Structural
Functionalism Symbolic
Marxism
Interactionism
Sociological Theory/Structural Functionalism
Structural functionalism, in sociology and other social sciences, a school of
thought according to which each of the institutions, relationships, roles, and norms that
together constitute a society serves a purpose, and each is indispensable for the continued
existence of the others and of society as a whole.
It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures, which are relatively stable
patterns of social behavior. Social structures give shape to our lives - for example, in families,
the community, and through religious organizations. And certain rituals, such as a handshake
or complex religious ceremonies, give structure to our everyday lives. Each social structure
has social functions, or consequences for the operation of society as a whole. Education, for
example, has several important functions in a society, such as socialization, learning.
Functionalism also states that society is like an organism, made up of different parts that
work together. Thus, one of the key ideas in Structural Functionalism is that society is made-
up of groups or institutions, which are cohesive, share common norms, and have a definitive
culture.
For example, one function of a society's laws may be to protect society from
violence, while another is to punish criminal behavior, while another is to preserve public
health. Another noted structural functionalist, Robert Merton (1910–
2003), pointed out that social processes often have many functions. The primary
concepts within Functionalism are collective conscience, value consensus, social order,
education, family, crime and deviance and the media. Structural- Functionalists see education
as contributing to the smooth functioning of society. They would NOT see education as
contributing to inequality but rather as serving the positive function of the overall society.
Functionalist sociologists like Parsons and Durkheim have been concerned with the search
for functions that institutions may have in society.
According to the functionalist perspective of sociology, each aspect of society is
interdependent and contributes to society's stability and functioning as a whole. For example,
the government provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on
which the state depends to keep itself running.
Sociologists have identified two types of functions: a. manifest; and b. latent (Merton
1968). Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized.
Latent functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden.
Marxism
Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx,
which examines the effect of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development
and argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of communism. The
definition of Marxism is the theory of Karl Marx which says that society's classes are the
cause of struggle and that society should have no classes. An example of Marxism is
replacing private ownership with co-operative ownership.
Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx,
which examines the effect of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development
and argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of communism. Marxism
posits that the struggle between social classes, specifically between the bourgeoisie, or
capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines economic relations in a capitalist economy
and will inevitably lead to revolutionary communism.
Key Takeaways
Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory originated by Karl Marx, which
focuses on the struggle between capitalists and the working class.
Marx wrote that the power relationships between capitalists and workers were
inherently exploitative and would inevitably create class conflict.
He believed that this conflict would ultimately lead to a revolution in which the
working class would overthrow the capitalist class and seize control of the economy.
Key Ideas of Karl Marx
1. Capitalist Society is divided into two classes.
The Bourgeoisie or the Capitalist class are the ones who own and control the
wealth of a country. These control the productive forces in society (what Marx called
the economic base), which basically consisted of land, factories and machines that
could be used to produce goods that could then be sold for a profit.
2. The bourgeoisie increase their wealth by exploiting the proletariat.
Marx argued that the bourgeoisie maintain and increase their wealth through
exploiting the working class.
3. Those who have economic power control all other institutions in society.
Marx argued that those who control the Economic Base also control the
Superstructure – that is, those who have wealth or economic power also have political
power and control over the rest of society.
4. Ideological Control
Marx argued that the ruling classes used their control of social institutions to
gain ideological dominance, or control over the way people think in society. Marx
argued that the ideas of the ruling classes were presented as common sense and
natural and thus unequal, exploitative relationships were accepted by the proletariat as
the norm.
5. The result of the above is false class consciousness.
The end result of ideological control is false consciousness – where the
masses, or proletariat are deluded into thinking that everything is fine and that the
appalling in which they live and work are inevitable. This delusion is known as False
Consciousness. In Marxist terms, the masses suffer from false class consciousness and
fail to realize their common interest against their exploiters.
6. Revolution and Communism
As far as Marx was concerned, he had realized the truth – Capitalism was
unjust but people just hadn’t realized it! He believed that political action was
necessary to ‘wake up’ the proletariat and bring them to revolutionary class
consciousness. Eventually, following a revolution, private property would be
abolished and with it the profit motive and the desire to exploit. In the communist
society, people would be more equal, have greater freedom and be happier.
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is viewing society as composed of symbols that people
use to establish meaning, develop views about the world, and communicate with one another.
We are thinking beings who act according to how we interpret situations. The main principles
of symbolic interactionism are: Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings
that things have for them. These meanings arise out of social interaction. Social action results
from a fitting together of individual lines of action. The importance of symbols to the
development of humans both as individuals and collectives is at the heart of symbolic
interaction theory. Symbolic interactionism is essentially about how the presence of symbols
is fundamental to the existence of societies, our self-concepts, and our minds.
The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major
framework of the sociological theory. This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that
people develop and build upon in the process of social interaction. Although symbolic
interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's assertion that individuals act according to
their interpretation of the meaning of their world, the American philosopher George Herbert
Mead introduced this perspective to American sociology in the 1920s.
Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings
that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. Subjective meanings are given primacy
because it is believed that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is
objectively true. Thus, society is thought to be socially constructed through human
interpretation. People interpret one another’s behavior, and it is these interpretations that form
the social bond. These interpretations are called the “definition of the situation.”
For example, why would young people smoke cigarettes even when all objective
medical evidence points to the dangers of doing so?1 The answer is in the definition of the
situation that people create. Studies find that teenagers are well informed about the risks of
tobacco, but they also think that smoking is cool, that they will be safe from harm, and that
smoking projects a positive image to their peers. So, the symbolic meaning of smoking
overrides the facts regarding smoking and risk. (Ashley Crossman, January 30,
