Karl Marx, (i) ‘Mode of Production: The Basis of Social Life’ (ii) ‘The Social Nature of

Consciousness’

Introduction:
I. Mode of Production: The Basis of Social Life (a) The Law of Social Development

Karl Marx was a prominent thinker who lived from 1818 to 1883. He is well-known for his
influence on the establishment of numerous communist regimes in the twentieth century.
Although he initially studied philosophy, Marx shifted his focus to economics and politics in
his mid-twenties. However, his later works still touch upon various philosophical debates,
particularly in the fields of history, social sciences, morality, and politics.

Marx's body of work offers a substantial and powerful critique of modern society from various
angles. While he is famous for his strong criticism of capitalism, he also presents significant
philosophical and cultural arguments. It is important for readers to consider whether any of
Marx's work can be interpreted in ways that do not align with his revolutionary intentions.
Marx's work is typically divided into two periods: the early period, characterized by
metaphysical and idealistic ideas, and the later period, marked by a more mature, scientific,
and materialistic approach. His most well-known works include the pamphlet "The
Communist Manifesto" and the three-volume "Das Kapital."

The political and philosophical ideas of Marx had a profound impact on subsequent
intellectual, economic, and political cultures. Not only is his name commonly used as an
adjective, but it has also become synonymous with a particular school of social theory.

I. Mode of Production: The Basis of Social Life

(a) The Law of Social Development

Explanatory Notes:

In this section, Marx challenges all idealist philosophical theories that share the belief that
the "external world" is somehow created by the mind. Idealism does not dispute the ordinary
person's perception that material things exist; however, it disagrees with the notion that the
material world is entirely independent of the mind. Marx heavily relies on the philosophy of
Hegel, particularly his thesis that change must be explained in terms of contradiction. While
Hegel's philosophy is a form of Idealism, Marx defines his philosophy as dialectical
materialism, which emphasizes the "transformation of quantity into quality." Dialectical
materialism asserts that matter is fundamental and primary, and it establishes general laws
that govern the motion and development of all matter. According to this view, matter is not
static but contains inherent tensions or "contradictions" that act as the driving force for
change. Dialectical materialists do not propose a reductive theory; they do not claim that
everything is solely matter. Their main concern is to oppose idealism, asserting that matter is
not a product of the mind but that the mind is the highest product of matter. This implies that
the mind does not derive from matter alone but emerges from it in a qualitatively different
way.
While dialectical materialism is a metaphysical doctrine, Marx employs historical materialism
to explain the specific laws that govern the development of human society and thought. In
direct opposition to idealism, Marx states that "it is not the consciousness of men that
determines their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their
consciousness." The social, political, legal, and spiritual processes within a society are
determined by the material conditions of life in that society, not by the overall progress of
human thought. The economic structure of society, known as the mode of production, serves
as the foundation upon which its legal and socio-political superstructures are built. These
superstructures correspond to specific forms of social consciousness.

The mode of production refers to the unique interconnectedness between the forces of
production and the relations of production. The forces of production are shaped by the
application of technology at any given level, while the relations of production involve the
relationship between those who perform the productive work and those who control the
production process. Depending on the mode of production, various structures of economic
exploitation arise. For example, in a capitalist society, the base of the economy includes
industrial production techniques, labor and commodity markets, whereas in a feudal society,
the base involves pre-industrial production and serfdom. The economic or material base,
known as the mode of production, influences the superstructure, which encompasses the
non-economic aspects of social life such as the state, law, family, and religion.

The transition from one mode of production to another is typically accompanied by violent
conflict. This violence is driven by the inherently conservative nature of the relations of
production, which resist change, in contrast to the dynamic forces of production. Revolution
occurs when a contradiction arises between the forces of production and the relations of
production. For example, the industrial revolution took place when the feudal relations of
production proved insufficient for harnessing industrial technology. Similarly, the capitalist
class had to overthrow the feudal relations of production, characterized by landlord-serf
relationships, in order to establish a free labor force. As the economic foundation changes,
the superstructure also transforms. Conflicts and contradictions within the economic base
often manifest in the ideological forms of the superstructure, such as the legal and
sociopolitical systems. A particular social order only disappears when all its productive
forces have reached their full development, and new, higher relations of production emerge
once the material conditions necessary for their existence have matured within the old
society.

Marx identifies six historical epochs: primitive communism, ancient slave society, feudalism,
capitalism, socialism, and communism. According to Marx, the bourgeois relations of
production in the capitalist system represent the final antagonistic form of the social process
of production. Thus, the capitalist social formation represents the concluding phase of the
prehistoric stage of human society.

(b) Man’s thought Corresponds to his Social Relations

In this section, Marx expands on two important points that have already been discussed
earlier.

1. Social relations are shaped not only by human actions but also by the material forces of
production. For example, when individuals engage in the production of cloth, linen, or silk,
they enter into specific relations of production. These relations are not solely created by
human beings but are also influenced by the material forces involved in their production,
such as the properties and characteristics of the cloth, linen, or silk. When people acquire
new productive forces, they change their mode of production, and this change in turn leads
to a transformation in social relations. For instance, the introduction of the hand mill gave
rise to feudal society, while the steam mill led to the emergence of industrial capitalist
society.

2. When social relations align with the level of material productivity, principles and ideas that
correspond to those social relations are also generated. Just as social relations are
temporary and subject to change (as they transform with shifts in the mode of production),
the ideas and principles that arise from a particular set of social relations are also transitory.
Material forces of production, social relations of production, and the resulting ideas and
categories are all impermanent. The only thing that remains certain and everlasting amidst
this constant flux is "mors immortalis" or eternal death.

In summary, Marx emphasizes that social relations are influenced by both human actions
and the material forces of production. Changes in the mode of production lead to shifts in
social relations, and the ideas and principles that emerge from these relations are also
temporary. Amidst this ever-changing process, the only constant is the inevitability of death.

II. The Social Nature of Consciousness

In this section, Marx refutes the philosophy of the idealist young Hegelians in Germany. He
argues that in order to understand human beings in their real form, we should not start from
what people say, imagine, or conceive. Instead, the process is the reverse. We should begin
with real active individuals and examine their actual life processes, which then shape their
ideological reflections. Therefore, the movement is not from the realm of ideas to the
material world (heaven to earth), but rather from material existence and life processes to the
realm of ideas (earth to heaven). Marx asserts that both our objective circumstances and our
subjective ideas inevitably change and develop throughout history, and this development is
driven by the material forces of the economy. The economic system under which people live
and the social position they occupy within that system determine their consciousness. Marx
states that "Life is not determined by consciousness but consciousness by life."

Morality, religion, metaphysics, and other forms of ideology and consciousness do not
independently have a history or undergo development. Their development is intimately
linked with the development of human material production and social interactions. However,
in all forms of ideology, individuals and their circumstances appear distorted, like an image in
a camera obscura, because ideology is a distorted form of consciousness that arises from
historical life processes.

These views expressed by Marx and Engels in "The German Ideology" have contributed
significantly to a crude form of materialism, where ideological phenomena are explained
solely by reference to economic developments. However, Marx argues for a more dialectical
approach. He challenges the opposition between subject and object, idealism and
materialism. He asserts that while thinking and being are distinct, they are also unified with
each other. Marx intends his method to be a synthesis of idealism and materialism, a
consistent materialism or humanism that encompasses the unifying truth of both. In such a
synthesis, history ceases to be a collection of lifeless facts or an imagined activity of
imagined subjects. The limitations of both materialists and idealists arise from their
perception of standing outside the historical process. Marx contends that since history is
driven by the dialectical interaction of the ideal and the material, the contradiction between
these terms will be abolished once it is understood that philosophical ideas themselves are
part of the material process they describe.

III. Classes and Ideology

Marx introduces the concept of ideology as a critical tool in understanding society. He argues
that the ideas of the ruling class are the dominant ideas in society. This means that the ruling
class shapes the understanding and knowledge of the world, particularly in the social realm,
based on its own political interests. The beliefs and perspectives that serve the interests of
the dominant class may not align with the interests of the subordinate classes. For example,
in feudalism, it was in the interests of the ruling class to promote the idea of the divine right
of kingship, which justified the authority of the king and aristocracy as being bestowed by
God and therefore unquestionable.

The dominant class has the ability to disseminate its ideas throughout society due to its
control over various forms of communication and education, such as mass media, the
church, and schools. Ideology functions to neutralize and legitimize the existing social order,
serving to uphold and validate the dominant class's position of power. From a Marxist
perspective, ideology is seen as a distortion of reality.

Marx further argues that the ruling class not only controls the means of material production
but also the means of mental production. As a result, the ideas of those who lack access to
the means of mental production are influenced and shaped by the ruling class's ideology.
Within the ruling class itself, there is a division between those who are engaged in mental
labor, such as intellectuals and thinkers, and those who are actively involved in controlling
the means of production.

However, in times of threat or crisis to the ruling class, the opposition and hostility between
these two parts of the ruling class tend to dissolve. Marx emphasizes that when examining
history, it would be a mistake to view ideas as having an independent existence separate
from the ruling class. Ideas are intricately linked to the interests and perspectives of the
ruling class, and they play a significant role in shaping and maintaining the existing social
order.

Excerpts from ‘On Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection’ Charles Darwin