parts of the world. The
China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan in the north
spices, muslin and other merchandise were
and Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east.
taken from India to different countries. On the
Our southern neighbours across the sea
other hand, the influence of Greek sculpture,
consist of the two island countries, namely
and the architectural styles of dome and
minarets from West Asia can be seen in
different parts of our country.
Before 1947, there were two
types of states in India — the provinces and the
INDIA’S NEIGHBOURS Princely states. Provinces were ruled directly by
British officials, who were appointed by the
India occupies an important strategic position Viceroy. Princely states were ruled by local,
in South Asia. India has 28 states and Eight hereditary rulers, who acknowledged sovereignity
Union Territories (Figure 1.5). in return for local autonomy.

4 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 1.5 : India and Adjacent Countries

Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is India has had strong geographical and
separated from India by a narrow channel historical links with her neighbours. Look
of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf at the physical map of Asia in your atlas,
of Mannar, while Maldives Islands are situated and note how India stands apart from the
to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands. rest of Asia.

School Bhuvan is a portal providing map-based learning to bring awareness among the
students about the country’s natural resources, environment and their role in sustainable development. It
is an initiative of Bhuvan — NRSC/ISRO based on NCERT syllabus. You can explore various maps of
India related to the secondary stage on https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/mhrd_ncert/

INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION 5

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 EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) The Tropic of Cancer does not pass through
(a) Rajasthan (c) Chhattisgarh
(b) Odisha (d) Tripura
(ii) The easternmost longitude of India is
(a) 97° 25' E (c) 77° 6' E
(b) 68° 7' E (d) 82° 32' E
(iii) Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim have common
frontiers with
(a) China (c) Nepal
(b) Bhutan (d) Myanmar
(iv) If you intend to visit Kavarati during your summer vacations, which one of
the following Union Territories of India you will be going to
(a) Puducherry (c) Andaman and Nicobar
(b) Lakshadweep (d) Daman and Diu
(v) My friend hails from a country which does not share land boundary with
India. Identify the country.
(a) Bhutan (c) Bangladesh
(b) Tajikistan (d) Nepal
2 Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) Name the group of islands lying in the Arabian Sea.
(ii) Name the countries which are larger than India.
(iii) Which island group of India lies to its south-east?
(iv) Which island countries are our southern neighbours?
3 The sun rises two hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh as compared to Gujarat
in the west but the watches show the same time. How does this happen?
4 The central location of India at the head of the Indian Ocean is considered of
great significance. Why?

MAP SKILLS

1. Identify the following with the help of map reading.

(i) The island groups of India lying in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
(ii) The countries constituting Indian subcontinent.
(iii) The States through which the Tropic of Cancer passes.
(iv) The northernmost latitude in degrees.
(v) The southernmost latitude of the Indian mainland in degrees.
(vi) The eastern and the western-most longitude in degrees.
(vii) The place situated on the three seas.
(viii) The strait separating Sri Lanka from India.
(ix) The Union Territories of India.

PROJECT/ACTIVITY

(i) Find out the longitudinal and latitudinal extent of your state.
(ii) Collect information about the ‘Silk Route’. Also find out the new
developments, which are improving communication routes in the regions of
high altitude.

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 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA
2
Y
ou have already learnt earlier that India (1) The Himalayan Mountains
is a vast country with varied land forms. (2) The Northern Plains
What kind of terrain do you live in? If (3) The Peninsular Plateau
you live in the plains, you are familiar with the (4) The Indian Desert
vast stretches of plain land. In contrast, if you (5) The Coastal Plains
live in hilly region, the rugged terrain with (6) The Islands
mountains and valleys are common features.
In fact, our country has practically all major The Himalayan Mountains
physical features of the earth, i.e., mountains, The Himalayas, geologically young and
plains, deserts, plateaus and islands. structurally fold mountains stretch over the
The land of India displays great physical northern borders of India. These mountain
variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau ranges run in a west-east direction from the
constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas
the earth’s surface. It was supposed to be one
represent the loftiest and one of the most
of the most stable land blocks. The Himalayas
rugged mountain barriers of the world. They
and the Northern Plains are the most recent
form an arc, which covers a distance of about
landforms. From the view point of geology,
2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km in
Himalayan mountains form an unstable zone.
Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh. The
The whole mountain system of Himalaya
represents a very youthful topography with altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern
high peaks, deep valleys and fast flowing rivers. half than those in the western half. The
The northern plains are formed of alluvial Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in
deposits. The peninsular plateau is composed its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys lie
of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently between these ranges. The northern-most
rising hills and wide valleys. range is known as the Great or Inner
Himalayas or the Himadri. It is the most
MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS continuous range consisting of the loftiest
The physical features of India can be grouped peaks with an average height of
under the following physiographic divisions 6,000 metres. It contains all prominent
(Figure 2.2): Himalayan peaks.

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 Figure 2.1 : Himalayas

Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas The range lying to the south of the
Peak Country Height Himadri forms the most rugged mountain
in metres system and is known as Himachal or lesser
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848 Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed
Kanchenjunga India 8598
Makalu Nepal 8481 of highly compressed and altered rocks. The
Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172 altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500
Nanga Parbat India 8126
metres and the average width is of 50 Km.
Annapurna Nepal 8078
Nanda Devi India 7817 While the Pir Panjal range forms the longest
Kamet India 7756 and the most important range, the Dhaula
Namcha Barwa India 7756
Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges are also
Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728
prominent ones. This range consists of the
The folds of the Great Himalayas are famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and
asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This
of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is region is well-known for its hill stations.
perennially snow bound, and a number of
glaciers descend from this range.
• Location of Mussoorie, Nainital,
Ranikhet from your atlas and also name the state
where they are located.
• The names of the glaciers and passes
that lie in the Great Himalayas.
• The name of the states where the highest The outer-most range of the Himalayas is
peaks are located. called the Shiwaliks. They extend over a width

8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 2.3 : The Himalayas

of 10-50 Km and have an altitude varying categories. Find out some regional names of
between 900 and 1100 metres. These ranges the Himalayas
are composed of unconsolidated sediments The Brahmaputra marks the eastern-most
brought down by rivers from the main boundary of the Himalayas. Beyond the Dihang
Himalayan ranges located farther north. gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south
These valleys are covered with thick and spread along the eastern boundary of
gravel and alluvium. The longitudinal valley India. They are known as the Purvachal or the
lying between lesser Himalaya and the Eastern hills and mountains. These hills
Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehra Dun, running through the north-eastern states are
Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the mostly composed of strong sandstones, which
well-known Duns. are sedimentary rocks. Covered with dense
Besides the longitudinal divisions, the
forests, they mostly run as parallel ranges
Himalayas have been divided on the basis of
and valleys. The Purvachal comprises the
regions from west to east. These divisions
Patkai hills, the Naga hills, the Manipur hills
have been demarcated by river valleys. For
and the Mizo hills.
example, the part of Himalayas lying between
Indus and Satluj has been traditionally
known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also
known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal
Himalaya from west to east respectively. The
part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj
and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon
Himalayas. The Kali and Teesta rivers
demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the part
lying between Teesta and Dihang rivers is
known as Assam Himalayas. There are
re gio nal names also in thes e b r o a d Figure 2.4 : Mizo Hills

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The Northern Plain The Northern Plain is broadly divided into
three sections. The Western part of the Northern
The northern plain has been formed by the
interplay of the three major river systems, Plain is referred to as the Punjab Plains.
namely — the Indus, the Ganga and the Formed by the Indus and its tributaries, the
larger part of this plain lies in Pakistan. The
Brahmaputra along with their tributaries. This
plain is formed of alluvial soil. The deposition Indus and its tributaries — the Jhelum, the
of alluvium in a vast basin lying at the foothills Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj
originate in the Himalaya. This section of the
of the Himalaya over millions of years, formed
this fertile plain. It spreads over an area of 7 plain is dominated by the doabs.
lakh sq. km. The plain being about 2400 km
long and 240 to 320 km broad, is a densely ‘Doab’ is made up of two words
populated physiographic division. With a rich — ‘do’ meaning two and ‘ab’ meaning water. Similarly
‘Punjab’, is also made up two words — ‘Punj’ meaning
soil cover combined with adequate water five and ‘ab’ meaning water.
supply and favourable climate it is
agriculturally a productive part of India.
The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar
and Teesta rivers. It is spread over the states of
North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly
Jharkhand and West Bengal to its East,
particularly in Assam lies the Brahmaputra plain.
The northern plains are generally described
as flat land with no variations in its relief. It is
not true. These vast plains also have diverse
relief features. According to the variations in
relief features, the Northern plains can be
divided into four regions. The rivers, after
descending from the mountains deposit
pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km
in width lying parallel to the slopes of the
Figure 2.5 : The Northern Plains Shiwaliks. It is known as bhabar. All the
streams disappear in this bhabar belt. South
The rivers coming from northern of this belt, the streams and rivers re-emerge
mountains are involved in depositional work. and create a wet, swampy and marshy region
In the lower course, due to gentle slope, the known as terai. This was a thickly forested
velocity of the river decreases, which results in region full of wildlife. The forests have been
the formation of riverine islands. cleared to create agricultural land and to settle
migrants from Pakistan after partition. Locate
Dudhwa National Park in this region.
Majuli, in the Brahmaputra
river, is the largest inhabited riverine island in the The largest part of the northern plain is
world. formed of older alluvium. It lies above the
floodplains of the rivers and presents a terrace-
The rivers in their lower course split into like feature. This part is known as bhangar.
numerous channels due to the deposition of silt. The soil in this region contains calcareous
These channels are known as distributaries. deposits, locally known as kankar. The

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA 11

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newer, younger deposits of the floodplains The Chotanagpur plateau marks the
are called khadar. They are renewed almost further eastward extension, drained by the
every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for Damodar river.
intensive agriculture. The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass
that lies to the south of the river Narmada. The
The Peninsular Plateau Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north,
The Peninsular plateau is a tableland while the Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the
composed of the old crystalline, igneous and Maikal range form its eastern extensions. Locate
metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the these hills and ranges in the Physical map of
breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land India. The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west
and thus, making it a part of the oldest and slopes gently eastwards. An extension of the
landmass. The plateau has broad and shallow Plateau is also visible in the northeast, locally
valleys and rounded hills. This plateau consists known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau
of two broad divisions, namely, the Central and North Cachar Hills. It is separated by a fault
Highlands and the Deccan Plateau. The part from the Chotanagpur Plateau. Three prominent
of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of hill ranges from the west to the east are the Garo,
the Narmada river, covering a major area of the the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.
Malwa plateau, is known as the Central The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
Highlands. The Vindhyan range is bounded mark the western and the eastern edges of the
by the Satpura range on the south and the Deccan Plateau respectively. Western Ghats lie
Aravalis on the northwest. The further parallel to the western coast. They are continuous
westward extension gradually merges with the and can be crossed through passes only. Locate
sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. The the Thal, Bhor and Pal Ghats in the Physical
flow of the rivers draining this region, namely
map of India.
the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken
The Western Ghats are higher than the
is from southwest to northeast, thus indicating
Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is 900–
the slope. The Central Highlands are wider in
1600 metres as against 600 metres of the
the west but narrower in the east. The eastward
Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch
extensions of this plateau are locally known
from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in the
as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
south. The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous
and irregular and dissected by rivers draining
into the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats
cause orographic rain by facing the rain
bearing moist winds to rise along the western
slopes of the Ghats. The Western Ghats are
known by different local names. The height of
the Western Ghats progressively increases
from north to south. The highest peaks
include the Anai Mudi (2,695 metres) and the
Doda Betta (2,637 metres). Mahendragiri
(1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the
Eastern Ghats. Shevroy Hills and the Javadi
Figure 2.6 : A Waterfall in Chotanagpur Plateau Hills are located to the southeast of the

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Eastern Ghats. Locate the famous hill stations more prominent near the Indo-Pakistan
of Udagamandalam, popularly known as boundary. If you visit Jaisalmer, you may go
Ooty and the Kodaikanal. to see a group of barchans.
One of the distinct features of the
Peninsular plateau is the black soil area The Coastal Plains
known as Decean Trap. This is of volcanic
The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch
origin, hence, the rocks are igneous. Actually,
of narrow coastal strips, running along the
these rocks have denuded over time and are
Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal
responsible for the formation of black soil. The
on the east. The western coast, sandwiched
Aravali Hills lie on the western and
between the Western Ghats and the Arabian
northwestern margins of the Peninsular
Sea, is a narrow plain. It consists of three
plateau. These are highly eroded hills and are
sections. The northern part of the coast is called
found as broken hills. They extend from
the Konkan (Mumbai – Goa), the central stretch
Gujarat to Delhi in a southwest-northeast
is called the Kannad Plain, while the southern
direction.
stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast.
The Indian Desert
The Indian desert lies towards the western
margins of the Aravali Hills. It is an undulating
sandy plain covered with sand dunes. This
region receives very low rainfall below 150 mm
per year. It has arid climate with low vegetation
cover. Streams appear during the rainy
season. Soon after they disappear into the
sand as they do not have enough water to
reach the sea. Luni is the only large river in
this region.

Figure 2.8 : The Coastal Plains

The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide

and level. In the northern part, it is referred to
as the Northern Circar, while the southern part
is known as the Coromandel Coast. Large
rivers, such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna and the Kaveri have formed
extensive delta on this coast. Lake Chilika is
an important feature along the eastern coast.
Figure 2.7 : The Indian Desert

The Chilika Lake is the

Barchans (crescent-shaped dunes) cover largest salt water lake in India. It lies in the state
larger areas but longitudinal dunes become of Odisha, to the south of the Mahanadi delta.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA 13

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The Islands Now you see the elongated chain of islands
You have already seen that India has a vast located in the Bay of Bengal extending from
mainland. Besides this, the country has two groups north to south. These are Andaman and
of islands. Can you identify these island groups? Nicobar islands. They are bigger in size and
are more numerous and scattered. The entire
group of islands is divided into two broad
categories – The Andaman in the north and
the Nicobar in the south. It is believed that these
islands are an elevated portion of submarine
mountains. These island groups are of great
strategic importance for the country. There is
great diversity of flora and fauna in this group
of islands too. These islands lie close to equator
and experience equatorial climate and has
thick forest cover.
Figure 2.9 : An Island

Locate the Lakshadweep Islands group India’s only active volcano is

lying close to the Malabar coast of Kerala. This found on Barren island in Andaman and Nicobar
group of Islands.
group of islands is composed of small coral
isalnds. Earlier they were known as Laccadive,
Minicoy and Amindive. In 1973, these were A detailed account of the different
named as Lakshadweep. It covers small area physiographic units highlights the unique
of 32 sq km. Kavaratti island is the features of each region. It would, however,
administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep. be clear that each region complements the
This island group has great diversity of flora other and makes the country richer in its
and fauna. The Pitti island, which is
natural resources. The mountains are the
uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary.
major sources of water and forest wealth.
The northern plains are the granaries of the
Corals country. They provide the base for early
Coral polyps are short-lived microscopic civilisations. The plateau is a storehouse
organisms, which live in colonies. They flourish of minerals, which has played a crucial role
in shallow, mud-free and warm waters. They
secrete calcium carbonate. The coral secretion in the industrialisation of the country. The
and their skeletons from coral deposits in the coastal region and island groups provide
form of reefs: they are mainly of three kinds:
sites for fishing and port activities. Thus,
barrier reef. fringing reef and atolls. The Great
Barrier Reef of Australia is a good example of the the diverse physical features of the land
first kind of coral reefs. Atolls are circular or have immense future possibilities
horse shoe-shaped coral reefs.
of development.

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 EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) A landmass bounded by sea on three sides is referred to as
(a) Coast (c) Peninsula
(b) Island (d) None of the above
(ii) Mountain ranges in the eastern part of India forming its boundary with
Myanmar are collectively called
(a) Himachal (c) Purvachal
(b) Uttarakhand (d) None of the above
(iii) The western coastal strip, south of Goa is referred to as
(a) Coromandel (c) Kannad
(b) Konkan (d) Northern Circar
(iv) The highest peak in the Eastern Ghats is
(a) Anai Mudi (c) Mahendragiri
(b) Kanchenjunga (d) Khasi
2 Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What is the bhabar?
(ii) Name the three major divisions of the Himalayas from north to south.
(iii) Which plateau lies between the Aravali and the Vindhyan ranges?
(iv) Name the island group of India having coral origin.
3. Distinguish between
(i) Bhangar and Khadar
(ii) Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats
4. Which are the major physiographic divisions of India? Contrast the relief of the
Himalayan region with that of the Peninsular plateau.
5. Give an account of the Northern Plains of India.
6. Write short notes on the following.
(i) The Indian Desert
(ii) The Central Highlands
(iii) The Island groups of India

MAP SKILLS

On an outline map of India show the following.

(i) Mountain and hill ranges – the Karakoram, the Zaskar, the Patkai Bum,
the Jaintia, the Vindhya range, the Aravali, and the Cardamom hills.
(ii) Peaks – K2, Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat and the Anai Mudi.
(iii) Plateaus, Chotanagpur and Malwa
(iv) The Indian Desert, Western Ghats, Lakshadweep Islands

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 DRAINAGE
3
T
he term drainage describes the river DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN INDIA
system of an area. Look at the physical
The drainage systems of India are mainly
map. You will notice that small streams
controlled by the broad relief features of the
flowing from different directions come together
subcontinent. Accordingly, the Indian rivers
to form the main river, which ultimately drains
are divided into two major groups:
into a large water body such as a lake or a sea
• the Himalayan rivers; and
or an ocean. The area drained by a single river
• the Peninsular rivers.
system is called a drainage basin. A closer
Apart from originating from the two major
observation on a map will indicate that any
physiographic regions of India, the Himalayan
elevated area, such as a mountain or an upland,
and the Peninsular rivers are different from
separates two drainage basins. Such an upland
each other in many ways. Most of the
is known as a water divide (Figure 3.1).
Himalayan rivers are perennial. It means
that they have water throughout the year.
am
m
BB These rivers receive water from rain as well
treea
Sr
S
as from melted snow from the lofty
ammA W
at
treea mountains. The two major Himalayan rivers,
Sr
S er
Di
vi
de
the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate
from the north of the mountain ranges. They
have cut through the mountains making
gorges. The Himalayan rivers have long
courses from their source to the sea.

Figure 3.1 : Water Divide

The world’s largest drainage

basin is of the Amazon river

• Which river has the largest basin in India?

Figure 3.2 : A Gorge

2021–22
They perform intensive erosional activity in The Himalayan Rivers
their upper courses and carry huge loads of
The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus, the
silt and sand. In the middle and the lower
Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These rivers are
courses, these rivers form meanders, oxbow
long, and are joined by many large and
lakes, and many other depositional features
important tributaries. A river alongwith its
in their floodplains. They also have well-
developed deltas (Figure 3.3). tributaries may be called a river system.
The Indus River System
Source of River The river Indus rises in Tibet, near Lake
Mansarowar. Flowing west, it enters India in the
Upper Course
Ladakh. It forms a picturesque gorge in this
part. Several tributaries, the Zaskar, the Nubra,
the Shyok and the Hunza, join it in the Kashmir
Middle Course region. The Indus flows through Baltistan and
Gilgit and emerges from the mountains at Attock.
The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and
the Jhelum join together to enter the Indus near
Mithankot in Pakistan. Beyond this, the Indus
Meander
Ox-Bow Lake flows southwards eventually reaching the
Arabian Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus plain
Lower
Course
has a very gentle slope. With a total length of
2900 km, the Indus is one of the longest rivers
of the world. A little over a third of the Indus
basin is located in India Ladakh, Jammu and
Delta
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and the
rest is in Pakistan.
Figure 3.3 : Some Features Made by Rivers

A large number of the Peninsular rivers are

• According to the regulations
seasonal, as their flow is dependent on rainfall. of the Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can
During the dry season, even the large rivers use only 20 per cent of the total water carried by
the Indus river system. This water is used for
have reduced flow of water in their channels. irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and the southern
The Peninsular rivers have shorter and and the western parts of Rajasthan.
shallower courses as compared to their
Himalayan counterparts. However, some of The Ganga River System
them originate in the central highlands and flow
The headwaters of the Ganga, called the
towards the west. Can you identify two such
‘Bhagirathi’ is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and
large rivers? Most of the rivers of peninsular joined by the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in
India originate in the Western Ghats and flow Uttarakhand. At Haridwar, the Ganga emerges
towards the Bay of Bengal. from the mountains on to the plains.

18 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 the northernmost point of the Ganga delta. The
river bifurcates here; the Bhagirathi-Hooghly
(a distributary) flows southwards through the
deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal. The
mainstream, flows southwards into
Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra.
Further downstream, it is known as the
Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from
the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, flows into
the Bay of Bengal. The delta formed by these
rivers is known as the Sundarban Delta.
Figure 3.5 : Confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda at
Devaprayag
• The Sundarban Delta derived
The Ganga is joined by many tributaries its name from the Sundari tree, which grows well
from the Himalayas, a few of them being major in marshland.
• It is the world’s largest and fastest growing delta.
rivers, such as the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the It is also the home of Royal Bengal tiger.
Gandak and the Kosi. The river Yamuna rises
from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas. The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km.
It flows parallel to the Ganga and as a right Look at Figure 3.4; can you identify the type of
bank tributary meets the Ganga at Allahabad. drainage pattern formed by the Ganga river
The Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi rise system? Ambala is located on the water divide
in the Nepal Himalaya. They are the rivers, between the Indus and the Ganga river systems.
which flood parts of the northern plains every The plains from Ambala to the Sunderban
year, causing widespread damage to life and stretch over nearly 1800 km, but the fall in its
property, whereas, they enrich the soil for slope is hardly 300 metres. In other words, there
agricultural use. is a fall of just one metre for every 6 km.
The main tributaries, which come from the Therefore, the river develops large meanders.
peninsular uplands, are the Chambal, the
Betwa and the Son. These rise from semi-arid The Brahmaputra River System
areas, have shorter courses and do not carry
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of
much water in them. Find out where and how
Mansarowar lake very close to the sources of
they ultimately join the Ganga.
the Indus and the Satluj. It is slightly longer
than the Indus, and most of its course lies
• The Namami Gange Programme outside India. It flows eastwards parallel to
is an Integrated Conservation Mission approved as the Himalayas. On reaching the Namcha
a ‘flagship programme’ by the Union Government
in June 2014 to accomplish the twin objectives of Barwa (7757 m), it takes a ‘U’ turn and enters
effective abatement of pollution, conservation and India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge.
rejuvenation of the national river, Ganga. You may
explore about this project at http://nmcg.nic.in/ Here, it is called the Dihang and it is joined by
NamamiGanga.sspx# the Dibang, the Lohit, and many other
tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in Assam.
Enlarged with the waters from its right and
left bank tributaries, the Ganga flows • Brahmaputra is known as
eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal. This is the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.

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 In Tibet, the river carries a smaller volume of
water and less silt as it is a cold and a dry area. • The Narmada river
In India, it passes through a region of high conservation mission has been undertaken by the
government of Madhya Pradesh by a scheme named
rainfall. Here the river carries a large volume of
Namami Devi Narmade. You may visit their website.
water and considerable amount of silt. The http://www.namamidevinarmade.mp.gov.in to
Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire learn more about it.
length in Assam and forms many riverine islands.
Do you remember the name of the world’s largest All tributaries of the Narmada are very short
riverine island formed by the Brahmaputra? and most of these join the main stream at right
Every year during the rainy season, the angles. The Narmada basin covers parts of
river overflows its banks, causing widespread Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
devastation due to floods in Assam and The Tapi Basin
Bangladesh. Unlike other north Indian rivers,
The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges, in the
the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits
Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It also flows
of silt on its bed causing the riverbed to rise.
in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is
The river also shifts its channel frequently.
much shorter in length. Its basin covers parts
of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The Peninsular Rivers
The coastal plains between Western Ghats
The main water divide in Peninsular India is and the Arabian Sea are very narrow. Hence,
formed by the Western Ghats, which runs from the coastal rivers are short. The main west
north to south close to the western coast. Most flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi,
of the major rivers of the Peninsula, such as Bharathpuzha and Periyar. Find out the states
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and in which these rivers drain the water.
the Kaveri flow eastwards and drain into the The Godavari Basin
Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at
The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. It
their mouths. There are numerous small
rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in
streams flowing west of the Western Ghats. the Nasik district of Maharashtra. Its length is
The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long about 1500 km. It drains into the Bay of Bengal.
rivers, which flow west and make esturies. The Its drainage basin is also the largest among the
drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are peninsular rivers. The basin covers parts of
comparatively smaller in size. Maharashtra (about 50 per cent of the basin
area lies in Maharashtra), Madhya Pradesh,
The Narmada Basin
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. The Godavari is
The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills joined by a number of tributaries, such as the
in Madhya Pradesh. It flows towards the west Purna, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the Manjra,
in a rift valley formed due to faulting. On its the Wainganga and the Penganga. The last three
way to the sea, the Narmada creates many tributaries are very large. Because of its length
picturesque locations. The ‘Marble rocks’, and the area it covers, it is also known as the
near Jabalpur, where the Narmada flows Dakshin Ganga.
through a deep gorge, and the ‘Dhuadhar The Mahanadi Basin
falls, where the river plunges over steep rocks,
The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of
are some of the notable ones.
Chhattisgarh. It flows through Odisha to reach

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the Bay of Bengal. The length of the river is Imagine that if Srinagar, Nainital and other
about 860 km. Its drainage basin is shared by tourists places did not have a lake would they
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, have been as attractive as they are today? Have
and Odisha. you ever tried to know the importance of lakes
in making a place attractive to tourists? Apart
The Krishna Basin from attraction for tourists, lakes are also useful
Rising from a spring near Mahabaleshwar, the to human beings in many ways.
Krishna flows for about 1400 km and reaches
the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, the • Lakes of large extent are called seas,
Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi and the like the Caspian, the Dead and the Aral seas.
Bhima are some of its tributaries. Its drainage India has many lakes. These differ from
basin is shared by Maharasthra, Karnataka each other in size and other characteristics.
and Andhra Pradesh. Most lakes are permanent; some contain water
The Kaveri Basin only during the rainy season, like the lakes in
the basins of inland drainage of semi-arid
The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the regions. There are some lakes which are the
Western Ghats and it reaches the Bay of Bengal result of the action of glaciers and ice sheets,
in south of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu. The total while others have been formed by wind, river
length of the river is about 760 km. Its main action and human activities.
tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati A meandering river across a floodplain
and Kabini. Its basin drains parts of Karnataka, forms cut-offs that later develops into ox-bow
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. lakes. Spits and bars form lagoons in the
coastal areas, e.g. the Chilika lake, the Pulicat
• The river Kaveri makes the lake and the Kolleru lake. Lakes in the region
second biggest waterfall in India, known as of inland drainage are sometimes seasonal; for
Shivasamudram Falls. The hydroelectric power
example, the Sambhar lake in Rajasthan, which
generated from the falls is supplied to Mysuru,
Bengaluru and the Kolar Gold Field. is a salt water lake. Its water is used for
producing salt.
Most of the freshwater lakes are in the
• The name of the biggest waterfall
Himalayan region. They are of glacial origin.
in India.
In other words, they formed when glaciers
Besides these major rivers, there are some dug out a basin, which was later filled with
smaller rivers flowing towards the east. The snowmelt. The Wular lake in Jammu and
Damoder, the Brahmani, the Baitarni and the Kashmir, in contrast, is the result of tectonic
Subarnrekha are some notable examples. activity. It is the largest freshwater lake in
Locate them in your atlas. India. The Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak
and Barapani are some other important
• 71 per cent of the world’s freshwater lakes.
surface is covered with water, but 97 per cent of
that is salt water.
• Of the 3 per cent that is available as freshwater,
three quarters of it is trapped as ice.

LAKES
You may be familiar with the valley of Kashmir
and the famous Dal Lake, the house boats and
shikaras, which attract thousands of tourists
every year. Similarly, you may have visited
some other tourist spot near a lake and enjoyed
boating, swimming and other water games. Figure 3.6 : Loktak Lake

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 Apart from natural lakes, the damming of
the rivers for the generation of hydel power has
also led to the formation of lakes, such as Guru National River Conservation Plan
Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project). (NRCP)
The river cleaning programme in the
Activity country was initiated with the launching
Make a list of natural and artificial of the Ganga Action Plan (GAP)
lakes with the help of the atlas. in 1985. The Ganga Action Plan was
expanded to cover other rivers under the
Lakes are of great value to human beings. National River Conservation Plan
A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river. (NRCP) in the year 1995. The objective
During heavy rains, it prevents flooding and of the NRCP is to improve the water
during the dry season, it helps to maintain quality of the rivers, which are major
an even flow of water. Lakes can also be used water sources in the country, through
for developing hydel power. They moderate the the implementation of pollultion
climate of the surroundings; maintain the abatement work.
Source: http://nrcd.nic.in/nrcp.pd as on
aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty,
25.07.17
help develop tourism and provide recreation.

ROLE OF RIVERS IN THE ECONOMY

Rivers have been of fundamental importance result, more and more water is being drained
throughout the human history. Water from out of the rivers reducing their volume. On the
rivers is a basic natural resource, essential other hand, a heavy load of untreated sewage
for various human activities. Therefore, and industrial effluents are emptied into the
riverbanks have attracted settlers from ancient rivers. This affects not only the quality of water
times. These settlements have now become big but also the self-cleansing capacity of the river.
cities. Make a list of cities in your state which For example, given the adequate streamflow,
are located on the bank of a river. the Ganga water is able to dilute and assimilate
Using rivers for irrigation, navigation, pollution loads within 20 km of large cities.
hydro-power generation is of special But the increasing urbanisation and
significance — particularly to a country like industrialisation do not allow it to happen and
India, where agriculture is the major source the pollution level of many rivers has been
of livelihood of the majority of its population. rising. Concern over rising pollution in our
rivers led to the launching of various action
plans to clean the rivers. Have you heard about
RIVER POLLUTION such action plans? How does our health get
The growing domestic, municipal, industrial affected by polluted river water? Think about
and agricultural demand for water from rivers “life of human beings without fresh water”.
naturally affects the quality of water. As a Arrange a debate on this topic in the class.

EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) In which of the following states is the Wular lake located?
(a) Rajasthan (c) Punjab
(b) Uttar Pradesh (d) Jammu and Kashmir

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 (ii) The river Narmada has its source at
(a) Satpura (c) Amarkantak
(b) Brahmagiri (d) Slopes of the Western Ghats
(iii) Which one of the following lakes is a salt water lake?
(a) Sambhar (c) Wular
(b) Dal (d) Gobind Sagar
(iv) Which one of the following is the longest river of the Peninsular India?
(a) Narmada (c) Godavari
(b) Krishna (d) Mahanadi
(v) Which one amongst the following rivers flows through a rift valley?
(a) Mahanadi (c) Krishna
(b) Tungabhadra (d) Tapi
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What is meant by a water divide? Give an example.
(ii) Which is the largest river basin in India?
(iii) Where do the rivers Indus and Ganga have their origin?
(iv) Name the two headstreams of the Ganga. Where do they meet to form the Ganga?
(v) Why does the Brahmaputra in its Tibetan part have less silt, despite a
longer course?
(vi) Which two Peninsular rivers flow through trough?
(vii) State some economic benefits of rivers and lakes.
3. Below are given names of a few lakes of India. Group them under two categories
– natural and created by human beings.
(a) Wular (b) Dal
(c) Nainital (d) Bhimtal
(e) Gobind Sagar (f) Loktak
(g) Barapani (h) Chilika
(i) Sambhar (j) Rana Pratap Sagar
(k) Nizam Sagar (l) Pulicat
(m) Nagarjuna Sagar (n) Hirakund
4. Discuss the significant difference between the Himalayan and the Peninsular
rivers.
5. Compare the east flowing and the west flowing rivers of the Peninsular plateau.
6. Why are rivers important for the country’s economy?

Map Skills
(i) On an outline map of India mark and label the following rivers: Ganga,
Satluj, Damodar, Krishna, Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, and Brahmaputra.
(ii) On an outline map of India mark and label the following lakes: Chilika,
Sambhar, Wular, Pulicat, Kolleru.

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 Project/Activity
Solve this crossword puzzle with the help of given clues.

Across
1. Nagarjuna Sagar is a river valley project. Name the river?
2. The longest river of India.
3. The river which originates from a place known as Beas Kund.
4. The river which rises in the Betul district of MP and flows westwards.
5. The river which was known as the “Sorrow” of West Bengal.
6. The river on which the reservoir for Indira Gandhi Canal has been built.
7. The river whose source lies near Rohtang Pass.
8. The longest river of Peninsular India?

Down
9. A tributary of Indus originating from Himachal Pradesh.
10. The river flowing through fault, drains into the Arabian Sea.
11. A river of south India, which receives rainwater both in summer and winter.
12. A river which flows through Ladakh, Gilgit and Pakistan.
13. An important river of the Indian desert.
14. The river which joins Chenab in Pakistan.
15. A river which rises at Yamunotri glacier.

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 4
CLIMATE

I
n the last two chapters you have read about The climate of India is described as the
the landforms and the drainage of ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate
our country. These are the two of the three is found mainly in the south and the southeast.
basic elements that one learns about the natural Despite an overall unity in the general pattern,
environment of any area. In this chapter you there are perceptible regional variations in
will learn about the third, that is, the climatic conditions within the country. Let us
atmospheric conditions that prevail over our take two important elements – temperature and
country. Why do we wear woollens in December precipitation, and examine how they vary from
or why it is hot and uncomfortable in the month place to place and season to season.
of May, and why it rains in June - July? The In summer, the mercury occasionally
answers to all these questions can be found out touches 50°C in some parts of the Rajasthan
by studying about the climate of India. desert, whereas it may be around 20°C in
Climate refers to the sum total of weather Pahalgam in Jammu and Kashmir. On a winter
conditions and variations over a large area for night, temperature at Drass in Jammu and
a long period of time (more than thirty years). Kashmir may be as low as minus 45°C.
Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere Thiruvananthapuram, on the other hand, may
over an area at any point of time. The elements have a temperature of 22°C.
of weather and climate are the same, i.e.
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, In certain places there is a
wide difference between day and night
humidity and precipitation. You may have temperatures. In the Thar Desert the day
observed that the weather conditions fluctuate temperature may rise to 50°C, and drop down
very often even within a day. But there is some to near 15°C the same night. On the other hand,
common pattern over a few weeks or months, there is hardly any difference in day and night
i.e. days are cool or hot, windy or calm, cloudy temperatures in the Andaman and Nicobar
islands or in Kerala.
or bright, and wet or dry. On the basis of the
generalised monthly atmospheric conditions,
Let us now look at precipitation. There are
the year is divided into seasons such as winter,
variations not only in the form and types of
summer or rainy seasons.
The world is divided into a number of precipitation but also in its amount and the
climatic regions. Do you know what type of seasonal distribution. While precipitation is
climate India has and why it is so? We will mostly in the form of snowfall in the upper parts
learn about it in this chapter. of Himalayas, it rains over the rest of the
country. The annual precipitation varies from
• The word monsoon is over 400 cm in Meghalaya to less than 10 cm
derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which
literally means season. in Ladakh and western Rajasthan. Most parts
• ‘Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the of the country receive rainfall from June to
wind direction during a year. September. But some parts like the Tamil Nadu

2021–22
coast gets a large portion of its rain during
October and November. • Why most of the world’s deserts are
In general, coastal areas experience less located in the western margins of continents in the
subtropics?
contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal
contrasts are more in the interior of the Finally, relief too plays a major role in
country. There is decrease in rainfall generally determining the climate of a place. High mountains
from east to west in the Northern Plains. These act as barriers for cold or hot winds; they may
variations have given rise to variety in lives of also cause precipitation if they are high enough
people – in terms of the food they eat, the and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The
clothes they wear and also the kind of houses leeward side of mountains remains relatively dry.
they live in.

• Why the houses in Rajasthan have thick FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE
walls and flat roofs?
• Why is it that the houses in the Tarai region and
in Goa and Mangalore have sloping roofs?
Latitude
• Why houses in Assam are built on stilts? The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle
of the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the
CLIMATIC CONTROLS west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the
country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer,
There are six major controls of the climate of belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining
any place. They are: latitude, altitude,
area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics.
pressure and wind system, distance from
Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics of
the sea (continentality), ocean currents and
tropical as well as subtropical climates.
relief features.
Due to the curvature of the earth, the Altitude
amount of solar energy received varies
according to latitude. As a result, air India has mountains to the north, which have
temperature generally decreases from the an average height of about 6,000 metres. India
equator towards the poles. As one goes from also has a vast coastal area where the
the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, maximum elevation is about 30 metres. The
the atmosphere becomes less dense and Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central
temperature decreases. The hills are therefore Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is
cooler during summers. The pressure and because of these mountains that this
wind system of any area depend on the subcontinent experiences comparatively
latitude and altitude of the place. Thus it milder winters as compared to central Asia.
influences the temperature and rainfall
pattern. The sea exerts a moderating influence Pressure and Winds
on climate: As the distance from the sea The climate and associated weather conditions
increases, its moderating influence decreases in India are governed by the following
and the people experience extreme weather atmospheric conditions:
conditions. This condition is known as
• Pressure and surface winds;
continentality (i.e. very hot during summers
• Upper air circulation; and
and very cold during winters). Ocean currents
• Western cyclonic disturbances and
along with onshore winds affect the climate of
tropical cyclones.
the coastal areas, For example, any coastal
area with warm or cold currents flowing past India lies in the region of north easterly
it, will be warmed or cooled if the winds are winds. These winds originate from the
onshore. subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern

CLIMATE 27

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hemisphere. They blow southwards, get Himalayas, all through the year except in
deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force, summer. The western cyclonic disturbances
and move towards the equatorial low-pressure experienced in the north and north-western parts
area. Generally, these winds carry little of the country are brought in by this westerly
moisture as they originate and blow over land. flow. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet
Therefore, they bring little or no rain. Hence, stream moves north of the Himalayas with the
India should have been an arid land, but it is apparent movement of the sun. An easterly jet
not so. Let us see why? stream, called the sub-tropical easterly jet stream
blows over peninsular India, approximately over
Coriolis force: An apparent force caused by the earth’s 14°N during the summer months.
rotation. The Coriolis force is responsible for deflecting
winds towards the right in the northern hemisphere
and towards the left in the southern hemisphere. This Western Cyclonic Disturbances
is also known as ‘Ferrel’s Law’.
The western cyclonic disturbances are weather
phenomena of the winter months brought in by the
The pressure and wind conditions over westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. They
India are unique. During winter, there is a usually influence the weather of the north and
north-western regions of India. Tropical cyclones
high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. occur during the monsoon, as well as, in
Cold dry winds blow from this region to the October – November, and are part of the easterly
low-pressure areas over the oceans to the flow. These disturbances affect the coastal regions
south. In summer, a low-pressure area of the country. Have you read or heard about the
disasters caused by them on Odisha and Andhra
develops over interior Asia, as well as, over Pradesh coast?
northwestern India. This causes a complete
reversal of the direction of winds during
summer. Air moves from the high-pressure
area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a
THE INDIAN MONSOON
south-easterly direction, crosses the equator, The climate of India is strongly influenced by
and turns right towards the low-pressure areas monsoon winds. The sailors who came to India
over the Indian subcontinent. These are known in historic times were one of the first to have
as the Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds noticed the phenomenon of the monsoon. They
blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture benefited from the reversal of the wind system
and bring widespread rainfall over the as they came by sailing ships at the mercy of
mainland of India. winds. The Arabs, who had also come to India
The upper air circulation in this region is as traders named this seasonal reversal of the
dominated by a westerly flow. An important wind system ‘monsoon’.
component of this flow is the jet stream.
These jet streams are located approximately
over 27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are
known as subtropical westerly jet streams. Over
India, these jet streams blow south of the

Jet stream: These are a narrow belt of high

altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in the
troposphere. Their speed varies from about 110
km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter.
A number of separate jet streams have been
identified. The most constant are the mid-latitude
and the sub-tropical jet stream.
Figure 4.1 : Arrival of Monsoon

28 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 4.2 : Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of January

Figure 4.3 : Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of June

CLIMATE 29

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 The monsoons are experienced in the conditions is known as the Southern
tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° Oscillation or SO. The difference in pressure
S. To understand the mechanism of the over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean, 18°S/149°W) and
monsoons, the following facts are important. Darwin in northern Australia (Indian Ocean,
12°30’S/131°E) is computed to predict the
(a) The differential heating and cooling of
intensity of the monsoons. If the pressure
land and water creates low pressure on the
differences were negative, it would mean below
landmass of India while the seas around
average and late monsoons. A feature connected
experience comparatively high pressure.
with the SO is the El Nino phenomenon in which
(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical
a warm ocean current that flows past the
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over
Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian
the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough
current, every 2 to 5 years. The changes in
normally positioned about 5°N of the
pressure conditions are connected to the El Nino.
equator. It is also known as the monsoon-
Hence, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO
trough during the monsoon season).
(El Nino Southern Oscillations).
(c) The presence of the high-pressure area,
east of Madagascar, approximately at El Nino: This is a name given to the periodic
20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity development of a warm ocean current along the
and position of this high-pressure area coast of Peru as a temporary replacement of the
cold Peruvian current. ‘El Nino’ is a Spanish word
affects the Indian Monsoon.
meaning ‘the child’, and refers to the baby Christ,
(d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely as this current starts flowing during Christmas.
heated during summer, which results in The presence of the El Nino leads to an increase
strong vertical air currents and the in sea-surface temperatures and weakening of
formation of low pressure over the plateau the trade winds in the region.
at about 9 km above sea level.
(e) The movement of the westerly jet stream THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON AND WITHDRAWAL
to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady
stream over the Indian peninsula during winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by
summer. different atmospheric conditions encountered
by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas.
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone The duration of the monsoon is between 100-
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a 120 days from early June to mid-September.
broad trough of low pressure in equatorial Around the time of its arrival, the normal
latitudes. This is where the northeast and the rainfall increases suddenly and continues
southeast trade winds converge. This
convergence zone lies more or less parallel to constantly for several days. This is known as
the equator but moves north or south with the the ‘burst’ of the monsoon, and can be
apparent movement of the sun. distinguished from the pre-monsoon showers.
The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the
Apart from this, it has also been noticed that Indian peninsula generally by the first week of
changes in the pressure conditions over the June. Subsequently, it proceeds into two – the
southern oceans also affect the monsoons. Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal
Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific branch. The Arabian Sea branch reaches
Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical Mumbai about ten days later on
eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. approximately the 10th of June. This is a fairly
But in certain years, there is a reversal in the rapid advance. The Bay of Bengal branch also
pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the
lower pressure in comparison to the eastern first week of June. The lofty mountains causes
Indian Ocean. This periodic change in pressure the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west

30 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2021–22
over the Ganga plains. By mid-June the The Cold Weather Season (Winter)
Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives
The cold weather season begins from mid-
over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part November in northern India and stays till
of the country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay February. December and January are the
of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over coldest months in the northern part of India.
the northwestern part of the Ganga plains. The temperature decreases from south to the
Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers north. The average temperature of Chennai, on
from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of the eastern coast, is between 24° – 25° Celsius,
June (tentative date is 29th of June). By the first while in the northern plains, it ranges between
week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, 10°C and 15° Celsius. Days are warm and
Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience the nights are cold. Frost is common in the north
monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches and the higher slopes of the Himalayas
Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country experience snowfall.
(Figure 4.3). During this season, the northeast trade
Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoon winds prevail over the country. They blow from
is a more gradual process (Figure 4.4). The land to sea and hence, for most part of the
withdrawal of the monsoon begins in country, it is a dry season. Some amount of
northwestern states of India by early rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from
September. By mid-October, it withdraws these winds as, here they blow from sea to land.
completely from the northern half of the In the northern part of the country, a feeble
peninsula. The withdrawal from the southern high-pressure region develops, with light winds
half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early moving outwards from this area. Influenced by
December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the relief, these winds blow through the Ganga
valley from the west and the northwest. The
the rest of the country.
weather is normally marked by clear sky, low
The islands receive the very first monsoon
temperatures and low humidity and feeble,
showers, progressively from south to north,
variable winds.
from the last week of April to the first week of A characteristic feature of the cold weather
May. The withdrawal, takes place progressively season over the northern plains is the inflow of
from north to south from the first week of cyclonic disturbances from the west and the
December to the first week of January. By this northwest. These low-pressure systems,
time the rest of the country is already under originate over the Mediterranean Sea and
the influence of the winter monsoon. western Asia and move into India, along with
the westerly flow. They cause the much-needed
THE SEASONS winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the
mountains. Although the total amount of
The monsoon type of climate is characterised winter rainfall locally known as ‘mahawat’ is
by a distinct seasonal pattern. The weather small, they are of immense importance for the
conditions greatly change from one season to cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops.
the other. These changes are particularly The peninsular region does not have a well-
noticeable in the interior parts of the country. defined cold season. There is hardly any
The coastal areas do not experience much noticeable seasonal change in temperature
variation in temperature though there is pattern during winters due to the moderating
variation in rainfall pattern. How many seasons influence of the sea.
are experienced in your place? Four main
seasons can be identified in India – the cold The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
weather season, the hot weather season, the Due to the apparent northward movement of the
advancing monsoon and the retreating sun, the global heat belt shifts northwards. As
monsoon with some regional variations. such, from March to May, it is hot weather season

CLIMATE 31

2021–22
in India. The influence of the shifting of the heat westerly direction entering the Indian peninsula
belt can be seen clearly from temperature as the south-west monsoon. As these winds
recordings taken during March-May at different blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant
latitudes. In March, the highest temperature is moisture to the subcontinent. These winds are
about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan strong and blow at an average velocity of 30
plateau. In April, temperatures in Gujarat and km per hour. With the exception of the extreme
Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius. In May, north-west, the monsoon winds cover the
temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the country in about a month.
northwestern parts of the country. In peninsular The inflow of the south-west monsoon into
India, temperatures remain lower due to the India brings about a total change in the
moderating influence of the oceans. weather. Early in the season, the windward
The summer months experience rising side of the Western Ghats receives very heavy
temperature and falling air pressure in the rainfall, more than 250 cm. The Deccan
northern part of the country. Towards the end Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also
of May, an elongated low-pressure area receive some amount of rain in spite of lying
develops in the region extending from the Thar in the rain shadow area. The maximum rainfall
Desert in the northwest to Patna and of this season is received in the north-eastern
Chotanagpur plateau in the east and part of the country. Mawsynram in the
southeast. Circulation of air begins to set in southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the
around this trough. highest average rainfall in the world. Rainfall
A striking feature of the hot weather season in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to
is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot, dry the west. Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get
winds blowing during the day over the north and scanty rainfall.
northwestern India. Sometimes they even Another phenomenon associated with the
continue until late in the evening. Direct exposure monsoon is its tendency to have ‘breaks’ in
to these winds may even prove to be fatal. Dust rainfall. Thus, it has wet and dry spells. In
storms are very common during the month of other words, the monsoon rains take place
May in northern India. These storms bring only for a few days at a time. They are
temporary relief as they lower the temperature interspersed with rainless intervals. These
and may bring light rain and cool breeze. This is breaks in monsoon are related to the
also the season for localised thunderstorms, movement of the monsoon trough. For
associated with violent winds, torrential various reasons, the trough and its axis keep
downpours, often accompanied by hail. In West on moving northward or southward, which
Bengal, these storms are known as the ‘Kaal determines the spatial distribution of rainfall.
Baisakhi’. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over
Towards the close of the summer season, the plains, rainfall is good in these parts. On
pre-monsoon showers are common especially, the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer
in Kerala and Karnataka. They help in the early to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells
ripening of mangoes, and are often referred to in the plains, and widespread rain occur in
as ‘mango showers’. the mountainous catchment areas of the
Himalayan rivers. These heavy rains bring in
Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season) their wake, devastating floods causing
damage to life and property in the plains. The
By early June, the low-pressure condition over f r e q u e n c y a n d i n t e n s i t y o f t ropi cal
the northern plains intensifies. It attracts, the depressions too, determine the amount and
trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These d u r a t i o n o f m o n s o o n r a i n s . Th ese
south-east trade winds originate over the depressions form at the head of the Bay of
warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans. Bengal and cross over to the mainland. The
They cross the equator and blow in a south- depressions follow the axis of the “monsoon

CLIMATE 33

2021–22
trough of low pressure”. The monsoon is deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the
known for its uncertainties. The alternation Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which
of dry and wet spells vary in intensity, cause great damage to life and property.
frequency and duration. While it causes heavy Sometimes, these cyclones arrive at the coasts
floods in one part, it may be responsible for of Odisha, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The
droughts in the other. It is often irregular in bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is
its arrival and its retreat. Hence, it sometimes derived from depressions and cyclones.
disturbs the farming schedule of millions of
farmers all over the country. DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
Retreating/Post Monsoons Parts of western coast and northeastern India
(The Transition Season) receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
However, it is less than 60 cm in western
During October-November, with the apparent Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat,
movement of the sun towards the south, the Haryana and Punjab. Rainfall is equally low
monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and east
over the northern plains becomes weaker. This of the Sahyadris. Why do these regions receive
is gradually replaced by a high-pressure low rainfall? A third area of low precipitation
system. The south-west monsoon winds is around Leh in Jammu and Kashmir. The rest
weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By of the country receives moderate rainfall.
the beginning of October, the monsoon Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
withdraws from the Northern Plains. Owing to the nature of monsoons, the
The months of October-November form a annual rainfall is highly variable from year to
period of transition from hot rainy season to year. Variability is high in the regions of low
dry winter conditions. The retreat of the rainfall, such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat
monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in and the leeward side of the Western Ghats. As
such, while areas of high rainfall are liable to
be affected by floods, areas of low rainfall are
Mawsynram, the wettest
place on the earth is also reputed for its drought-prone (Figure 4.6 and 4.7).
stalagmite and stalactite caves.
MONSOON AS A UNIFYING BOND
temperature. While day temperatures are You have alr eady known the way the
high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land Himalayas protect the subcontinent from
is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high extremely cold winds from central Asia. This
temperature and humidity, the weather enables northern India to have uniformly
becomes rather oppressive during the day. higher temperatures compared to other areas
This is commonly known as ‘October heat’. In on the same latitudes. Similarly, the
the second half of October, the mercury begins Peninsular plateau, under the influence of the
to fall rapidly in northern India. sea from three sides, has moderate
The low-pressure conditions, over north- temperatures. Despite such moderating
western India, get transferred to the Bay of influences, there are great variations in the
Bengal by early November. This shift is temperature conditions. Nevertheless, the
associated with the occurrence of cyclonic unifying influence of the monsoon on the
depressions, which originate over the Indian subcontinent is quite perceptible. The
Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross seasonal alteration of the wind systems and
the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and the associated weather conditions provide a
widespread rain. These tropical cyclones are rhythmic cycle of seasons. Even the
often very destructive. The thickly populated uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution

CLIMATE 35

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38
CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

Activity
(i) On the basis of the news items above, find out the names of places and the seasons described.
(ii) Compare the rainfall description of Chennai and Mumbai and explain the reasons for the difference.
(iii) Evaluate flood as a disaster with the help of a case study.

2021–22
are very much typical of the monsoons. The east to west, eagerly await the arrival of the
Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, monsoon. These monsoon winds bind the
its entire agricultural calendar and the life of whole country by providing water to set the
the people, including their festivities, revolve agricultural activities in motion. The river
around this phenomenon. Year after year, valleys which carry this water also unite as a
people of India from north to south and from single river valley unit.

EXERCISE

1. Choose the correct answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following places receives the highest rainfall in the world?
(a) Silchar (c) Cherrapunji
(b) Mawsynram (d) Guwahati
(ii) The wind blowing in the northern plains in summers is known as:
(a) Kaal Baisakhi (c) Trade Winds
(b) Loo (d) None of the above
(iii) Which one of the following causes rainfall during winters in north-western
part of India.
(a) Cyclonic depression (c) Western disturbances
(b) Retreating monsoon (d) Southwest monsoon
(iv) Monsoon arrives in India approximately in:
(a) Early May (c) Early June
(b) Early July (d) Early August
(v) Which one of the following characterises the cold weather season in India?
(a) Warm days and warm nights
(b) Warm days and cold nights
(c) Cool days and cold nights
(d) Cold days and warm nights
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What are the controls affecting the climate of India?
(ii) Why does India have a monsoon type of climate?
(iii) Which part of India does experience the highest diurnal range of temperature
and why?
(iv) Which winds account for rainfall along the Malabar coast?
(v) What are Jet streams and how do they affect the climate of India?
(vi) Define monsoons. What do you understand by “break” in monsoon?
(vii) Why is the monsoon considered a unifying bond?
3. Why does the rainfall decrease from the east to the west in Northern India.
4. Give reasons as to why.
(i) Seasonal reversal of wind direction takes place over the Indian
subcontinent?
(ii) The bulk of rainfall in India is concentrated over a few months.
(iii) The Tamil Nadu coast receives winter rainfall.
(iv) The delta region of the eastern coast is frequently struck by cyclones.
(v) Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of the Western Ghats are
drought-prone.

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2021–22
 5. Describe the regional variations in the climatic conditions of India with the help
of suitable examples.
6. Discuss the mechanism of monsoons.
7. Give an account of weather conditions and characteristics of the cold season.
8. Give the characteristics and effects of the monsoon rainfall in India.

MAP SKILLS
On an outline map of India, show the following.
(i) Areas receiving rainfall over 400 cm.
(ii) Areas receiving less than 20 cm of rainfall.
(iii) The direction of the south-west monsoon over India.

PROJECT/ACTIVITY
(i) Find out which songs, dances, festivals and special food preparations are
associated with certain seasons in your region. Do they have some
commonality with other regions of India?
(ii) Collect photographs of typical rural houses, and clothing of people from
different regions of India. Examine whether they reflect any relationship
with the climatic condition and
relief of the area.
FOR DOING IT YOURSELF
1. In Table-I, the average mean monthly
temperatures and amounts of rainfall of 10
representative stations have been given. It is
for you to study on your own and convert them
into ‘temperature and rainfall’ graphs. A
glance at these visual representations will help
you to grasp instantly the smilarities and
differences between them. One such graph
(Figure 1) is already prepared for you. See if
you can arrive at some broad generalisations
about our diverse climatic conditions. We hope
you are in for a great joy of learning. Do the Figure 1 : Temperature and Rainfall of Delhi
following activities.
2. Re-arrange the 10 stations in two different sequences:
(i) According to their distance from the equator.
(ii) According to their altitude above mean sealevel.
3. (i) Name two rainiest stations.
(ii) Name two driest stations.
(iii) Two stations with most equable climate.
(iv) Two stations with most extreme climate.
(v) Two stations most influenced by the Arabian branch of southwest monsoons.
(vi) Two stations most influenced by the Bay of Bengal branch of southwest monsoons.
(vii) Two stations influenced by both branches of the southwest monsoons
(viii) Two stations influenced by retreating and northeast monsoons.
(ix) Two stations receiving winter showers from the western disturbances.
(x) The two hottest stations in the months of
(a) February (b) April (c) May (d) June

40 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Table I
Stations Latitude Altitude Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual
(Metres) Rainfall

Temperature (°C) 20.5 22.7 25.2 27.1 26.7 24.2 23.0 23.0 23.1 22.9 18.9 20.2
Bengaluru 12°58'N 909
Rainfall (cm) 0.7 0.9 1.1 4.5 10.7 7.1 11.1 13.7 16.4 15.3 6.1 1.3 88.9

Temperature (°C) 24.4 24.4 26.7 28.3 30.0 28.9 27.2 27.2 27.2 27.8 27.2 25.0
Mumbai 19° N 11
Rainfall (cm) 0.2 0.2 – – 1.8 50.6 61.0 36.9 26.9 4.8 1.0 – 183.4

Temperature (°C) 19.6 22.0 27.1 30.1 30.4 29.9 28.9 28.7 28.9 27.6 23.4 19.7
Kolkata 22°34' N 6
Rainfall (cm) 1.2 2.8 3.4 5.1 13.4 29.0 33.1 33.4 25.3 12.7 2.7 0.4 162.5

Temperature (°C) 14.4 16.7 23.3 30.0 33.3 33.3 30.0 29.4 28.9 25.6 19.4 15.6
Delhi 29° N 219
Rainfall (cm) 2.5 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.8 7.4 19.3 17.8 11.9 1.3 0.2 1.0 67.0

Temperature (°C) 16.8 19.2 26.6 29.8 33.3 33.9 31.3 29.0 20.1 27.0 20.1 14.9
Jodhpur 26°18' N 224
Rainfall (cm) 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3 1.0 3.1 10.8 13.1 5.7 0.8 0.2 0.2 36.6

Temperature (°C) 24.5 25.7 27.7 30.4 33.0 32.5 31.0 30.2 29.8 28.0 25.9 24.7
Chennai 13°4' N 7
Rainfall (cm) 4.6 1.3 1.3 1.8 3.8 4.5 8.7 11.3 11.9 30.6 35.0 13.9 128.6

Temperature (°C) 21.5 23.9 28.3 32.7 35.5 32.0 27.7 27.3 27.9 26.7 23.1 20.7
Nagpur 21°9' N 312
Rainfall (cm) 1.1 2.3 1.7 1.6 2.1 22.2 37.6 28.6 18.5 5.5 2.0 1.0 124.2

Temperature (°C) 9.8 11.3 15.9 18.5 19.2 20.5 21.1 20.9 20.0 17.2 13.3 10.4
Shillong 24°34' N 1461
Rainfall (cm) 1.4 2.9 5.6 14.6 29.5 47.6 35.9 34.3 30.2 18.8 3.8 0.6 225.3

Temperature (°C) 26.7 27.3 28.3 28.7 28.6 26.6 26.2 2.6.2 26.5 26.7 26.6 26.5
Thiruvananthapuram 8°29' N 61
Rainfall (cm) 2.3 2.1 3.7 10.6 20.8 35.6 22.3 14.6 13.8 27.3 20.6 7.5 181.2

Temperature (°C) – 8.5 – 7.2 – 0.6 6.1 10.0 14.4 17.2 16.1 12.2 6.1 0.0 – 5.6
Leh 34° N 34°N 3506
Rainfall (cm) 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.5 – 0.5 8.5

4. Now find out

(i) Why are Thiruvananthapuram and Shillong rainier in June than in July?
(ii) Why is July rainier in Mumbai than in Thiruvananthapuram?
(iii) Why are southwest monsoons less rainy in Chennai?
(iv) Why is Shillong rainier than Kolkata?
(v) Why is Kolkata rainier in July than in June unlike Shillong which is rainier in June than
in July?
(vi) Why does Delhi receive more rain than Jodhpur?
5. Now think why
— Thiruvananthapuram has equable climate?
— Chennai has more rains only after the fury of monsoon is over in most parts of the country?
— Jodhpur has a hot desert type of climate?
— Leh has moderate precipitation almost throughut the year?
— while in Delhi and Jodhpur most of the rain is confined to nearly three months, in
Thiruvananthapuram and Shillong it is almost nine months of the year?
In spite of these facts see carefully if there are strong evidences to conclude that the monsoons
still provide a very strong framework lending overall climatic unity to the whole country.

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 NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
5
H
ave you observed the type of trees, RELIEF
bushes, grasses and birds in the fields
and parks in and around your school? Land
Are they similar or there are variations? India Land affects the natural vegetation directly
being a vast country you can imagine the and indirectly. Do you expect the same type
types of bio-forms available throughout the of vegetation in mountainous, plateau and
country. plain areas or in dry and wet regions? The
Our country India is one of the 12 mega nature of land influences the type of
bio-diversity countries of the world. With vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted
about 47,000 plant species India occupies to agriculture. The undulating and rough
tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in terrains are areas where grassland and
plant diversity. There are about 15,000 woodlands develop and give shelter to a
flowering plants in India, which account for variety of wildlife.
6 per cent in the world’s total number of
flowering plants. The country has many non- Soil
flowering plants, such as ferns, algae and
fungi. India also has approximately 90,000 The soils also vary over space. Different types
species of animals, as well as, a rich variety of of soils provide basis for different types of
fish in its fresh and marine waters. vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert
Natural vegetation refers to a plant support cactus and thorny bushes, while wet,
community, which has grown naturally marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and
without human aid and has been left deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some
undisturbed by humans for a long time. This depth of soil have conical trees.
is termed as a virgin vegetation. Thus,
cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part CLIMATE
of vegetation but not natural vegetation.
Temperature
The virgin vegetation, which
are purely Indian are known as endemic or The character and extent of vegetation are
indigenous species but those which have come mainly determined by temperature along with
from outside India are termed as exotic plants. humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On
the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the
The term flora is used to denote plants of Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the
a particular region or period. Similarly, the fall in the temperature affects the types of
species of animals are referred to as fauna. This vegetation and its growth, and changes it from
huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is tropical to subtropical temperate and alpine
due to the following factors. vegetation.

2021–22
 Table 5.1 : Temperature Characteristics of the Vegetation Zones

Vegetation Zones Mean annual Mean Temp. Remarks

Average Temp. in January
(in degree C) (in degree C)

Tropical Above 24°C Above 18° No Frost

Subtropical 17°C to 24°C 10°C to 18°C Frost is rare
Temperate 7°C to 17° C -1°C to (-10 ) °C Frost some snow
Alpine Below 7°C Below–1°C Snow
Source : Environment Atlas of India, June 2001, Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi

Photoperiod (Sunlight ) humus to the soil and shelter to the wildlife.

India’s natural vegetation has undergone
The variation in duration of sunlight at different
many changes due to several factors, such as
places is due to differences in latitude, altitude,
the growing demand for cultivated land,
season and duration of the day. Due to longer
development of industries and mining,
duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in
urbanisation and over-grazing of pastures.
summer.

Activity
Why are the southern slopes in Himalayan
Celebrate Van Mahotsav in your school/locality
region covered with thick vegetation cover as compared
to northern slopes of the same hills? and plant a few spalings and notice their growth

Precipitation
The vegetation cover of India in large parts
In India, almost the entire rainfall is brought in is no more natural in the real sense. Except in
by the advancing southwest monsoon (June to
some inaccessible regions, like the Himalayas,
September) and retreating northeast monsoons.
the hilly region of central India and the
Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation
marusthali, the vegetation in most of the areas
as compared to areas of less rainfall.
has been modified at some places, or replaced
or degraded by human occupancy.
Why are the western stopes of the
Western Ghats covered with thick forests and not
Activity
the eastern slopes?
Study the bar graph (Figure 5.1) and
answer the following questions.
Have you ever thought as to why forests
(i) Name the state having maximum area under
are important for human beings? Forests are forest cover.
renewable resources and play a major role in (ii) Name the union territory having minimum
enhancing the quality of environment. They area under forest cover and why?
modify local climate, control soil erosion,
regulate stream flow, support a variety of
industries, provide livelihood for many
communities and offer panoramic or scenic According to India State of
view for recreation. They control wind force and Forest Report 2011, the forest cover in India is
temperature and cause rains. They provide 21.05 per cent.

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 43

2021–22
 AREA IN PER CENT

STATE/UT

Source : India State of Forest Report 2013–14 Figure 5.1 Area under Forest Cover

TYPES OF VEGETATION
The following major types of vegetation may
be identified in our country (Figure 5.3).
(i) Tropical Evergreen Forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
(iv) Montane Forests
(v) Mangrove Forests

Tropical Evergreen Forests

These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall
areas of the Western Ghats and the island
groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and
Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu
coast. They are at their best in areas having
more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry
season. The trees reach great heights up to 60
metres or even above. Since the region is warm
and wet throughout the year, it has a luxuriant
vegetation of all kinds — trees, shrubs and
creepers giving it a multilayered structure. There
is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves.
Figure 5.2 : Tropical Evergreen Forest
As such, these forests appear green all the
year round.

44 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

2021–22
 Some of the commercially important trees The dry deciduous forests are found in areas
of this forest are ebony, mahogany, rosewood, having rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm.
rubber and cinchona. These forests are found in the rainier parts of
The common animals found in these forests the Peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar
are elephant, monkey, lemur and deer. One- and Uttar Pradesh. There are open stretches,
horned rhinoceroses are found in the jungles in which teak, sal, peepal and neem grow. A
of Assam and West Bengal. Besides these large part of this region has been cleared for
animals, plenty of birds, bats, sloth, scorpions cultivation and some parts are used for grazing.
and snails are also found in these jungles. In these forests, the common animals found
are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. A huge
Tropical Deciduous Forests variety of birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises
These are the most widespread forests of India. are also found here.
They are also called the monsoon forests and
The Thorn Forests and Scrubs
spread over the region receiving rainfall
between 200 cm and 70 cm. Trees of this forest In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the
type shed their leaves for about six to eight natural vegetation consists of thorny trees and
weeks in dry summer. bushes. This type of vegetation is found in the
On the basis of the availability of water, north-western part of the country, including
these forests are further divided into moist and semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
dry deciduous. The former is found in areas Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and
receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm. Haryana. Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti
These forests exist, therefore, mostly in the are the main plant species. Trees are scattered
eastern part of the country — northeastern and have long roots penetrating deep into the
states, along the foothills of the Himalayas, soil in order to get moisture. The stems are
Jharkhand, West Odisha and Chhattisgarh, succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly
and on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats. thick and small to minimise evaporation. These
Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs in
Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, arid areas.
kusum, arjun and mulberry are other In these forests, the common animals are
commercially important species. rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild
ass, horses and camels.

Figure 5.4 : Tropical Deciduous Forest

Figure 5.5 : Thorn Forests and Scrubs

46 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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Montane Forests extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes, like
the Gujjars and the Bakarwals. At higher
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
the corresponding change in natural tundra vegetation.
The common animals found in these forests
vegetation. As such, there is a succession of
are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack
natural vegetation belts in the same order as
rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard,
we see from the tropical to the tundra region. squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare
The wet temperate type of forests are found red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.
between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres.
Evergreen broad-leaf trees, such as oaks and Mangrove Forests
chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and The mangrove tidal forests are found in the
3000 metres, temperate forests containing areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and
coniferous trees, like pine, deodar, silver fir, silt get accumutated on such coasts. Dense
spruce and cedar, are found. These forests mangroves are the common varieties with roots
cover mostly the southern slopes of the of the plants submerged under water. The
Himalayas, places having high altitude in deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the
southern and north-east India. At higher Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri are
elevations, temperate grasslands are common. covered by such vegetation. In the Ganga-
Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found,
At high altitudes, generally, more than 3,600
which provide durable hard timber. Palm,
metres above the sea level, temperate forests
coconut, keora, agar, etc., also grow in some
and grasslands give way to the Alpine parts of the delta.
vegetation. Silver fir, junipers, pines and Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal
birches are the common trees of these forests. in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials
However, they get progressively stunted as and snakes are also found in these forests.
they approach the snow-line. Ultimately,
through shrubs and scrubs, they merge into
the Alpine grasslands. These are used

Figure 5.7 : Mangrove Forests

Let us discuss : What will happen if plants and

animals disappear from the earth’s surface? Can
the human beings survive under such a situation?
Why is biodiversity necessary and why should it be
Figure 5.6 : Montane Forests conserved?

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 47

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 MEDICINAL PLANTS
India is known for its herbs and spices from ancient times. Some 2,000 plants have been described in Ayurveda
and at least 500 are in regular use. The World Conservation Union’s Red List has named 352 medicinal plants
of which 52 are critically threatened and 49 endangered. The commonly used plants in India are:
Sarpagandha : Used to treat blood pressure; it is found only in India.
Jamun : The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare vinegar, which is carminative and diuretic, and
has digestive properties. The powder of the seed is used for controlling diabetes.
Arjun : The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is also used to regulate blood pressure.
Babool : Leaves are used as a cure for eye sores. Its gum is used as a tonic.
Neem : Has high antibiotic and antibacterial properties.
Tulsi : Is used to cure cough and cold.
Kachnar : Is used to cure asthma and ulcers. The buds and roots are good for digestive problems.
Identify more medicinal plants in your area. Which plants are used as medicines by local
people to cure some diseases?

Source : Medicinal Plants by Dr. S.K. Jain, 5th edition 1994, National Book Trust of India

different species of deer are some

other animals found in India. It also
has several species of monkeys.

Wildlife Protection Act

was implemented in 1972 in India.

India is the only country in the

world that has both tigers and lions.
Activity The natural habitat of the Indian lion
Can you identify the type of forest shown in this picture? is the Gir forest in Gujarat. Tigers are
Identify some trees in it. What type of similarity/ found in the forests of Madhya Pradesh,
dissimilarity you notice in this type of vegetation from the Sundarbans of West Bengal and the
the one found in your region? Himalayan region. Leopards, too, are
members of the cat family. They are
WILDLIFE important among animals of prey.
Like its flora, India is also rich in its fauna. It
has approximately 90,000 animal species.
The country has about 2,000 species of birds. Do you know
They constitute 13% of the world’s total. There The Gir Forest is the
are 2,546 species of fish, which account for last remaining habitat
nearly 12% of the world’s stock. It also shares of the Asiatic lion.
between 5 and 8 per cent of the world’s
amphibians, reptiles and mammals. The Himalayas harbour a hardy range of
The elephants are the most majestic animals, which survive in extreme cold.
animals among the mammals. They are found Ladakh’s freezing high altitudes are a home to
in the hot wet forests of Assam, Karnataka and yak, the shaggy horned wild ox weighing
Kerala. One-horned rhinoceroses are the other around one tonne, the Tibetan antelope, the
animals, which live in swampy and marshy bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep, and the kiang
lands of Assam and West Bengal. Arid areas (Tibetan wild ass). Furhtermore, the ibex, bear,
of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar Desert snow-leopard and rare red panda are found
are the habitat for wild ass and camels in certain pockets.
respectively. Indian bison, nilgai (blue bull), In the rivers, lakes and coastal areas,
chousingha (four-horned antelope), gazel and turtles, crocodiles and gharials are found. The

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latter is the only representative of a variety of species are endangered and 20 species are
crocodile, found in the world today. extinct. Quite a few animal species are also
Bird life in India is colourful. Peacocks, endangered and some have become extinct.
pheasants, ducks, parakeets, cranes and The main causes for this major threat to
pigeons are some of the birds inhabiting the nature are hunting by greedy hunters for
forests and wetlands of the country. commercial purposes. Pollution due to
We have selected our crops from a chemical and industrial waste, acid deposits,
bio-diverse environment, i.e., from the reserve introduction of alien species and reckless
of edible plants. We also experimented and cutting of the forests to bring land under
selected many medicinal plants. The animals cultivation and habitation, are also
were selected from large stock provided by responsible for the imbalance.
nature as milch animal. They also provided To protect the flora and fauna of the
us draught power, transportation, meat and country, the government has taken many
eggs. The fish provide nutritive food. Many steps.
insects help in pollination of crops and fruit (i) Eighteen biosphere reserves have been
trees and exerting biological control on such set up in the country to protect flora and
insects is harmful. Every species has a role to fauna. Ten out of these, the Sundarbans
play in the ecosystem. Hence, conservation is Nanda Devi, the Gulf of Mannar, the Nilgiri,
essential. As has been mentioned earlier due Nokrek, Great Nicobar, Manas, Simlipal,
to excessive exploitation of plant and animal Pachmarhi and Achanakmar-Amarkantak
resources by human beings, the ecosystem have been included in the world network
has been disturbed. About 1,300 plant of biosphere reserves.

Activity
(i) Find out from the above newspaper cuttings, the main concern highlighted in the given news items.
(ii) Collect more information about various endangered species from newspapers and magazines.
(iii) Find out various steps taken by the Indian government to protect them.
(iv) Describe how you can contribute to the protection of endangered animals and birds.

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 Migratory Birds
Some of the wetlands of India are popular
with migratory birds. During winter,
birds, such as Siberian Crane, come
in large numbers. One such place
favourable with birds is the Rann of
Kachchh. At a place where the desert
merges with the sea, flamingo with their
brilliant pink plumage come in thousands
to build nest mounds from the salty mud
and raise their young ones. It is one
among many extraordinary sights in the
country. Is it not a rich natural heritage
of ours?

Eighteen Bio-reserves • Seshachalam

• Panna
• Sundarbans • Simlipal (iii) Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project
• Gulf of Mannar • Dihang-Dibang Great Indian Bustard and many other
• Nilgiri • Dibru Saikhowa
eco-developmental projects have been
• Nanda Devi • Agasthyamalai
• Nokrek • Kangchendzonga
introduced.
• Great Nicobar • Pachmarhi (iv) 103 National Parks, 535 Wildlife
• Manas • Achanakmar-Amarkantak sanctuaries and Zoological gardens are set
up to take care of natural heritage.
(ii) Financial and technical assistance is
provided to many botanical gardens by the All of us must realise the importance of the
government since 1992. natural ecosystem for our own survival. It is
• Kachchh possible if indiscriminate destruction of natural
• Cold Desert environment is put to an immediate end.

EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below:
(i) To which one of the following types of vegetation does rubber belong to?
(a) Tundra (c) Himalayan
(b) Tidal (d) Tropical Evergreen
(ii) Cinchona trees are found in the areas of rainfall more than
(a) 100 cm (c) 70 cm
(b) 50 cm (d) less than 50 cm
(iii) In which of the following state is the Simlipal bio-reserve located?
(a) Punjab (b) Delhi
(c) Odisha (d) West Bengal
(iv) Which one of the following bio-reserves of India is not included in the world
network of bioreserve?
(a) Manas (c) Gulf of Mannar
(b) Nilgiri (d) Panna

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 51

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 2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) What factors are responsible for the distribution of plants and animals in
India?
(ii) What is a bio-reserve? Give two examples.
(iii) Name two animals having habitat in tropical and montane type of vegetation.
3. Distinguish between
(i) Flora and Fauna
(ii) Tropical Evergreen and Deciduous forests
4. Name different types of Vegetation found in India and describe the vegetation of
high altitudes.
5. Quite a few species of plants and animals are endangered in India. Why?
6. Why has India a rich heritage of flora and fauna?

Map Skills

On an outline map of India, label the following.

(i) Areas of Evergreen Forests
(ii) Areas of Dry Deciduous Forests
(iii) Two national parks each in Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western parts
of the Country

Project/Activity

(i) Find some trees in your neighbourhood having medicinal values.

(ii) Find ten occupations getting raw material from forests and wildlife.
(iii) Write a poem or paragraph showing the importance of wildlife.
(iv) Write the script of a street play giving the importance of tree plantation and
try to enact it in your locality.
(v) Plant a tree either on your birthday or one of your family member’s birthday.
Note the growth of the tree and notice in which season it grows faster.

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 6
POPULATION

C
an you imagine a world without human We are primarily concerned with three
beings? Who would have utilised major questions about population:
the resources and created social and
(i) Population size and distribution: How
cultural environment? The people are
important to develop the economy and the many people are there and where are they
society. The people make and use resources located?
and are themselves resources with varying (ii) Population growth and processes of
quality. Coal is but a piece of rock, until people population change: How has the
were able to invent technology to obtain it and population grown and changed through
make it ‘resource’. Natural events, like a flood time?
or a Tsunami, becomes a ‘disaster’ only when (iii) Characteristics or qualities of the
they affect a crowded village or a town. population: What are their age, sex
Hence, population is the pivotal element in composition, literacy levels, occupational
social studies. It is the point of reference from structure and health conditions?
which all other elements are observed and from
which they derive significance and meaning. POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION
‘Resources’, ‘calamities’ and ‘disasters’ are all
meaningful only in relation to human beings. India’s Population Size and Distribution
Their numbers, distribution, growth and by Numbers
characteristics or qualities provide the basic India’s population as on March 2011 stood at
background for understanding and 1,210.6 million, which account for 17.5 per cent
appreciating all aspects of the environment. of the world’s population. These 1.21 billion
Human beings are producers and
people are unevenly distributed over our
consumers of earth’s resources. Therefore, it
country’s vast area of 3.28 million square km,
is important to know how many people are
which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s
there in a country, where do they live, how and
why their numbers are increasing and what area (Figure 6.1).
are their characteristics. The census of India The 2011 Census data reveal that Uttar
provides us with information regarding the Pradesh with a population size of 199 million
population of our country. is the most populous state of India. Uttar

Census
A census is an official enumeration of population done periodically. In India, the first census was held in the year
1872. The first complete census, however, was taken in the year 1881. Since then, censuses have been held
regularly every tenth year.
The Indian Census is the most comprehensive source of demographic, social and economic data. Have you
ever seen a census report? Check in your library if it has one.

2021–22
 POPULATION Pradesh accounts for about 16 per cent of the
country’s population. On the other hand, the
Rest of the world, 82.5%
Himalayan state of Sikkim has a population of
just about 0.6 million and Lakshadweep has
only 64,429 people.
Almost half of India’s population lives in
just five states. These are Uttar Pradesh,
India, 17.5%
Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra
Pradesh. Rajasthan, the biggest state in terms
AREA
of area, has only 5.5 per cent of the total
population of India (Figure 6.2)
Rest of the world, 97.6%

• What could be the reason

of uneven distribution of population in India?

India’s Population Distribution by Density

India, 2.4%
Population density provides a better picture
Fig 6.1 : India’s Share of World’s Area and Population of the uneven distribution. Population density

Fig. 6.2: Distribution of Population

Source: Census of India, 2011

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is calculated as the number of persons per Population Growth
unit area. India is one of the most densely Growth of population refers to the change in
populated countries of the world. the number of inhabitants of a country/territory
during a specific period of time, say during the
Only Bangladesh and Japan have last 10 years. Such a change can be expressed
Do You Know higher average population densities in two ways: in terms of absolute numbers and
than India. Find out the population in terms of percentage change per year.
densities of Bangladesh and Japan. The absolute numbers added each year or
decade is the magnitude of increase. It is
The population density of India in the year obtained by simply subtracting the earlier
2011 was 382 persons per sq km. Densities population (e.g. that of 2001) from the later
vary from 1,102 persons per sq km in Bihar to population (e.g. that of 2011). It is referred to
only 17 persons per sq km in Arunachal as the absolute increase.
Pradesh. A study of the Figure 6.3 shows the The rate or the pace of population increase
pattern of uneven distribution of population is the other important aspect. It is studied in
densities at the State level. per cent per annum, e.g. a rate of increase of
2 per cent per annum means that in a given
Activity year, there was an increase of two persons for
Study the Figure 6.3 and compare it with every 100 persons in the base population. This
Figure 2.4 and Figure 4.7. Do you find any is referred to as the annual growth rate.
corelation between these maps?
India’s population has been steadily
increasing from 361 million in 1951 to 1210
Note the States with population densities
million in 2011.
below 250 persons per square km. Rugged
Table 6.1 : The Magnitude and Rate of India’s
terrain and unfavourable climatic conditions Population Growth
are primarily responsible for sparse population
Year Total Absolute Annual
in these areas. Which states have density below Population Increase in Growth
250 persons per square km? (in million) the Decade Rate
Assam and most of the Peninsular states (in million) (%)
have moderate population densities. Hilly, 1951 361.0 42.43 1.25
dissected and rocky nature of the terrain, 1961 439.2 78.15 1.96
1971 548.2 108.92 2.20
moderate to low rainfall, shallow and less fertile 1981 683.3 135.17 2.22
soils have influenced population densities in 1991 846.4 163.09 2.16
these areas. 2001 1028.7 182.32 1.97
The Northern plains and Kerala in the south 2011 1210.6 181.46 1.64
have high to very high population densities
because of the flat plains with fertile soils and Table 6.1 and Figures 6.4 (a) and 6.4 (b)
reveal that from 1951 to 1981, the annual
abundant rainfall. Identify the three states of
rate of population growth was steadily
the Northern Plains with high population
increasing; which explains the rapid increase
densities.
in population from 361 million in 1951 to
683 million in 1981.
POPULATION GROWTH AND PROCESSES
OF POPULATION CHANGE • Table 6.1 reveals that despite the
Population is a dynamic phenomenon. The decline in growth rates, the number of people being
added every decade is steadily increasing. Why?
numbers, distribution and composition of the
population are constantly changing. This is the
influence of the interaction of the three processes, Since 1981, however, the rate of growth
namely — births, deaths and migrations. started declining gradually. During this period,
birth rates declined rapidly. Still 182 million

56 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Fig. 6.4(a): India’s Population Growth Rates during 1951-2011

Fig. 6.4(b): India’s Population 1901-2011

people were added to the total population in large absolute increase. When more than a
the 1990s alone (an annual addition larger billion people increase even at a lower rate, the
than ever before). total number being added becomes very large.
It is essential to realise that India has a very India’s annual increase in population is large
large population. When a low annual rate is enough to neutralise efforts to conserve the
applied to a very large population, it yields a resource endowment and environment.

POPULATION 57

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 The declining trend of the growth rate is In India, most migrations have been from
indeed a positive indicator of the efforts of birth rural to urban areas because of the “push”
control. Despite that, the total additions to the factor in rural areas. These are adverse
population base continue to grow, and India conditions of poverty and unemployment in the
may overtake China in 2045 to become the rural areas and the “pull” of the city in terms
most populous country in the world. of increased employment opportunities and
better living conditions.
Processes of Population Change/Growth Migration is an important determinant of
population change. It changes not only the
There are three main processes of change of population size but also the population
population : birth rates, death rates and composition of urban and rural populations
migration. in terms of age and sex composition. In India,
The natural increase of population is the the rural-urban migration has resulted in a
difference between birth rates and death rates. steady increase in the percentage of population
Birth rate is the number of live births per in cities and towns. The urban population has
thousand persons in a year. It is a major increased from 17.29 per cent of the total
component of growth because in India, birth population in 1951 to 31.80 per cent in 2011.
rates have always been higher than death There has been a significant increase in the
rates. number of ‘million plus cities’ from 35 to 53 in
Death rate is the number of deaths per just one decade, i.e., 2001 to 2011.
thousand persons in a year. The main cause
Age Composition
of the rate of growth of the Indian population
has been the rapid decline in death rates. The age composition of a population refers to
Till 1980, high birth rates and declining the number of people in different age groups
death rates led to a large difference between in a country. It is one of the most basic
characteristics of a population. To an important
birth rates and death rates resulting in higher
degree, a person’s age influences what he/she
rates of population growth. Since 1981, birth
needs, buys, does and his/her capacity to
rates have also started declining gradually, perform. Consequently, the number and
resulting in a gradual decline in the rate of percentage of a population found within the
population growth. What are the reasons for children, working age and aged groups are
this trend? notable determinants of the population’s social
The third component of population growth and economic structure.
is migration. Migration is the movement of The population of a nation is, generally,
people across regions and territories. Migration grouped into three broad categories:
can be internal (within the country) or
international (between the countries). Children (generally below 15 years)
Internal migration does not change the size They are economically unproductive and need
of the population, but influences the distribution to be provided with food, clothing, education
of population within the nation. Migration plays and medical care.
a very significant role in changing the composition
and distribution of population. Working Age (15–59 years)

Activity They are economically productive and

On a map, trace the migration of each biologically reproductive. They comprise the
of your grandparents and parents working population.
since their birth. Try and analyse the
reasons for each move.

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 India : Age Structure Adults, 58.7% Table 6.2 : India : Sex Ratio 1951-2011
Census year Sex ratio
Aged, 6.9%
(Females per 1000 males)
Children, 34.4% 1951 946
1961 941
1971 930
1981 934
1991 929
2001 933
2011 943

• Kerala has a sex ratio of 1084

females per 1000 males, Puducherry has 1038
females for every 1000 males, while Delhi has
only 866 females per 1000 males and Haryana
has just 877.
Figure 6.5: India: Age Composition

• What could be the reasons for such

Aged (Above 59 years)
variations?
They can be economically productive though
they may have retired. They may be working Literacy Rates
voluntarily but they are not available for Literacy is a very important quality of a
employment through recruitment. population. Obviously, only an informed and
The percentage of children and the aged educated citizen can make intelligent choices
affect the dependency ratio because these and undertake research and development
groups are not producers. The proportion of projects. Low levels of literacy are a serious
the three groups in India’s population is obstacle for economic improvement.
already presented in Figure 6.5 . According to the Census 2011, a person
aged 7 years and above, who can read and
Activity :
write with understanding in any language, is
(i) How many children do you know who are
treated as literate.
engaged as household helpers or labourers
in your locality?
There has been a steady improvement in
(ii) How many adults do you know in your locality the literacy levels in India. The literacy rate in
who are unemployed? the country as per the Census of 2011 is 73
(iii) What do you feel are the reasons for this? per cent; 80.9 per cent for males and 64.6
per cent for females. Why do such differences
exist?
Sex Ratio
Occupational Structure
Sex ratio is defined as the number of females
per 1000 males in the population. This The percentage of population that is
information is an important social indicator economically active is an important index of
to measure the extent of equality between development. The distribution of the population
males and females in a society at a given time. according to different types of occupation is
The sex ratio in the country has always referred to as the occupational structure. An
remained unfavourable to females. Find out enormous variety of occupations are found in
why this is so? Table 6.2 shows the sex ratio any country. Occupations are, generally,
from 1951–2011. classified as primary, secondary and tertiary.

POPULATION 59

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 Primary activities include agriculture, sanitation amenities are available to only
animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining one-third of the rural population. These
and quarrying, etc. Secondary activities problems need to be tackled through an
include manufacturing industry, building appropriate population policy.
and construction work, etc. Tertiary activities
include transport, communications, Adolescent Population
commerce, administration and other services. The most significant feature of the Indian
The proportion of people working in population is the size of its adolescent
different activities varies in developed and
population. It constitutes one-fifth of the total
developing countries. Developed nations have
population of India. Adolescents are,
a high proportion of people in secondary, and
generally, grouped in the age group of 10 to
tertiary activities. Developing countries tend
19 years. They are the most important
to have a higher proportion of their workforce
resource for the future. Nutrition
engaged in primary activities. In India, about
requirements of adolescents are higher than
64 per cent of the population is engaged only
those of a normal child or adult. Poor nutrition
in agriculture. The proportion of population
can lead to deficiency and stunted growth.
dependent on secondary and tertiary sectors
But in India, the diet available to adolescents
is about 13 and 20 per cent respectively.
is inadequate in all nutrients. A large number
There has been an occupational shift in favour
of adolescent girls suffer from anaemia. Their
of secondary and tertiary sectors because of
problems have so far not received adequate
growing industrialisation and urbanisation in
attention in the process of development. The
recent times.
adolescent girls have to be sensitised to the
Health problems they confront. Awareness among
them can be improved through the spread of
Health is an important component of literacy and education.
population composition, which affects the
process of development. Sustained efforts of National Population Policy
government programmes have registered
significant improvements in the health Recognising that the planning of families
conditions of the Indian population. Death would improve individual health and
rates have declined from 25 per 1000 welfare, the Government of India initiated a
population in 1951 to 7.2 per 1000 in 2011 comprehensive Family Planning Programme
and life expectancy at birth has increased from in 1952. The Family Welfare Programme has
36.7 years in 1951 to 67.9 years in 2012. sought to promote responsible and planned
The substantial improvement is the result parenthood on a voluntary basis. The National
of many factors including improvement in Population Policy (NPP) 2000 is a
public health, prevention of infectious culmination of years of planned efforts.
diseases and application of modern medical The NPP 2000 provides a policy
practices in diagnosis and treatment of framework for imparting free and compulsory
ailments. school education up to 14 years of age,
Despite considerable achievements, the reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per
health situation is a matter of major concern 1000 live births, achieving universal
for India. The per capita calorie consumption immunisation of children against all vaccine
is much below the recommended levels and preventable diseases, promoting delayed
malnutrition afflicts a large percentage of our marriage for girls, and making family welfare
population. Safe drinking water and basic a people-centred programme.

60 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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NPP 2000 and Adolescents delayed marriage and child-bearing,
NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the education of adolescents about the risks of
major section of the population that need unprotected sex, making contraceptive
greater attention. Besides nutritional services accessible and affordable, providing
requirements, the policy puts greater food supplements, nutritional services, and
emphasis on other important needs of strengthening legal measures to prevent child
adolescent including protection from marriage.
unwanted pregnancies and sexually People are the nation’s most valuable
transmitted diseases (STDs). It called for resource. A well-educated healthy population
programmes that aim towards encouraging provides potential power.

EXERCISE

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Migrations change the number, distribution and composition of the
population in
(a) the area of departure (c) both the area of departure and arrival
(b) the area of arrival (d) none of the above
(ii) A large proportion of children in a population is a result of
(a) high birth rates (c) high death rates
(b) high life expectancies (d) more married couples
(iii) The magnitude of population growth refers to
(a) the total population of an area
(b) the number of persons added each year
(c) the rate at which the population increases
(d) the number of females per thousand males
(iv) According to the Census, a “literate” person is one who
(a) can read and write his/her name
(b) can read and write any language
(c) is 7 years old and can read and write any language with understanding
(d) knows the 3 ‘R’s (reading, writing, arithmetic)
2. Answer the following questions briefly.
(i) Why is the rate of population growth in India declining since 1981?
(ii) Discuss the major components of population growth.
(iii) Define age structure, death rate and birth rate.
(iv) How is migration a determinant factor of population change?
3. Distinguish between population growth and population change.
4. What is the relation between occupational structure and development?
5. What are the advantages of having a healthy population?
6. What are the significant features of the National Population Policy 2000?

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 GLOSSARY
Adolescence : Adolescence is a period in which a person is no longer a child and
not yet an adult. Such persons are grouped in the age group of
10 to 19 years.
Alluvial plain : A level tract of land made up of alluvium or fine rock material
brought down by a river.
Base population : The total population of an area at the beginning of a given time
period.
Biome : Plant communities occuring in distinct groups in areas having
similar climatic conditions.
Birth rate : The number of live births for every 1000 persons in a year.
Depression : In meteorology; it denotes an area of relatively low atmospheric
pressure, which is found mainly in temperate regions. In geology,
it refers to a hollow sunken area of the earth’s surface.
Death rate : The number of deaths per 1000 persons in year.
Density of population : The average number of persons per unit area, such as a square
kilometre.
Dependency ratio : The ratio of people of dependent age (below 15 and above 60 years)
to people of economically active ages (15-59 years).
Ecosystem : A system which comprises the physical environment and the
organisms living therein.
Environment : Surroundings or the conditions under which a person or thing
exists and develops his or its character. It covers both physical
and cultural elements.
Fault : A linear break in rocks of the earth’s crust along which there has
been displacement in a horizontal, vertical or oblique direction.
Fauna : The animal life of a given area.
Flora : The total vegetation or plant cover of a region.
Fold : A bend in the rock strata resulting from compression of an area of
the earth’s crust.
Geosyncline : A narrow, shallow, elongated basin with a sinking bottom in which
a considerable thickness of sediments was deposited by the rivers
coming from Angara and Gondwanaland.
Glacier : A mass of snow and ice that moves slowly under the influence of
gravity along a confined course away from its place of accumulation.
Growth rate of population : The growth rate of population indicates the rate at which the
population is growing. In estimating the growth rate the increase
in population is compared with the base population. It can be
measured annually or over a decade.
Indian mainland : It refers to the contiguous stretch of landmass from Jammu and
Kashmir to Kanniyakumari and from Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh.
Indian Standard Time : The local time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E).
Inland drainage : A drainage system in which the waters of the rivers do not reach
the oceans but fall into an inland sea or lake.

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Igneous rocks : Rocks formed as a result of solidification of magma either below
the earth’s surface or above it.
Lagoon : A salt-water lake separated from the sea by the sandbars and spits.
Lake : A body of water that lies in a hollow in the earth’s surface and is
entirely surrounded by land.
Lithospheric plates : Large segments of the earth’s crust composed of continental and
oceanic lithospheric parts, floating above the asthenosphere.
Life expectancy : The average number of years one is expected to live.
Local time : The time of a place determined by the midday sun is called the
local time.
Metamorphic rocks : Deformation and alteration of pre-existing igneous and
sedimentary rocks as a result of changes in physical and chemical
conditions due to intense heat or pressure.
Migration : Movement of people from one place to another. Internal migration
means movement of people within a country and external migration
means movement of people between countries. When people come
to a country from another country, it is called immigration and
when they leave that country, it is called emigration.
Million plus cities : Cities with a population of more than one million or 10 lakh.
Monsoon : A complete reversal of winds over a large area leading to a change
of seasons.
Mountain : An upward projected features of the earth’s surface that rises to
high altitude and usually possesses steep slopes.
National park : A reserved area for preserving its natural vegetation, wildlife and
the natural environment.
Plain : An extensive area of flat or gently undulating land.
Plateau : An extensive elevated area of relatively flat land.
Plate tectonics : The scientific concept that explains the movements of the crustal
plates.
Relief : The differences in elevation or the physical outline of the land
surface or ocean floor.
Subsidence : In meteorology, it is the downward movement of the air. In geology,
it refers to the sinking of a portion of the earth’s surface.
Sedimentary rocks : Rocks composed of sediments and generally having a layered
structure.
Sex-ratio : Sex-ratio is defined as the number of females per thousand males.
Subcontinent : A big landmass, which stands out as a distinct geographical unit
from the rest of the continent.
Tectonic : Forces originating within the earth and responsible for bringing
widespread changes in the landform features.
Young mountains : The fold mountains formed during the most recent major phase
of folding in the earth’s crust.

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