Cognitive approach SAQs

Question 1. Explain one model of memory with reference to one study.

HM Milner/ Stroop 1935

We will use memory as our cognitive
process.
▪ The three models/theories of memory we
will use are the Multistore Model of Memory
(Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968), Levels of
Processing Theory (Craik and Lockhart,
1972) and the Working Memory Model
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) argue that
humans have three (multiple) memory
stores: sensory store, short-term store,
long-term store.
▪ Each store has different qualities in
different areas.
▪ Duration – length information is stored
(how long).
▪ Capacity – volume of information stored
(how much).
▪ Coding – kinds of information stored
(what). The sensory store has a unlimited capacity,
and they are unique to a specific sense; one
sensory store for a specific sense.
▪ Billions of bits of information, each
potentially able to become a long-term
memory, confronts us in any give second,
minute, etc.
▪ Visual information is stored in iconic
memory.
▪ Auditory information is stored in echoic
memory.
▪ Information in the sensory stores decays
rapidly: iconic memory lasts no more than a
second; echoic memory no more than four
seconds.
▪ In order for information to be transferred
from the sensory store to the short-term store
attention must be given. Short-term memory (STM) has a limited
capacity and duration.
▪ On average, it can only hold seven units
of information at a time for a maximum of
30 seconds. (Miller, 1956)
▪ The control process of rehearsal
maintains information in the STM.
▪ Enough rehearsal can result in the
transfer of information from the STM to
the long-term memory (LTM) store.
▪ LTM has an unlimited capacity and
duration.
▪ Information moved from LTM to STM
undergoes the control process of
retrieval AKA “working memory”.

Question 2. Explain schema theory with reference to one study.

Loftus & Palmer 1974/Brewer & Treyens 1981

A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that
helps organize and interpret information.
▪ Schema theory is a theory of knowledge organization,
of how information and knowledge are stored in the
brain.
▪ Describes an organized pattern of thought or behavior.
▪ It can also be described as a mental structure of pre-
conceived ideas, a framework representing some
aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and
perceiving new information.
▪ DiMaggio (1997) suggests that schema are
▪ Mental representations of knowledge (e.g.
stereotypes and social roles).
▪ Mechanisms that simplify cognition in the form of
“cognitive shortcuts.”
▪ Based in and formed by culture. Gender schemas
are examples of culturally-based schemas
Schema affect memory.
▪ People tend to remember the meaning (gist) of
something, not the actual wording.
▪ People use stored knowledge to make sense of
incoming information. If the information is unclear or
incomplete, they fill in the blanks or interpret using
their schemas. This is called “reconstructive
memory” and sometimes results in distortion.
▪ People tend to ignore information that is not in line
with their schemas (aschematic information). This
may lead to bias in information processing (e.g.
stereotyping).
▪ People tend to focus on information that is in line with
their schemas. This may result in confirmation bias.

Question 3. Explain one model of thinking and decision making with reference to one study.

Tversky & Kahnemann (1974)/ Tversky & Kahnemann (1986);

hinking modifies information
▪Examples are: analysis, synthesis
and categorization
▪Generates new knowledge
▪Decision-making is about making a
choice between alternatives
▪Before we can choose, we must think
about different alternatives
dual
process theory which has become the core of his
bestselling book Thinking, Fast and Slow (2011), which
is a must-read if you have an interest in cognitive
biases and behavioral economics.
▪ According to the theory, thinking has two systems;
system 1 thinking is fast, instinctive, emotional,
automatic and relatively unconscious, whereas system
2 thinking is slower, more analytical, logical, rule-
based and conscious. System 1 is commonly referred
to as “intuition”.
▪ We use system 1 in the majority of common situations,
but we switch to system 2 when the situation is unusual
and complex or when we encounter difficulties with
our intuitive response. By this reasoning, our thinking
works sequentially: first, there is a fast and automatic
system 1 response, and then this response is (or is not)
corrected by the more conscious cognitive efforts of
system 2.

Question 4. Explain one ethical consideration in one study of one cognitive process.

HM Milner
Ability to consent and refuse
Right to withdraw
Discuss the questionable aspects

Question 5. Explain the use of one research method in one study of one cognitive process.

Loftus & Palmer 1974

Experiment
IV/DV
Controlled variable
memory

Question 6. Explain the Working Memory Model with reference to one study.

Stroop 1935
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed their ‘working
memory model’ as an alternative to the short-term store in
Atkinson & Shiffrin's 'multi-store' memory model (1968).
This model builds off of the multi-store model. However,
they believe that STM is a single store and is broken down
into many components. This model attempts to describe a
more accurate model of Short Term Memory (STM).
The Central Executive: controlling system that monitors
and coordinates the operations of other components
* most important job is “attentional control” which is
accomplished in two ways:
a. Automatic level is based on habit and controlled
more or less automatically by stimuli from the
environment.
b. Supervisory Attentional Level: deals w/
emergencies or creates new strategies when the old
ones are no longer sufficient. The Episodic Buffer: the role of the buffer is to act
as a temporary and passive display store until the
information is needed – much like a television
screen.
The Phonological Loop: divided into two
components
a. Articulatory control system, or inner
voice, which can hold information in a verbal
form. (ex. When you try to remember a
telephone # and repeat it to yourself.)
b. Phonological Store, or inner ear. It holds
speech-based material in a phonological form.
The Visuospatial Sketchpad: also called the inner
eye; and deals w/ visual and spatial info from
either sensory memory or LTM.
Today we use “dual-task techniques” to
illustrate the presence of working
memory.
▪ This is when you ask a participant to
carry out a cognitive task while carrying
out another and hope that the 1st task is
“interfering” the 2nd.
▪ If the two tasks interfere with each other
so that one or both are impaired, it is
believed that both tasks use the same
component of STM.
▪ Stroop Effect (1935) is an example of a
dual-task experiment.
Question 7 Explain the Multi Store Model with reference to one study.

HM Milner
tkinson and Shiffrin (1968) argue that
humans have three (multiple) memory
stores: sensory store, short-term store,
long-term store.
▪ Each store has different qualities in
different areas.
▪ Duration – length information is stored
(how long).
▪ Capacity – volume of information stored
(how much).
▪ Coding – kinds of information stored
(what).
IB Learning Outcome: Evaluate two models or
theories of one cognitive process with reference
to research studies.
he sensory store has a unlimited capacity,
and they are unique to a specific sense; one
sensory store for a specific sense.
▪ Billions of bits of information, each
potentially able to become a long-term
memory, confronts us in any give second,
minute, etc.
▪ Visual information is stored in iconic
memory.
▪ Auditory information is stored in echoic
memory.
▪ Information in the sensory stores decays
rapidly: iconic memory lasts no more than a
second; echoic memory no more than four
seconds.
▪ In order for information to be transferred
from the sensory store to the short-term store
attention must be given. Short-term memory (STM) has a limited
capacity and duration.
▪ On average, it can only hold seven units
of information at a time for a maximum of
30 seconds. (Miller, 1956)
▪ The control process of rehearsal
maintains information in the STM.
▪ Enough rehearsal can result in the
transfer of information from the STM to
the long-term memory (LTM) store.
▪ LTM has an unlimited capacity and
duration.
▪ Information moved from LTM to STM
undergoes the control process of
retrieval AKA “working memory”.

Question 8. Explain reconstructive memory with reference to one study.

Loftus & Palmer 1974

IB Learning Outcome: Evaluate schema theory.
▪ Schema affect memory.
▪ People tend to remember the meaning (gist) of
something, not the actual wording.
▪ People use stored knowledge to make sense of
incoming information. If the information is unclear or
incomplete, they fill in the blanks or interpret using
their schemas. This is called “reconstructive
memory” and sometimes results in distortion.
▪ People tend to ignore information that is not in line
with their schemas (aschematic information). This
may lead to bias in information processing (e.g.
stereotyping

Question 9. Explain one bias in thinking and decision making with reference to one study.
Tversky & Kahnemann (1974);/ Tversky & Kahnemann (1986)
Herusitic-mental shorcuts which may cause errors sometimes
As you completed the task about the age of Barack
Obama, you might have been wondering what the
last two digits of your phone number have to do
with Barack Obama's age when he became
President. Despite the obvious irrelevance of the
two numbers, in similar experiments, people
whose phone number ends in a high value (say 87)
tend to estimate a higher age for Obama
becoming President than people whose phone
number ends in a low value (say 17). This makes
no logical sense, but is a well replicated research
finding. How can this be explained?
In order for System 1 to come up with a fast,
effortless answer, it has to make use of mental
shortcuts, otherwise known as heuristics. These
heuristics help System 1 come up with a
decent guess to a question with little mental
effort. However, their use leads to biases in
decision making. ne example of a System 1 bias is the anchoring
effect. The anchoring effect involves making use of a
reference point, or anchor, in coming up with an
estimate. If you have a particular number in mind, no
matter where this number came from, it will influence
any estimate you subsequently make. In the Obama
example, people whose phone number ended in a high
value had a high anchor, and subsequently tended to
over-estimate the age that Obama became President,
while the opposite was true for people whose phone
number ended in a low value.
Let's imagine how this might work. If your phone
number ends in a high value, say 87, you obviously
know that Obama was younger than 87 when he
became President. So, you begin adjusting the number
downwards, until you arrive at a number that "seems
right" - perhaps around 55. On the other hand, if your
phone number ends in a low value, say 17, you would
adjust this value upwards until you reach a reasonable
figure - perhaps around 40. By starting from a different
reference point, you end up with a very different
estimate for Obama's age. (In case you were wondering,
Obama actually became President at the age of 47).

Question 10. Explain one study of the influence of emotion on one cognitive process.

Neisser & Harsch (1992),

flashbulb memories are distinctly vivid, precise,
concrete, long-lasting memories of a personal
circumstance surrounding a person’s discovery of
shocking events.

Question 11. Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the reliability of cognitive
processes.

Loftus & Palmer

Some level of deception about purpose of study was about speed estimation
Manipulated by researchers to see the effects

Question 12. Explain the use of one research method in one study of the reliability of
cognitive processes.
Loftus & Palmer
Experiment
IV/DV
Controlled variable
Design
Causation vs corellation in relationships by data
Question 13. Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the effect of emotion on
cognition.
Neisser and Hirsch
Distress and protection of participant
Asked 1 day after explosion(disregard for particpant mental state for a good study)
Traumaizing evet

Question 14. Explain the use of one research method in one study of the effect of emotion on
cognition.
Neisser and Hirsch
flashbulb memories are distinctly vivid, precise,
concrete, long-lasting memories of a personal
circumstance surrounding a person’s discovery of
shocking events ie suprise/shock.
Natural experiment with questionarre

HM Milner
HM underwent neurosurgery in 1953 for seizure

disorder (epilepsy).

▪ Two-thirds of his hippocampus and most of his

amygdala were removed.

▪ His seizures were reduced, but for the remainder of his

life he was unable to form episodic and semantic

memories. His short-term memory was limited in

duration to about 30 seconds.

▪ He could establish some new procedural memories.

▪ Some memories from before his surgery remained.

▪ His personality remained unchanged. He had no

intellectual impairment.

▪ Big Idea: Memory is more complex than just a function

of the hippocampus.

A ccording to Suzanne Corkin, who studied HM from 1962

until his death in 2008, the case led to three major scientific

contributions:

▪ 1. A person could lack a way to turn short-term memories

into long-term memories and still have average or above

average intelligence. Memory is compartmentalized; it

takes place in specialized areas, independent of

intelligence.

▪ 2. The ability to form new semantic and episodic memories

is located in the hippocampus.

▪ 3. But there are different kinds of memory, and they are

located in different parts of the brain.

▪ HM could learn new motor skills (procedural memory).

Later in life, for instance, he learned to use a walker.

And showed the ability to improve on line-drawing

tests (Corkin, 2002). The creation of this type of

memory is localized to the striatum and cerebellum.

Evaluation:

Surgery was successful in stopping seizures,

though resulting brain damage was not

anticipated.

▪ HM was studied for over 50 years, and he

was tested in many ways (cognitive test,

observations, MRIs).
▪ His case contributed greatly to the

understanding of memory and localization of

function.

▪ HM could not remember all of the times he

participated in research, so his ability to

consent can be questioned. The importance

of the case, though, seem to outweigh this

Stroop 1935
Aim
To investigate whether the automatic process of reading words (system 1) interferes with naming
a colour (system 2)
Method
Lab experiment; repeated measures design
IV
Whether the colours the words were printed in were congruent (same word and print) or
incongruent.
DV
Response time and amount of errors
Procedure
Participants got several word list which only included colours. These some of these lists were
printed in a way so colour and word was congruent, others so they were incongruent. The
participants were asked to, as fast as they could with as few errors as they could, say the colour
of the print regardless of what the actual word was. If they made errors, they were told to correct
them. Time taken and errors made were recorded.
Results
When colour and word was incongruent, the participant took more time and made more errors.
Conclusion
When the word and print is incongruent, system one gives the information of the word while
system two gives information about the colour. When these are not the same, system one
interferes and it takes longer time to answer since the brain needs to decide which information to
use. When the information is the same, no decision is needed so it goes faster.

Loftus & Palmer 1974

Aim - To investigate if memory can be altered by

misleading post-event information (in an

eyewitness situation).

Method - Experiment; independent measures

design.

Participants - University students, convenience

samples. Experiment 1 —45 students, 5 groups;

experiment 2—1 50 students, 3 groups.

Procedure
Experiment 1: participants were shown

recordings of traffic accidents, then they were

given a questionnaire with a number of questions

about the accident they had just witnessed. Only

one of these questions was critical for the

research: “About how fast were the cars going

when they hit each other?”

The five groups in experiment 1 only differed in

the emotional intensity of the verb used in that

sentence. The verbs used were: group 1 “

smashed” ; group 2 “collided” ; group 3

“bumped” ; group 4 “hit” ; group 5 “contacted”

The independent variable (IV) was therefore the

misleading post-event information,

operationalized as the emotional intensity of the

verb in the question. The dependent variable

(DV) was the speed estimate.

Experiment 2: participants were shown a film of

a car accident. After the film they filled out a

questionnaire. Three groups of participants got

three different versions of the critical question:

group 1 “smashed into each other”; group 2 “hit

each other”; group 3: no critical question (control

group). A week later, participants were given

another questionnaire that consisted of 1 0

questions and included one critical yes/no

question: “Did you see any broken glass?” The IV

in experiment 2 was therefore the emotional

intensity of the verb in the leading question and

the DV was whether or not participants reported

having seen broken glass. In reality there was no

broken glass Results - Experiment 1: the mean speed

estimates varied significantly for the five groups.

Conclusion - Experiment 1 clearly demonstrated

that misleading post-event information influences

eyewitness accounts of an event. However, there

could be two potential explanations for this

finding.

• There could be genuine memory change (the

question causes a change in the participant’s

representation of the event).

• There could be response bias (memory of the

event does not change, but verbs of a higher

emotional intensity causes participants to give

higher estimates when they are uncertain). Results - Experiment 2: emotional intensity of the
verb in the leading question influenced the

probability that participants would report seeing

broken glass in the video.

Conclusion - Experiment 2 was conducted to

rule out the second explanation. Since it

demonstrated that verbs of a higher emotional

intensity may cause participants to recall events

that never occurred, researchers concluded that

we should reject the response bias explanation

and accept genuine memory change.

Tversky & Kahneman

Aim
to test the influence of the anchoring bias on decision-making (An anchor is the first piece of
information offered to someone who is asked to solve a problem or make a decision
Method
lab experiment (Many problems were presented to the participants and a few different biases as
well). The following IV and DV is from the most well known part of the study.)
IV
Whether the anchor was a low or a high number (ASCENDING CONDITION: One condition
was asked to estimate the product 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 X 5 X 6 X 7 X 8. DECSENDING
CONDITION: Participants in the other condition were asked to quickly estimate the value of 8 X
7 X 6 X 5 X 4 X 3 X 2 X 1.
DV
The estimated product
Participants
high school students
Procedure
Participants were asked to make many types of decisions. Here are two. As I said, the first one is
the most well known:

- They were asked to compute within 5 seconds the product of the numbers one through eight
(either in ascending order or descending order). The product is the same. Since they didn't have
time to finish the calculation, they had to make an intuitive numerical calculation based on the
first calculations.

- The researchers spun a roulette that was pre-set to either stop at 10 (low anchor) or 65 (high
anchor), which was the IV in this part. Then they were asked to estimate in percentages, how
many African countries were in the UN. (Remember that they were given other problems as
well.)

Since we read from left to right, the researchers assumed that group 1 would use "1" as an anchor
and predict a lower value than the group that started with "8" as the anchor. They also assumed
that the anchor of 10 or 65 would influence the estimate of African countries in the second
problem.
Results
they found that when the "anchor" was smaller, so was the final estimate. The median for the
ascending group (that started with 1x2...was 512; the median for the descending group (8x7...)
was 2250. The actual value is 40320. In the other problem with African countries, the median
estimate was 25% when the roulette showed 10 and 45% when the wheel showed 65. Payoffs for
accuracy (which means that they got a reward for accuracy) didn't reduce this bias, which
probably means that it is beyond our control.
Conclusion
The first number seen by the participants seems to have biased the final estimate. Since they had
no time to calculate in 5 seconds, they had to make an estimation based on the first few
multiplications. When those numbers where smaller, the estimate was smaller.

Neisser and Harsch

Background: designed to test the flashbulb memory theory, stating that when people experience
emotional events exceeding values of consequentiality, they form special memories that are more
vivid, detailed, accurate, and long-lasting than regular memories. this supposedly happens
because of a special brain mechanism that connects emotions with memory, but also because
people rehearse the emotional event overtly (public) and covertly (individually)

Aim to investigate people's memory accuracy pf the incident when the secen astronauts aboard
the Space Shuttle Challenger were killed in a tragic accident in 1986.
it also investigated the participants' confidence in the accuracy of their memories.
Participants
106 introductory psychology students
Procedure
participants were given a questionnaire and were asked to write about their memories of when
they first heard of the accident (reception context) less than 24 hours after the accident.
2.5 years later, 44 of the original participants answered the questions again. this time they were
also asked to rate how confident they were of the accuracy of their memory on a scale of 1 to 5.
the participants were also asked if they had filled out the questionnaire of the subject before.
sometime after the last questionnaires, the researcher semi-structured an interview to test
whether the participants could remember what they had previously written. participants then saw
their original reports from the first questionnaire.
Results
only 11/44 participants remembered that they had filled out the questionnaire before.
there were major discrepancies between the original questionnaire and the follow-up. the mean
score of correctness of recall of 7 questions was 2.95/7 (for 11 pps the score was 0; 22 pps scored
2 or less).
24 hrs after the disaster, 21% reported that they had heard about it on TV. 2 years later, 45% said
they had heard about it on TV.
40% had distorted memories in the final reports. at least 25% were wrong about every major
detail 2.5 years later. only 10% gave the same details.
the participants were very confident in the accuracy of their memories. confidence had no
correlation with accuracy.
Conclusion
even though people are confident in the accuracy of their flashbulb memories, the memories
themselves actually change over time. inaccuracy of emotional memories is common.
Method
questionnaire (retrospective study)
Critical thinking: methodological considerations
strengths
- relatively cheap, quick, and efficient way of gathering information from a large sample of
people
- high ecological validity

limitations
- social desirability --> false responses
- low reliability (internal validity)
- no cause and effect relationship
Critical thinking: alternative explanations
the memories of the participants may have been reconstructed or been influenced by schemas,
lowering the reliability of their ,as external information (overt rehearsal) may have had a greater
impact than individual recall (covert rehearsal)
Critical thinking: gender bias
although not specified, it can be assumed that both men and women participated in the
experiment, thus suggesting that there is no gender bias
Critical thinking: ethical considerations
the study was ethical because there was informed consent, the participants were not deceived,
they were debriefed, their identities remained confidential, they could withdraw, and they were
protected from mental (mostly) and physical harm
Critical thinking: cultural considerations
although the ethnicity or cultural background of the participants was not revealed (due to
confidentiality), the experiment is considered culturally biased as it took place in a WEIRD
country, implying that the same findings may not apply to foreign cultures
Critical thinking: applications
these findings about flashbulb memory can be used in criminal investigations and the
examination of historical documents/sources and their validity
How does this study demonstrate the aspects of flashbulb memory?
as only elements of surprise consequentiality and reception context were displayed by the results
of the study, this study does not completely support the theory; as the findings imply that the
memories of the participants was not long-lasting, accurate, distinct from everyday memories, or
influenced by a special neural mechanism, the study does not support the existence of flashbulb
memories according the the theory suggested by Brown and Kulik in 1977