1 Plurilingualism

Plurilingualism, sometimes referred to as multilingualism,

holds out the promise of a more inclusive (see 6) approach
to language learning, and challenges many accepted
attitudes and practices.

What and why?

We live in an increasingly multilingual and multicultural world.

About 40 percent of the people in my own home city, for example,
have what is called a migration background. Serbian and Turkish are
commonly heard, as is English in areas with business, diplomatic,
tourist, cultural or refugee centres. Strictly monolingual speakers of
German, the language of the state, are in a minority. To communicate
in this multilingual and multicultural city, people often need to draw on
a range of plurilingual skills: they switch from one language to another
and they help others who do not have the same plurilingual skills.

Recognising the linguistic and cultural reality of much of Europe, many

European countries have officially adopted a plurilingual approach to
education (Council of Europe, 2018) in the belief that such an approach
can promote participation in democratic and social processes. It is also
hoped that it can mitigate negative responses to encounters with the
unknown (e.g. racism) and encourage participation in other cultures.
Countries elsewhere have followed suit.

In a plurilingual approach to English language learning, an imagined

‘native speaker’ standard of English is no longer seen as the goal to be
striven towards. Instead, the goal is a broader range of linguistic and
intercultural skills which all require some knowledge of English. The
focus has moved towards a concern with what we do with language in
our real-life multicultural worlds. These social functions often involve at
least two languages.

The learner may be learning English as a third, fourth or fifth language

and all these linguistic resources are seen to be of rich potential for

2
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 further learning. The taboo on using L1 in the English classroom is
broken, and a range of normal behaviours (which were previously
frowned upon) can be added to classroom practice. These include:

switching between English and other languages

spoken or written translation
translanguaging – the use of all one’s linguistic resources to
communicate.

Translanguaging is a feature of most English classrooms. Institutions

try to ban it, but have mixed success in class, and none outside. When
handled sensitively and proactively, however, it may help learners’
autonomy, engagement and self-esteem. It can also be a very inclusive
practice (see 6).

Learning activities which involve mediation (see 3) between two or

more languages (e.g. a text in one language and a summary in another)
are considered an important part of the learning diet.

Taking a plurilingual approach further, imagine a classroom in

Australia: it’s full of newly-arrived students from all over the world.
For some of them, schooling was severely disrupted and the possibility
of future advanced study may seem very remote. Together these EAL
learners explore, through texts, aspects of each other’s backgrounds and
of Australia, using all their plurilingual resources to do so.

In practice

It’s one thing to sign up to an international policy initiative. It’s quite

another to enact it with enthusiasm. In national language policies and
the organisation of school curricula, in formal assessment criteria of
language skills, and the privileges given to ‘native speakers’, we see little
that is really plurilingual in orientation. More commonly, we see the other
languages and English treated as discrete entities that should not mix.

There are many ways of assessing someone’s English language skills, but
in schools, universities and high-stake exams, evaluating plurilingual
skills (along with English) is relatively rare. More often, students are
evaluated with reference to a set of monolingual norms, and they are
not best advised to start switching from one language to another during
their exams.

3
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 There are, however, contexts where plurilingual practices are more
likely to be the norm. In some forms of both bilingual education
and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) (see 4),
plurilingualism may be very visible. But in general English classes
(in high school, for example), plurilingualism is up against the
exam system. Ways of measuring plurilingual skills exist, but there
is strong resistance to the idea and they are not easily standardised
internationally. Compartmentalising English as entirely separate from
other languages is what most people are used to. Attitudes die hard.

Attitudes have, however, softened in recent years in some places. There

is a growing acceptance of the important role of the L1 in learning
English, although this is far from universal. Translation exercises are no
longer the preserve of a few old-fashioned teachers. They have become
a core feature of many online language learning tools. The findings
of English as a Lingua Franca researchers (see 2) are also beginning
to be reflected in the design of materials with language models of
more diverse kinds. This is particularly the case with listening and
pronunciation materials, less so with models of written language.
Finally, the official importance accorded to interlingual mediation
(see 3) means that it is increasingly hard to keep the English language
classroom free of the ‘other’ language(s).

Takeaways

Since I have written a book of practical ideas for incorporating own-

language activities in the English classroom (Kerr, 2014), it’ll come as
no surprise to find out that I don’t think that English is always best
learnt in an English-only environment. But using the L1 (and other
languages) from time to time to aid the acquisition of English is not
really the same thing as pursuing a plurilingual approach.

I first taught English in a Moroccan lycée, where French, Arabic and

Šəlha were all used and heard. It would have been an ideal setting for a
plurilingual approach, but the students I taught were mostly pretty good
at translanguaging already – even though the term hadn’t been coined
yet. What they needed was a level of written standardised Arabic,
French and English to get through their baccalauréat. Keeping English
separate from home languages, and employing native-speaker teachers

4
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 like me, were thought to be good ways of achieving the goals set by the
ministry, whose thinking had not been influenced by the ‘Multilingual
Turn’ in applied linguistics. This only came in the second decade of the
21st century, some 25 years later.

The plurilingual/multilingual practices and attitudes that have been

experimented with in recent years are certainly more inclusive than
what came before, and it may be that there are other advantages –
increases in learner motivation, agency and metacognition (see 28), for
example. But we also know that plurilingual competence develops by
itself. Plurilingual instruction may help it along.

Canagarajah, S. (2013). Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan

Relations. New York: Routledge.

Kerr, P. (2014). Translation and Own-Language Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

May, S. (Ed.) (2014). The Multilingual Turn. New York: Routledge.

Narcy-Combes, M. F., Narcy-Combes, J. P., McAllister, J., Leclère, M. and Miras, G.

(2019). Language Learning and Teaching in a Multicultural World. Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.

5
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 2 English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

You have to keep your eye on the ball with ELF because
definitions keep changing. In its latest embodiment, ELF
is all about plurilingualism (see 1).

What and why?

Looking at the way that English is used as a lingua franca makes

intuitive good sense since its users far outnumber its native-speakers.
There is no reason to idealise ‘native speakers’ of a language. There is
no good reason to get hung up about American, British or Australian
norms. There are many reasons to be more inclusive (see 6) and an
ELF-informed approach may be more tolerant and empowering for
both learners and their teachers. The idea of ELF also supports those
who campaign against discrimination against ‘non-native’ teachers of
English, illegal in some countries, accepted as the norm in others.

But English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), is a slippery beast. It refers

to three rather different things. In its first iteration, ELF.1, the main
focus appeared to be on the language forms, especially aspects of
pronunciation and lexico-grammar, that mattered for intercultural
intelligibility. This soon morphed into ELF.2, where the focus shifted
to how people of different language backgrounds used English
to communicate in particular situations. And ELF.2 was, in turn,
supplemented by ELF.3, which brings us to a perspective that identifies
with plurilingualism/multilingualism (see 1). ELF has now been
reconceptualised as ‘English as a multilingual franca’, and ELF scenarios
may include situations where English is available to the speakers, and
they may draw on their knowledge of English, but they don’t actually
choose to use it.

In the early years of this century, there was an explosive leap in the
number of books, journals and articles about ELF. There was lively
debate about ELF.1 and ELF.2, not least about the practical classroom,
teacher training and assessment implications. However, twenty years

6
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.003 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 after ELF became widely used as a term, ELF researchers lament the
absence of any sizable changes in classroom practices.

A number of reasons for this lack of uptake may be speculated on.

Two come immediately to my mind. First, native-speakerism (i.e. a bias
towards native-speakers and their speech varieties) is embedded in so
many systems that it’s hard to know where to begin. Secondly, support
from large numbers of teachers has been less enthusiastic than had been
hoped for. Many, myself included, aspire to ‘native-speaker’ norms in
languages that are not our own.

In practice

A lot of English language teaching and assessment is concerned with

getting students to reproduce accurate language forms – grammatical,
lexical and phonological. But without a norm against which we can
measure this accuracy, teachers and test makers (especially makers
of online, automatically marked tests) are left with something of a
problem. Omitting a third person singular ‘s’, for example, is highly
unlikely to impede communication in an ELF (or any) setting, and it
may not even be noticed. In many ways, it really doesn’t matter. So,
should teachers give feedback on it? Many teachers think yes, and many
learners, perhaps especially adults, agree with them. The debate, going
back at least six hundred years, is unlikely to be resolved any time soon.

It’s fairly natural for teachers to have an interest in grammatical

accuracy: getting through an accuracy-based test or two is something
most have experienced on the way to becoming a teacher. Many are
less interested in pronunciation: it’s an open secret that pronunciation
activities in coursebooks are often skipped. The first and most tangible
product of ELF is the Lingua Franca Core, which includes a short list
of sounds or sound pairings that are problematic in ELF settings when
ELF users mix them up. It tells us, for example, that we should worry
more about long and short vowels, and less about pronouncing th. It’s a
handy list, and it’s beginning to be reflected in more recent coursebooks.

The Lingua Franca Core for pronunciation was a product of ELF.1.

Attempts to produce similar ‘cores’ for grammar and vocabulary did
not come to fruition, as attention shifted in ELF.2 to the pragmatic
moves that users of ELF typically make. Here, again, ELF scholars have

7
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.003 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 produced some handy documents: lists of the kinds of strategies that
effective ELF users deploy when they are speaking. Fluent use of these
strategies usually entails knowing a few set phrases, and when to use
them, and this language can be taught/learnt quite easily. Examples of
such speaking strategies include managing conversations (keeping it
going, changing the topic, repairing misunderstandings, etc.) and being
a supportive listener (checking information, responding positively, etc.).

Takeaways

The two tangible and practical artefacts of ELF I have just mentioned
serve useful purposes in almost any English language classroom, but
ELF, if understood as a multilingual practice (ELF.3), also challenges
many of us to change our mindset more radically. Many habitual
practices will need to be rethought. A good number of the practical
activities in Kiczkowiak and Lowe’s (2018) compendium are intended
to develop an ‘ELF mindset’ in learners: a better understanding of
the global role of English or the nonsense of native-speakerism, for
example. Learners’ attitudes may need shifting, too.

It is probably easiest to operate with an ELF model if you are in a

bilingual educational system, if you are teaching English as an additional
language in an English-speaking country, if you are a teacher of CLIL
(see 4), or a teacher using English as a Medium of Instruction (see 5).

I’m none of these things, but I find the Lingua Franca Core a useful
reference. Inclusion of conversational strategies in a syllabus makes
sense to me, too. I’m happy to see (and hear) fewer white, middle-class
‘native speaker’ norms in learning material. I understand the rationale
for a diminished focus on grammatical accuracy. But I’m afraid I still
want to approximate closer to an imagined native speaker when I speak
languages other than English.

Jenkins, J., Baker, W. and Dewey, M. (Eds.) (2018). The Routledge Handbook of English
as a Lingua Franca. Abingdon, Oxon.: Routledge.

Kiczkowiak, M. and Lowe, R. J. (2018). Teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Stuttgart:

DELTA Publishing.

MacKenzie, I. (2014). English as a Lingua Franca. Abingdon, Oxon.: Routledge.

Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

8
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.003 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Interlingual mediation 3

A big part of a language teacher’s job is to mediate texts

of all kinds to their learners. Much of this mediation is
cross-linguistic (e.g. explaining vocabulary), and it’s a skill
that learners need, too.

What and why?

A common thing that we do with language is help other people

understand a text of some kind which, for a variety of reasons, they
may be having problems with. To do so, we may summarise or simplify
it, exemplify it or provide extra details, change the register, or, in other
ways make it more comprehensible. This is mediation, and the problems
may be caused by the interlocutor’s lack of familiarity with the type of
text or the ideas and cultural references expressed in it. In a multilingual
setting, the problem may arise because of language differences and,
in such cases, cross-linguistic (or interlingual) mediation is needed. In
addition to the mediating strategies mentioned above, this will involve
elements of translation and/or use of English as a Lingua Franca (see 2).
It is the focus of this chapter.

In 2018, the Council of Europe published a companion volume to their

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (see 20).
Mediation featured prominently in this volume and this, more than
anything else, is having an impact on language teaching and assessment
practices in Europe and more globally.

The volume breaks mediation down into a series of activities and

strategies. The activities include:
relaying and summarising (either in speech or writing) information
from spoken or written texts
translating (either in speech or writing) written texts
note-taking in lectures and meetings (which may be in another
language).

9
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.004 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 The strategies include:

linking to previous knowledge (e.g. by asking questions to activate

prior knowledge)
adapting language (e.g. by paraphrasing)
simplifying or highlighting key information.

Mediation in the ‘companion volume’ is not restricted to cross-linguistic

mediation, but it plays a very important role. This is a recognition of
our multilingual/multicultural lives and the importance of switching
between two or more languages.

In practice

The inclusion of a focus on interlingual mediation necessarily entails the

abandonment of an English-only approach to teaching English. Arguments
against English-only approaches are already well-established and
broadly accepted by the academic community, even if still less so in some
educational institutions. A summary of these can be found in my own
book Translation and Own-Language Activities (Kerr, 2014). However, as
mediation is increasingly promoted by supranational bodies and included
in lists of ‘global competences’ (such as the Pisa 2018 Global Competence
framework), it will be incorporated more and more within formal
assessment practices (see, for example, the Council of Europe’s website
www.ecml.at/mediation). Cross-linguistic mediation tasks already feature
in school-leaving examinations in a number of countries. ­English-only
approaches will therefore become increasingly problematic.

The kinds of classroom activities that involve cross-linguistic mediation

mirror the descriptions of mediation activities and strategies found in
the Council of Europe (2018) ‘companion volume’. It is beyond the
scope of this chapter to give more than a brief glimpse of the available
possibilities. A much wider selection may be found in Kerr (2014) and
González Davies (2004). Here is a small selection:
three-way bilingual roleplays, where the role cards stipulate that one
bilingual speaker mediates between two other speakers who do not
share a language
presentations (in English) by individual students of interesting films,
websites, etc. that are in another language

10
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.004 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 learners read or listen to a text in English, and make notes and/or
summarise in their own language
learners expand a short English text after carrying out research in
their own language
information gap tasks where learners read (or listen to) texts in one
or more other languages and share the information in English.

Mediation is also central to CLIL practices (see 4) where learners use

more than one language to acquire, explore and share new knowledge
and concepts. Code-switching (switching from one language to the
other) and translanguaging (the process of using all one’s language
resources to achieve communicative goals) are likely to be standard
ways of achieving mediation goals in such settings.

Takeaways

In a language classroom, the mediation of communication between

teachers and learners is often a multilingual affair, sometimes
reluctantly on the part of the teacher. The mediation of texts (using
dictionaries, for example) and the mediation of ideas (grammar
explanations, for example) are also often multilingual activities. Rather
than using the other language(s) just as a fall-back option, we could
embrace the potential of interlingual mediation activities more fully.
These activities clearly entail an acceptance of an important role for
the learners’ other languages, and the implications of this need to be
thought through.

The issues are both practical and curricular. If some use of other
languages is accepted, or even promoted, how do we manage things to
avoid excessive use? In contexts where the teachers do not share the
other languages, how will they evaluate the learners’ use of mediation
strategies? Highlighting mediation also has the effect of underlining
the importance of language as a utilitarian and transactional tool
(in a multilingual world), but this brings with it the risk that more
humanistic and creative uses of language are downgraded.

A certain shift in priorities is therefore unavoidable, and you or your

learners may feel that it is not for you. In many contexts, however,
especially those where the vocational purposes of language learning

11
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.004 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 are paramount (Business English, for example), the codification of
mediation skills in the CEFR companion volume can provide a very
useful guide to classroom practice.

Chiappini, R. and Mansur, E. (2021). Activities for Mediation. Stuttgart: Delta Publishing.

Council of Europe. (2018). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:

Learning, Teaching, Assessment: Companion Volume with New Descriptors.
Strasbourg: Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-new-
descriptors-2018/1680787989

González Davies, M. (2004). Multiple Voices in the Translation Classroom. Amsterdam:

John Benjamins.

Kerr, P. (2014). Translation and Own-Language Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Stathopoulou, M. (2015). Cross-Language Mediation in Foreign Language Teaching and

Testing. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

12
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.004 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Content and Language Integrated 4
Learning (CLIL)/Content-Based
Instruction (CBI)

Teaching learners an academic subject in an additional

language (e.g. English) seems to offer rich potential.
However, classroom reality is a little more complicated
than a simple switch from one language to another.

What and why?

What’s in a chapter heading? For some people, CLIL and CBI are very
different entities. For others, there is so much overlap between them
that it is not really possible to differentiate them. Still others may
wonder if both CLIL and CBI should not be dealt with in the chapter
on English as a Medium of Instruction (see 5), rather than getting a
chapter to themselves. For myself, the big difference between CLIL and
CBI is that when you walk out of a typical CLIL school classroom,
you’re not surrounded by the language of the classroom.

A recurrent theme of this book is that trends are, more often than
not, poorly defined. CLIL is no exception. It is often referred to as an
umbrella term for a variety of approaches, most of which offer a two-
for-the-price-of-one deal: subject matter learning and proficiency in
another language, at the same time (e.g. German-speaking high school
students study engineering in English). Variations include:
pairs of teachers working in tandem, using different languages
one teacher switching between languages
some classes taught in one language, some in others
additional language classes provided for some learners.

CLIL (the more common term in Europe) approaches started spreading

in Europe around the turn of the century, and, two decades later,
have become the norm in many places. CLIL may have a positive
impact on learner motivation, attitudes towards learning the language,
and enhanced confidence. It is also generally popular with parents.

13
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Most language teaching researchers are enthusiastic, too. In at least
significant parts of CLIL lessons, students are learning a language by
doing something with it, rather than learning about it, even though
supplementary language-focussed study may be needed. CLIL provides
a clear and authentic communicative purpose to language use,
something that is often difficult to achieve in a language-focussed class.
It is claimed that learners like CLIL, too, but we will need more data
to verify the claim. The number of student dropouts from CLIL classes
suggests the picture may be rather more complicated.

In practice

My daughter’s primary school proudly displays a poster near the

entrance, proclaiming, in English, ‘We are a CLIL school.’ In fact, half of
the classes could be called CLIL, and the rest are monolingual German.
The children in the CLIL classes are already bilingual (German-English,
but often with another language – Hungarian, Polish or Chinese, for
example) when they enter the school. The school operates a selection
policy and parents of the CLIL children tend to have higher socio-
economic status than parents of the non-CLIL cohort. Demographic
differences like this have been observed in many CLIL contexts.

In common with most CLIL schools, English is the target language and
‘CLIL’ is something of a brand name. This version of CLIL has evolved
as a response to both local needs and educational directives from local
government, so numeracy (in German) and basic English and German
literacy skills are the focus of the early years. In terms of classroom
practices, a million miles separate it from other CLIL schools, where, for
example, spoken skills in English are the target in engineering classes.
The contexts of primary, secondary and vocational schools using CLIL
vary enormously. With so many varieties of CLIL, and with no unifying
approach or theory, it’s very hard to say what CLIL is. And without
resolving the definition, it’s very hard to evaluate the effectiveness of
CLIL as an approach. CLIL requires some sort of balance to be struck
between the content and the language, and it is not easy to do this
50-50. Do you want your CLIL ‘hard’, where academic achievement is
prioritised, or ‘soft’, where language skills are the driving force?

Putting these reservations to one side, there is some evidence that CLIL
has had favourable effects on English learning. Evidence on how CLIL

14
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 impacts on overall academic achievement is less readily available. The
language gains may, however, be due in part simply to more hours of
English. They may also be partly attributable to differences in teaching
style. A tightly teacher-led class, mostly in explanatory or corrective
mode, with all communication conducted through the teacher, is likely
to lead to fewer language gains than a task-driven approach with
learners working in groups.

Takeaways

Most commentators agree that CLIL imposes a greater workload

on teachers. The workload is also greater for most learners. This
means that, for both, motivation needs to be high, and this cannot be
assumed. Both may need support, and institutional support may be in
short supply. When children are too young to have had much say in
their enrolment in a CLIL school, and when teachers have had little
choice but to switch their language of instruction, attitudes may not be
altogether positive.

One of the aims of the European advocates of CLIL is to promote what

they see as more progressive pedagogies. It certainly aligns closely to
task-based and communicative language learning. It reminds those of
us not working in CLIL of the importance of having a good reason to
use the language you are learning. It reminds those of us working in
English-only classrooms that a healthy plurilingual alternative (see 1) is
also possible.

It may well be the case that CLIL has been somewhat oversold, but
it has helped to keep alive the debates about the best ways to learn
languages, and especially about the role of the L1 in that process.

Ball, P., Kelly, K. and Clegg, J. (2015). Putting CLIL into Practice. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Coyle, D., Hood, P. and Marsh, D. (2010). Content and Language Integrated Learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lyster, R. (2018). Content-Based Language Teaching. New York: Routledge.

Mehisto, P., Marsh, D. and Frigols, M. J. (2008). Uncovering CLIL. London: Macmillan
Education.

15
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.005 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 5 English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI)

The teaching of academic subjects through English

is a simple and intuitively appealing idea. Driven by
commercial considerations, its growth has been rapid,
but the classroom reality is complex and often much less
successful than hoped for.

What and why?

The idea of studying school subjects in a language other than your own
has been around a long time. Think back to the days when Sumerian,
Latin or Ottoman Turkish (the languages of colonial power) were
used as a medium of instruction. These days, in universities around the
world, it is almost always English that is chosen as the international
language for teaching and study. There is a long and ugly history of
English as a medium of instruction in the context of colonial schooling,
and vestiges of this still remain.

There is no colonial connection between Britain and my home town,

but my local university offers almost thirty master programmes taught
completely in English, ranging from data science to immunobiology.
The required level is B2. This is far from unique, as the university is
competing in a global marketplace where English is the lingua franca,
and attracting international students is seen to be vital for its future. It is
a recognition that English dominates the world of academic publishing,
and the internationalisation (or rather Englishisation) of the university is
thought to enhance its prestige. EMI courses also facilitate the mobility
of both students and staff, if their English language skills are improved
through an EMI policy. The idea that EMI courses can kill two birds
with one stone, i.e. developing both academic knowledge and English
language skills, lies behind many EMI initiatives, although improvement
in English is rarely one of the stated objectives of EMI courses.

Contemporary EMI is most commonly found in universities, and this

is my focus here. It has tended to be the private universities that lead

16
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.006 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 the way. Marketing of EMI courses was helped by the English-speaking
trio of the United States, Britain and Australia promoting themselves as
academic superpowers. EMI continues to grow, as public universities
play ‘catch-up’ and there is more governmental backing for them to
compete in the global academic marketplace. Pressure on the secondary
sector then follows, so that students are prepared for their EMI degree.

In practice

An entry level of B2 for an EMI course is not high, and the bar is often
set even lower. Depending on which examination is used to determine
this level, some students may also have significantly weaker productive
skills in English than their examined level suggests. They may also be
lacking in their competence with the local language (in my context,
this is German), restricting their ability to integrate into the local
community in which they find themselves.

Some universities require little, if anything, in the way of English

language requirements and provide no language support for the
students they enrol. Macaro (2018) refers to this as the ‘ostrich model’,
where the institution pretends that there is no problem, or that, if
there is one, it will go away of its own accord. More often, language
requirements exist, although commercial pressures mean that they may
not be high enough. To compensate for the lack of language skills,
universities may offer either pre-sessional or in-sessional support, or
a combination of the two. The former is often a year in length, and
combines language development with some training in academic skills
such as critical thinking (see 8). Responding to this need, international
publishers have produced series of coursebooks of English for Academic
Purposes (EAP), the first level of which is often targeted at A2 students.
The latter, in-sessional language classes, are usually separate from the
main academic curriculum, and may bring together students from
a variety of disciplines, despite the fact that the language needs of
students in one academic subject may be very different from those in
another. It is possible to identify features of general academic English,
such as word lists of high frequency academic words, but most students
would benefit from an analysis of the specific language demands of their
courses, and this is not always available to the tutors or it is difficult to
incorporate into the general needs of an in-sessional group.

17
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.006 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Among EMI lecturers, too, there are inevitably wide variations in
their English language skills. At times, a simultaneous interpreter is
needed. In some cases, lecturers have been required to upgrade their
skills, but support in ways to modify their pedagogical approach to
better suit EMI learners appears to be rare. These might include ways
of breaking up an uninterrupted flow of lecture-mode with a range of
more learner-centred tasks, training in language grading, and the use
of translanguaging techniques. Unsurprisingly, many EMI lecturers
feel they could do a better job in their own language. Feelings of
demotivation are not uncommon, especially among those who had no
choice in the switch to EMI.

Given the challenges outlined above, we should not expect research

findings about the efficacy of EMI to be unequivocally positive, and the
picture that emerges from EMI research is decidedly mixed. In some
countries, learning of academic content has deteriorated, and drop-out
rates have been high, but we do not have enough information to make
global generalisations. Improvements in English language skills are also
often disappointing, although a number of research reports indicate
gains in listening. We cannot, however, assume that following EMI
studies will lead to greater language gains than, say, attending fewer
hours of an intensive English course. The idea that two birds can be
killed with one stone remains speculative.

The widespread rolling-out of EMI programmes has led to concerns

about a negative effect on the status of other languages. There is also
a danger that EMI may exacerbate social inequalities. Those who are
most likely to benefit from the approach are ‘those whose life chances
have already placed them in a position to benefit from education’
(Macaro, 2018). It is clear that EMI has spread globally without
sufficient consideration of both its benefits and its costs.

Takeaways

The rush to implement EMI is not dissimilar to enthusiasm for other

trends that will be discussed in this book. Before turning to these, I
would like to offer a short checklist of questions that are suggested by
the lessons we can learn from EMI.

Have we adequately anticipated potential drawbacks alongside

the advantages?

18
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.006 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Have we evaluated the ways in which implementation of the trend
might impact on questions of inclusivity and wellbeing?
What kinds of training will be needed before the trend can realise
its potential?
Is there sufficient research evidence to justify our enthusiasm for
the trend?
Have we transferred our enthusiasm for one particular, closely
defined iteration of the trend to the trend as a whole?

Galloway, N. and Rose, H. (2021). English medium instruction and the English language
practitioner. ELT Journal, 75 (1): 33–41.

Macaro, E. (2018). English Medium Instruction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sahan, K., Mikolajewska, A., Rose, H., Macaro, E., Searle, M., Aizawa, I., Zhou, S.
and Veitch, A. (2021). Global mapping of English as a medium of instruction in higher
education: 2020 and beyond. London: British Council.

19
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.006 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 B: Rethinking learning

We turn our attention next to ways in which

English language learning is increasingly
viewed as involving more than just learning
the language. First, there is growing interest
in the kinds of non-linguistic skills (life skills)
that language learners need in the real world
of work and study. Very closely related are
the social-emotional skills that are known
to help learning. Interest in making learning
more efficient has now become inseparable
from interest in educational technologies.
Blended and flipped learning are included in
this section because of their primary focus
on learning. We will turn to other uses of
educational technology in section C.

6 Inclusivity
7 21st century skills
8 Critical thinking
9 Creative thinking
10 Digital literacies
11 Blended learning
12 Flipped learning
13 Engagement
14 Mindsets
15 Grit
16 Mindfulness

20
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.007 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Inclusivity 6

Language teachers bring a range of technical skills to their

work, but underlying these is always a set of ethical values.
Questions about inclusivity require us to reconsider these
values and re-evaluate our educational priorities.

What and why?

I use the term inclusivity to refer to three interrelated concepts: equality,

diversity, and inclusion. Equality here means that all learners are treated
fairly and not subject to forms of discrimination, irrespective of any
characteristics they may have. This entails equality of opportunity,
which means that everybody has an equal chance to learn. Since some
learners are more privileged than others in a variety of ways, equality
of opportunity can only be realised if measures are taken to empower
those lacking in privilege. Diversity here means that individual and
group differences which affect equality are acknowledged, respected and
celebrated. Characteristics which fall under this description typically
include age, race, different body types, religion, cultural background,
neurodiversity, disability, social class, sex, gender and sexual orientation.
Many learners, of course, suffer from multiple forms of discrimination.
Inclusion, the third of these concepts, refers to the concrete ways in
which equality and diversity are realised in educational contexts.

The paragraph above reflects my own personal and cultural values, as

does any discussion of equality. Equality of opportunity is a particularly
contested term – interpreted in so many different ways – with the
result that there is inevitable disagreement about what, in practical
terms, inclusion should look like. In addition, particular sets of values
can conflict with others. How, for example, does my belief in the
importance of equality of educational opportunity sit with the belief of
many socio-economically privileged parents that they have the right to
select and pay for the kinds of private education that are more likely to
help their children achieve high proficiency in English?

21
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.008 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Besides the moral reasons for embracing more inclusive practices,
there may also be legal reasons for doing so. Inclusive and equitable
education is one of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals,
and many countries now require school curricula to respect diversity,
although the way that diversity is defined varies in significant ways.

There are also a number of reasons for embracing inclusivity that

are specific to English language teaching. Among these is the close
connection between learning a language and developing intercultural
competence, requiring an awareness of and respect for differences both
between and within cultures. Inclusive approaches therefore require
attention to the selection and design of learning materials, and the
teaching methodology that is deployed. Plurilingual approaches (see 1),
for example, are, by design, more inclusive than strictly monolingual
policies.

Reading and listening play central roles in all forms of learning, but
particularly so in language learning. Inclusive language teaching
needs to find ways of accommodating the needs of learners whose
participation in learning activities is otherwise restricted because
of differences in, for example, their sight and hearing. Similarly, a
celebration of neurodiversity will likely lead to a rethinking of the
appropriacy of certain activities and classroom management techniques.

In practice

The world of English language teaching is itself too diverse for us to

make general observations of the ways in which inclusion is currently
being enacted. There are, however, a number of recent initiatives that
have received international attention, in part because of the support
they have received from publishers and from the global teachers’
associations, TESOL and IATEFL, both of which have special interest
sections devoted to diversity and inclusivity.

It is estimated that between five and fifteen percent of people have

specific learning differences, and, of these, dyslexia is one of the most
common. Learning English can be challenging for everyone, but for
learners with dyslexia, difficulties with reading and spelling, writing,
vocabulary and grammar, may all be amplified. As a consequence,
motivation and anxiety may be negatively impacted. Recent interest in

22
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.008 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 supporting English language learners with dyslexia (e.g. Daloiso, 2017)
is therefore important and welcome. The advice that is provided is wide-
ranging, concerning everything from the design of texts and the choice
of classroom activities, to fairer forms of assessment.

Digital technology has greatly facilitated the provision of learning

materials appropriate to learners with differing needs (see 18), but the
spread of online learning has also brought into focus the importance of
inclusion in terms of access to this technology. Without access to good
affordable devices and connectivity, the potential benefits will remain
elusive.

Coursebooks and other learning materials produced by international

publishers have long been criticised, with justification, for being white-
anglocentric, male dominated, and heteronormative, and for reflecting
culturally limited, middle-class values that are often alien to the students
for whom the material is intended. My own recent experience as a
coursebook writer indicates that this is beginning to change, although
much still remains to be done. Publishers and writers are now more
sensitive to the need for greater diversity in the visual and textual
representation of people and cultures. It is now quite rare to encounter
newly published work that does not strive for a better mix of men and
women, and of ethnicity. Models of English language are no longer
provided exclusively by white native-speakers (see 2). However, for
commercial and cultural reasons, many taboos, especially LGBTQ+
related, remain.

Takeaways

The creation of materials that cater well to specific learning differences

or the inclusion of visual representations of greater diversity are
certainly welcome, but inclusive practices need to be more far-reaching
if they are not to be tokenistic. One way of approaching inclusion in
a more comprehensive way is by using a framework called Universal
Design for Learning (UDL), developed by CAST. This framework notes
the importance of providing multiple means of (1) engagement (the
affective response to learning), (2) representation (the ways in which
information is presented), and (3) action and expression (the ways in
which and the media through which learners can express themselves).

23
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.008 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Instead of focussing only on specific issues of equality, UDL allows for
a more intersectional understanding of discrimination and privilege
where a number of individual and social characteristics like gender, race
and disability may overlap. As a lens through which we can view and
respond to individual learner differences, it is of value in all language
classes in all contexts.

British Council (2009). Equal Opportunity And Diversity: The Handbook For Teachers
Of English. London: The British Council.

CAST (Center for Applied Special Technology) Website https://www.cast.org/

Daloiso, M. (2017). Supporting Learners with Dyslexia in the ELT Classroom. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

Smith, A. M. (Ed.) (2020). Activities for Inclusive Language Teaching. Stuttgart: Delta
Publishing.

24
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.008 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 21st century skills 7

Lists of 21st century skills (that are needed by the youth of

today) are readily available and popular with economists.
Will teaching these skills help learners add value to the
economy?

What and why?

Promoted massively by supranational bodies like the OECD and the

World Bank, by national governments, and by technology companies,
21st century skills have become a widely accepted part of ELT curricula
everywhere. Also known as life skills, global skills and soft skills, the
names that are used continue to evolve, as do the precise definitions.
But there is enough of a common understanding for us to avoid major
confusion. These skills are thought to be those that are needed to work
and live successfully in the knowledge economy of the 21st century. In
practice, this is usually more about working than other aspects of life.
The skills are identified by asking global businesses what kind of skills
they are looking for when they hire staff. The list usually includes:

Communication skills (e.g. making presentations, using different

media to share ideas)
Collaboration skills (e.g. working effectively with others, making
compromises)
Critical thinking and problem-solving skills (see 8)
Creativity and innovation skills (see 9).

Since each of these begins with the letter ‘C’, people also refer to the
‘Four Cs’.

People often note that there is nothing new about the importance of
some of these skills. They are important in any economy. But, it is
argued, they are particularly important in a digital knowledge economy,
where work practices evolve fast, and where this evolution can suddenly

25
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.009 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 accelerate when confronted with unpredictable events, such as a
pandemic. In addition, taxonomies of 21st century skills usually include:

Life and career skills

Information, media, and technology skills (e.g. digital literacies, see 10).

These skills are highly valued, and economists attempt to calculate

the dollar-value that a value-added workforce can add to a national
economy. It is not surprising, then, to see them assessed numerically: we
need, after all, to ensure that they are taught effectively and efficiently.
Frameworks (see 20) to allow this assessment have been developed
by UNICEF, the British Council, Cambridge English, and Oxford
University Press, among others.

It probably makes most sense for these skills to be taught across the
curriculum in an integrated way, but that is not always possible. English
language classes, which are already concerned with communication
skills and, to a lesser extent, collaboration skills, offer a seemingly
natural home for the incorporation of content that is oriented to 21st
century skills.

In practice

The idea of preparing learners for the challenges of the 21st century, or
words to similar effect, proved rapidly popular with both marketing
people and educators. Within a few years of the publication of the best-
selling 21st Century Skills by Trilling and Fadel (2009), ELT publishers
were incorporating a 21st century skill strand to the syllabus of major
coursebooks. One publisher, Macmillan, developed an online resource
bank of 21st century skills material and won a British Council prize for
innovation for their efforts.

At times, and especially at the start, the ‘21st century’ content was little
more than rebadged material that was already familiar. Pair work
could be relabelled ‘communication’ and ‘collaboration’, and discussion
tasks that were more cognitively challenging could be called ‘critical
thinking’.

At the same time, as part of the discussions about 21st century needs, a
growing importance was also attached to ‘higher-order’ thinking skills

26
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.009 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 (analysis, evaluation and creation), as opposed to the less cognitively
challenging tasks of remembering, understanding and applying. In the
classroom, this entails the prioritisation of doing ‘real-life’ things with
language, and less of studying grammar rules. There’s a wide number
of possible ways of combining standard ELT activities with 21st century
themes. The following examples give just a flavour:

a text and discussion about managing distractions and time

management for students
a workplace role play followed by a discussion about the qualities of
a positive team member
a discussion about respecting other people’s personal space
a vlog project about fake news.

Takeaways

Whilst many of the activities labelled ‘21st century skills’ have much to
recommend them in terms of the opportunities they offer for meaningful
language practice, the extent to which they achieve their goals of
teaching particular life skills is much less clear. There are a number of
reasons why it’s hard to say how effective such lessons are.

A one-off lesson on, say, critical thinking or leadership skills, is unlikely

to have much, if any, impact. General English courses, designed for
secondary students, have a large number of skills to pick from, and, as
a result, there is no systematic attempt to develop particular skills. On
the whole, learners practise a variety of skills, but they don’t necessarily
learn how to improve them. Only when a smaller number of skills are
targeted in a more organised way is there any likelihood of achieving
life skills goals. Examples include critical thinking in academic English
courses, or leadership skills in a business English course.

A broader concern is the degree to which some of these skills can be

taught at all. It has been argued, for example, that both creativity and
critical thinking are domain-specific. That is to say that an ability to be
creative or to think critically in one domain or context (like mechanical
engineering) doesn’t necessarily transfer to a similar ability in a different
domain (like football or learning psychology). Without an adequate
knowledge base in any domain, you cannot really deploy any higher-
order skills.

27
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.009 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Skills are much harder to measure than knowledge about language,
but without measuring gains in skills it’s impossible to determine the
effectiveness of activities that are designed to develop them. Before
measuring, we need to define what we’re measuring and here we run
into the problem that everyone defines these skills slightly differently.
When we dig down a little further and ask how we might define and
measure individual skills, such as creative thinking (see 9), we find that
this, too, can be broken down in many different ways, none of which
lend themselves readily to assessment.

Finally, it is worth unpacking some of the assumptions behind the

promotion of 21st century skills. The focus is on work, rather than
life, and the assumption is a future world of work where, for example,
entrepreneurial skills or information literacy may be relevant. Not
everyone is as optimistic about the future. Some suggest that we’d be
doing our students more of a favour by preparing them for a world
where work is a minority occupation. Is this focus on the utilitarian or
work purposes of learning English appropriate for all learners, anyway?
It didn’t use to be like that.

Mavridi, S. and Xerri, X. (Eds.) (2020). English for 21st Century Skills. Newbury, Berks.:
Express Publishing.

Mercer, S., Hockly, N., Stobart, G. and Galés, N. L. (2019). Global Skills: Creating
Empowered 21st Century Citizens. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Trilling, B. and Fadel, C. (2009). 21st Century Skills. San Francisco: Wiley.

28
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.009 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Critical thinking 8

The skill of critical thinking is self-evidently a desirable

attribute for our learners to acquire. Who could be against
it? But to what extent can English language teachers
promote critical thinking skills?

What and why?

Critical thinking, often in combination with problem-solving, is

regularly at or near the top of the lists of important 21st century
skills (see 7). Its empowering appeal is obvious, but nobody can
agree on precisely what it is. One review of the literature found that
critical thinking entailed the analysis of arguments, inferencing skills,
evaluation, decision-making, and problem-solving. In addition to skills
such as these, critical thinking requires a disposition to (1) think and (2)
think critically, and attributes such as open-mindedness, inquisitiveness,
and respect for others will come into play.

Critical thinking skills are increasingly important for learners as they

navigate each academic obstacle, and are expected to use higher-order
thinking skills more often. A good number of people learning English
are also studying other subjects in English (see 5), or are hoping to do
so, so courses of English for Academic Puposes (EAP) almost invariably
include training in critical approaches to reading and writing. In more
general courses, a critical-thinking strand is often added to the syllabus
in a more scattergun approach and it sometimes competes for space on
the page with other 21st century skills, such as empathy, being a positive
team member, or showing initiative.

A detailed list of the components of critical thinking is long, but it

would include concluding, evaluating, exemplifying, linking, prioritising,
specifying, and summarising. All useful tools to have!

In practice

The extent to which anyone might acquire these skills in an English

language class depends, at least in part, on how much time is devoted

29
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.010 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 to exploring and practising them. An occasional text about fake news
or an opinion essay about reality TV may be the bases for some useful
language practice but they won’t do much, alone, to advance the cause
of digital information literacy or more general critical thinking skills.
The learning material that is labelled ‘critical thinking’ does not always
differentiate between ‘using critical thinking’ and ‘becoming a better
critical thinker’, and the former does not always lead to the latter. But
cognitively more challenging tasks and texts may motivate and engage
some (but not all!) learners and lead to extensive opportunities for
authentic language practice.

Fuller approaches to critical thinking can be found in EAP courses,

where critical thinking and academic language learning are seen to be
mutually supportive. Training in academic writing, broken down into
components like paragraph structure, ordering information, coherence,
and editing, is easily combined with a critical-thinking approach to
reading, where students analyse and evaluate a text.

Training in critical thinking is more likely to lead to desired outcomes

if the institution is supportive, if the materials are available, if the
teacher has bought into the idea, and if there is enough time to avoid
a tokenistic approach. Other 21st century skills, especially creative
thinking (see 9) and digital literacy (see 10), are not entirely dissociable
from critical thinking, and commonly combine in learning materials.

Critical thinking can be integrated into language learning in a wide

variety of complex ways. If, as Dummett and Hughes (2019) suggest,
critical thinking can only be loosely defined as reflective, rational,
and reasonable thinking, any activity which promotes the use of
such thinking must surely be welcomed. This means that there are
implications for the teacher’s role, with probably less emphasis on the
teacher’s authority.

Takeaways

There is enough evidence to show that critical thinking training leads

to some gains in academic work, but there is a lack of evidence to
show that this is transferred to other areas of learners’ lives. There’s
a lively debate about the extent to which critical thinking depends on
knowledge of particular subjects: in order, for example, for someone

30
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.010 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 to think critically about the Covid pandemic, climate change, or last
night’s football, they need to have some factual information before they
begin. What counts as a fact is not shared by everyone, of course. But if
critical thinking does not always readily lend itself to transfer from one
domain of knowledge to another, how should it be assessed?

There are formal tests to assess the critical thinking and problem-
solving skills of learners, such as the TSA of Cambridge Assessment. In
this test, candidates must, for example, select the relevant, and ignore
the irrelevant information to solve a ‘real-world’ problem. There are
also frameworks that offer potential for self-assessment and formative
feedback (such as the Cambridge Life Competencies Framework: Critical
Thinking). High stakes, summative evaluations of critical thinking skills
may hinder the development of the very skills they are supposed to be
measuring, but the pressure to measure outcomes is hard to avoid.

A commonly discussed sub-division of critical thinking at the present

time is the ability to spot fake news – ‘media information literacy’, to
use the jargon. Lessons about fake news are now common in many
ELT contexts. It’s unfortunate that research into the effectiveness of
promoting media information literacy has provided only mixed results.
One final thought. It’s often argued that a language class is a good place
for critical thinking work, but there’s also a strong argument that the
learners’ own language might be a better starting point.

Cottrell, S. (2005). Critical thinking skills: Developing effective analysis and argument.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dummett, P. and Hughes, J. (2019). Critical Thinking in ELT. Boston, MA.: National
Geographic Learning.

Lai, E. R. (2011). Critical Thinking: A Literature Review (Pearson) Available online at:
http://images.pearsonassessments.com/images/tmrs/CriticalThinkingReviewFINAL.pdf

31
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.010 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 9 Creative thinking

It’s easy for us all to agree that ‘creative thinking’ is a good

thing, and that it plays an important role in the classroom.
But the label covers two very different sets of priorities.

What and why?

The terms creative thinking and creativity are often used

interchangeably, and there is no generally accepted definition for
either of them. There are, however, two distinctly different ways
in which both terms are approached. In the first of these, creative
thinking comes under the umbrella of 21st century skills (see 7). It
is seen as a vital component of our ability to solve technological,
economic and organisational problems in a rapidly changing world.
Its value, ultimately, is found in its potential to enhance the economic
performance of the flexible ‘creative thinker’ and the organisation
they work for. It is closely related to critical thinking (see 8), since
problems must be critically analysed before creative solutions to them
are found. This kind of creative thinking is usually indistinguishable
from ‘innovation skills’. Whilst its importance in education is widely
accepted, the specific details of what it consists of remain a matter of
debate. For example, researchers continue to discuss the extent to which
creative thinking skills (along with critical thinking) can be applied to
everything that a learner does, or whether they can only be transferred
to specific activities.

The second type of creative thinking is less concerned with investment

in human capital, and more with the expression of a learner’s inner
world and the potential for personal development. This development
is made possible through learners’ engagement with activities which
often involve the arts (drama, stories, music, song, poetry, dance,
etc.). It usually requires them to produce language in ways in which
personalized, emotional self-expression is prioritised. Besides reflecting
the inherently creative nature of language, the value of such an

32
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.011 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 approach is also to be found in gains in motivation and self-esteem. In
the process, it may be hoped that learners become more receptive to
new ideas and ways of doing things.

In calls for more creative thinking in language teaching and learning,

these different approaches are often blurred, with the result that
justification for one approach may be seen as justification for the other,
even though they have relatively little in common.

In practice

Creative thinking, of the 21st century variety, is a wide range of

interrelated skills which, using the definition of the OECD’s PISA 2021
programme, allow for the generation, evaluation and improvement
of ideas that will lead to effective and original solutions to particular
problems. One educational approach, Problem-based learning (PBL),
has been widely promoted in general educational contexts as a way
of developing creative thinking. In PBL, learners are presented with
an open-ended real-world problem, such as finding ways of reducing
the carbon footprint of the school. They work collaboratively in
small groups, supported by a range of digital technologies, to define
the problem clearly, organise their previous knowledge, brainstorm
ideas, make hypotheses, and carry out research while moving towards
tentative solutions. The approach has been tried out to a very limited
extent in English language learning contexts, but has yet to gain broad
acceptance. It imposes a high cognitive load on learners, and when the
work has to be done in another language, there is inevitably a high
linguistic load, as well. Research so far has failed to show convincing
evidence that PBL results in gains in creative thinking, and this has led
some scholars to conclude that getting learners to solve problems may
not be the best way of learning how to solve problems.

A more piecemeal approach to developing creative thinking in English

language classes breaks things down into smaller parts. Defining
problems, forming hypotheses, brainstorming, etc. – the sub-skills of
creative thinking – are practised in the course of other activities in much
the same way as critical thinking skills are often practised (see 8) and
the overlap between these two kinds of thinking makes them hard to
disentangle. When viewed as a 21st century skill, training in creative

33
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.011 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 thinking is also likely to be closely linked to the use of digital technologies
(see 10) which facilitate either the creative process or creative production
(e.g. collaborative idea sharing, bulletin boards, vision boards, wikis,
mindmap generators, video production and editing).

ELT publications, however, more often reflect the second kind of

creative thinking (see the reading suggestions below). The range of
possibilities is too wide to do full justice here, but the most common
activities include:

the use of visual art, music and literature as a prompt for writing
or speaking
the production of creative writing, especially poems, visual displays,
artefacts (like masks or puppets) and video clips
the performance of drama or poetry, or improvisation
imaginative or playful manipulation of language
visualisation activities (e.g. during a listening).

Takeaways

Attempts in the last twenty years to measure 21st century creative

thinking have not been entirely satisfactory, not least because of
problems in defining precisely what it is. However, the decision of the
OECD to evaluate creative thinking skills in its PISA tests is likely to
lead to creative thinking becoming increasingly important for language
teachers, especially school teachers in OECD countries. This will
probably impact most on CLIL teachers (see 4) where the learners’
creative thinking in particular academic subjects can be assessed.

The OECD has made clear that it wishes to push creative thinking up
the educational agenda and assessing it is one way of doing so. As with
anything that is assessed, there will be a washback effect on classroom
practices. Since both definitions and ways of assessing creative
thinking will probably continue to be revised for some time, the precise
washback effects are also likely to evolve.

Meanwhile, the more arts-oriented variety of creative thinking, which

has been around for many decades, will continue to offer language
teachers a rich compendium of activities and materials they can select
from. Writing poetry or performing drama will probably be appropriate

34
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.011 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 more often to classes of younger learners than adults with utilitarian
goals, but the very creativity of the ideas suggested by authors in the list
below may provide inspiration to all teachers.

Clare, A. and Marsh, A. (2020). The Creative Teacher’s Compendium. Shoreham-by-Sea:

Pavilion Publishing.

Maley, A. (2018). Alan Maley’s 50 Creative Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Maley, A. and Kiss, T. (2018). Creativity and English Language Teaching. London:
Palgrave Macmillan.

Peachey, N. (2019). Hacking Creativity. PeacheyPublications.

Pugliese, C. (2010). Being Creative. Peaslake: DELTA.

35
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.011 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 10 Digital literacies

There’s a thin dividing line between developing digital

literacies and using technology for its own sake. It’s not
always easy to stay on the right side of the line.

What and why?

Like the other 21st century skills discussed in this book (see 7, 8 and
9), there is a problem when it comes to a precise definition of digital
literacies. There are well over one hundred, and still growing, different
frameworks that attempt to capture the idea of digital literacies. They
have much in common and, broadly speaking, concern the skills that
people need, when using technology, to find, evaluate, organise and
communicate information. In our increasingly digitalised world, it is
generally agreed that such skills are necessary for individuals to flourish
in their work, their studies and their everyday lives. As a result, it is now
rare to find a national education system which does not promote the use
of technology in learning, and training in the skills that are needed to
make best use of it.

The number of people, of all ages, using digital tools to learn English
grew rapidly in the first decades of the 21st century. Better connectivity,
along with the proliferation of platforms, mobile devices, apps and
learning materials, made possible the expansion of digitally supported
language learning of all kinds, from institutional study through a
learning platform or flipped approaches (see 12) to more informal and
self-driven forms of independent study.

With the unprecedented global shift to online activities in 2020, caused

by the Covid pandemic, the importance of digital literacies in all aspects
of our lives has become even more acute, not least for learners and
teachers of languages. There had always been an awareness of a ‘digital
divide’ between those with access to technology and those without. With
so much learning taking place online, a divide between those with and
without digital literacies has also become much more apparent.

36
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.012 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 At the most basic level, digital literacies for language learners and
teachers involve the technical skills needed to operate in a digital
environment. These may range from the very elementary (such as
using online search or posting on social media) to more sophisticated
skills (such as setting up a blog or creating and editing video). Training
in digital literacies invariably entails the use of a variety of digital
tools that have been designed to help users operate in a variety of
ways online.

However, it has long been recognised that digital literacies are much
more than just technical competences. At least as important as the
tools that are used is the way in which they are used, since these tools
affect how we think, communicate, relate with others, and behave.
Accordingly, digital literacies are also concerned with cognitive,
emotional and social practices. This has led researchers to break
digital literacies down into a large number of smaller categories.
These include:

network literacy – the way in which we build and participate in

digital social networks
personal literacy – the way in which our identities are projected and
protected online
critical digital literacy (see 8) – the way in which we critically
evaluate online content.

Taken together, these form what could be described as a sort of

reflective competence. They underline the importance for learners to be
both sceptical and proactive in their interactions with digital tools.

In practice

If teachers are to help their students with digital literacies, they must,
of course, be digitally literate themselves. Specifications of the digital
competences required by English language teachers have been drawn
up in two frameworks (see 20): the TESOL Technology Standards
Framework and the Cambridge English Digital Framework for
Language Teachers, both freely available online. Although they adopt
rather different approaches, both are primarily concerned with the
immediate applications of technology to learning, rather than digital
literacies outside learning contexts.

37
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.012 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 In line with these frameworks, teacher training in many parts of the
world has long encouraged the use of a variety of digital tools, and
sometimes compelled it. Materials to support teachers in integrating
technology in their lessons are widely available, ranging from interactive
tutorials and online how-to videos to books full of practical ideas
(e.g. Stanley, 2013; Hockly, 2017). Reflecting the main concern of the
frameworks, support for the development of learners’ and teachers’
digital literacies in their out-of-class lives, and which goes beyond
technical competence, remains relatively rare.

One exception to this is critical digital literacy, and learning materials

about fake news are now common.

Takeaways

There can be no doubt that the incorporation of various technologies

in English language lessons has the potential to enrich the learning and
teaching process. Unfortunately, there is no guarantee that it will do so,
and research by the OECD (so keen to promote the use of educational
technology) has not found ‘appreciable improvements’ in learning as a
result of wider technology use. Technology can also be used for largely
gratuitous purposes by teachers in the classroom, and it often is. But if
most of us have, at some point, experimented with a piece of technology
in our teaching for no particularly good reason, it seems unfair to
blame us for it. Teachers have been encouraged, for decades, to try
out new technologies, where the only likely benefit to some learners is
temporarily enhanced motivation – if the affective response to the new
technology is positive.

Learning activities that involve technology use and, at the same time,
promote a better understanding of the way that this technology
affects our social, emotional and cognitive behaviour, are hard to find,
although Digital Literacies (Dudeney et al., 2022) has a good selection
to choose from. You may prefer, like me, to write your own materials.
Some of these materials and activities may lead to rich and interesting
lessons, but unless they are structured and sequenced in some sensible
way, there is a danger they will be a collection of one-offs.

It makes sense to incorporate digital literacies across the curriculum,

with activities in the English class complementing those in other classes.

38
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.012 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 But this often presents practical problems or is simply impossible
for whatever reason (e.g. a school policy banning phones). Given the
importance of digital literacies, there is also a strong case for dealing
with them in the learners’ first language. When English classes are the
only places where digital literacies are addressed, impact will be limited.

What’s more, research evidence for the effectiveness of training in fake-

news spotting or changing attitudes and practices concerned with online
security, privacy or data abuse is, unfortunately, thin on the ground.
Still, topics such as these may be relevant and interesting to some
learners, and nothing is to be lost from addressing them.

Dudeney, G., Hockly, N. and Pegrum, M. (2022). Digital Literacies 2nd edition. Abingdon:
Routledge.

Hockly, N. (2017). ETpedia Technology. Hove: Pavilion Publishing.

Stanley, G. (2013). Language Learning with Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

39
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.012 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 11 Blended learning

Blended learning can offer advantages to both learners and

teachers only if a number of important conditions are met.
When they are not, as is often the case, it is unlikely that
the use of educational technology will add much of value
to language teaching.

What and why?

When, in the early years of this century, the term blended learning first
became part of educational discourse, it referred to the combination
of learning in traditional face-to-face contexts with learning with
technology, CD-ROMs in particular. Around 2010, commentators were
already arguing that the term was redundant, as the use of technology
in language learning had already become completely normalised in
many parts of the world. Let’s just talk about ‘learning’, they suggested,
not without good cause. Nevertheless, ‘blended learning’ continues to
be a buzz word, although – surprise, surprise – there are disagreements
about precisely what it is.

The technology moved on, with learning platforms and other resources
increasingly accessed by mobile devices. With the enforced switch
to online learning as a result of the Covid pandemic, the use of
technology in language learning was indisputably normalised. Blended
learning, however, has remained a hot topic because the challenges it
presented from the start have not gone away.

The use of technology to aid learning was driven primarily by more

of an interest in technology than in learning, and this remains the case
with teachers in many contexts required (or strongly encouraged) to
use it, often for reasons more related to digital literacies (see 10) than
to an understanding of how it might promote language acquisition.
Ongoing discussions about the importance of putting pedagogy before
technology reflect the common reality that is the other way round.

40
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.013 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 The roots of blended learning are to be found in the corporate world,
where financial savings could be made through a reduction in the costs
of face-to-face training. In language teaching, where it is unlikely that
classroom time is ever sufficient to make necessary progress, homework
has always been seen as an essential addition to the work of the teacher.
Embracing the potential of technology, homework has become blended
learning.

This potential includes the availability of a wide range of

interactive materials, the scope of this material to promote greater
learner autonomy, the use of technology to facilitate meaningful
communication between learners, the possibility of more personalized
approaches (see 18), gains in motivation in learners who enjoy using
technology, and time-saving automated feedback (see 24).

In practice

In blended learning, the ratio of synchronous face-to-face teaching to

asynchronous online work can be absolutely anything. The online work
may be seen as preparatory to class sessions (see 12) or as a follow-up
to it. In course material produced by big international publishers, it
was traditional homework, in the form of workbooks, that first became
available in digital format. At times now, these are not even available
in print format. The Covid pandemic saw publishers rushing to convert
all course materials to digital format, and it is now hard to imagine any
published course which cannot be blended in many different ways.

It is clear that switching from traditional to online teaching is not a

simple matter and that combining synchronous and asynchronous
study is as important now as it ever was. The ongoing challenge is how
to optimise the blend. There is no single solution, but a number of
necessary conditions have been identified.

First, both teachers and learners need to know how to make good use
of the digital tools and materials. This may take some time, and training
and ongoing trouble-shooting support are often needed. Second, the
synchronous and asynchronous components of the blend need to be
closely integrated. When, as is often the case, it is hard for learners
to see the link between the two, there is a risk that they will be less
engaged with the self-study and fail to give it sufficient attention. Very

41
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.013 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 careful thought, therefore, needs to be given to the way that both parts
of the blend are assessed, both formatively and summatively. Third, in
order to engage fully with the self-study, learners will need a degree of
autonomy, of self-regulation, of metacognitive awareness (see 28), and,
for this, training may also be needed.

There is plenty of evidence that blended courses can be very effective,

but, at the same time, there is no shortage of examples where there was
much less success than hoped for. Technological problems and negative
attitudes on the part of teachers and learners have sometimes proved
difficult to resolve. Institutions have frequently underestimated the need
for teacher training. Paradoxically, for an approach which can offer
flexibility, some institutions have not always been sufficiently flexible in
the way it was introduced, failing to allow for continuous review and
modifications. Anticipated cost savings have often failed to materialise.

Takeaways

When technologies are used as substitutes for other tools, or when

they offer only minor enhancements, learning gains will be, at best,
limited. The use of digital workbooks is a case in point, although
instant automatic correction and tracking of learners’ work are
valuable improvements. The use of educational technology encourages
us to reflect on which activities are best carried out in the face-to-face
classroom (i.e. those which involve social interaction) and which can be
allocated to self-study (e.g. memorisation tasks and mechanical practice
of language).

Technology, however, will be most transformative when it allows for

significant changes in the kinds of learning tasks that are carried out.
Extensive reading and listening are both qualitatively different when
using personalizable online tools (e.g. hyperlinks, dictionary look-ups,
captions). Online collaborative writing, using a tool like Google Docs,
has much greater potential than its equivalent in the classroom. The use
of video software in making presentations and in project work opens up
exciting possibilities. All of these examples represent significant shifts in
the ways in which language learning can be facilitated.

The inescapable conclusion, I think, is that the pre-service training and

in-service support of teachers needs to focus less on learning how to use

42
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.013 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 particular technologies, and more on what we know about the processes
of second language acquisition, and about educational psychology. The
global evidence that we have suggests, sadly, that the introduction of
digital technologies rarely brings about any appreciable improvements
in learning. The most likely reason for this is that educational
technology is employed and promoted mostly for its own sake, and not
as a solution to a specific educational question.

McCarthy, M. (Ed.) (2016). The Cambridge Guide to Blended Learning for Language
Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Russell, V. and Murphy-Judy, K. (2021). Teaching language online: A guide to designing,

developing, and delivering online, blended, and flipped language courses. New York:
Routledge.

Sharma, P. and Barrett, B. (2009). Blended Learning: Using Technology in and Beyond the
Language Classroom. Oxford: Macmillan.

43
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.013 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 12 Flipped learning

Flipped learning is a form of blended learning (see 11)

which is rich in promise. The challenges, however, should
not be underestimated, and it may not be feasible in many
contexts.

What and why?

The basic idea behind flipped learning is deceptively simple: work that
was ‘traditionally done in the class is now done at home, and what was
traditionally homework is now completed in class’ (Bergmann and Sams,
2012: 13). Although not entirely new, the idea acquired a name at the start
of the 21st century and rapidly gained in popularity after a TED talk by
Sal Khan, the founder of Khan Academy, in 2011. The Khan Academy,
funded by technology companies (like Google) and technology-associated
foundations (like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation), produces
educational videos, mostly with a focus on science and technology subjects.

Within a few years, English language educators had enthusiastically

picked up on the idea. The appeal lay in its potential to free up classroom
time for communication between learners by assigning more formal study
(especially of grammar) as homework tasks. Many teachers had been
trying to do precisely this for at least decades, using self-study grammar
books and vocabulary lists, but technology, in the form of video, ebooks
and platforms made the shift a more attractive proposition.

There are a number of other reasons why flipped learning appears to

offer a new and improved learning paradigm. Most importantly, a greater
degree of personalization is possible when learners are studying in their
own time (see 18). Learners no longer need to be following exactly the
same materials or the same sequence of activities. Other reasons include:

It is much easier to cater to learners with specific learning needs

(e.g. materials designed for dyslexics or text-to-speech software
for the blind and partially sighted, see 6).

44
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 It is also easier to cater to the needs of learners with different levels
of proficiency or with different interests.
It allows learners to proceed at their own pace, taking more or less
time to consult reference sources, and repeating exercises when
desired or necessary.

When the self-study takes place with materials delivered on a

sophisticated learning platform (as opposed to a simple platform where
documents can just be shared), other potential advantages may also
accrue.

Corrective feedback on learners’ work can be both automatic (see 24)

and formative, offering suggestions about what to do next.
Interaction (outside the face-to-face classroom) between learners
when engaged in collaborative work is possible.
Teachers may be able to provide learners with more individualised
support.

In practice

It is probably now the case that most flipped approaches in English

language teaching involve online study using platform-delivered
materials. Both grammar and vocabulary instruction are often flipped,
making use of the interactive practice opportunities of digital materials.
A strong argument can also be made for flipping listening and extensive
reading tasks. Most students are likely to benefit from the technological
possibilities of doing these things online: these include better sound
quality, the use of pause/repeat, speech-to-text software, and automated
dictionary look-up. Neither activity, in any case, makes the most of the
communicative possibilities of the face-to-face classroom.

Whichever aspect of the curriculum is flipped, there is likely to be a

reorientation of the teacher’s role in the learning process if the teacher’s
explanatory function has been reduced by shifting the more formal
study online. This has been popularly described as a move from the
teacher as ‘sage on the stage’ to the ‘guide on the side’. For flipped
learning to be effective, it will almost certainly entail more work for the
teacher. Planning and monitoring learners’ personalized self-study and
using the insights gained from this to inform the planning and running
of face-to-face classes requires hard work.

45
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 During both the self-study and the face-to-face classes, the teacher’s role
as a motivator, manager and supporter will take precedence over the
more traditional roles of instructor and provider of models. With this
move towards a more learner-centred approach, feedback will need to
be both more personalized and more formative. Some teachers will need
support themselves as they transition to these new roles.

Takeaways

For all the potential of flipped learning, it is disappointing to learn

that research findings are not more positive. Meta-analyses (see 30) of
flipped learning in general educational contexts have not found that the
approach leads to significant learning gains. More disappointing still
is the fact (a) that the learning gains that were found were only short-
term, and (b) that flipped learning led to a widening of the achievement
gap between stronger and weaker students. In ELT contexts, very little
robust research exists and accounts of flipped learning show more
enthusiasm than empirical evidence. Why might this be?

Flipped learning can only fulfil its potential if learners actually do the
work that has been flipped. Unfortunately, this cannot be counted
on. According to one estimate, only about three-quarters of learners
complete out-of-class assignments regularly. The challenge of getting
learners to do homework does not diminish when this work takes place
online. If anything, it increases.

The main reason for this is that learners who must complete a
substantial portion of their work individually need to be effective
self-regulators (see 28). This is more likely to be the case in higher
education when they have already, by definition, demonstrated some
success in learning. In the absence of self-regulation strategies, learners
will need considerable support and training. Flipped learning, then, is
best introduced gradually and experimentally, and teacher support for
learners during self-study time may be imperative.

The challenges of motivation and self-regulation may also be

exacerbated by two other issues. The first of these is technological:
access to a suitable device with good data connections cannot be taken
for granted. The second is a problem of attitudes: learners used to more
traditional teacher-centred instruction may find it difficult to adjust.

46
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Negative attitudes may also be compounded by the perception, at least
at first, that their workload is greater than before.

Flipped learning clearly has much to offer, but, sadly, not for everyone.
It is, for example, highly unlikely to prove effective with learners
lacking the intellectual maturity that is required, or with those whose
levels of motivation are insufficiently high. It also requires buy-in from
both teachers and institutions, and continuing levels of training and
technological support will be required.

Bauer-Ramazani, C., Graney, J. M., Marshall, H. W. and Sabieh, C. (2016). Flipped

Learning in TESOL: Definitions, Approaches, and Implementation. TESOL Journal 7 (2):
429–437.

Bergmann, J. and Sams, A. (2012). Flip Your Classroom: Reach every student in every
class every day. Washington, D.C.: International Society for Technology in Education.

Brinks Lockwood, R. (2014). Flip It! Strategies for the ESL Classroom. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press.

Voss, E. and Kostka, I. (2019). Flipping Academic English Language Learning:

Experiences from an American University. Berlin: Springer.

47
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.014 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 13 Engagement

All teachers have experience of bored, disengaged

students, and addressing the problem is one of the greatest
challenges that we face. There are things that can be done,
but solutions are multi-dimensional, complex and with no
guarantee of success.

What and why?

When learners are not actively participating and engaged in a class

activity, it is unlikely that much, if any, of the intended learning will
actually take place. Either as students or as teachers, it is a situation
which we have undoubtedly experienced. A lack of engagement may
be observed in learners’ behaviour – slowness to follow a teacher’s
instructions, failure to ask questions, minimal participation or
collaboration with peers, overfast task completion, and even disruption
– although all of these may also have other causes. Low levels of
engagement are not always easy to observe, not least because some
students, particularly in compulsory education settings, have learnt
to simulate attention and interest. Two aspects of engagement are
necessary for language learning to occur. The first of these is cognitive
engagement, or the degree to which learners are attentive and are
thinking about the task at hand. This may be observed, for example, in
the extent to which learners self-correct or how they work with others
to find appropriate ways to express meaning. Closely related is social
and emotional engagement. This may be seen in active listening, sharing
ideas and language from peers, giving and accepting peer feedback,
and in showing enjoyment, enthusiasm and curiosity. Engagement is
multidimensional in nature – a complex behavioural, cognitive and
social-emotional web.

Keeping students engaged is clearly more of a challenge in learning

online with a video platform, where it is harder to sustain learners’
interest. There are few teachers who have not struggled to deal with

48
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.015 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 the phenomenon of ‘zoomed out’ learners. Body language and eye
contact provide a teacher with important clues to a learner’s level of
engagement, but these clues are often not available in online lessons, so
identifying a lack of engagement may not be easy. The shift to online
teaching has brought the importance of engagement into sharper focus.

For an issue of such importance, it is surprising that engagement has not

attracted the interest of language learning researchers until recently. At
first, researchers focussed primarily on ways of promoting engagement
during communicative speaking tasks. Interest has now widened to
include all aspects of language teaching (Mercer and Dörnyei, 2020).

In practice

No learning task can be considered intrinsically engaging, as the level

of engagement that a task will generate will depend on the interplay of
many factors. These include task design, the way that a task is managed
in the classroom, and the motivational ‘baggage’ that learners bring
to learning activities, as well as wider contextual issues over which a
teacher may have little control. For the first three of these factors, it is
possible to identify principles that will contribute to engagement.

Task design

Engaging tasks involve materials and activities that learners see as

interesting, authentic, and relevant, both to them personally and to their
lives outside the classroom. They involve a degree of cognitive challenge,
but not to the extent that the task is seen as undoable. Familiarity with
task and topic often generate more positive responses, but elements
of surprise may play a positive role. The language requirements of the
task must be within the learners’ abilities, but some ‘stretching’ will be
necessary for more learning opportunities. Tasks which require some
kind of individualised input from learners (the sharing of personal
experiences or learner-driven research, for example) will often be more
motivating. Finally, learners will benefit from being able to feel a sense
of achievement when the task has been completed.

Task management

There needs to be a positive emotional response to a task, and this is

more likely when there are plenty of opportunities to collaborate with

49
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.015 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 peers. This is why the use of break-out rooms is so important in online
lessons. There also needs to be a strong sense of group cohesiveness, and
this will usually need to be developed over weeks and months. Learners
often demonstrate more engagement when they have a feeling of control
over learning tasks and the way they carry them out. Offering learners
a choice of tasks or a choice in the way they approach them may,
therefore, lead to greater motivation.

Positive emotional responses will not be helped by feelings of anxiety, and

the teacher’s role is likely to be critical in this respect. An approachable
manner, sensitive listening skills, a ready responsiveness to individual
concerns, and a genuine interest in the learners will all contribute. Mercer
and Dörnyei (2020) recommend that teachers think and behave like a
coach (see 29), prioritising dialogue with learners over telling them what
to do, in order to encourage them to take responsibility for their learning.

Dealing with motivational ‘baggage’

According to one of the oldest English proverbs, you can lead a horse
to water, but you cannot make it drink. Learners are unlikely to engage
in learning activities unless they are willing to do so, and nurturing this
willingness can be a major challenge. Learners need to have a positive
attitude towards English and they need to believe that they can learn
it, so that it is worth the effort that the learning requires. Educational
psychologists consequently advise teachers to promote a ‘growth
mindset’ (see 14) in their learners. Since learning a language requires
long-term engagement, teachers are also advised to develop their
learners’ perseverance and resilience, also known as grit (see 15).

Takeaways

This list of tips is already long, but could easily be extended if I

had more space. Unfortunately, there is no guarantee that following
the advice will lead to learner engagement. Some interventions are
unpredictable in their outcomes (for example, providing choice
may result in more enjoyment, but greater anxiety). For others, like
promoting growth mindsets and grit, there is little reliable evidence of
their efficacy. This is not to say that the advice is not useful, but it is
important to remember that there are limits to how much individual
teachers can affect their students’ learning.

50
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.015 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Attitudes towards learning English will be significantly shaped by
broader institutional issues outside most teachers’ control. These
include tiredness caused by timetabling issues and the importance
that is attached to the testing of English (especially speaking skills),
as well as a school’s behavioural management policies, its emotional
climate and general ethos. To the list of advice, therefore, we need to
add consideration of how teachers can best work with their colleagues
to influence whole-school culture so that their own interventions to
improve engagement have maximum impact.

Hendra, L. A. and Jones, C. (2018). Motivating learners with immersive speaking tasks:
Part of the Cambridge Papers in ELT series. [pdf] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hiver, P., Al-Hoorie, A. H. and Mercer, S. (Eds.) (2020). Student Engagement in the
Language Classroom. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Mercer, S. and Dörnyei, Z. (2020). Engaging Language Learners in Contemporary

Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nakamura, S., Phung L. and Reinders, H. (2021). The effect of learner choice on L2 task
engagement. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43 (2): 428–441.

51
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.015 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 14 Mindsets

A belief in one’s ability to succeed through effort can have a

significant influence on one’s chances of success. Promoting
such self-belief in learners is an important part of a teacher’s
job, but also one of our most difficult challenges.

What and why?

Mindsets are beliefs about one’s abilities. According to Carol Dweck

(2006), the founder of mindset theory, people can be placed on a
continuum with, at one end, those who believe that their abilities (such
as intelligence) can be developed (growth mindset), and, at the other,
those who believe that their abilities are fixed and cannot be improved
(fixed mindset). These beliefs often vary, from one kind of ability to
another, so that one person might have a fixed mindset about, say,
musical ability, and a growth mindset about, say, sport. Language
learners typically hold beliefs about their ability to learn a language
at some point on the continuum between fixed and growth, and these
may be broken down into beliefs about particular aspects of language
learning. For example, a learner may have a fixed mindset about
pronunciation, but a growth mindset about vocabulary development
(Mercer and Ryan, 2010).

It is said that students with growth mindsets work hard to make

progress without needing the rewards that are provided by positive
evaluations of their performance (in the form of tests, for example).
Growth mindsets correlate with increased motivation, engagement (see
13) and grit (see 15). This ought to mean that they also correlate with
better academic achievement, but opinions here are divided and studies
show the correlation between the two may sometimes be only weak.
There is, however, evidence of a stronger correlation for disadvantaged
students (for example, those with low socio-economic status).
Despite questions about the connections between mindset and
achievement, the belief that growth mindset can and should be taught

52
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.016 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 has become orthodox. The idea that teachers should encourage their
students to believe that they can succeed through hard work sounds
like basic common sense. According to one recent report, 98 percent of
teachers in the US believe that adopting growth mindset approaches in
the classroom will lead to improved learning. The view is shared and
supported by many national educational authorities and influential
organisations like the World Bank. Generous funding has fuelled the
enthusiasm of teachers, and growth mindset applications and research
have now become a multi-million dollar mini-industry.

In practice

Since mindsets are typically implicit, they can only be changed when
they are made explicit. One of the most common approaches to
developing growth mindset is to teach learners about the functioning
of the brain in direct ways, through texts, videos and workshops, with
a focus on the brain’s plasticity, so that they can better understand the
value of effort. After blocks of study, learners can be encouraged to
positively self-evaluate by completing ‘now-I-can’ reflection tasks.

A second common approach is to teach through examples, in which

learners explore the biographies of people, who have overcome failure
and achieved success, often despite adversity. These role models may
include teachers themselves, whose own stories of difficulties, but
ultimately success, in learning English, may act as inspiration.

Motivational classroom posters with inspirational quotes of the

‘yes-you-can’ variety are often used as reminders of the importance
of positive self-belief. Teacher feedback on learners’ work is upbeat,
focussing on the future: even if learning challenges have not yet been
resolved, mistakes are opportunities to learn. Teachers’ generous praise
– of effort, not ability – is believed to reinforce the message. For out of
class, there is a wide range of growth mindset apps that can be bought,
including one, Brainology, developed by Carol Dweck.

The belief that, little by little, learners can acquire a growth mindset in
the ways suggested above is widespread, but research evidence is sadly
lacking. None of these ideas is likely to take up too much time or cause
any harm, and some may be valuable, irrespective of their impact on
mindset. But researchers now agree that changing mindsets requires

53
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.016 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 more than the occasional activity in class. The central problem is that
most educational systems are structured around formal assessments of
performance, which clearly do not encourage learners to see mistakes
as opportunities to learn. High-stakes assessments almost inevitably
undermine any attempted message to learners that they can succeed
if they just try hard enough. It is not surprising that students who
fail a standardised test and, as a result, have to repeat a year or join
a technical school (rather than a general school), show less growth
mindset than their more successful peers. This is probably both a cause
and an effect of their test results.

The everyday practices of teachers probably have more impact on

mindsets than specifically mindset-oriented activities. According to a
recent large-scale report (OECD, 2021), the greatest impacts on growth
mindset come when students perceive their teachers as being supportive
in a safe learning environment, and when teachers adapt their teaching
to the needs of the class, as opposed to simply following a fixed
syllabus.

Takeaways

Mindset theory is still relatively young and research is ongoing, but it

is already clear that the early enthusiasm for mindset interventions was
often misguided. They appear to work better for some kinds of students
in some kinds of schools, but they are certainly no magic bullet.

Because communicative language classrooms require learners to

‘perform’ their learning in a public way (in speaking activities), a
growth mindset may be more important than in other school subjects.
Without it, learners are unlikely to engage in activities beyond the
bare minimum or to take the kinds of risks that are necessary for
their language skills to develop. But recognising the importance of an
attribute such as growth mindset does not mean we should assume that
there are easy ways of developing it. Classrooms are complex, dynamic
places with very many different factors influencing the learning that
does (or does not) take place. Mindsets, too, are complex and dynamic
systems: they both affect and are affected by classroom environments.

Even if teachers have not (yet) found a solution to complex mindset

problems in their classes, their only chance of doing so is probably

54
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.016 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 by first developing a growth mindset themselves. Dweck has argued
that we need to approach mindset interventions in an experimental or
exploratory manner, and reflect deeply on the conditions in our contexts
that are likely to lead to positive impact. These conditions may include
changes to other teaching practices, such as an increased focus on
metacognitive skills (see 28), and will almost certainly entail changes to
the way learners are assessed (see 20).

Burgoyne, A. P., Hambrick, D. Z. and Macnamara, B. N. (2020). How Firm Are the
Foundations of Mind-Set Theory? The Claims Appear Stronger Than the Evidence.
Psychological Science, 31(3): 258–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619897588

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Ballantine
Books.

Mercer, S. and Ryan, S. (2010). A mindset for EFL: learners’ beliefs about the role of
natural talent. ELT Journal, 64 (4): 436–444.

OECD (2021). Sky’s the Limit: Growth Mindset, Students, and Schools in PISA. https://
www.oecd.org/pisa/growth-mindset.pdf

55
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.016 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 15 Grit

There is no denying the importance of emotional

behaviour in learning. A focus on grit appears, at first
glance, to be an obvious way of shaping more positive
attitudes and better learning. A closer look at grit reveals
a picture that is rather more complicated.

What and why?

Learning a language takes time. Estimates vary, but, as a minimum,

something in the region of 600 hours of English language lessons (plus
self-study) are probably needed to reach a functional B2 level. Without
grit – perseverance and passion for long-term goals, regardless of
rewards and recognition – learners are unlikely to carry out the work
that is needed to achieve such a level. Given the importance of grit for
success in both academic study and for life beyond, it is not surprising
that education authorities have paid substantial attention to aspects of
character education that can promote it. Supported by international
bodies like the OECD and the World Bank, national governments in
many countries have, in recent years, invested millions in researching
and promoting grit and other non-cognitive skills, in the hope of
boosting academic performance.

Non-cognitive skills, including resilience, self-control, and

conscientiousness, are all closely related to grit and have long been seen
as important components of effective learning. Grit itself became one
of the most important areas of interest in social-emotional learning
following a TED talk by Angela Duckworth in 2013 (over 26 million
views at the time of writing) and the publication of her best-selling
book a few years later. As the title of Duckworth’s book indicates, grit
has two main components. The first of these, passion, is described more
technically as ‘consistency of interest’, the ability to maintain interest in
a personal goal over a long period of time even when there are setbacks
along the way. The second, perseverance, is shorthand for ‘perseverance

56
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.017 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 of effort’, the ability, over time, to work hard – again despite challenges
and difficulties. It is perseverance, not passion, that has been found to
be most important in terms of improved learning outcomes.

Grit is a description of a behaviour that is likely to need a growth

mindset, a positive attitude, (see 14) behind it. It seems reasonable to
assume that people with growth mindsets are much more likely to show
grit, and researchers have found a correlation between growth mindsets
and perseverance (but not passion). The connection between grit and
growth mindset is so close that they are often conflated.

In practice

Grit may develop (or decrease) over time, but the practical challenge
is to find an answer to the question of how teachers and schools can
promote it. Teaching passion is a very complex undertaking, if indeed,
it can be taught at all. Practical suggestions, therefore, tend to focus on
perseverance of effort, and the most widely-accepted way of promoting
this is by encouraging growth mindsets. Unfortunately, as we saw in the
last chapter, growth mindset interventions do not have a strong track
record of success. In fact, there are no evidence-based ways of improving
grit in language learners (Credé, 2018) and even grit enthusiasts are
unable to recommend any particular approach (Teimouri et al., 2020).
While expressing the hope that grit can be learnt, even Angela Duckworth
has acknowledged that we lack any proof that this is the case.

One of the most well-known approaches to behavioural management

in schools is the ClassDojo app, which claims to have 35 million users
from pre-school to final grade of high school in 180 countries around
the world. One of the aims of ClassDojo is to promote character
development and it attempts this by getting teachers to award points to
individual learners for a variety of positive class values, which include
‘perseverance’, ‘working hard’, and ‘participating’, along with ‘team
work’, ‘helping others’, and ‘being on task’. Undesirable behaviour, such
as being unprepared or failing to do homework, can also be awarded
(negative) points. Parents can get immediate feedback as points are
awarded. Its popularity alone is indication that the app goes, at least
some way, towards meeting the needs of some teachers, schools and
students. However, behavioural changes that result from the use of
ClassDojo come at a cost. Its gamified and competitive system of

57
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.017 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 rewards, based on surveillance and control, may do little to impact
on long-term, intrinsic motivation. It may also negatively impact on
children who, for reasons outside their control, are unable to conform
to the standards expected of them. There are also concerns about such
surveillance and children’s right to privacy.

In more formal ways, many schools are now coming under increasing
pressure to measure grit in their students. There is even a tool now
available for measuring the grit of language teachers (Teimouri et al.,
2020). But if grit cannot be taught, it is unclear why time should be
spent in measuring it. Duckworth has observed that it is inappropriate
to measure character and attempt to use this measure to judge
the effectiveness of teaching. If, in addition, grit is essentially the
perseverance of effort, its measurement will only tell us something that
we already know: learning takes time and effort.

Takeaways

Like a number of other topics in this section of the book, such as

critical and creative thinking, grit makes intuitive sense as a desirable
goal. But, like them, it is not easily defined, and is best thought of as
a combination of things, some of which may be impacted by teaching
interventions, and some of which may not. The term grit has become a
part of the language we use to talk about learning, but the interests of
learners might be better served if we put it aside. This is not to say that
perseverance of effort is not of crucial importance, but this is stale news.
We have long known that a key role of teachers is to motivate learners
to persevere in their efforts, and there is no shortage of well-researched
ideas for how to go about this (see, for example, Dörnyei and Csizér,
1998). Teachers need, for example, to make their classes interesting,
personalize their approach, build good relationships with their students,
and create a positive learning environment. Learners need to be helped
to focus on achievable goals and to develop autonomy and self-
confidence. A focus on grit seems to add little to what we already know.

Credé, M. (2018). What shall we do about grit? A critical review of what we know and
what we don’t know. Educational Researcher: 47(9), 606–611.

Dörnyei, Z. and Csizér, K. (1998). Ten commandments for motivating language learners:
results of an empirical study. Language Teaching Research, 2(3): 203–229.

58
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.017 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Duckworth, A. (2016). Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance. New York: Scribner.

Teimouri, Y., Plonsky, L. and Tabandeh, F. (2020). L2 Grit: Passion and perseverance
for second-language learning. Language Teaching Research. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.1177/1362168820921895

Williamson, B. (2017). Decoding ClassDojo: psycho-policy, social-emotional learning

and persuasive educational technologies. Learning, Media and Technology, 42 (4):
pp. 440–453, DOI: 10.1080/17439884.2017.1278020

59
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.017 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 16 Mindfulness

The meditative practice of mindfulness has been

enthusiastically embraced by many schools and teachers
as a way of improving students’ behaviour and academic
performance. There have certainly been some successes,
but there are also reasons to be cautious about using these
techniques.

What and why?

In the context of education, mindfulness most often refers to (1) a

mental state of heightened and non-judgemental awareness of the
present moment, and/or (2) a range of activities, which are typically
of a meditative nature, intended to bring about a state of mindfulness.
Attempts to provide a more specific definition of mindfulness quickly
run into difficulties. There are many different tools for measuring the
state of mindfulness and they evaluate slightly different things. As a
consequence, what constitutes a mindfulness activity is also open to
interpretation.

Inspired originally by ancient Buddhist meditational practices,

mindfulness has evolved into a multi-billion dollar industry with
products ranging from books, courses and apps, to essential oils,
Mandala colouring sets and even a meditation Barbie. There is no
generally accepted technical definition of mindfulness, and it has been
criticised for being both too close to religious practices and too removed
from them (Purser, 2019).

Mindfulness-based approaches have been adopted in a wide variety

of settings as a way of reducing anxiety, stress, depression and pain.
The corporate world has turned to mindfulness in order to improve
the ‘mental fitness’, and therefore productivity, of employees. Google
and Intel are just two of the more well-known companies to invest in
mindfulness training. Its popularity has also spread rapidly to schools

60
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.018 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 around the world. In the UK, for example, the ‘Mindfulness in Schools
Project’ has already trained thousands of teachers. The benefits for
students are believed to include improvements in:

wellbeing and mental health

concentration, working memory and planning skills
self-esteem and awareness of social relationships
emotional self-regulation and classroom behaviour
academic achievement.

The benefits for teachers are thought to include general wellbeing, stress
regulation and better teaching.

In practice

Mindfulness activities in the classroom often begin with a focus on

developing awareness of one’s body and breathing. This may involve
closing the eyes and concentrating attention on different parts of the
body or counting breaths. Most mindfulness manuals also recommend
exercises that promote a non-judgemental, meditative exploration of the
five senses. Common approaches include the contemplation of familiar
objects, such as a raisin, which can be explored visually (in close-up or
with light illuminating it in different ways), and through smell and taste.
A third common category of activity involves the channelling of positive
feelings, towards oneself and others, often by repeating a short phrase.

In addition to general techniques, such as those described above, which

are often used as a warm-up for other classroom work, activities
may also be more specifically related to study. Stella Cottrell’s (2018)
handbook of mindfulness exercises for students includes reflection
on when it is hard to concentrate, highlighting positive feelings and
exploring negativity about study, managing distractions, becoming a
more attentive reader and listener, focusing on single tasks, developing
language awareness, managing emotional blocks in writing, and
regulating emotional responses to feedback from teachers.
It is hard to take issue with any of the goals of mindfulness activities,
either of the general or of the more specifically study-oriented kind.
Many teachers and schools are enthusiastic, but what is known
about the effectiveness of these techniques? There has been no

61
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.018 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 shortage of research into mindfulness in recent years, but much of
it, unfortunately, has been of low quality (Van Dam et al., 2018).
It has suffered from poor experimental design, a failure to use
randomised control groups, undisclosed conflicts of interest on the
part of researchers, and publication bias (the tendency not to report
negative findings). Nevertheless, it is possible to say that mindfulness
can lead to improvements in physical and mental health, and cognitive
performance. Like so many of the trends described in this section of
the book, it might, as the ‘Mindfulness in Schools Project’ concluded,
be ‘worth trying’. We do not, however, know what kind of mindfulness
activities are most effective, for how long and how often they should be
carried out, or whether teachers need special training. In short, there is
more that we do not know than we know. Some reviews of the evidence
have not found any impact on behaviour or academic achievement.
Mindfulness programmes clearly do not work for everyone, everywhere.

Takeaways

Mindfulness cannot be forced. Compulsion would undermine the

process from the start. Students (and teachers) need to ‘be open to
the experience and commit to giving it a go’ (Cottrell, 2018), and, for
many, this will require a certain leap of faith. Without respect for and
trust in the teacher, students cannot be expected to show an open-
minded commitment to mindfulness in the classroom. Building trust,
a key condition in communicative language classrooms, is essential
for the success of a wide variety of learning activities, but is not easily
achieved in many contexts. It may, for example, be harder to win the
trust of adolescents than that of younger learners. It probably makes
sense to wait until there is enough trust before diving into mindfulness
techniques.

Even when mindfulness programmes are shown to have a positive

impact, we cannot usually say which aspects of these programmes were
beneficial. Breathing exercises, which are not necessarily connected
to mindfulness, may have a value in breaking up classroom routines,
allowing better subsequent engagement and attention. The same is
almost certainly true of bursts of physical activity, which are clearly
not part of a mindfulness approach, and some research suggests that
these may be just as beneficial as meditative techniques. According

62
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.018 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 to mindfulness experts, the common response of ‘zoning out’ during
meditation is not a mindful experience, but it may be precisely the rest
that comes from zoning out that some students need and find helpful.
There are, in short, many familiar ways in which teachers can try to
alleviate stress and anxiety in their students. Mindfulness may not be
needed at all.

It is said that mindfulness works best, on a personal level, when there

are no predetermined goals, when practitioners are simply open to
possibilities. Mindfulness, however, is usually introduced by teachers
and schools with very clear goals in mind. Rather than assuming
that mindfulness will help to achieve those goals, it might be wiser to
concentrate on what we already know about how trust, engagement
(see 13), positive attitudes (see 14) and effort (see 15) may be promoted.

Cottrell, S. (2018). Mindfulness for Students. London: Macmillan.

Purser, R. E. (2019). McMindfulness. London: Repeater Books.

Van Dam, N. T., van Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C. D., Olendzki,
A., Meissner, T., Lazar, S. W., Gorchov, J., Fox, K. C. R., Field, B. A., Britton, W.,
Brefczynski-Lewis, J. A. and Meyer, D. E. (2018). Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation
and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation. Perspectives on
Psychological Science 13: pp. 36–61.

63
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.018 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 C: Rethinking teaching

Global educational policies in recent years have brought

two main concerns into the spotlight: the importance of
educational technology and the need to measure learning
and teaching. Both are supported by a network of national
and international organisations in the hope of making
education more relevant to our contemporary world
and more efficient at the same time. The two are closely
interlinked since technology allows assessment in ways that
were previously unimaginable. Current educational policies
often also highlight the idea of ‘lifelong learning’. Such
an objective requires learners to be autonomous and self-
regulating, especially when the learning mostly takes place
online. All of these areas of interest are having a marked
impact on English language teaching – and on teachers!

17 Wellbeing
18 Personalized learning
19 Adaptive learning
20 Outcomes and frameworks
21 Language scales
22 Learning analytics
23 Gamification
24 Automated feedback
25 Chatbots
26 Virtual reality (VR)
27 Augmented reality (AR)
28 Metacognition
29 Coaching

64
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.019 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Wellbeing 17

Teacher wellbeing matters not just for teachers themselves,

but also for their learners and the institutions they work
for. Although often cast as an individual matter, effective
approaches to wellbeing are most likely to be collective
and collaborative in nature.

What and why?

In most countries around the world, report after report finds that
teaching is one of the most stressful professions. A 2020 report in the
UK, for example, found that one in twenty teachers are suffering from
long-term mental health problems, and this figure is rising. Sleeping
problems, panic attacks, depression and burnout are common, as are
associated psychosomatic disorders, especially hypertension.

The reasons are many and interrelated, and include workload and
time pressure, dealing with unmotivated and ill-disciplined learners,
aggression from both students and parents, constant changes to
educational practices and a lack of any say in deciding these changes,
constant evaluation, conflict with management and colleagues. These
issues are compounded in many contexts by low salaries and low
status. In many countries, teacher-bashing, when teachers are blamed
for political shortcomings in the educational system, has reached
unprecedented levels. A terrible catalogue of more extreme attacks
(such as arrest and imprisonment) on teachers and their unions can be
found on the pages of the website of Education International, a global
federation of teachers’ trade unions.
Many English language teachers work outside the K12 state sector, in
private language schools, for example, where hourly wages are low,
permanent contracts and job security are rare, and meeting the everyday
needs of food and accommodation is a struggle.

65
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.020 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 The wellbeing of teachers is clearly a matter of major concern, and the
Covid pandemic made things worse. Workloads typically increased as
teachers had to adapt rapidly to working online, working in isolation
without the support of colleagues, whilst dealing with heightened
anxieties.

It is not a coincidence that recent concern about teacher wellbeing

has developed at the same time as the growing interest in measuring
educational outcomes (see 20). The realisation (by organisations like the
World Bank and the OECD, as well as national governments) that the
success of learners is closely related to the quality of their teachers has
pushed the issue of teacher wellbeing high up the agenda. Measures are
urgently needed to address teacher stress and burnout, and the corollary
problems of teacher recruitment, sick leave, and teachers leaving
the profession.

The kinds of measures that will be taken will depend on how teacher
wellbeing is defined, and there is little agreement about this. One
frequent categorisation differentiates external (or objective) wellbeing
from internal (or subjective) wellbeing. The former is related to
many of the causes of teacher stress discussed above: pay, contracts,
working environment, safety, etc. The latter is a psychological construct
concerned with, for example, positive relationships, a sense of meaning
and purpose, autonomy, personal growth, and happiness. Whether we
are talking about external or internal wellbeing, or a mixture of the
two, a useful way of visualising wellbeing is to imagine it as a healthy
balance between the physical, social and psychological challenges that
we face in our lives and the resources that we have available to deal
with them.

In practice

Addressing the external causes of issues which negatively impact on

teacher wellbeing is a central concern of teachers’ unions, and during
the Covid pandemic this protective role was of enormous importance
in many countries. The power of trades unions in an increasingly
privatised world of education is, however, often limited.

As a complement and, sometimes, as an alternative to collective union

pressure, others have advocated an approach that focusses more on the

66
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.020 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 psychological resources that teachers can draw on to help deal with
the underlying causes of the difficulties they face. It is an approach
that is more concerned with positive personal growth, and less with
repairing the damage caused by external factors. The only book-length
treatment of teacher wellbeing in ELT (Mercer and Gregersen, 2020)
adopts this line, drawing on the field of ‘positive psychology’, inspired
by the work of Martin Seligman. Placing individual teachers as the
focus of attention, the practical suggestions in this book encourage
positive relationships with colleagues, highlighting the rewarding and
enjoyable aspects of one’s work, a growth mindset (see 14), emotional
self-management, an awareness of the importance of physical health,
and efficient time management.

As a response to evidence that coordinated institutional approaches to

the wellbeing of both learners and teachers can have a significant impact
on the achievement of the former and the productivity of the latter,
we are beginning to see the introduction of whole-school wellbeing
policies. In some countries, including Australia and Ireland, these are
supported by national ministries of education. Institutional wellbeing
programmes involve mission statements, strategic prioritisation of
wellbeing issues that have been identified, the creation of project teams,
staff development meetings and activities that will promote a caring and
collaborative community, and continuous review of the policies.

Takeaways

When problems with teacher wellbeing are serious and widespread,

both the causes and solutions are likely to be structural and systemic.
Without collective action to push for policy changes, often supported by
unions, positive change is unlikely.

But in less extreme cases or as a preventative measure, what can

individual teachers do to enhance their own wellbeing and that of their
colleagues? Can the ideas drawn from positive psychology play a useful
role? There are plenty of personal accounts of teachers’ experiences that
testify to the value of the kinds of self-help approaches that positive
psychology promotes. At the same time, there is a distinct lack of robust
research evidence in support of them. My own scepticism is apparent in
earlier chapters about mindfulness and growth mindsets, but there can
be little harm in trying things out.

67
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.020 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Mercer and Gregersen set the tone of their book by entitling the first
chapter ‘It’s all about me’, but the rest of the book makes it clear that
many of the ways in which personal wellbeing can be enhanced is by
addressing the issues with colleagues, by sharing and caring with others.
Collective responses to both systemic and individual issues are usually
more powerful than teachers trying to work alone.

Bache, I. and Reardon, L. (2016). The Politics and Policy of Wellbeing: Understanding the
Rise and Significance of a New Agenda. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Ereaut, G. and Whiting, R. (2008). What do we mean by ‘wellbeing’? And why might
it matter? Research Report No DCSF-RW073 Department for Children, Schools and
Families. https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/8572/1/dcsf-rw073%20v2.pdf

McCallum, F., Price, D., Graham, A. and Morrison, A. (2017). Teacher wellbeing: a review
of the literature. Association of Independent Schools, NSW, Australia.

Mercer, S. and Gregersen, T. (2020). Teacher Wellbeing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Walsh, P. (2019). Precarity. ELT Journal, 73 (4): pp. 459–462.

68
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.020 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Personalized learning 18

We can probably all agree that depersonalized learning

is not the best way forward, but what exactly does
personalized learning have to offer? It depends who
you talk to.

What and why?

Personalized learning, differentiated learning, individualised instruction,

personalization … we could add to this list of near-equivalent terms
without too much difficulty. There are times when they are more or less
interchangeable, and there is no consensus on how to differentiate them.
But of all these terms, it is personalized learning that is the most widely
used. It is often associated with technology, as in the 2017 United States
National Education Technology Plan, and concerns the ways in which
learning objectives, the rate of learning and the instructional approach
may be modified (usually but not necessarily by technology) to suit the
needs and interests of the learner.

Personalized learning has become a rallying call for those who want
to get away from the bad old days of rigid schools and teacher-fronted
classrooms. It suggests more choice, freedom and autonomy, as well
as greater efficacy. It can also lay claim to being a more inclusive
approach (see 6) than the enforced one-size-fits-all regimentation of
traditional schooling.

Before looking at how personalized learning works out in practice,

two rather different meanings of the term must be mentioned. The
first of these is what we might call personalized language practice.
As a coursebook writer, I have written a lot of material of this kind:
‘Complete a sentence so that it is true for you.’

The second is a more broadly humanistic orientation to language

teaching, and it dates back to the 1970s when the world of language
teaching began to take an interest in individual learner differences.

69
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.021 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 ‘Each learner is unique in personality, abilities, and needs. Education
must be personalized to fit the individual; the individual must not
be dehumanized in order to meet the needs of an impersonal school
system,’ wrote Renée Disick in 1975. In this tradition, personalization
of learning is enacted through activities which prioritise the personal
experiences, thoughts and feelings of the learner. Both of these
personalized learnings are interesting to explore further, but neither
could really be considered a current trend.

In practice

It is invariably certain aspects of learning that are personalized,

rather than the totality of the learning process. On a continuum
of personalization, writing sentences that are true for you is trivial
compared to learners taking control of their own learning objectives.
But in schools and colleges with assigned curricula and standardised
high-stakes tests, very few learners have any meaningful say in what
they are studying or how they will be assessed at the end of it. Instead,
they may be offered differentiated routes to the common objective. Unit
7 of a course can be done before Unit 4, for example. Activities can be
skipped if they are not considered necessary, or repeated. Extra practice
is available. This kind of personalization is at a very granular level. The
freedoms it offers are very limited but usually welcome nevertheless.

Encouraging learners to study at their own rate seems like an intuitively

good idea. Why force fast learners to go at the pace of their slower
colleagues, and vice versa? It’s not surprising that there is a long history
of attempts to put such an intuitively good idea into practice. These
date back, over a century ago, to a series of initiatives in the United
States, which allowed students to progress through materials at their
own pace, aided by technology of one kind or another. Standardised
tests were just one of the reasons that these initiatives failed, but the fact
that most of us are not very good at pacing ourselves also contributed
to the problems. We are not, on the whole, very good self-regulators
and, in any group of learners, there are big differences in motivation,
time management and goal setting. These differences are often amplified
when self-paced self-study forms a significant part of the curriculum.

Managing a class of students who are all moving at different speeds

can be hard work, and research into the benefits of self-pacing is

70
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.021 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 inconclusive to say the least. Self-paced learning may work for some,
but not for all.

Learning is also personalized through attempts to cater to learners’

individual needs and interests. Specific learning needs, so long neglected,
may be helped through new digital technologies. Text-to-speech and
speech-to-text applications, for example, can make learning material
accessible to many learners who would otherwise have difficulty.
Fonts, spacing, colour, and page layout can all be designed for learners
with dyslexia.

Motivation and engagement may also be enhanced when learning is

designed to reflect learners’ individual interests in the range and choice
of topics, material and media. Teachers, if they have enough time,
can be very good at this. Algorithms to generate automated personal
recommendations are less effective, unless they have huge amounts
of data, and even then, often fall very short. A growing number of
language learning programs offer some choice in terms of content, but
costs mean that the choice is usually fairly limited. Quality materials
need to be written, curated, formatted, updated, checked, and so on,
and all this takes money.
Takeaways

The hype of personalized learning of the digitalised variety has been

fuelled by many hundreds of millions of dollars of investment from Big
Tech and associated philanthropic foundations. The learning returns
on that investment have been slim. One research report, commissioned
by one of the largest funders of personalized learning, only managed
to find ‘suggestive evidence’ that digitalised personalization ‘may’ be
related to learning gains (Pane et al., 2017). As an endorsement, it’s less
than ringing.

The idea of personalized learning is seductive, so long as it remains

a little vague. The more we zoom in on the details, however, the less
convincing some of them seem. Self-pacing, individualised goal-setting
and catering to learner preferences are all possibilities to be explored,
but it’s unlikely that satisfactory ‘solutions’ can be engineered with
technology. The dream of personalized learning raises more questions
than it answers, but they are still important and interesting questions.

71
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.021 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 How, for example, can we best find a balance between individual and
group needs and interests? How can we help our learners to acquire
the skills that are needed for autonomous learning? Can we offer
choices in the kinds of homework that we ask learners to do? How can
we encourage the use of learning tools like vocabulary flashcards and
automated feedback (see 24)? How can we best develop an awareness
of learning strategies and metacognitive skills (see 28)?

Disick, R. S. (1975). Individualizing Language Instruction: Strategies and Methods. New

York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Griffiths, G. and Keohane, K. (2000). Personalizing Language Learning. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Pane, J. F., Steiner, E. D., Baird, M. D., Hamilton, L. S. and Pane, J. D. (2017). Informing
Progress: Insights on Personalized Learning Implementation and Effects. Seattle: Rand
Corporation retrieved from: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2042.html

72
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.021 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Adaptive learning 19

Adaptive technologies are used to automate personalized

learning routes for online learners. Their use in language
learning is fairly restricted, but the same technology is now
widely used in language testing.

What and why?

The function of adaptive learning technologies is to personalize

(see 18) aspects of the online learning experience in order to make it
more motivating and more efficient. Since personalized learning means
different things to different people, the precise function of adaptive
learning (i.e. what exactly is personalized) also varies from context to
context. Broadly speaking, however, it can be described in the following
terms. When learners interact with online learning material, they
generate data about how accurately they respond, when, how often
and how fast they are working, the order in which they work through
the material, how their interaction patterns differ from or are similar
to their peers, and much more besides. All or just some of this data
can then be used to generate recommendations for what the learner
should (or must) do next. The whole process is automated, dynamic
and interactive, and may be supervised by a teacher who can personally
intervene when appropriate.

The more data that is available for analysis (see 22), the more reliable
the personalized recommendations for individual learners will be – at
least in theory. This means that adaptive systems should work best at
scale. If an individual learner’s data can be aggregated with that of
thousands of comparable learners, it becomes more valuable, as more
can be learnt from it. The paradoxical promise of adaptive learning is
that it offers personalized learning on an industrial scale.

Adaptive learning is most widely used in academic subjects, such

as mathematics, where it is relatively easy to break the target
learning down into small, ‘granular’ chunks, where one thing or skill

73
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.022 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 (e.g. addition) is mastered by the learner and measured by the system
before another (e.g. multiplication) is approached. Learning is seen to
be linear and cumulative. Language learning, however, is mostly rather
different, since language learners don’t simply master one sound, one
tense, or one communicative situation and then move on to the next. It
is a recursive, cyclical and very idiosyncratic process, and researchers
find it hard to agree on its precise nature.

English language learning programs which employ adaptive technologies

typically focus on those aspects of language which most readily lend
themselves to measurement: knowledge of vocabulary and knowledge of
grammar rules, especially. This can be easily done by using scales such as
the English Vocabulary and Grammar Profiles (see 21) which allow us to
assign numerical values to particular lexical or grammatical items.

Language skills (speaking listening, etc.) are much harder to

measure: they do not lend themselves easily to the ‘mastery model’
of learning that adaptive technologies support. Much language use is
interactive and spontaneous, and it is very hard to separate it from its
communicative contexts for purposes of quantification. The same holds
true for plurilingual and intercultural competence, which may be one of
the key objectives of English language teaching in some contexts. It is
also unlikely that the development of critical or creative thinking will be
much helped through adaptive programming.

In practice

One of the most common uses of adaptive technology in language

learning is in vocabulary apps. For the most part, these are memory
trainers which determine the order and the frequency with which lexical
items are presented to a learner. They encourage spaced repetition of
these items to optimise the learning possibilities and they use elements
of gamification (see 23) to motivate the learner. The tasks include
matching words to meanings, matching audio recordings to written
forms, and dictation of words and phrases. The learner’s performance
on these tasks is measured and this information feeds back into the
system to determine what happens next.

For these apps to be effective, they need to be loaded with appropriate

content: target items that are important for specific learner needs. With

74
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.022 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 some apps, teachers and learners can load their own sets of items, along
with definitions or translations. It is then fairly easy to combine out-
of-class use of the app with activities for the face-to-face classroom.
Flashcard apps with some degree of adaptivity and high visual and
game appeal are also popular with some younger learners. But, at a level
of B2 and above, these apps have little value unless the target items have
been chosen for a very good reason. Learners would be better advised to
spend their time reading and listening to English.

The other common use of adaptive technology is in testing. Algorithms

determine both the order and degree of difficulty of test items based on
the learner’s response to previous questions. Test questions can become
progressively more or less challenging in a very fine-grained way. Such
tests can be used for both placement and proficiency purposes. Besides
allowing for a greater precision of scoring, adaptive tests can be shorter
(and therefore cheaper) than tests in a traditional format.

Takeaways

Adaptive learning technologies have been widely rolled out in American

secondary and post-secondary contexts. However, adaptive learning has
not turned out to be the magic bullet that had been hoped for. Some
research has found that it led to improvements in learning outcomes
(see 20) in subjects like mathematics, but, on the whole, the large
research studies have been less than enthusiastic.

The recent history of adaptive learning does serve as a useful cautionary

tale. Hyped as an engineered, high-tech ‘solution’ to education, it
has so far failed to find much employment in language learning. Like
other educational technologies, it delivered less than it promised, but
eventually settled down and found a much more restricted use (in,
for example, memory apps and testing) than initially anticipated. It
certainly reminds us to be sceptical of claims that any given technology
will radically transform learning.

Kerr, P. (2016a). Personalization of language learning through adaptive technology: Part of

the Cambridge Papers in ELT series. [pdf] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kerr, P. (2016b). Adaptive Learning. ELT Journal 70/1: 88–93.

75
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.022 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 20 Outcomes and frameworks

Few would disagree that learning outcomes need to be

measured, but we also need to remember that measurement
is likely to change the things that are taught and learnt.

What and why?

The recent story of outcomes and frameworks in language learning

starts at the end of the last century when the wider world of education
developed a perceived need for greater accountability, efficiency and cost-
effectiveness. This entailed rigorous measurement of learning outcomes.
PISA rankings, a growth in standardised tests, school and university
league tables, all backed up by detailed frameworks, are reflections of the
shift towards this more managerial approach to education.

Teachers in so many different contexts have already become so used

to thinking in terms of learning outcomes (that can be measured) that
it’s hard to recall a time when things were any different. In order to
measure these outcomes, we need frameworks to describe varying
degrees of competence in a variety of skills. These skills could be
language skills, learning skills, digital learning skills, or 21st century
skills (see 7), and there are frameworks for all of them, regularly
updated and expanded.

Frameworks to evaluate language proficiency have existed since the

1950s, but the publication of the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages (CEFR) in 2001, with its ‘can-do’ statements
and its levels (A1, A2, etc.), has had the most lasting, global impact on
language teaching and assessment. The CEFR describes varying degrees
of communicative competence in receptive, productive and interactive
skills. Here, for example, are abbreviated descriptors for spoken
interaction, at two different levels:

I can interact in a simple way provided the other person is prepared to

repeat or rephrase things. (A1)

76
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.023 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 I can express myself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious
searching for expressions. (C1)

Although widely accepted, the CEFR is not without its critics, who have
questioned its scientific grounding, its sometimes vague wording, and its
reliability in evaluating performances.

Teaching and, therefore, the teacher also need to be evaluated. Many

teacher/teaching frameworks exist, including some specifically for
English language teachers. The Cambridge English Teaching Framework
and the British Council’s CPD Framework for Teachers of English are
interesting examples (see below).

In practice

In the years following the appearance of the CEFR, references to the

outcomes of individual lessons or activities within these lessons became
increasingly common in coursebooks and other learning material. To
draft these outcomes (e.g. ‘I can talk about people I know and their
families’), writers like myself copy from the CEFR, adding occasional
details. It’s not a job that most writers enjoy. The problem is that we
know that these ‘outcomes’ are often more desired than realised. Even
if, after a lesson, there are measurable gains in the ability to, say, talk
about people you know and their families, there is no guarantee that the
gains will remain visible in the days and weeks that follow. Many stated
outcomes are necessarily vague, open to different interpretations of
degree. Just how well do you need to talk about people you know?
High-stakes examinations and coursebooks are labelled with CEFR
levels. Policy decisions are made with reference to them and our own
language skills as teachers may be evaluated by them. People began to
use the labels by adding slash marks and plus or minus signs (e.g. A2/
B1 or B2++) in order to differentiate the levels of the framework more
finely. Taking this further, some tools allow for an even more granular
scale (see 21) where the six levels of the framework are spread out
linearly and each language skill can be measured with a score (from 10
to 90 on one scale).

The years since the appearance of the CEFR have also seen a huge
growth in the teaching of English to younger learners. This has usually

77
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.023 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 been accompanied by the development of frameworks to measure the
extent to which national goals are being met, and the way that language
is described inevitably affects the teaching approach. The prioritised
outcomes might, for example, be speaking and listening skills.
Alternatively, vocabulary growth might be seen as the main target.

Language-outcome frameworks inevitably influence what language

teachers do in a classroom, but our teaching can also be influenced (at
least some of the time) by teacher evaluation frameworks. Most usually,
these are written by employers (often, the state) and do not always
differentiate one kind of subject teacher from another.

For English language teachers, both the British Council CPD

Framework and the Cambridge Framework were designed for teachers
to understand and plan their own professional development. They
were presented as tools to help teachers think about where they are
professionally and where they want to go next. But frameworks can be
used for purposes rather different from their designers’ intentions. It is
distinctly possible that frameworks such as these are more often used to
evaluate teachers than for teachers to evaluate themselves.

Takeaways

The logical extension of a strong focus on outcomes, and measuring

them, is the educational theory of outcome-based education (OBE).
OBE, you will not be surprised to hear, means rather different things
to different people, but the common thread is that every aspect of
the curriculum is informed by consideration of the intended learning
outcomes of the students. OBE grew in popularity in the 1990s, in
the US and elsewhere, but problems with its implementation soon
became apparent.

Selecting or writing meaningful, relevant outcomes is no easy matter,

as we saw with the ability to talk about people you know and their
families. If there is any vagueness in the descriptors, and there almost
always is, the measurement of the outcomes becomes less reliable. In an
English language class, there may also be positive learning experiences
which cannot be easily predicted or measured: gains in autonomy and
motivation, for example.

78
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.023 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Even if not in the ‘hard’ form of OBE, educational outcomes and
frameworks to measure them are not going to go away any time soon.
The genie is out of the bottle. For teachers, the question is do they use
us or do we use them? Can we use frameworks to guide the planning of
lessons and curricula, and to guide our own professional development?
Or are we constrained by the frameworks to teach in particular ways
that are not always of our choosing?

Teachers do not have to limit themselves to trying to teach pre-

determined outcomes. Instead, we can prioritise the processes (rather
than the products) of learning, especially the management of classroom
interaction, that create opportunities for learning – even if we cannot
say, in advance, what kind of learning it will be. In practice, we may
not have to choose between outcomes- and process-based approaches.
Finding the right balance is at the heart of what language teachers do.

British Council. (2015). Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Framework for

teachers. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/british-council-cpd-framework

Cambridge Assessment English (n.d.). Cambridge English Teaching Framework. https://

www.cambridgeenglish.org/teaching-english/professional-development/cambridge-english-
teaching-framework/

Council of Europe. (2018). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:

Learning, Teaching, Assessment: Companion Volume with New Descriptors.
Strasbourg: Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-new-
descriptors-2018/1680787989

Nikolov, M. and Timpe-Laughlin, V. (2021). Assessing young learners’ foreign language

abilities. Language Teaching 54 (1): 1–37.

79
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.023 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 21 Language scales

Tagging individual language learning items (vocabulary

and grammar) to framework levels may be helpful as a
guide to what needs to be learnt, but language scales need
to be treated with considerable caution.

What and why?

Frameworks (see 20) tend to be organised around language skills:

they describe what a user can do with language (in relation to pre-
determined levels). The descriptors in the frameworks are often and
unavoidably imprecise. Phrases like ‘good control’ or ‘occasional slips’
will be interpreted differently in different contexts.

Language scales, on the other hand, although they are very closely
tied to frameworks, are organised around knowledge, and claim to be
more objective. They ascribe a level-value (A1, A2, etc.) to individual
language items like a word, a word meaning or a verb pattern.

Attempts to establish which words it makes sense for a learner to learn

at different language levels go back a long way. The development of
enormous digital databases of language (corpora), in the second half of
the last century, made it possible to analyse the frequency of individual
language items (words, tenses, etc.). Knowing how frequently an item
occurs gives us useful information in deciding how valuable it is to
learn. Dictionaries, based on these databases, tell us which words – and
meanings of words – are most common, and which patterns are most
often associated with individual words.

It is only a relatively short step to mapping this kind of information

on to skills frameworks like the CEFR. The development of digital
databases of English, such as the Cambridge Learner Corpus (CLC),
produced by learners whose level had already been established, made
it possible to match individual language items to the levels at which
learners typically started producing them – to varying degrees of
accuracy or appropriacy.

80
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.024 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 English Profile, a Cambridge project supported by the Council of
Europe, draws on the CLC to recommend particular items of grammar
and vocabulary that are suitable for teaching and learning at each level.
Pearson’s Global Scale of English (GSE), in addition to a large number
of can-do statements, offers something similar. It breaks the CEFR levels
down into sub-levels (e.g. A2+, B2+), and assigns a number corresponding
to these sub-levels for each vocabulary or grammatical item.

These two scales were developed using different data, so we should not
be surprised to find differences in the level assigned to different items.
For example, the word ‘level’ is described by English Profile as an ‘A2’
word, whereas the same meaning of ‘level’ is described by GSE as a ‘B2’
word. It must be said that closer correspondences between these two
scales are much more common than large differences. The noun ‘profile’
is B2 on one scale, B2+ on the other.

The relevance of a word’s score to your own learners depends on

which database of language the scale uses. Was the language produced
by adults or by children? Was it spoken or written? Was it in an
academic or professional context? The answers to these questions will
significantly affect the kind of language in the database, so a scale
produced by analysing the language of high-school students in a formal
exam will be of limited value to an adult learner of the same level who
uses English in her job as a paramedic for an international aid agency.
There are scales that have been developed for younger learners and for
students of academic English, but these categories are still very broad –
too broad for learners with very specific needs.

In practice

Language scales, in particular in the form of lists of vocabulary items,

are now widely used in designing and writing tests. Most tests, but not
all, evaluate learners’ knowledge of English, and the scales provide a
checklist of the vocabulary and grammar knowledge that can be tested.
Where there’s a test, there’s a washback effect, as teachers and materials
teach towards the test.

Both English Vocabulary Profile and the Teacher Toolkit that

accompanies GSE allow users to select a CEFR level, a topic and a part
of speech to generate lists of words. These are words ‘to be learnt’, so

81
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.024 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 materials producers (writers, editors and publishers) usually now make
frequent reference to the lists when doing their work. Coursebook
writers like myself are familiar with being told by an editor that a
particular word or grammatical structure is ‘above level’ and must be
removed from an exercise. I have also worked on the development of
flashcard vocabulary apps, and the items on these are also now selected
with reference to language scales. Other popular, more general, language
learning apps, like Duolingo and Rosetta Stone, also tend to structure
their content in line with language scales.

Teachers can also refer to the scales themselves directly, in selecting

or preparing appropriate learning materials. One useful tool, which
is simply a kind of interface with the scales, is a ‘text checker’ or ‘text
inspector’. These tools, like English Profile Text Inspector, allow you
to identify words of a particular level and give some indication of the
readability of the text.

Takeaways

Languages scales are certainly useful in the design of teaching and

testing materials. They appear to offer objective reasons for including
particular items, but they need to be viewed with caution. Here’s why.

The idea that learners of a certain level should be able to recognise

or produce a certain number of words or structures – and the higher
the level, the more they know – makes intuitive sense and has been
confirmed by researchers. Researchers, however, are interested in average
numbers. Whilst the average B2 learner may know 3,500 words, there is
considerable variation between individual learners at that level, and the
more the scale is subdivided into smaller levels (or numbers), the more
variation we are likely to find. Part of this variation can be attributed to
the learners’ first and other languages, since it is much easier to produce
or recognise English words if they are similar to their equivalents in
these other languages. In theory, scales could reflect this: in practice,
they don’t.

Things become even more messy if we attempt to specify which

particular items learners need to know at any given level. Vocabulary
development does not proceed in a step-by-step, incremental manner.
Our breadth of vocabulary knowledge (the number of words we know)

82
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.024 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 improves at the same time as the depth of our knowledge of those
words (how those words collocate with other words, for example).
This simply cannot be reflected in language scales, and the danger is
that such scales blind us to the real challenge of vocabulary acquisition.
Handy as these scales might appear, the nature of language learning is
not as straightforward as they might lead us to believe.

English Profile http://www.englishprofile.org/

English Profile Test Inspector http://www.englishprofile.org/wordlists/text-inspector

Global Scale of English https://www.pearson.com/english/about-us/global-scale-of-english.html

Milton, J. and Alexiou, T. (2009). Vocabulary size and the Common European Framework
of Reference for Languages. In: Richards, B., Daller, M. H., Malvern, D. D., Meara, P.,
Milton, J. and Treffers-Daller, J. (Eds.) Vocabulary Studies in First and Second Language
Acquisition. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

83
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.024 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 22 Learning analytics

We need information about our learners in order to

be able to support them most effectively, and learning
analytics provides huge amounts of data. But it is the
quality, more than the quantity, of this information that
will determine its usefulness.

What and why?

Educational institutions and teachers have always collected and

collated data about their students and their learning. They keep
records of demographic information, about attendance, punctuality,
and disciplinary issues, about formal grades and more impressionistic
evaluations, extra-curricular activities, and so on. They are, essentially,
collecting evidence (see 30), and they do this for a number of reasons,
ranging from legal requirements and course (or school) evaluation, to
the use of this data to inform the formative assessment and support of
the students.

Teachers in face-to-face classes know a lot about their students, but this
is often less the case when study is online. We can’t actually see what
our students are doing and teacher-student ratios can make it difficult
or impossible to keep track of individuals. However, online study can
compensate to some extent for the lack of direct, personal knowledge
about our learners because the amount of data about them that can be
captured rises dramatically.

In addition to the kinds of data that is traditionally stored, learning

analytics can draw on information about the ways in which learners
interact with their online study program. How often, when and for
how long do students log in to their program? Which components of
the program do they use or not use, where on the platform do they
spend most of their time, and how do they navigate around the various
course components? On a much more granular level, what kinds of
mistakes do they make, how often do they listen to a listening task,

84
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.025 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 which words do they look up? In short, every click or keyboard stroke
can be logged. Potentially, cameras can also capture eye movements as
a way of assessing attention and engagement. When many thousands of
students are using the same platform, this amounts to a huge amount
of data.

Data storage in the cloud is clearly much easier than paper records, and
new technologies of ‘data mining’ make the analysis of all this data –
finding meaningful patterns – faster and cheaper. Findings from the
analysis of the data can be visually presented to learners, teachers and
institutions through the use of dashboards, which typically compare one
learner’s performance with others.

In practice

Learning analytics has only been part of the educational landscape

since about 2011. There has been very little research into the use of
analytics in language learning and teaching, and most published papers
on the topic discuss its potential more than its actual applications.
Nevertheless, some common uses are already well-established.

The number of learners who drop out of online courses is usually much
higher than for students in traditional settings, and low retention rates
are of particular concern in higher education where online study is most
often found. There are many reasons for the high attrition rate, social,
motivational and technological, and a combination of these. Learning
analytics can do little to address the root causes, but it can identify
patterns of online behaviour which correlate with those of students who
have dropped out of previous courses. When at-risk learners have been
identified in this way, support may be provided, either through personal
interventions from faculty or through automated messages delivered on
the platform.

Even when there is not thought to be any danger of drop-out, the

behaviour of stronger and weaker learners can be compared, so that
support can be provided for the latter. One large-scale study of language
learners in Europe (Gelan et al., 2018) found that more successful
students logged on to their course more often and more punctually,
did more work while they were there and did it in the intended order,
and referred more often to reference pages before moving on to

85
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.025 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 practice tasks. The findings were not altogether surprising, but the early
identification of less-than-ideal learning behaviour certainly makes
remedial action more likely to be effective.

Analytics can also be used to feed back into course and task design.
The order of learning tasks may be changed, individual tasks may
be added or removed, or made more or less challenging. The study
quoted above found that most learners went straight to assessed
exercises, neglecting valuable learning activities, such as the use of voice
recording, when these did not impact on their scores. Insights of this
kind allow materials designers to modify courses so that students are
nudged towards learning tasks that lead to greater learning gains or
greater engagement. Course developers, including Rosetta Stone and
Babbel, use learning analytics in these ways, but, sadly, details are not
publicly available.

Takeaways

Learning analytics is already a multi-billion dollar global industry which

affects the lives of millions of learners. It has also attracted considerable
criticism. On the whole, research has suggested that learning outcomes
may be improved for some learners through analytics, but there is still
a lack of evidence from robust, large-scale studies. In this light, critics
point to a number of dangers that come with the approach. The first
of these concerns the security of the data about learners that is stored.
It is simply not possible to ensure that data breaches are avoided, that
privacy is maintained, or that the data is not used in unethical ways for
which it was not intended.

It is also argued that the data collected in language learning contexts

often leads to only limited insights. It can tell us about vocabulary
scores and grammatical accuracy, but these are only rough guides to the
more important outcomes of fluency and communicative competence. In
addition, much that would impact on the process of learning a language
is not usually captured. This includes any activity outside the platform,
such as on social media. Data of this kind, if included, might well lead
to more valuable insights, but the privacy issues become greater.

Despite the concerns, learning analytics is here to stay and its reach will
continue to grow. This means that we must develop our (both teachers’

86
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.025 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 and learners’) ability to critically interpret the presentations of data
in dashboards. The role of digital literacy (see 10) will be increasingly
important. In turn, this raises vital questions for all teachers. How much
do we need to know about our students? What kind of information
is most useful? And how will this information be obtained, stored
and shared?

Gelan, A., Fastre, F., Verjans, M., Martin, N., Jansenswillen, G., Creemers, M., Lieben, J.
and Thomas, M. (2018). Affordances and limitations of learning analytics for computer­
assisted language learning: a case study of the VITAL project. Computer Assisted
Language Learning. pp. 1–26.

Prinsloo, P., Slade, S. and Khalil, M. (2021). Learning Analytics: A Primer. Burnaby,
Canada: Commonwealth of Learning.

Selwyn, N. (2019). What’s the problem with learning analytics? Journal of Learning
Analytics, 6(3): 11–19.

Yu, Q. and Zhao, Y. (2015). The Value and Practice of Learning Analytics in Computer
Assisted Language Learning. Studies in Literature and Language, 10(2): 90–96.

87
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.025 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 23 Gamification

The most familiar aspects of gamification, like points,

badges and leaderboards, may offer short-term benefits
for some learners, but insights from the success of popular
games suggest that social interaction has greater learning
and motivational potential.

What and why?

Gamification, the incorporation of various elements from games into

language learning activities, is often differentiated from game-based
language learning, the use of games (either commercial games for
entertainment or those designed specifically for language learners) as
a medium for language learning. There can, however, be considerable
overlap between the two. The most commonly used gamification
elements are probably points and badges (numerical or visual
representations of a learner’s progress through the material), which
can be shown as scores, levels that have been achieved, or ‘lives lost’.
These ‘rewards’ may be supplemented by others, such as the use of
leaderboards, where a learner’s performance is compared with others,
credits which allow an avatar to be modified, or the unlocking of a
game or video clip which the learner can play.

In many language learning apps, rewards are linked to personalized

goals. Users are encouraged to set themselves targets in much the same
way as fitness apps – typically, the amount of time each day that will be
spent doing the work, or the number of consecutive days when work is
done. When these targets are met, rewards are given.

The point of these rewards and personalized goals is to motivate the

learner to engage with the material and to spend more time on-task.
Many commentators have observed that these are the easiest aspects
of a learning activity that can be gamified, but also only the most
superficially motivating. Commercial game designers have learnt that
greater engagement is more likely to come when there is interaction

88
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.026 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 with other players, as opposed to simply playing against the machine. It
is the social element of game play, whether in the form of collaboration
or competition, or both, that has a more lasting impact on motivation
and engagement.

If materials designers want to facilitate more meaningful social

interaction, they will need to do more than modify the content
of traditional learning activities by adding points, badges and
leaderboards. A more radical rethink of the content will be required,
making it much more like popular video games. These often involve
some sort of narrative, where players have to work collaboratively to
explore a topic or solve a puzzle. In the process, they must use a variety
of critical and creative thinking skills as they communicate in English.
Richer learning opportunities arise because a learning activity is more
game-based, rather than because elements of gamification are present.

In practice

Language teachers have long used gamification in technology-free

classrooms in attempts to motivate their learners. I have used points
and rewards systems, for example, to encourage extensive reading or to
discourage the use of L1 in speaking activities. However, the growing
use of digital technologies for language learning, many of which include
gamification elements, has changed the learning landscape and the use
of gamification has become normalised. The need to motivate learners
who were home-schooling during the Covid pandemic has contributed
further to this process, and it is probably in the use of apps for
self-study that gamification is most frequently used.

Globally, the most popular language learning app at the time of

writing is Duolingo. Its content has often been criticised, but its use of
gamification is widely admired. This includes manageable daily goals
for users, visual representations of progress with ‘experience points’ and
badges, leaderboards, rewards in the form of a non-monetary currency
which can be used to unlock special features, encouragement to follow
friends, and discussion forums to interact with other users. There can
be few, if any, developers of language learning apps who do not assume
that gamification will be an important part of their product, and most
will study Duolingo’s approach as part of their design process.

89
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.026 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 A similar range of gamification elements can be found in flashcard apps
(memory trainers), like Quizlet and Memrise, that are also popular with
many language learners and teachers to promote the memorisation of
vocabulary and grammar. Many other self-study apps use gamification,
especially with younger learners, to motivate students to improve their
spelling, to promote regular extensive reading (of graded readers), or
to practise exam skills. These are often supported (and paid for) by
national governments or international bodies like the EU.

Game-based quizzes, like Kahoot! Socrative and Wordwall, which can

be used in both face-to-face classrooms and platforms like Google
Classroom, are becoming increasingly common. A more ambitious
use of gamification is found in behaviour management systems, like
ClassDojo, which attempt to influence the social-emotional aspects of
learning (see 13, 14, 15), typically of younger learners. In these, students
are given instant feedback, through a points system, for good classroom
behaviour (e.g. punctuality, participation in group work, or not using
the L1).

Takeaways

All teachers (I hope!) know that motivation is the most important

nut that we have to crack. The big question, then, is the extent to
which gamification might help us with our students. We know that
many learners are more motivated when learning is more game-
like, and the enduring popularity of collections of language learning
games reflects this. But there has been very little research into how
gamification elements like points, badges and leaderboards lead to
language-learning gains.

What we do know is that the use of superficial motivational tools can

be effective for some learners, but not all – some will find that the most
common forms of gamification are juvenile or that they induce anxiety.
We also know that these rewards can have a negative impact on the
long-term intrinsic motivation that comes from finding the learning
interesting or enjoyable. They are, therefore, best used in small doses
over a short period of time. There is also a danger that rewards may
encourage learners to spend too much time on one particular activity
type. There are better ways of studying than spending hours on a
flashcard app every day in order to work your way up the leaderboard.

90
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.026 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Gamification may offer a quick, but temporary, fix to motivational
issues, but the real lesson to be learnt from all of this is that, as
Paul Driver (2012) observes, language learning is better served by
exploiting the more fundamental features of successful games, where
playful freedom, intrinsically motivating tasks and social interaction
are prioritised.

Dehghanzadeh, H., Fardanesh, H., Hatami, J., Talaee, E. and Noroozi, O. (2019). Using
gamification to support learning English as a second language: a systematic review.
Computer Assisted Language Learning, DOI: 10.1080/09588221.2019.1648298

Driver, P. (2012). The Irony of Gamification. In English Digital Magazine 3, British

Council Portugal, pp. 21–24 http://digitaldebris.info/digital-debris/2011/12/31/the-irony-
of-gamification-written-for-ied-magazine.html

Kapp, K. M. (2012). The gamification of learning and instruction: Game-based methods

and strategies for training and education. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.

Reinhardt, J. (2019). Gameful Second and Foreign Language Teaching and Learning.
Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.

91
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.026 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 24 Automated feedback

Automated correction and scoring are now widely used

in international English language exams. However, the
automation of feedback for learning, as opposed to
grading, has advantages and disadvantages.

What and why?

Giving learners feedback on their work is a key part of a teacher’s job,

and it can be a very time-consuming one. Attempts to automate this
task, in order to free up teachers’ time for other things, go back to at
least the 1960s when ‘teaching machines’ were developed that could
automatically mark a learner’s production of language forms. There
were both technological and theoretical challenges, and the machines
never really caught on. However, with recent, huge advances in digital
technology, hopes for a technological solution to the feedback problem
have been reignited, even though the theoretical issues have not
gone way.

The important role that feedback plays in learning is well-established.

It is also generally accepted that feedback which encourages learners to
modify their language output (formative feedback) is a more powerful
driver of learning than feedback which simply evaluates language
output with a score, often in a formal test (summative feedback). But
there is less agreement on what kind of formative feedback is most
conducive to learning. This question has been the focus of debate
for hundreds of years, and of research for decades, without any firm
conclusions being reached.

Should feedback concentrate on learners’ errors (corrective feedback)

or would it, as some have argued, be more beneficial to give feedback
on what learners have done well? What kind of balance between
corrective and non-corrective feedback is likely to be optimal? In the
case of corrective feedback, will learners benefit more from information
about grammatical and lexical errors, or (in the case of their writing)

92
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.027 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 from feedback on the content and organisation of their work? If the
former, does direct, explicit feedback (when learners are told what is
wrong and what the correct form should be) lead to more learning gains
than indirect, implicit feedback (when learners are given prompts and
encouraged to self-correct)? And, again, what kind of balance between
implicit and explicit corrective feedback makes most sense? Is it even
possible to offer generalised advice, putting aside differences between
individual learners, learning contexts and particular learning tasks?

Lacking clear answers to questions such as these, developers of digital

language learning programs tend to ignore them altogether and allow
themselves to be guided primarily by what the technology can do best.

In practice

It is a relatively straightforward matter for materials designers to

automate learning tasks for which there is only one or a very small
number of correct answers. Tasks such as gap-fills, multiple-choice and
matching exercises, usually focussing on vocabulary or grammatical
accuracy, lend themselves easily to automated correction. Unsurprisingly,
this kind of work usually forms the backbone of language courses
where learners work independently and where corrective feedback
needs to be automated.

These tasks are basically tests of language knowledge. Whilst practice

tests are known to help learners in memorising information, especially
in the building of vocabulary, they are likely to be of more value when
the feedback prompts them to self-correct, rather than simply providing
right/wrong responses, along with the correct form when a mistake
has been made. The most common and partial solution to this is for
the program to generate dialogue boxes in response to errors, in which
learners are encouraged to refer again to reference material. However,
this is not always specific enough to be truly helpful, and it is not
especially motivating either.

The practice of pre-determined items of vocabulary and grammar in

pre-written sentences or short texts may be popular, but learners will
benefit more from feedback on more extended language (writing and
speaking) that they have produced more freely. The technological
challenge here is much greater, but the last ten years have seen

93
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.027 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 enormous progress in our ability to detect written errors in text (see,
for example, Write & Improve). Spelling mistakes are probably the
easiest to identify automatically, but certain kinds of grammatical
error (including subject-verb agreement and part of speech) and
problematic lexical collocations can also be highlighted with varying
degrees of reliability. Depending on the kind of text, the reliability of
error identification may be over 90 percent, but it now seems unlikely
that software will ever, with 100 percent certainty, be able to determine
whether a section of text contains errors or what kind of errors they
are. It can, however, indicate probabilities.

Part of the problem is that reliable correction often depends on

evaluating a writer’s intentions. Teachers can often guess what kind
of meaning a writer wanted to express, but automated feedback
operates mostly by analysing sequences of words. It does not actually
‘understand’ anything. For this reason, it can say very little about the
content and organisation of a piece of writing.

With spoken language, the challenges are even greater, since the system
first uses speech-to-text software to convert the speech into written
form, and, as anyone who has used a voice assistant on their phone
knows, the results can sometimes be some way off the mark. With both
written and spoken texts, the program compares the language that a
learner has produced with a database of ‘acceptable’ language. It is
therefore inevitable that such programs struggle with certain varieties
of English, which may be perfectly appropriate in some contexts.
Consequently, it is hard to see how automated feedback could ever be
used, for example, with plurilingual practices (see 1).

Takeaways

Gap-fill-style practice of grammar and vocabulary may have some

value in preparing students for certain kinds of test, but whether it can
lead to the development of fluency is questionable. Having said that, if
learners are to follow a substantial diet of such work, most teachers will
welcome the automation of feedback/correction as it saves them from
the endless and dispiriting task of correcting reams of printed exercises.

Automated feedback on more extended written work offers, in my

view, much greater potential. The focus on accuracy means that there

94
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.027 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 is a risk of neglecting what is arguably of greater importance – content
and organisation – but in approaches to the teaching of writing where
students work collaboratively through a series of drafts, automated
feedback may be effectively combined with other kinds of feedback.
In early drafts, learners concentrate first on content and organisation,
and receive feedback from the teacher or their peers. In later drafts,
automated feedback on accuracy can be deployed. The technology can,
therefore, complement the teacher’s work, but it cannot replace it.

Cambridge English Write & Improve. https://writeandimprove.com/

Heift, T. and Schulze, M. (2007). Errors and Intelligence in Computer-Assisted Language

Learning. New York: Routledge.

Kerr, P. (2020). Giving feedback to language learners. Part of the Cambridge papers in
ELT series. [pdf] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://www.
cambridge.org/gb/files/4415/8594/0876/Giving_Feedback_minipaper_ONLINE.pdf

95
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.027 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 25 Chatbots

The potential of chatbots in education is often hyped,

but useful applications of the technology remain limited.
It seems unlikely that they could ever replace human
conversation as a driver of language acquisition.

What and why?

There is little doubt that extensive opportunities for meaningful,

communicative interaction play a vital role in the development of a
learner’s language skills. This interaction can be with a teacher, other
learners in pair and group work, or, more informally, in conversation
with any speaker of English. Conversational interaction allows for
intensive spoken language practice, as well as exposure to the language
produced by the interlocutor. For a variety of reasons, however,
language classrooms may not always offer many conversational
opportunities, and, even if they do, some learners may be reluctant to
make the most of them. What’s more, all learners could benefit from
more frequent opportunities for conversation outside the classroom.

One way of meeting this need, it has been suggested, is for learners
to interact with chatbots – sophisticated computer programs that can
simulate, to a greater or lesser extent, a conversational partner. Similar to
virtual assistants like Amazon Alexa, most chatbots can decode spoken
words and respond with human-sounding voices. The obvious advantage
for language learners is that they can be used any time, anywhere, if you
have a reasonably up-to-date phone and a good connection.

Enthusiasts also point to other advantages of chatbots. Unlike humans

(teachers, fellow students), they are non-judgemental, and this may help the
motivation of shyer learners, some of whom may prefer to practise spoken
language independently before trying things out with a live interlocutor.
They may also appeal to those lacking in confidence, who are negatively
affected by the fear of making language errors. Besides the absence of social
pressure, there is no time pressure, either. Learners can take as long as they

96
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.028 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 like for each conversational turn, allowing them to prepare or rehearse
what they want to say. Chatbots do not get bored or lose patience. Many
of them can interact with both text and speech, and allowing learners
to choose the channel of communication (or to opt for both spoken and
written at the same time) offers further potential advantages.

Virtual assistants are now so widely used in daily life that interaction with
a chatbot does not seem strange or alienating to many learners. Research
in educational settings (Fryer et al., 2020) suggests that many learners are
not only ready to use and trust chatbots, but that some prefer them to a
human partner. Although the novelty effect inevitably wears off, chatbot
developers claim that the artificial intelligence engines inside the program
can learn from previous interactions, and, as a result, interactions become
more interesting and more engaging the more that the app is used.
Combining chatbot technology with virtual reality (see 26) or elements of
gamification (see 23) may also lead to enhanced engagement.

In practice

Recent years have seen enormous advances in Artificial Intelligence

(AI) and Natural Language Processing (NLP), the two technologies
behind chatbots. However, we are still some way off from having a
machine that can truly understand human language, and this means
that chatbots cannot really simulate a human conversation partner. Brief
exchanges are usually unproblematic. The chatbot basically responds to
lexical items and grammatical patterns, but it struggles to take account
of the broader discoursal context, and, as a result, fails to respond in an
appropriately empathetic way. This soon leads to breakdowns, as in the
example below of a conversation with a chatbot that I had, where the
illusion of communication and the interest of the user are both lost.

Me: Guess what happened to me on the way to work this morning.

Chatbot: What happened?

Me: I got knocked off my bike.

Chatbot: By who?

Me: It was a bus.

Chatbot: What did he do to her?

97
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.028 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Chatbots are much more effective and convincing, in both the real
world and in educational settings, when they are used in relatively
brief exchanges of a transactional nature, where the content and the
conversational turns are reasonably predictable. In the real world,
these exchanges often involve some kind of marketing or customer
support, such as following or preceding a purchase or a booking.
Examples include those developed by food stores to help people find
a recipe, by health authorities to give information about vaccinations
and medical tests, or by educational institutions to provide answers to
administrative enquiries.

These bots can provide useful authentic practice for language learners
of the kind of language that features in the ‘functional language’ or
‘everyday English’ strands of most coursebooks. The practice is mostly
limited to listening or reading, but feedback on the learner’s language
production is only indirect and only if the chatbot fails to understand
what has been said or written.

There have been attempts to develop chatbots specifically for language

learning that can provide feedback on the accuracy or lexical variety of
the users’ language. However, these are more like interactive tutorials
than meaningful conversations, and attempts to provide reliable,
automated feedback are fraught with challenges (see 24).

Takeaways

Practice of structured, situational dialogues has been a feature of

language learning and teaching for centuries and remains so today.
When I began teaching, this kind of work was carried out in the
language laboratory or with cassettes for home study. Chatbots that
facilitate this practice are more user-friendly in that they can be easily
incorporated into existing, familiar technology (e.g. social media). They
are also more flexible, allowing for more than one possible response,
and they may provide some useful feedback. Their value is, however,
mostly restricted to lower level learners.

The use of this technology to practise limited conversational routines

is a far cry from the claims of some that chatbots driven by AI will
radically transform language learning by offering opportunities for

98
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.028 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 communicative interaction that is indistinguishable from human
conversation. Most researchers agree that if such technology ever
arrives, it is still decades away.

Dokukina, I. and Gumanova, J. (2020). The rise of chatbots – new personal assistants in
foreign language learning. Procedia Computer Science 169: pp. 542–546.

Fryer, L. K., Coniam, D., Carpenter, R. and Lapusneanu, D. (2020). Bots for Language
Learning Now: Current and Future Directions. Language, Learning and Technology
24(2): pp. 8–22.

Lee, J.-H., Yang, H., Shin, D. and Kim, H. 2020. Chatbots. ELT Journal, 74 (3):
pp. 338–344.

99
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.028 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 26 Virtual reality (VR)

For many years, enthusiasts have been talking up the

potential of VR for language learning. But even with more
sophisticated and cheaper technology, language learning
gains remain elusive.

What and why?

The term virtual reality (VR) is often used very loosely, and what
is described as VR comes in many shapes and sizes. A common
categorisation breaks it down into two main types: non-immersive and
immersive (Lan, 2020).

The former involves a simulation of physical space, shown on an

ordinary screen, which the participants can navigate, usually in the form
of an avatar. The immersive variety requires a head-mounted display
(HMD), headphones and (often) body sensors, and allows participants
to feel much more part of the virtual world they are exploring.

An example of a non-immersive virtual world is Second Life, launched

in 2003, which allows people to wander around a simulated world,
meeting others as they go. It soon found enthusiasts among language
educators, because of the (at least initial) immersive nature of the
experience and because of the opportunities it offered for interactive
communication. A number of virtual schools were set up in Second Life,
where lessons could be offered much as in the non-virtual world, but it
was also possible to chat with others more informally while exploring
the virtual world. More fully immersive virtual worlds, dedicated
to language learning, now exist. Making use of other technological
developments, participants can now interact not only with other people,
in the form of avatars, but also, by using natural language processing
tools (such as speech recognition), with automated bots (software which
simulates a conversation partner).

In addition to the above, VR is also sometimes used to describe the

experience of using simple and relatively cheap headsets, like a simple

100
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.029 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 3D viewer, combined with headphones, to explore both real and
simulated worlds captured with 360° photography.

Early investment in VR led to the development of products for aviation,

medical and military training, where the virtual world offered obvious
advantages of physical safety. Entertainment applications soon followed,
and it was this that probably most inspired language educators to look
for ways of using VR. It was hoped that language learners, if fully
absorbed in a virtual world, would be more closely engaged with the
learning material. If using an HMD, learners would be effectively forced
to engage with the material, since their gaze could not wander elsewhere
(Bonner and Reinders, 2018)!

Motivation, then, is the key factor behind calls for wider use of VR
in language learning. True, learners can interact and collaborate
communicatively, and authentic situations can be simulated, but these
aims can be achieved without VR.

In practice

After an initial flurry of enthusiasm, interest in the use of virtual

worlds like Second Life declined, both from ordinary non-educational
users and from educators. It needed powerful hardware and was not
easy to use. Attention shifted towards the creation of virtual worlds
specifically designed for language learning, and a growing number of
products are available. In these, learners typically practise functional
language in everyday situations, either by interacting with a chatbot or
a filmed actor.

The potential of digital games for informal language learning has long
been recognised. The range of VR games available is growing fast, as is
the number of gamers using VR headsets. When these are multi-player
games, users may socialise, negotiate and collaborate as they complete
tasks in their quests. Some teachers have successfully incorporated such
games into their classroom practice, adopting a task-based approach.

There are ongoing projects to develop similar VR games specifically for

language learners, where the language demands of the tasks may be better
calibrated. However, development costs are high, making it extremely
difficult to match either the immersive or the gaming experience of
products with investments of hundreds of millions of dollars.

101
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.029 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Since the more immersive forms of VR require learners to wear
HMDs, effectively isolating them from the rest of the world, they do
not obviously lend themselves to classroom use. However, when only
a limited number of headsets are available, information gap activities
can be set up. The learner who is interacting with the virtual world
communicates what they are experiencing with partners. This is possible
with cheap equipment like a phone and a 3D viewer to view 360°
photography, where learners can explore anything from a museum or a
Disney castle to a coral reef or outer space.

Takeaways

Despite their learning potential, for reasons of preference or cost,

video games are not for everyone. As the novelty effect wears off, the
motivational pull declines, since the immersive potential of VR is as
much (if not more) a feature of the intrinsic interest of the simulated
world as it is of the technology that is used for presentation. The
incorporation of VR in language learning materials does not diminish
the central importance of providing interesting content. When you
strip away the VR from the commercially produced language-learning
packages, they often stand up poorly in comparison to comparable
printed books and videos, which can be updated much faster and
more cheaply.

An often-overlooked aspect of the appeal of VR in entertainment is that

users have chosen voluntarily to take part. In educational settings, this
exercise of free choice is less likely to be the case. In entertainment, too,
continued engagement within the game is often the result of features
of game design that allow for autonomy within the game: flexibility
in the choice of goals and the strategies that can be deployed in
achieving them (Ryan et al., 2006). Again, this is largely absent from the
commercially-produced packages that are currently available.

In addition, the range of learning materials available is relatively

limited, mostly appropriate for levels A1 to B1, and for reasons both
commercial and technological, higher levels are likely to remain
relatively uncatered for. At higher levels, too, VR packages that rely
on bot technology will allow for only limited meaningful interaction
(see 25). Still, for self-study, and for those who do not find HMDs

102
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.029 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 uncomfortable or disorienting, there will be learners, especially at lower
levels, who will be attracted to a VR approach.

Perhaps, the most useful lesson to be learnt from attempts to use VR

in language learning concerns the need to promote lasting engagement
(see 13) in the learning process. There are no easy, one-off solutions out
there to this – one of the biggest educational challenges.

Bonner, E. and Reinders, H. (2018). Augmented and virtual reality in the language
classroom: Practical ideas. Teaching English with Technology, 18(3): pp. 33–53.

Lan, Y. J. (2020). Immersion, interaction and experience-oriented learning: Bringing

virtual reality into FL learning. Language Learning & Technology, 24(1): pp. 1–15.

Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S. and Przybylski, A. (2006). The Motivational Pull of Video
Games: A Self-Determination Theory Approach. Motivation and Emotion, 30: 344–360.

103
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.029 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 27 Augmented reality (AR)

With its immediate, but superficial, appeal, AR has been

promoted as a tool to revolutionise language learning,
but practical and pedagogical limitations mean that it is
unlikely that it will be widely adopted.

What and why?

Augmented reality (AR) is an interactive technology which allows

additional information to be superimposed on the real world when
viewed through the camera of a mobile device. Among the most well-
known AR apps are IKEA Place and Pokémon GO. The former allows
users to place potential furniture purchases in the rooms of their own
homes, in order to help them make their purchasing decisions. The
software ‘reads’ the 3D shape of both the object and the room, allowing
them to be combined. The latter is a game, using GPS technology, in
which players roam around the real world, hunting for Pokémons (3D
cartoon creatures) which can only be seen on their screens. Both of
these have been used by language teachers. Think of prepositions of
place and furniture vocabulary for IKEA Place, and of the possibilities
for meaningful communication between co-players for Pokémon GO.

Of more widespread use for educational purposes is a simpler AR

technology, called ‘marker-based AR’. This uses static images (often a
basic outline or a QR code) to trigger the generation of the additional
information, which can be in the form of a written text, an image, an
audio or video file, or an animation. These triggers can be printed off
and displayed around the classroom, or, as is increasingly common,
included in books and other educational material.

The main reason for using AR in language learning and teaching is

undoubtedly its potential to motivate and engage learners by offering
fun and enjoyment, at least until the novelty effect wears off. A
second important benefit, depending on the particular app that is
being used, is that collaboration and communication between learners

104
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.030 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 may be fostered while they are involved in engaging tasks. The third
potential advantage is that AR may allow for more authentic and
richer multimodal content than would otherwise be possible. This may
be especially helpful in CLIL settings (see 4) or in classes where the
development of intercultural competence is an important aim.

In practice

Probably the easiest way to use AR is in the learning of vocabulary

for younger learners and lower levels. Commercial packs containing
images of target vocabulary can be bought, and when the camera
points at the image, the app generates the written form of the word, an
audio recording, or an animated 3D version of the image. In order to
overcome the limitations of pre-determined lexical sets, which may not
be appropriate for particular classes, it is possible for teachers to create
their own, although the software may not be free and the process is
inevitably time-consuming. Some learners will undoubtedly enjoy this
kind of approach, but there is a danger that they will be distracted by
the technology and learning gains will not compensate.

Partly as a way of offering more supplementary material on a page,

some published materials are now incorporating AR triggers. The digital
material that is generated from them can be additional worksheets or
practice test items, answer sheets, or, as in the case of a recent writing
project of mine, video recordings of students carrying out a speaking
task that can be used as either preparation or follow-up for the students
in the class performing the same task.

Using apps that allow for the creation of AR overlays, some teachers
have used book covers (e.g. of graded readers) as triggers so that
students can read reviews or find out additional information before
making their reading selection. Taking this a step further, students may
record or write their own reviews, which are then made available for
others. The addition of supplementary content (written, audio or video)
to image triggers can also be used to provide integrated skills practice.
For example, images of geographical locations link to further media
about them. This is then used to plan an itinerary of a virtual tour.

AR has also been used when learning is taken out of the classroom,
using GPS rather than image triggers. Hockly (2019) reports a number

105
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.030 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 of projects where students explore and learn about their university
campuses, by pointing their phone cameras at specified locations and
reading more about them.

Takeaways

It is often said that a clear idea of pedagogical purpose needs to come

before a decision to use any technology in a learning activity. The
most obvious reason to use AR in language learning is its possible
motivational pull, but against this we need to consider just how strong
that pull might be. At the same time, a number of other questions,
common to most uses of educational technology, need to be raised:
Is there any convincing research evidence (see 30) that suggests that
this technology will lead to learning gains?
Do all learners have access to appropriate phones and are wifi
connections adequate?
Are there any privacy issues involved in the use of the technology?
Given that mobile phones can lead to classroom management
problems, is there a sufficiently strong reason for this use of them?
Will the use of this technology meaningfully enhance the digital
literacies of your learners (see 10)?
Is the time (and sometimes money) that is required to learn to use
the technology effectively a good investment? (For AR, the free
software recommended by both Hockly (2017) and Wilden (2017) is
no longer available.)

Godwin-Jones, R. (2016). Augmented reality and language learning: From annotated

vocabulary to place-based mobile games. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3): 9–19.

Hockly, N. (2017). ETpedia Technology. Hove, UK: Pavilion Publishing.

Hockly, N. (2019). Augmented reality. ELT Journal 73(3): 328–334.

Parmaxi, A. and Demetriou, A. A. (2020). Augmented reality in language learning: A state-

of-the-art review of 2014–2019. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 36(6): 861–875.

Wilden, S. (2017). Mobile Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

106
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.030 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Metacognition 28

Metacognition, an awareness of one’s own thought

processes in learning, correlates strongly with language
learning success. Training learners in metacognitive
skills is therefore often recommended as a high-impact
intervention which costs very little.

What and why?

Language teachers have long been interested in understanding the

characteristics of successful learners. Such learners have a high degree of
autonomy: they know their strengths and weaknesses, they know what
they want to achieve, and they know how to go about learning it. They
are, in other words, self-regulated.

In order to be self-regulated, they need three interrelated things. First,

they need to have at their disposal a range of cognitive learning skills,
such as knowing how best to memorise vocabulary or plan a piece of
writing. Second, they need metacognitive skills – the ability to plan,
monitor and evaluate their learning. Precise definitions of metacognitive
skills vary to some degree between different writers and the difference
between these and cognitive skills is not always crystal-clear. The final
ingredient in the mix is motivation – the desire to apply their cognitive
and metacognitive skills (see 13 and 14).

Interest in strategy training for language learners is not new, going back
to at least the 1980s. But its importance has increased in recent years
as discussions of 21st century skills (see 7) and the need to prepare
learners for a life of learning have brought the importance of cognitive
and metacognitive skills into sharper focus. Many would argue that
the whole point of language teaching is really to develop students into
lifelong learners. Metacognitive skills can help learners along this path.

Self-regulation and metacognition are also of more importance

now than ever before with the increasing numbers of learners

107
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.031 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 studying online, whether fully or partially (see 11). Without effective
metacognitive skills, the chances of course completion, and success,
are much diminished. There is, then, an urgency in ensuring that all
learners are equipped with these pre-requisites of successful learning.
Unsurprisingly, metacognitive skills are now investigated in the
Programmes for International Student Assessment (PISA) carried out by
the OECD and feature prominently in their latest educational blueprint,
‘The Future of Education and Skills 2030’.

In practice

Classroom training in metacognitive skills is often combined with work

on listening, speaking, reading or writing. In the context of listening,
Christine Goh (2008) has suggested a series of activities to develop both
cognitive and metacognitive knowledge and strategies which she divides
into ‘experiential listening tasks’ and ‘guided reflections’. The first group
includes things like:

guidance prompts for learners to help in preparing for a listening

task and evaluating how well they carried it out
learners working with ‘buddies’ to identify listening resources and to
discuss strategies for approaching them
learners work together to design listening tasks for other members of
the class.

The reflective activities include:

diaries in which learners reflect on specific listening experiences
learners use charts to record their affective responses to
particular tasks
learners evaluate their performance by filling in checklists of the
strategies they have made use of (e.g. setting goals, drawing on
background knowledge, guessing the meaning of unknown items).

In the context of speaking, Goh and Burns (2012) recommend a cycle of

activities in which (1) learners prepare for a speaking task, (2) carry out
the task, (3) focus on both language and strategies which would help
improve performance on the task, (4) repeat the task, and (5) reflect on
their performance, individually or in groups. The metacognitive training
here uses similar activities to those suggested for listening work.

108
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.031 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Incorporating metacognitive work in lessons where learners use
language in a communicative way is a relatively simple matter.
Researchers agree that regular short spurts of metacognitive work of
the kind described here are more effective than entire lessons devoted to
metacognition.

Takeaways

Unfortunately, my own experiences with metacognitive training have

not been an unmitigated success. On a number of occasions, students
have participated only reluctantly in metacognitive tasks and said they
would prefer to spend time learning language than learning how to
learn. They may have a point. Research into the value of metacognitive
strategy instruction is ‘hardly conclusive’ and it seems that training in
cognitive strategies is much more effective than metacognitive training
(Plonsky, 2011). In other words, it may be more useful to spend
additional time on training students to plan a piece of writing than on
asking them to reflect on their use of this strategy.

One possible explanation for the mixed results of metacognitive

interventions is that the relationship between metacognition and
learning success is correlational but not causal. That is to say, it is
possible that higher-achieving learners have better metacognitive skills
because they are higher achievers, rather than the other way round. It is
also clear that the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy training is very
context-dependent: age, proficiency, educational setting, and the specific
nature of the training will all affect outcomes.

My students were young adults taking part in short (ten-week) intensive

exam preparation courses and their priorities did not include the
reflective work that I wanted to promote. Their negative reactions might
also, of course, have been due to the way that I taught them. I can,
perhaps, find some consolation in the fact that some research has found
that metacognitive training is usually more effective when done by
researchers than by regular teachers.

While metacognitive training ought to bring benefits to learners, it will

not necessarily do so. When time is limited, it might be better spent
doing something else, such as training in cognitive skills, or anything
else which learners find more motivating. Despite my own experiences,

109
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.031 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 I remain convinced that metacognitive training is worth exploring with
some students in some contexts. But it now seems to me improbable
that a few sweeps of a metacognitive wand will magically transform
students into successful, self-regulated learners.

Education Endowment Foundation (2018). Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning:

Guidance report. London: EEF https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/tools/
guidance-reports/metacognition-and-self-regulated-learning/

Goh, C. (2008). Metacognitive Instruction for Second Language Listening Development.

RELC Journal, 39 (2): 188–213.

Goh, C. C. M. and Burns, A. (2012). Teaching Speaking. New York: Cambridge University
Press.

Plonsky, L. (2011). The Effectiveness of Second Language Strategy Instruction: A Meta-

analysis. Language Learning, 61 (4): 993–1038.

110
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.031 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 Coaching 29

Coaching has appeared in language teaching via the

business world and coaching approaches are increasingly
common with professional adults in private sector schools.
However, the principles behind language coaching may be
relevant to all language teachers, even though some of the
practical applications may not always be feasible.

What and why?

Coaching, in both educational and corporate contexts, is a form of

question-driven conversation, intended to help a learner or client to realise
their potential, and is concerned with the development of autonomy
and self-regulation (see 28). Language coaching is the incorporation of
principles and practices from coaching into language teaching.

Coaches often structure coaching conversations in a similar way.

Initially, they may ask the coachee to articulate their goals, both
shorter and longer term in specific ways, and to reflect on the personal
importance of achieving these goals. Drawing on common management
practice, coaches may point coachees towards the importance of having
goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and have a time-
frame. Goals may be revised over the course of a number of coaching
sessions. The focus then shifts to the current situation: how close the
coachee is to the goals, what they are currently doing to achieve them
and what resources they have available. Next, possible options for
moving closer towards the goals are explored, along with the coachee’s
feelings about the different possibilities. This leads to decisions, which
may also be later revised, about paths to be taken by the coachee.

This conversational model, referred to by the acronym, GROW,

derived from its stages (goals, reality, options, way forward) is
probably the most widely used, but there are many variations on it.
No single definition of coaching and no single qualification is accepted
internationally: as an unregulated field, anyone who wants to may

111
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.032 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 describe themselves as a coach. Even in the world of language teaching,
there are a number of different coaching organisations and there are
enormous differences between them.

In practice

In ELT settings, the most obvious application of coaching conversations

is in the process of conducting needs analyses (initial or ongoing),
especially in the private sector with adults learning English for
professional purposes. Unsurprisingly, this is where language coaching
approaches are most often found. However, the influence of coaching
may be seen more broadly and is described as coaching-informed,
‘teaching in a coaching style’ or as a mindset.

Coaching-informed teaching is often seen in opposition to traditional

teaching styles where the teacher is primarily a transmitter of
knowledge. Instead, with language coaches, the teacher’s role is
mainly facilitative: it is to ‘help people learn rather than to teach them’
(Barber and Foord, 2014). The focus is more on the learner than the
teacher, and language coaching may be seen as a continuation of
humanistic approaches that date back many decades (see 18). This style
of teaching is likely to contain the following elements:

a focus on goals that are negotiated jointly between the teacher and
the learners
an acceptance that the teacher should be less of an authority figure
and that there should be a significant degree of equality between
teachers and learners
a trust in the learner’s ability to make appropriate decisions about
their learning
an acknowledgement of the central importance of the teacher as a
motivator, confidence-builder and supporter of the learner
a recognition of the importance of the learner’s feelings towards the
learning process
a recognition of the role of the teacher as a listener who is genuinely
interested in their learners as individuals
an understanding of the role that a teacher’s open-ended questions
will play in shaping the dynamic of the classroom and in helping
learners to reflect on their learning.

112
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.032 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 These elements will be reflected in the choice and organisation of
activities in the classroom. Time is regularly set aside, for example, for
learners to:
develop a more concrete vision of themselves as effective language
users and learners (see Hadfield and Dörnyei, 2013, for an extensive
selection of practical suggestions)
articulate their goals for both the course and for individual lessons
and to self-evaluate the extent to which these goal have been reached
decide what kinds of learning activities they want to take part in
(including the amount and kind of homework they will do)
articulate their emotional responses to their learning experiences
explore, experiment with and evaluate different learning strategies
and resources
discuss and evaluate out-of-class learning activities.

When activities such as these are included in lessons and when time
needs to be made available for individual coaching tutorials, it is
inevitable that there will be less time for more stereotypical language
teaching in the form of grammar and vocabulary instruction.

Takeaways

I have met very few language teachers who would not nod in approval
when reading most (if not all) of the elements of coaching-informed
teaching in the section above. The importance of motivation and
goal-setting, the monitoring of progress, and the treatment of learners
as individuals are rarely matters of debate. Language coaching,
nevertheless, seems to divide opinion and the reasons for this
deserve consideration.

Some teachers, not without cause, are sceptical about the whole
unregulated world of coaching where hourly fees are often much higher
than those that, say, a ‘normal’ language teacher can earn. Self-described
language coaches may market themselves through an association with
executive coaches, but there is an important difference. Executive
coaches do not necessarily need to have any expertise in executive
business functions. Language coaches must surely be considered
charlatans if they have little understanding of language acquisition.
Sadly, there are plenty of these around.

113
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.032 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 A few bad apples do not spoil a barrel, but there are other reservations
about language coaching that colleagues of mine in a private language
school have expressed. Some feel uneasy about taking on what they
see as a counselling role, especially with learners who are older than
themselves. Others feel uncomfortable about adopting a coaching
style which they feel is culturally inappropriate or even unwelcome in
some of their classes. However, the strongest reservation I have heard
concerns the practicability of a coaching approach. For example, in
large classes (especially in compulsory education) working towards a
high-stakes examination, how much autonomy, equality or trust can
realistically be expected?

The big question, then, that coaching raises for teachers is how
we should balance what we believe to be good teaching with the
institutional constraints we all work under.

Barber, D. and Foord, D. (2014). From English Teacher to Learner Coach.

www.the-round.com

Guccione, K. and Hutchinson, S. (2021). Coaching and Mentoring for Academic

Development. Bingley: Emerald Publishing.

Hadfield, J. and Dörnyei, Z. (2013). Motivating Learning. Harlow, UK: Pearson

Education.

Kovács, G. (2022). A Comprehensive Language Coaching Handbook. Shoreham-by-Sea,

UK: Pavilion Publishing.

Wade, P., Hunter, M. and Morrain, R. (2015). Coaching & mentoring activities for ELT.
Smashwords.

114
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.032 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 D: Rethinking evidence

I have argued in the previous chapters

of this book that we need to be cautious
about the latest trends in English
language teaching and I have often
referred to research evidence as a reason
for this. Much educational research,
however, concludes that ‘more research is
needed’. Very little is fixed in stone, and
we may be wise to maintain a sceptical
approach to ‘evidence’, too.

30 Evidence

115
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.033 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 30 Evidence

It is obviously important that we have evidence to support

what we do in our classrooms, but interpreting research
evidence is, unfortunately, rarely straightforward.

What and why?

You won’t have failed to notice the frequent references to research

throughout the pages of this book and you will have probably noticed,
too, that the research evidence that I talk about rarely provides
unequivocal support for the trends under discussion. We shouldn’t find
this surprising, since it is in the nature of educational research that it
must be interpreted in some way. It is rare that research findings can
be generalised to the multiplicity of different local contexts in which
teachers work. Conclusions, at best, are typically that this or that trend
might or might not be worth exploring further.

Still, it is hard to disagree with the idea that language teaching could
be more effective if it were more informed by research evidence, in the
same way that medicine has embraced an ‘evidence-based’ approach
in recent decades. This common-sense perspective is reinforced by the
growth of an increasingly managerialist approach to global education
practices, which requires evidence to justify the investments and policy
decisions that are made.

We can divide the kind of research evidence that may usefully inform
English language teaching into two broad categories: research into the
language itself (how English is actually used) and research into how
it is best learnt and taught, where experimental data, data from real
classrooms and data from learners’ interactions with learning software
(see 22) may all play a role. Published research into areas related to
language teaching has recently seen explosive growth and growing
specialisation, with the number of relevant journals estimated to be
over 1,000. Since nobody could keep track of all this, syntheses of this
research, known as meta-analyses or systematic reviews, have become

116
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.034 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 much more common. Meta-analyses that investigate classroom teaching
practices are basically interested in finding out what ‘works’ and what
‘doesn’t work’, and calculate what is known as an ‘effect size’, a number
that indicates the correlation between a particular teaching behaviour
and academic achievement. The work of John Hattie (2009) is probably
the most well-known and widely-cited example of educational
meta-analyses.

In practice

Empirical corpus-based evidence about how English is actually used

in the real world is now often used to shape learning materials. This
usually involves consideration of the frequency of particular features
of language in different kinds of discourse – words and phrases,
grammatical patterns and aspects of pronunciation (see 21). Arguably,
however, it is not used often enough, with much material still relying
on an uncritical replication of earlier approaches or the uninformed
intuitions of materials writers. But applying this evidence to course
design is not a straightforward matter, and cannot be done without
exercising value judgements. The kind of corpus that is used determines
the insights that it generates, with an ELF (see 2) corpus and a British
or American native-speaker corpus producing very different results.
Preferring the latter over the former, for example, is a reflection of a set
of values which it would be appropriate to uncover if it is not already
explicitly stated.

Educational research raises even more questions than language research.

Unlike medicine, where randomised controlled trials are the gold
standard in determining whether a treatment works, such an approach
is often not possible in education, for both ethical and practical reasons.
It is often hard, if not impossible, to control for all the variables in
educational settings, and even more so when key terms have not been
adequately defined (as is the case with most of the trends discussed
in this book). The result is that many experimental findings in second
language acquisition need to be or cannot be replicated. Meta-analyses
are, therefore, much less reliable than they might at first appear.

This is not to say that research evidence is of no value at all. For

example, we know enough now to say, with some confidence, that the
use of the learners’ first language may be a help rather than a hindrance

117
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.034 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 in learning another. We know, too, that the best kind of language
practice is meaningful and communicative, and that corrective feedback
can be beneficial. Good reviews of available evidence and its practical
implications can be found in Ellis and Shintani (2014) and Boers
(2021), or in a more teacher-friendly form in Lethaby et al. (2021).

But these insights tend to remain at the level of generalities. Precisely

how, when or how often we should encourage the use of L1, provide
communicative practice, or give corrective feedback is outside the scope
of empirical research. This is extremely unfortunate because it is the
answers to specific questions of this kind that teachers and materials
writers most urgently need. It is often noted that teachers rarely read
educational research, but, even if they did, they would not find much in
the way of reliable, explicit guidance about what to do in their classes
tomorrow. Instead, they will find ideas which could shape their general
educational approach, although, over the long term, this is perhaps of
greater value.

Takeaways

Most trends in ELT are promoted, at least initially, by those with

vested interests – ideological or commercial – in them. The search for
evidence in support of them comes as an afterthought. To catch on as
an idea, a trend needs to be broadly, rather than narrowly, defined, and
this looseness of definition leads inevitably to problems in establishing
whether it ‘works’. It is for this reason that we would be wise to adopt a
sceptical attitude when evaluating claims that any addition to the scope
of language teaching or any technology will radically transform the
field, or will be appropriate to the contexts in which we work.

A better question to ask is, perhaps, what new trends work for. Whose
interests do they serve? What values do they embody? Do we, for
example, share the common assumption that the primary purpose of
English language learning is to prepare our students for the twenty-first
century workplace and that this training should be measured in terms of
efficiency and efficacy? Can language learning be engineered to be more
efficient? Do we believe that technology is an indispensable part of this
training? Is the point of social-emotional interventions in the classroom
mainly to improve learning efficiency, or is it more a question of basic
humanistic respect and inclusivity? Can it be both?

118
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.034 Published online by Cambridge University Press
 We can only evaluate, in any meaningful way, the insights from research
evidence by trying things out in our own classrooms, and I hope that
this little book will encourage you to do that. At the same time, I believe
that it would help us to explore further the values systems that underlie
the various claims on our time. Unfortunately, I have no evidence to
back up this claim: it is purely a value statement of my own.

Boers, F. (2021). Evaluating Second Language Vocabulary and Grammar Instruction. New
York: Routledge.

Ellis, R. and Shintani, N. (2014). Exploring Language Pedagogy through Second

Language Acquisition Research. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible Learning. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Lethaby, C., Mayne, R. and Harries, P. (2021). An Introduction to Evidence-Based

Teaching in the English Language Classroom. Shoreham-by-Sea, UK: Pavilion Publishing.

119
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009072564.034 Published online by Cambridge University Press