INTRODUCTION TO
LINGUISTICS
1st year students of English
Nonverbal and Verbal
Communication
A. Communication
Communication is defined as the transfer of
meaning from one mind to another. It is a
sharing of meaning through the transmission
of information via mutually understood signs.
Because meanings exist in the human mind,
they cannot be shared or communicated except
through some external vehicle.
The human body, for example, is capable of
making sounds and movements which in turn
can create a system of vehicles for sharing
inner meanings and ideas with others.
B. Signs
Signs are units of expression which
convey meaning. Signs also are called
signals or cues. Semiotics identifies three
types of signs: icons, symbols, and
indices.
1. Icon
An icon is a sign which physically
resembles what it represents. A
map is an icon of the geographic
locality it represents. A picture of
rocks falling is an icon of a rock
slide.
Also, icons show different degrees of
iconicity, or natural resemblance to what
they signify.
For instance, some pictures and photograph
are very exact representations; other
pictures may be more abstract such as the
conventionalized shapes of a man and a
woman on bathroom doors.
A very small number of words are also
iconic to varying degrees, examples
being words such as "tick", "bomb", or
"zip".
Iconic words are known by the Greek term
onomatopoeia. In every instance, to at
least a recognizable degree, an icon
actually looks or sounds like what it
represents.
Icon Representation
/tɪktɒk/
Icon Representation
Falling Rocks
/tɪktɒk/
Icon Representation
Falling Rocks
William Shakespeare
/tɪktɒk/
Icon Representation
Falling Rocks
William Shakespeare
The sound made by a
/tɪktɒk/ clock
2. Symbol
A symbol is a sign which bears no readily
recognizable physical resemblance to
what it signifies. Most words in any
language are symbols. For instance, the
word "apple" neither looks nor sounds like
an apple.
The relation between the word-symbol
"apple" and the fruit it signifies is
arbitrary, established by a convention
handed down by word of mouth in a
given speech community.
For this reason, this fruit is signified
by completely different sounds in other
languages. In Mandarin Chinese it
would be "ping guo"; in Cherokee
"sag-taa"; in Spanish "manzana".
Symbol Representation
Apple
Symbol Representation
Restaurant
Apple
Symbol Representation
Restaurant
Algeria
Apple
Symbol Representation
Restaurant
Algeria
Apple An edible fruit
3. Index
Signs (icons and symbols) can also be
classified according to how they are
used. They may be used to point
directly to what they signify, such as a
country’s flag (a symbol) or a rock
slide sign (an icon).
A sign which is used in direct temporal
and spatial connection to what it
signifies is said to be used as an index.
The same sign used without such a
direct connection, such as a stolen
stop sign leaning against the wall of a
garage, is a non-index.
The stylized icons of a man and a
woman are used as an index of the
presence of a man's or woman's
bathroom, but a painting of Mona Lisa
(also an icon) is a non-index, since you
won't find the real Mona Lisa nearby.
C. Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the process
of communicating through sending and
receiving wordless messages. Such
messages can be communicated through
gesture, body posture, facial expression
and eye contact.
Object communication such as
clothing, hairstyles, and movement are
highly communicative.
We are able to exchange knowledge,
beliefs, opinions, wishes, threats,
commands, thanks, promises,
declarations, and feelings.
We can laugh to express amusement,
happiness, or disrespect, we can smile
to express pleasure, approval, or bitter
feelings
We can shriek to express anger,
excitement, or fear, etc; we can clench
our fists to express determination,
anger or a threat, and we can raise our
eyebrows to express surprise or
disapproval.
Paralanguage refers to vocal sounds
such as murmurs and gasps and vocal
qualities such as volume, rhythm, pitch
and intonation. These vocal cues act as
signals for others to interpret what we
say as a joke, threat, statement,
question etc.
Voices can also be used to
communicate feelings. For example,
whispering indicates secrecy and
intimacy while shouting conveys anger.
Silence can communicate powerful
messages.
It can communicate different meanings.
For instance, it can signal awkwardness
or disconfirm others – we deliberately
ignore others when we are angry with
them.
D. Verbal Communication
Human beings communicate in lots of
ways, but the most effective way of
human communication is linguistic
communication, i.e. the use of
language.
The basic signs used in linguistic
communication are words. Words are
predominantly symbolic signs, though
a small subset of them (onomatopoeia)
are partly iconic. The linguistic signs
and the rules for their combinations
used by a community constitute a
linguistic code (a language).
1. Language
Since linguistics is the scientific study
of language, it is imperative for
linguists to know what language is.
Language is a very complex human
phenomenon
all attempts to define it have proved
inadequate. The term language can be
understood better in terms of its
properties or characteristics.
Some linguists, however, have been
trying to define language in their own
ways even though all these definitions
have been far from satisfactory. Here
are some of these definitions:
According to R. H. Robins:
“Language is a symbol system based on
pure or arbitrary conventions...
infinitely extendable and modifiable
according to the changing needs and
conditions of the speakers.”
According to Edward Sapir:
“Language is a purely human and non-
instinctive method of communicating
ideas, emotions and desires by means
of a system of voluntarily produced
symbols.”
According to R. A. Hall:
“Language is the institution whereby
humans communicate and interact with
each other by means of habitually used
oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”
According to Noam Chomsky:
“A language is a set of (finite or
infinite) sentences, each finite in length
and constructed out of a finite set of
elements.”
3. Functions of language
a) Phatic function: Language is used to
establish an atmosphere or maintain
social contact between the speaker and
the hearer. Greetings, farewells, and
comments on the weather serve this
function.
For example, the expressions such as
“How do you do?” and “Ah, here you
are”, do not convey any meaning, but are
used to establish a common sentiment
between the speaker and the hearer.
d) Interrogative function: Language is
used to ask for information from others.
All questions expecting replies serve this
function. “What’s your idea?”, “What
time is it now?”, “What is it like?”, “How
old are you?”, and the like are quite
commonly used to perform the
interrogative function.
However, rhetorical questions do not
have the interrogative function, such as
Shelly’s famous line “If Winter comes,
can Spring be far behind?”
f) Expressive function: Language is used
to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and
feelings. Interjections serve this function,
such as “My God!” and “Good heavens!”
g) Evocative function: Language is used
to create certain feelings in the hearers.
Jokes, advertising, and propaganda serve
this function.
h) Performative function: Language is
used to do things or to perform acts. The
judge’s imprisonment sentences, the
president’s declaration of war or the
Queen’s naming of a ship, etc., serve this
function. At a meeting, for instance, as
soon as the chairman says “I declare the
meeting open”, the meeting has started.
