LESSON 4: The Major Social Science Theories

The social sciences are not only composed of disciplines that showcase how it views
and studies every facet of society. The disciplines prove how social science is applicable and
practical, meaning that the social sciences are things that you can use every day to understand
reality much better. Without the disciplines, the social sciences would not exist at all.

But the social sciences also have theoretical foundations and ideological thrusts. That is
why apart from the disciplines, the social sciences have what we call the dominant approaches
and ideas that are present within the different disciplines. These are the roots of a discipline, or
better yet, the very inspiration of the different social sciences. A particular approach or ideology
has the capacity to influence all of the disciplines, for the theory that each ideology provides
encompasses all of the disciplines and affects them in many ways. This module shall discuss
different dominant approaches and ideas that are present in today’s society, and how each of
these approaches and ideas play a role in the character and everyday living of society.

Functionalism

According to Vincent, 2001, Functionalism, also called structural- functional theory, sees
society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of
the individuals in that society.

Functionalist sociologists like Parsons and Durkheim have been concerned with the
search for functions that institutions may have in society.

However, another functionalist sociologist R. Merton has adopted a concept of

dysfunction – this refers to the effects of any institution which detracts from the conservation of
society.

An example of a function which helps maintain society is that of the family, its function is
to ensure the continuity of society by reproducing and socializing new members.

Another institution which performs an important function is religion functionalist

sociologists believe that it helps achieve social solidarity and shared norms and values,
however it could be argued that it fails to do this as a result of increasing secularization in recent
years and therefore it creates a divide between members of society rather than binding them
together (moral glue).
Table 1: Concepts of Structural - Functionalism According to Quexbook, 2018

CONCEPTS DESCRIPTIONS

Collective Conscience ● Functionalists believe that without collective conscience/

and Value Consensus shared values and beliefs, achieving social order is
impossible and social order is crucial for the well-being of
society.
● They believe that value consensus forms the basic
integrating principle in society. And if members of society
have shared values, they therefore also have similar
identities, this helps cooperation and avoids conflict.
● Value consensus also ensures that people have shared:
Goals, Roles and Norms. Norms can be described as
specific guidelines of appropriate behavior; for example,
queuing when buying thing.

Social Order ● Functionalists believe that there are four main basic needs
that an individual requires in order to exist in society.
● They also believe that these four basic needs are
essential for maintaining social order. They are: food,
shelter, money and clothing.

Functionalism and ● Durkheim believes that education transmits society’s

Education norms and values. Education brings together a mass and
changes them into a united whole which leads to social
solidarity.
● Parsons (1961) believes that education leads to
universalistic values and that education performs a link
between family and the wider society which in turn leads to
secondary socialization.
● Education also allows people to train for their future roles
in society. Schools instill the value of achievement and the
value of equality of opportunity.
● Education helps match people with jobs suited to them.

Functionalism and ● George Peter Murdock believes that the family provides
Family four vital functions for society: sexual, reproductive,
economic, and educational.
● The family is the primary point of socialization in that it
provides children with values and norms. Family also
stabilizes adult personalities.
● A family unit provides emotional security for each person
in the relationship.

Functionalism and Media ● The media operate in the public interest by reflecting the
interests of the audience. It portrays public opinion.
● The media understands that society has a wide diversity
of culture and this is shown by the different amounts of
stories it covers.
 Functionalism and Crime ● Durkheim shows us that there is such a thing as society,
and Deviance and that it is this entity called society that creates crime
and deviance.
● Crime and deviance are socially constructed – they are
not natural, obvious, or theologically inspired categories.
● They are concepts that were brought into the world solely
by humankind.
● Moreover, Durkheim goes beyond this and shows us how
socially constructed definitions of crime and deviance are
linked into a wider social structure.

Marxism
According to Quexbook, 2018, Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy
named after Karl Marx, which examines the effect of capitalism on labor, productivity, and
economic development and argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of
communism.

Marxism posits that the struggle between social classes, specifically between the
bourgeoisie, or capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines economic relations in a
capitalist economy and will inevitably lead to revolutionary communism.

Concepts of Marxism
Certain concepts are key to an understanding of Marxism, a political theory that has
shaped world politics for over 150 years. Key Marxist concepts are diametrically the opposite to
capitalism, and some believe have created a mentality of a society that is very much a ‘them
and us’ one.

Marxism believes that capitalism can only thrive on the exploitation of the working class.

Marxism believes that there was a real contradiction between human nature and the way
that we must work in a capitalist society.

Marxism has a dialectic approach to life in that everything has two sides.

Marxism believes that capitalism is not only an economic system but is also a political
system.

The profit difference between what goods are sold for and what they actually cost to
make; Marxism refers to as a “surplus profit”.

Marxism believes that economic conflict produces class (rich, middle and poor) and
inherently class produces conflict.
 A Marxist analysis called ‘Polarisation of the Classes’ describes the historical process of
the class structure becoming increasingly polarised – pushed to two ends with noting in the
middle. It says that soon classes will disappear and be absorbed either into the bourgeoisie or
the proletariat.

Capitalism largely shapes the educational system; without the education system the
economy would become a massive failure as without education we are without jobs and
employment which is what keeps society moving.

Education helps to maintain the bourgeoisie and the proletariat so that there can workers
producing goods and services and others benefiting from it.

Schools transmit an ideology which states that capitalism is just and reasonable. Ruling
class project their view of the world which becomes the consensus view (hegemony).

Marxists believe that a key part in the control of the Proletariat is the use of alienation in
all aspects of society, including the family, the education system and the media. This provides
the Bourgeoisie with a supple mass of workers who do not mind working for the external
rewards of a constant wage.

Marxists believe that deviance is any behavior that differs from the societal norm. It is
seen as deviant because as a society, we do not accept it.
Deviance can vary from simply odd behavior to behavior that can harm society or is considered
dangerous or disrespectful.

Neo-Marxism is based on ideas initially projected by Karl Marx. Marx believed that
economic power led to political power and that this is the key to understanding societies.

Neo-Marxists believe the economic system creates a wealthy class of owners and a poor
class of workers. They also believe that certain social institutions such as churches, prisons and
schools have been created to maintain the division between the powerful and the powerless.

Symbolic Interactionism

According to Quex book, 2018, The symbolic interaction perspective, also called
symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of the sociological theory.

This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and build upon in
the process of social interaction. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max
Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their
world
 A social psychological theory developed from the work of Charles Horton Cooley and
George Herbert Mead in the early part of the twentieth century (the actual name of the theory
comes from Herbert Blumer, one of Mead’s students).

According to this theory, people inhabit a world that is in large part socially construct

Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism

The most important conceptual building block on which symbolic interactionists have
based their analysis of human conduct is the concept of the symbol, or, as Mead called it, the
significant symbol.

Symbol is a vocal or other kind of gesture that has the same meaning and solicits the
same reaction between the one using it and to whom it is directed.

Conventional Signs anything associated with some other thing or event, but it is
produced and controlled by the very organisms that have learned to respond to it.

Natural Signs are those that show appropriateness with its use, that is, the sign is in its
literal form.

Object is anything to which attention can be paid and towards which action can be
directed.

Tangible anything that can be seen by the naked eye and can be touched (physical).

Intangible not having a physical appearance; cannot be touched or seen by the naked
eye (social).

An act starts with an impulse, which occurs when people’s existing adjustment or line of
activity is disturbed.

In perception, people begin to name or designate objects. Thus, gives direction to an

act.

In the manipulation stage, people take concrete steps to reach our goal.

Finally, the act ends with consummation when people’s original adjustment or line of
activity is restored.
Principles of the Three Major Social Science Theories
Table 2: Principles of Structural – Functionalism (Trueman, 2015)

Social Sciences Theory Principles

Structural - Functionalism ● Societies should be examined holistically in an

interrelated system framework.
● Causation is reciprocal and, in many instances,
multiple.
● Social systems are generally in a state of
equilibrium.
● The functionalists are less interested in the history
of a society, but more concerned with social
interaction.
● The functionalists attempt to find the
interrelationships between the compounds of social
structure.

Marxism ● Both Hegel and Marx have dealt with a basic

question – How is man to be reconciled with him and
with the world? Hegel was of opinion that mind of
man passes through history and finally comes to
realize what is the world.
● Both Hegel and Marx thought that man was the
product of self-knowledge and he goes on
reconciling with the world. But to Hegel the concept
of self- knowledge is associated with Spirit or
Absolute Idea
● Marx has rejected it and has laid down the famous
doctrine of alienation. That is, he tries to understand
himself or the world around him through the
alienation.
● The theory of alienation is the product of the
alienated labor. In fact, alienation occupies a very
important place in Marx’s theory.
● In capitalist economy there is a division of labor
which means that a labor produces a single or small
part of an article. The capitalist system has
introduced this division of labor to have better
results.
● But its harmful consequence is with the passing
away of time man is gradually alienated from the
whole production system and finally the society.
● The general meaning of alienation is that it is the
“subjugation of man by his own work, which has
assumed the guise of independent things”.
● The entire economic process including production
and distribution is beyond the control of workers.
 They work just like machine.
● In the opinion of Marx, since alienation is the
greatest evil of capitalist system the workers must be
freed from this evil.
● But he has warned us by saying that there is no
scope of freeing individuals from the curse of
alienation because it is
● an integral part of the capitalist system.
● If we go through Marx’s analysis, we shall find that
the only way of freeing man from alienation is the
establishment of communism or communist society.

Symbolic: Interactionism ● Human beings, unlike lower animals, are endowed

with the capacity for thought.
(Blumer, 1969; Manis and ● The capacity for thought is shaped by social
Meltzer, 1978; A. Rose, 1962; interaction.
Snow, 2001) ● In social interaction, people learn the meanings and
the symbols that allow them to exercise their
distinctively human capacity for thought.
● Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on
distinctively human action and interaction.
● People are able to modify or alter the meanings and
symbols that they use in action and interaction on
the basis of their interpretation of the situation.
● People are able to make these modifications and
alterations because, in part, of their ability to interact
with themselves, which allows them to examine
possible courses of action, assess their relative
advantages and disadvantages, and then choose
one.
● The intertwined patterns of action and interaction
make up groups and societies.
Direction: Explain how the given concept of Marxism theory affects our society. Write at least
three (3) sentences.
1. Marxism believes that there is a real contradiction between human nature and the way that
we must work in a capitalist society.
2. Marxism has a dialectic approach to life and that everything has two sides.
3. Marxism believes that economic conflict produces class (rich, middle, and poor) and
inherently class produces conflict.
4. The profit difference between what goods are sold for and what they actually cost to make;
Marxism refers to as a “surplus profit”.

ACTIVITY: MY SKILLS
Directions: Show your skills by making a poem, or song on how you emphasize your
concerns in today’s society by using different concepts of the three major social
science theories.

Rubrics for your poem and song.

CATEGORY EXCEPTIONAL GOOD WORK DEVELOPING BEGINNING

50-41 points 40-31 points 30-21 points 20-1 points

Focus on The entire poem Most of the poem Some of the No attempt
Assigned is related to is related to the poems are has been
Topic assigned topic assigned topic. related to the made to
and allows the The poem assigned topic, relate the
reader to wanders off at but a reader poem to the
understand one point, but the does not learn assigned
much more reader can still much about topic.
about the topic. learn something the topic.
about the topic

Creativity The poem/song The poem/song The poem/song There is little

contains many contains a few contains a few evidence of
creative details creative details creative details creativity in
and/or and/or and/or the
descriptions that descriptions that descriptions but poem/song.
contribute to the contribute to the they distract The author
reader’s reader’s from the does not
enjoyment. The enjoyment. The poem/song. seem to
 author has really author has used The author has have used
used his his imagination tried to use his much
imagination. imagination. imagination.

Spelling and There are no There is one There is 2-3 The final draft
Punctuation spelling or spelling or spelling or has more
punctuation punctuation error punctuation than 3
errors in final in final draft error in final spelling or
draft. draft punctuation
errors.

Tittle Title is creative , Title is related to Title is present, No title.

sparks interest the poem and but not appear
and is related to topic. to the poem
the poem and and topic.
topic.

Imagery Many vivid, Some vivid, The reader can The reader
descriptive descriptive words figure out what has trouble
words are used. are used. The to picture in the figuring out
The reader can reader can poem, but the what
picture the somewhat picture author didn’t imagery the
imagery in the the imagery in the supply much poem/song is
poem/song. poem/song. detail. using and
what author
wants
him/her to
picture.