1. The noun denotes thingness in a general sense.

Nouns name things (book, table), living beings

(man, tiger), places (valley, London, England), materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter),
states (sleep, consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy) and qualities (kindness, courage).
According to their morphological composition nouns can be divided into simple, derived, and compound.
Simple nouns consist of only one root-morpheme: dog, chair, room, roof, leaf. Derived nouns
(derivatives) are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more prefixes or suffixes. The main noun-
forming suffixes are those forming abstract nouns and those forming concrete, personal nouns: ее:,
employee -er: teacher, worker -ician: musician, politician -ist: socialist. ABSTRACT-ment: agreement,
unemployment,-ness: darkness, -ship: friendship,-ty: cruelty. Compound nouns consist of at least two
stems. The main types of compound nouns are: noun stem + noun stem: seaman (моряк),adjective stem +
noun stem: bluebell (колокольчик), verb stem + noun stem: pickpocket.
English countable nouns have two numbers – the singular and the plural. The general rule for forming the
plural of English nouns is by adding the ending –s (-es) to the singular. . If the noun ends in – s, -ss, -sh, -
ch, -tch, or –x the plural is formed by adding –es to the singular: bus – buses.
There are seven nouns which form the plural by changing the root vowel:

man - men
woman - women
tooth - teeth
foot – feet
goose - geese
mouse – mice
In some nouns the plural form does not differ from the singular one.
sheep-sheep (овца/ы) swine - swine (свинья/и)
deer - deer (олень/и) grouse - grouse (куропатка/и.

2. The article is a structural part of speech which used with nouns. The main functions of the
indefinite article are classifying, generic and numerical. In its classifying function the article
serves to refer an object to the class or group of objects of the same kind: I am a school teacher.
In its generic function the indefinite article implies that the object denoted by the noun is
spoken of as a representative of the class, and therefore what is said about the thing, animal,
person, or notion mentioned, refers to any object of the same kind. A triangle has three sides.
In its numerical function the indefinite article retains its original meaning of the cardinal numeral
one. e.g. The Indian summer returned for a day.
3. The two main functions of the definite article are specifying and generic. The definite article in
its specifying function serves to single out an object or a group of objects; The man standing by
the window is my uncle. The definite article in its generic function refers the following noun to
the whole class of objects of the same kind. e.g. The lion is the king of the animals.
4. There are two articles in English: the definite article the [ði:] and the indefinite article a [ei]. The
indefinite article has the forms a and an. The form a is used before words beginning with a
consonant sound . The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound. The definite
article has one form the, which is pronounced in two ways: [ði:] before a vowel sound and [ðə]
before a consonant sound (the dog, the uncle)
5. The adjective is a part of speech expressing a quality of a substance. According to their
morphological composition adjectives can be subdivided into simple, derived and compound.
Simple adjectives consist of one root morpheme, for example, kind, new, fresh. Derived
adjectives consist of one root morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes - suffixes or
prefixes. -able -al -ary -ed -en -que -fold -ful -ic -id -ish understandable,musical, documentary.
Qualitative adjectives denote properties of a substance directly: e.g. great, cold, beautiful, etc.
Relative adjectives describe properties of a substance through relation to materials, to place, to
time, to some action, or to relationship. materials woollen, wooden/place Northern
 6. There are three grades of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative. The superlative is
generally used with the definite article. The degrees of comparison are formed in two was: a)
synthetically, i.e. by by adding the inflection -er, -est e.g. fine -finer – finest; b) analytically, by
placing more and most before the adjective: e.g. beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful
7. The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. The verb has the following grammatical
categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. The Present Indefinite is formed
from the infinitive without the particle to. In the third person singular the ending -s is added.
The Present Indefinite is used to denote repeated actions,actions going on at the present
moment (with verbs not used in the Continuous form), A future action: (a) in adverbial clauses of
time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as, as long as, if,
unless, on condition that, provided. Robert, will you mend me a pen or two before you go?
8. The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be
and Participle I of the notional verb. . The Present Continuous is used to denote an action going
on at the present moment. / When there are two actions one of which is in progress and the
other is a habitual action, the first is expressed by the Present Continuous and the second by the
Present Indefinite:You never open your lips while you are painting/The Present Continuous is
used to denote a future action with such verbs as to go, to come, to leave. The future action is
regarded as something fixed: I’m leaving tonight. . The Present Continuous is used to express a
continual process. In this case the adverbs always, constantly, ever are used;The earth is always
moving.
9. The Present Perfect is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have
and Participle II of the notional verb. The Present Perfect denotes a completed action connected
with the present. Stop that car! They have killed a child. The Present Perfect is used in adverbial
clauses of time after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as to denote an
action completed before a definite moment in the future. I am not going till you have answered
me.
10. The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary verb
to be and Participle I of the notional verb. We distinguish two uses of the Present Perfect
Continuous: the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Perfect Continuous
Exclusive. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in
the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on (for,since). The Present Perfect
Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was recently in progress but is no longer going on
at the present moment. You are not well to-day. You look distressed. You have been weeping.
11. The adverb is a notional part of speech which points out some characteristic features an action
or quality. There are simple, derived, compound, and composite adverbs. Simple adverbs are
after, here, well, now, soon, etc. In derived adverbs the most common suffix is -ly, by means of
which new adverbs are made from adjectives and participles: occasionally, lately, immediately,
constantly, purely, slowly, charmingly. The less common suffixes are the following: -wise -
ward(s) -fold -like -most -way(s).(clockwise,warlike) Compound adverbs are formed of two
stems: sometimes, somewhere, everywhere, downstairs, etc. Composite phrasal adverbs consist
of two or more word-forms, as a great deal, a little bit, far enough.
According to their meaning adverbs fall into many groups:
Adverbs of place: outside, there, in front, etc.
Adverbs of time: long, all day, yesterday, today, recently, lately, once, at once, now;
Adverbs of frequency: often, now and then, occasionally.
Adverbs of manner: well, carefully, intentionally, silently, clearly, etc.
Adverbs of degree: thoroughly, very, much
Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
12. Monosyllabic and some disyllabic adverbs form the comparative degree by adding -er ,
and the superlative degree – by adding the inflection –est: early- earlier- earliest
quickly loudly - quicker - louder - quickest – loudest. All polysyllabic adverbs form the comparative and
superlative degrees by means of more and most: wisely,deeply
13. . The pronoun is a part of speech which points out object and their qualities without naming
them. PERSONAL PRONOUNS are noun-pronouns, indicating persons (I, you, he, we, they) or
 non-persons (it, they) Personal pronouns have the category of person, number, case
(nominative and objective), and gender. The nominative case form is generally used as subject
of the sentence( It is me) The objective case form is used mainly as an object (Give me your
hand) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS indicate possession by persons (my, mine, your, yours, their,
theirs) or non-persons (its, their, theirs). They comprise two sets of forms: the conjoint forms -
my, your, his, her, our, their, and the absolute forms - mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs,
which do not combine with nouns. The conjointform is used when the possessive pronoun
comes before the noun it modifies. The absolute form is used when the possessive pronoun
does not modify any noun.e. g. He is my friend. – He is a friend of mine. REFLEXIVE
PRONOUN refer to the subject of the sentence in which they are used, indicating that the action
performed by the doer passes back to him or is associated with him. They are: myself, yourself,
herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
14.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.(each other and one another)Reciprocal pronouns express mutual
action or relation. The subject to which they refer must always be in the plural.e. g. They loved
each other.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS point to persons or non-persons or their properties: this (these),
that (those), such. Singular plural
This these
That those
This is used to point at what is nearer in time or space; that points at what is farther away in
time or space.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS indicate persons or non-persons or else their
properties in a general way without defining the class of objects they belong to, class
or properties they possess. They are: some, any, somebody, anybody, someone,
anyone, something, anything, one. We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things
without saying exactly who or what they are. We use pronouns ending in -body or -one for
people, and pronouns ending in -thing for things:
Some and any indicate qualities or quantities, depending on the class and grammatical form of
the noun. Some is commonly used in affirmative and imperative sentences. Give him some milk.
Any is commonly used: In negative sentences^I don’t like any of them.
15. NEGATIVE PRONOUNS as the term implies render the general meaning of the sentence
negative. They are: no, none, nothing, nobody, no one, neither.( I told him nothing) No and
none refer to all nouns denoting both persons and things, nothing refers to things, whereas
nobody and no one refer to persons only. The pronoun neither refers to two persons or things.
16. UNIVERSAL/DEFINING PRONOUNS indicate all objects (persons and non-persons) as one whole
or any representative of the group separately. They are: all, both, each, every, everything,
everybody, everyone, either.
17. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS indicate persons or non-persons or tlieir properties as unknown to
the speaker. s who, whose, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever. Who, whose, whoever
have personal reference, what, whatever have non-personal reference, and which may have
both personal and non-personal reference
18. RELATIVE PRONOUNS refer to persons and non-persons and open attributive clauses which
modify words denoting these persons or non-persons. They are who, whose, which, that. They
introduce attributive causes.e. g. On one side was a low wall that separated it from the street.
19. Conjunctive pronouns (who, what, whose, which) not only point back to a noun or a pronoun
mentioned before but also have conjunctive power. They introduce subordinate clauses (subject
clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses).e. g. I don’t want to hear what you’ve come for
18. The main difference between Present Simple and Present Continuous is that Present Simple is used
to describe daily routine, repeated actions, and facts while Present Continuous is used to discuss
actions, events taking place as we speak. He plays cricket with his friends every weekend./ She is
studying to become a doctor.
19. Present continuous is a tense form that denotes the action that is still going on. He is eating his food.
On the other hand, present perfect continuous is a tense form that indicates the action that was taking
place some time ago.Angela has been finding fault with him.the term ‘has been finding’ indicate the
actions that were taking place some time ago, but definitely not now. the present perfect refers to
something that has finished, but the present perfect continuous refers to something that is continuing in
the present
20. The main difference between present perfect and present perfect continuous is that present perfect
indicates that the action is completed whereas present perfect continuous indicates that the action is
still going on. The kids have played for 2 hours. (present perfect simple)
The kids have been playing since morning. (present perfect continuous)