Energy Strategy Reviews 38 (2021) 100769

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Energy Strategy Reviews

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The analysis of the innovative potential of the energy sector and low-carbon
development: A case study for Poland
Maciej Dzikuć a, *, Jadwiga Gorączkowska a, Arkadiusz Piwowar b, Maria Dzikuć a,
Robert Smoleński c, Piotr Kułyk a
a
University of Zielona Góra, Faculty of Economics and Management, Licealna 9, 65-417, Zielona Góra, Poland
b
Wroclaw University of Economics and Business, Komandorska 118/120, 53-345, Wrocław, Poland
c
University of Zielona Góra, Faculty of Computer, Electrical and Control Engineering, Licealna 9, 65-417, Zielona Góra, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The problem of excessive use of fossil fuels is a serious problem in many countries. The desire to obtain relatively
Economy cheap energy by burning mainly coal often wins over the need to maintain a good state of the environment. In
Low-carbon development recent years, Poland has been catching up with economic development in relation to the countries that were
Energy
members of the EU before 2004. Despite the good economic indicators that Poland has achieved in recent years,
Innovation
much remains to be done to ensure sustainable low-carbon development. Expenditures on the development of
innovative technologies that would contribute to reducing excessive emissions of harmful substances into the
atmosphere are not sufficient. The article presents the determinants of innovative activity in Poland and indicates
the main problems associated with the implementation of sustainable low-carbon development. The article also
presents the perspectives of low-carbon development in Poland in relation to the innovation potential, with
particular emphasis on renewable energy sources, and indicates the main factors that may contribute to a faster
departure from inefficient technologies of energy production based on fossil fuels. The purpose of the article is to
analyse the conditions associated with low-carbon development in Poland, with particular emphasis on the
energy sector. The article refers to the most important issues related to the development of renewable energy
sources and indicates low-carbon development perspectives in Poland.

1. Introduction the negative impact of the energy sector on the natural environment [6]
may encourage entrepreneurs to implement innovation.
Innovative activity can be considered in technological and non- Low-carbon development combines many aspects, such as society,
technological aspects. The first aspect relates to the creation of new the economy, legislation, politics and culture [7]. Low-carbon devel­
products (finished products, technologies, services) and the imple­ opment is associated with the use of renewable energy sources. How­
mentation of new technological processes by the enterprise, while the ever, the share of renewables in some countries significantly differs from
second is based on creating innovations in the organizational and mar­ the EU average. This is important because in some such countries with a
keting dimension [1–4]. Innovative activity contributes to levelling the relatively low share of renewable energy sources in the energy balance,
negative impact of enterprises on the environment. Research conducted there are appropriate natural conditions for the development of
in OECD countries in 2000–2014 showed that expenditure incurred on renewable energy (e.g., the use of biomass in Poland).
R&D, consumption of renewable energy or, to a lesser extent, the use of A low-carbon economy is characterized by growth achieved as a
scientists’ knowledge to significantly reduce CO2 emission [5]. More­ result of integration of all aspects of the economy related to ecological
over, in the area of innovative activity, the effects related to environ­ technologies and activities to reduce the consumption or production of
mental protection include, among others, reducing the consumption of energy and materials. Moreover, a low-carbon economy assumes re­
materials and energy in production, increasing production capacity or covery or disposal of waste by methods that reduce greenhouse gas
limiting the environmental impact of doing business, or improving emissions. The Kyoto Protocol was the first step in reducing greenhouse
health and safety [1]. In this context, EU regulations related to limiting gas emissions. The next important step was the change of priorities

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m.dzikuc@wez.uz.zgora.pl (M. Dzikuć).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2021.100769
Received 3 November 2020; Received in revised form 23 October 2021; Accepted 15 November 2021
Available online 29 November 2021
2211-467X/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Dzikuć et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 38 (2021) 100769

within the climate policy. On the other hand, in December 2015, in Table 1
Paris, COP21 concluded a global economic agreement with a horizon Determinants of innovative activity in the green energy sector in the discussed
that went beyond one generation [8]. However, the actions taken so far countries.
have not led to the implementation of global solutions that would Research area Countries Research Conditions
significantly reduce the problem of excessive greenhouse gas emissions authors
into the atmosphere. Financial China Liang, Liu In a network of
Transition to a low carbon economy in Poland is very important from opportunities, companies
the point of view of macro, meso and microeconomics. Improving the implementation building
programs, photovoltaic farms,
quality of the natural environment and ensuring energy security are the
operational co-financing of one
key effects that are perceived in Poland in the context of the imple­ strategies of the entities in
mentation of strategies and plans related to low-carbon development. the network may
The low-carbon economy model is largely based on modern technologies have a negative
in industry, enabling the improvement of energy efficiency. It is neces­ impact on the
innovation of the
sary to minimize the use of fossil fuels in production processes. Actions entire network
aimed at limiting the production and use of coal should be integrated Austria, Belgium, Palage, Patenting in the
with social policy measures [9]. Creating innovative, ecological solu­ Denmark, France, Lundmark, field of
tions in production will foster the creation of green jobs. An important Germany, Italy, Soderholm photovoltaics has
Japan, the been found to be
element in shaping the low-carbon economy is the potential of rural
Netherlands, more influenced by
areas in Poland, especially in the field of renewable energy development South Korea, public R&D
[10]. Spain, Sweden, support than by the
The purpose of the article is to analyse the conditions associated with Switzerland, the use of feed-in
low-carbon development in Poland, with particular emphasis on the United Kingdom tariffs
Entrepreneurship in Germany, France, Ball, Kittler Entrepreneurs are
energy sector. The article refers to the most important issues related to
the renewable the United more likely to
the development of renewable energy sources and indicates low-carbon power sector Kingdom introduce
development perspectives in Poland. innovations in the
field of green
energy, if the
2. Characteristics of selected pro-ecological initiatives in the
market has
energy sector financial
mechanisms
The methodology of the research was adapted to the assumed scope related to the
and goal of research. The presented research goal was to determine the adoption of eco-
innovations by
use of methods characteristic of social sciences. To achieve the research consumers
objectives, several research methods were used: Denmark Christensen, Innovative
Hain, cooperation in the
• analysis of source documents Nogueira green energy sector
occurs more often
• analysis of the literature on the subject
than in other
• tabular and descriptive methods and charts sectors
• methods of descriptive and mathematical statistics Sustainable business Germany Leisen, The creation of
• deductive method models Steffen, business models (e.
Weber g. sales models)
United States Strupeit, facilitating access
The collected data was used to analyse the innovative potential of the Palm to green energy
energy sector and low-carbon development in Poland. The research The Netherlands Ode, Wadin favors purchases of
methods used in the manuscript contributed to the achievement of the photovoltaic
stated research goal. systems by
customers
Innovative activity is often created in network systems. E.g., this may
be related to the size of the enterprise - small and medium-sized enter­
prises, in which thanks to cooperation, the costs and risk of conducting related to the development and benefits of renewable energy in the re­
innovative projects can be spread [11]. In the renewable energy sector in gion [15].
Denmark, cooperation in the area of new solutions is more frequent than The tools used in this area also play a role in supporting the inno­
in other sectors. Furthermore, cooperating entities in the field of vation of the energy sector. A survey of the solar sector in 13 industri­
renewable energy have a more diverse set of partners with whom they alized countries showed a greater positive relationship between solar
cooperate [12]. cell patenting and public research and development support than the use
Innovative projects, including those related to environmental pro­ of feed-in tariffs [16]. Nevertheless, tariffs also contribute to an increase
tection, should be subsidized with caution and only after analysis. in innovation [17]. Due to entrepreneurs operating in the field of green
Research conducted in China has shown that in the solar farm con­ energy, financial mechanisms related to the adoption of eco-innovation
struction sector, the co-financing of one of the entities in the network are also positively perceived by consumers. In such a situation, they
may have a negative impact on the innovation of the entire network have a sense of greater certainty of the sale of manufactured products
[13]. Nevertheless, due to the high involvement of central planning and technologies [18].
between the Chinese and European economy, divergences are emerging Innovations implemented in enterprises may be of both a techno­
(Table 1). For example, eco-innovations in the area of water innovation logical and a non-technological nature. Both types of innovation are
in Europe are supplied to the market by entities from the private sector, interrelated, and the creation of new technological solutions, which also
and in China from the public sector [14]. For this reason, innovation entails non-technological (e.g., organizational) changes, results in a
networks operate differently in Europe than in China. Moreover, entities better quality of innovation [19]. Moreover, whether a company oper­
building support mechanisms in the area of renewable energy use should ates under uncertainty or not, both types of innovation are important to
beware of forming over-optimistic outcomes. Regional policy makers their business results [20]. In the context of eliminating the negative
can reveal these trends. Idealization creates erroneous strategic visions

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M. Dzikuć et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 38 (2021) 100769

impact of energy on the natural environment, their interrelationships emission. Due to the intense pressure of the international community to
may reflect the fact that the former allow for the creation of products reduce CO2 emissions into the atmosphere, in the European Union in the
that will reduce the emission of pollutants, while the latter enable the years 2010–2014 significant funds were allocated to the Infrastructure
creation of business models (e.g., sales models) that will allow con­ and Environment Program. Its priorities are, among others, a low carbon
sumers to have wider access to green energy. economy, environmental protection and energy security. Therefore, a
The transition to a low-carbon economy requires the development of plan for creating a low-carbon economy is being developed in Poland
new technologies and the improvement of processes associated with [29]. In this context, the development of renewables, such as prosumer
shortcomings in the creation of green energy, so it is based on techno­ energy, biogas plants, wind energy, the use of biomass (including biofuel
logical innovations. Research performed in China shows that this production), solar collectors or heat pumps and ground heat exchangers
transformation may be based on green technologies, as the increase in is gaining importance [30–32].
energy consumption may stimulate the development of structures based The level of innovation in Poland in relation to other EU countries
on renewable energy sources [21]. leaves much to be desired. According to data from the European Com­
According to Jurasz et al. [22], the weather-driven nature of solar mission, only three countries in 2018 achieved a worse result than
and wind energy, as well as the changing energy demand, make Poland (Fig. 1). The results presented in Fig. 1 were calculated on the
renewable energy systems unsuitable for reliable power. In this context, basis of a collective indicator – a total innovation indicator [33]. In
they should be integrated into the energy system. The authors presented Fig. 1 EU countries are divided into four groups. The first group is
a mathematical model for simulation and optimization of hybrid solar designated as Innovation Leaders (Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands
energy on a large scale combined at district level, taking into account a and Sweden), whose member innovation performance is well above the
simplified approach considering the costs associated with the func­ EU average. Another group of countries is designated as Strong In­
tioning of the network. This allows for an increase in the use of re­ novators (Austria, Belgium, Estonia, France, Germany, Ireland,
newables in total energy consumption. The disadvantages of renewable Luxembourg and the United Kingdom). These countries achieved results
energy are also levelled out by developing a power system combining close to or above the EU average. The third group of countries contains
large shares of renewable energy sources. Projects in this area are un­ those below the EU average. These countries are designated as Moderate
dertaken in China, where the technology of industrialization of the Innovators. This group includes, among others, Poland, which obtained
microgrid powered by the distributed generation of renewable energy is the second to last lowest result in this group of countries. In contrast,
being created [23]. Bulgaria and Romania are Modest Innovators whose results are defi­
When creating new technologies related to renewable energy, it nitely lower than the EU average. The coloured bars represent the results
should be remembered that they should focus on waste management or of the Member States from 2018, compared to the EU results in 2011,
the use of sources that do not harm the environment (e.g. wind). In this calculated on the basis of the most recent data for 27 indicators. In
context, the excessive demand for biomass can be dangerous, as it causes contrast, the grey bars illustrate the results of the Member States ob­
a loss of forest area in less developed countries, e.g. in South America tained in 2011 compared to the average results of the EU in 2011. The
[24]. same measurement method was used for all years. The dashed lines
Organizational innovations in the context of a low-carbon economy represent the thresholds between the groups in 2018, comparing the
may relate to new business models associated with the provision of results of the Member States in 2018 with the results of the EU average
services in the area of green energy. 70 new business models appeared in in 2018. The results of innovation systems presented in Fig. 1 are the
Germany, 19 of which were classified as “sustainable business models”. average of 27 indicators measured. When developing the results, four
This shows that the energy sector has undergone a profound trans­ main types of indicators and ten dimensions of innovation are distin­
formation in recent years [25]. One example of such models is the guished, which together translate into 27 different indicators [34].
third-party ownership model that successfully operates in the United The in-depth analysis of the data shows that the relatively lowest
States. It involves the installation of solar photovoltaic systems at a level of the 27 (compared to the EU-28 average) was recorded in the
customer’s site in exchange for a fixed monthly fee, and not such systems following areas: Innovators, Attractive research systems and Linkages.
that are fully purchased by the customer at the time of their installation Undoubtedly, actions should be taken to support areas that hinder the
(Table 1). The owner of the installation, i.e., the third party of the emergence of innovation (SMEs with marketing or organizational in­
partnership, is usually the investor or bank [26]. This model with some novations, Foreign doctorate students, New doctorate graduates, and
modifications was successfully adapted by one of the start-up companies SMEs innovating in-house). From the point of view of the state policy, an
in the Netherlands [27]. analysis of development opportunities should be made in the system of
Many innovations are emerging in the energy sector, especially those regions or sub-regions in Poland. It is very important as the socio-
related to green energy. Not all proposed technological solutions are economic space in Poland is characterized by significant regional dif­
taken up by the economy. It can be assumed that several factors influ­ ferences [35].
ence this fact. First of all, it requires the proper subsidizing of the most It should be emphasized that apart from the capital of Poland and
promising solutions by the government and local government author­ towns in the immediate vicinity of Warsaw, the rest of the country is
ities. Secondly, there are relevant business concepts for enterprises that characterized by medium and low levels of performance. Only around
introduce eco-innovations. In this context, it is important to introduce Warsaw did the level of innovation reach that which is characteristic for
appropriate organizational innovations. They can imitate solutions that most regions of the Czech Republic, i.e. the upper average ceiling.
have been successfully implemented in other countries in the area with a Poland has a lot to catch up on in this respect, because it is at a lower
similar business model. level of innovation, even in relation to countries that joined the EU at the
same time (Fig. 2).
3. Prospects for low-carbon development in Poland in relation As research in Poland shows, many of these areas require high in­
to innovation potential vestment outlays and public support. In accordance with Directive
2009/28/EC, in 2020 the share of renewables in supplying the energy
The development of eco-innovation in the European Union is gaining demand of the European Union should be 20%. Poland, as an EU
momentum. Eco-efficiency is growing regardless of whether the econ­ member state, has committed to the share of renewable energy sources
omy is in a growth or crisis phase. However, there are disproportions in total energy consumption at the level of 15%. In 2030, this share in
between the founding countries of the European Union and those that the EU is expected to increase to 32% [6]. In 2017 and 2018, this share
joined the community in 2004 and later [28]. In Poland, the use of fossil was 10.9% and 11.3%, respectively (Table 2), which shows how far
fuels is deeply rooted, and they are the main source of greenhouse gas Poland is from achieving the 15% target. This is due to several factors.

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M. Dzikuć et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 38 (2021) 100769

Fig. 1. Performance of EU Member States’ innovation systems [33].

Fig. 2. Regional performance groups [34].

First of all, the demand for energy in Poland is growing. The renewable speaking, in developing countries there is no link between economic
energy market is also developing, but the pace of this development is growth and renewable energy use. In this respect, the only exception is
insufficient in relation to the increase in energy demand. Secondly, Poland, where the demand for renewable energy contributes to eco­
Polish renewable energy policy lacks continuity in support mechanisms. nomic growth [41]. For this reason, investments and a responsible en­
This especially applies to wind energy [36]. These mechanisms must ergy policy are necessary. The government in Poland is currently
evolve and support selected types of renewable energy installations to reluctant to address issues related to increasing the share of renewable
intensify their development and reduce air pollution [37,38]. This is a energy production, although it does not negate EU directives related to
significant aim because the importance of renewables in Poland is the transition to a low-carbon economy [42,43]. However, the regula­
growing. This is reinforced by the need to improve air quality and to tions have been tightened by the Polish authorities and this fact has
limit the use of coal in the Polish energy sector [39,40]. Generally prevented further intensive development of wind energy and insufficient

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M. Dzikuć et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 38 (2021) 100769

Table 2
Share of energy from renewable sources (in % of gross final energy consumption) [33].
GEO/TIME 2004 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2020 target 2018 minus 2020 target

EU 8.5 16.2 16.7 17.0 17.5 18 20 − 2.0

Belgium 1.9 8.0 8.0 8.7 9.1 9.4 13 − 3.6
Bulgaria 9.4 18.0 18.3 18.8 18.7 20.5 16 4.5
Czech Republic 6.8 15.1 15.1 14.9 14.8 15.1 13 2.1
Denmark 14.8 29.3 30.9 32.0 35.0 36.1 30 6.1
Germany 6.2 14.4 14.9 14.9 15.5 16.5 18 − 1.5
Estonia 18.4 26.1 28.2 28.7 29.1 30 25 5.0
Ireland 2.4 8.6 9.1 9.3 10.6 11.1 16 − 4.9
Greece 7.2 15.7 15.7 15.4 17.0 18 18 0.0
Spain 8.3 16.1 16.2 17.4 17.6 17.4 20 − 2.6
France 9.5 14.6 15.0 15.7 16.0 16.6 23 − 6.4
Croatia 23.4 27.8 29.0 28.3 27.3 28 20 8.0
Italy 6.3 17.1 17.5 17.4 18.3 17.8 17 0.8
Cyprus 3.1 9.2 9.9 9.9 10.5 13.9 13 0.9
Latvia 32.8 38.6 37.5 37.1 39.0 40.3 40 0.3
Lithuania 17.2 23.6 25.8 25.6 26.0 24.4 23 1.4
Luxembourg 0.9 4.5 5.0 5.4 6.3 9.1 11 − 1.9
Hungary 4.4 14.6 14.5 14.3 13.5 12.5 13 − 0.5
Malta 0.1 4.7 5.1 6.2 7.3 8 10 − 2.0
Netherlands 2.0 5.4 5.7 5.8 6.5 7.4 14 − 6.6
Austria 22.6 33.7 33.5 33.4 33.1 33.4 34 − 0.6
Poland 6.9 11.5 11.7 11.3 10.9 11.3 15 − 3.7
Portugal 19.2 29.5 30.5 30.9 30.6 30.3 31 − 0.7
Romania 16.8 24.8 24.8 25.0 24.5 23.9 24 − 0.1
Slovenia 16.1 21.5 21.9 21.3 21.1 21.1 25 − 3.9
Slovakia 6.4 11.7 12.9 12.0 11.5 11.9 14 − 2.1
Finland 29.3 38.8 39.3 39.0 40.9 41.2 38 3.2
Sweden 38.7 53.0 53.4 53.8 54.2 54.6 49 5.6
United Kingdom 0.9 6.7 8.3 9.0 9.7 11 15 − 4.0

support of other renewable energy sources, which has led to a decrease from agri-food waste, e.g., food waste, straw, grass silage, which would
in the share of renewable energy in Poland. significantly reduce their uncontrolled degradation in the environment.
The share of renewables in Poland increased until 2015 and later These are materials with high hydrogen production potential [46].
(until 2017) began to decrease, despite the fact that it did not reach the Moreover, willow plantations have similar potential [47].
target set for 2020. In 2018, it increased again, but only to the level of The production of biofuels in Eastern Europe is based on first gen­
2016. Most of the EU countries did not reach the share of renewables set eration biofuels, mainly due to the lack of adequate infrastructure and
for 2020 in 2018. However, only Poland and Slovakia have decreased high investment costs. This keeps Eastern European countries behind
the share of renewable energy sources in recent years (until 2017) and other Member States with regard to the production of second-generation
both countries recorded a slight increase in the share of RES in 2018. biofuels and their use [48]. At the same time, rapeseed production
This situation means that achieving the 15% share of renewables related to biodiesel production is profitable in Poland [49]. In the
assumed by Poland seems unlikely to achieve in 2020. Although there transition to the use of second and third generation biofuels,
are currently no complete data for 2020, the decline in energy produc­ innovation-based development and appropriate support for stakeholders
tion caused by the epidemiological situation could have contributed to are needed [50]. The transition to second and third generation biofuels
the achievement of a 15% share of renewable energy in the total energy is extremely important, because according to the RED II Directive by
balance of Poland. It should be emphasized that when energy demand 2030 at least 14% of fuels used in transport are to come from renewable
fell, at first the production of energy from fossil energy resources was sources, however, first generation biofuels will not be included in
reduced. renewable energy purposes. This is due to the high risk of “indirect land
Wind energy is controversial in the development of renewable en­ use change”.
ergy, although it is accepted in many EU countries. This is mainly due to Solar energy is strongly dependent on environmental factors,
the distortion of the landscape of the terrain where wind farms are being including insolation level, length of the day or air pressure [51–53].
built. Furthermore, when planning and designing wind farms, account However, its use in prosumer energy conditions as well as in some areas
should be taken of losses occurring during the transformation of me­ of economic activity can bring measurable benefits. According to Jurasz
chanical energy into electricity as well as the fact that the wind turbine and Campana [54], the use of photovoltaics in office buildings leads to a
has limited possibilities of using wind energy. As a result, only part of the reduction in peak load (from almost 60 kW to just over 44 kW), while
energy provided by wind can be converted into useable energy. Further minimizing the cost of energy supplied to the building (from 1.2% to
development of wind energy technologies in Poland requires support for 5.8% depending on the selected tariff). Forecasts for reducing carbon
work on new technologies and stronger public acceptance of wind en­ dioxide emission into the atmosphere were also made by
ergy technologies [44]. The problem of landscape distortion is solved for Piotrowska-Woroniak [55] for a building with office space and a
offshore wind farms. Economic and technical analyses indicate signifi­ kindergarten. It turns out that installing a photovoltaic system consisting
cant potential for the development of offshore wind energy in Poland. By of 62 panels with a total nominal power of 15.5 kW in the facility would
2030, this potential is estimated at 6 GW of installed capacity, taking reduce carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere by about 52%.
into account 2.2 GW of power contained in the concluded connection In the case of households, the economic aspect is an important
agreements [45]. element that speaks for the use of microgeneration technology (photo­
The use of biomass to produce green energy is a promising industry. voltaic installations, heat pumps, ground heat exchangers). Therefore,
As an example, it is possible to mention dark fermentation processes that any government initiative promoting pro-ecological behaviour,
are used to produce high energy and green gas (hydrogen) fuel on an including the use of renewables, should be based primarily on financial
industrial scale. The substrates used in the described process may come incentives [56]. Moreover, a belief dominates in Poland that pushes

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M. Dzikuć et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 38 (2021) 100769

responsibility for the use of renewable energy sources onto the gov­ Table 4
ernment. However, consumers should be aware that they can also act in Production of heat from renewables in Poland (2014–2018) [61].
this area. Lack of knowledge on how to support the development of Specification 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
renewables by households is also one of the barriers for a wider adoption
TJ
of green electricity by Polish consumers [57,58].
The structure of electricity and heat generation based on renewable Total 14275.3 12 885.2 13979.2 13047.9 14809.1
Solid biofuels 13960.0 12438.0 13368.0 11691.3 13401.3
energy has changed in recent years. The share of wind energy, photo­ Municipal wastes 13.0 7.0 16.0 457.0 476.6
voltaics and energy generated from biogas has increased (Table 3). Biogas of which: 298.0 436.0 589.0 890.9 922.5
However, the share of biomass, especially that used for electricity pro­ Landfill gas 69.0 67.3 18.1 59.5 31.4
duction during co-combustion with coal, has been clearly limited [59]. Sludge gas 85.0 203.8 417.2 130.7 106.2
Other biogas 144 165 154 1548 784.9
Although it is assumed that biomass combustion does not contribute to
Biofuels – 1.0 2.0 3.2 3.4
the formation of additional CO2 emission, because it is assumed that the Heat pumps 4.3 3.2 4.2 5.5 5.3
plant at the growth stage absorbs a similar amount of CO2 that is
released during its combustion [60]. However, the use of biomass other
than co-firing with coal is more beneficial to the environment, not only human health. When coal is burned, harmful gases and dust are released
because of CO2 emission, but also because of the dust that is released that pollute the air. One of the main reasons that households use coal to
when the biomass is burned. This is especially true for biomass that has heat their homes is energy poverty. The above-mentioned conditions for
not been dried. the development of the energy sector in Poland may aggravate the
The share of solid biofuels during heat production was clearly the already existing problem of many households, which is related to the
highest among the other RES (Table 4). The share of solid biofuels lack of satisfying basic energy needs. Appropriate energy policy, sup­
decreased in 2014–2018 is still the main renewable energy source used ported, inter alia, by employment and social welfare policy are the
in Poland during heat production, and its share in 2018 was over 90%. conditions necessary to reduce energy poverty in Poland [64]. The sit­
As in the case of electricity generation, the share of solid biofuels is uation of the inhabitants of rural areas, especially in peripheral regions,
decreasing, but the process is much slower. is very important in this subject [65]. The current market situation,
Over the past several months, prices of CO2 emission allowances especially the forecasted sharp increases in retail prices of electricity and
have increased several times (Fig. 3). It should be emphasized that the gas, will intensify the need to implement special social programs for
rising prices of CO2 emission allowances will negatively affect the en­ particularly vulnerable, energy-poor households and farms.
ergy sector of countries such as Poland, which generate most of their
energy in coal-fired power plants. 4. Conclusions
Currently, hard coal and lignite constitute a raw material for nearly
70% of electricity production in Poland. Rising prices of CO2 emission The need to increase the use of energy from renewable energy
allowances, on the other hand, will contribute to greater activity in the sources in total energy used is an urgent problem in Poland. Failure to
search for low-carbon solutions during energy production. Assuming meet the assumptions related to the use of renewable energy will result
that the high price of CO2 emission allowances will persist for a longer in the purchase of missing green energy from countries with surpluses. It
period of time, greater activity of entrepreneurs should be expected in is a costly operation and the funds needed for its implementation would
the use of low-carbon solutions that have not been economically justi­ be better to invest in the development of its own innovative infra­
fied until now. structure related to RES production.
The process of transition from coal is very slow and will take place Electricity generation in Poland takes place mainly in coal-fired
over the next several decades. Successive governments in Poland face power plants, which worsens the state of the environment. Despite the
resistance from people employed in mining and energy. Unfortunately, successive implementation of innovative solutions that allow the
no solution has been identified so far that would allow people who reduction of the negative environmental impact associated with the
currently work in the mining and energy sectors to be retrained in a production of energy based on coal, Poland is not doing enough to
relatively short time, so that they could find a job elsewhere. Despite the develop a low-carbon country. Not taking action for low-carbon devel­
implementation of low-carbon technologies in the Polish economy, this opment can prove to be very costly, among other reasons due to the need
process is too slow [63]. to pay fees for CO2 emission. Especially that it should be assumed that
It should be emphasized that burning coal has a negative impact on CO2 emission charges will increase in the future, which, given the cur­
rent structure of energy production in Poland, will lead to a significant
increase in their prices. However, due to the fact that Poland has its own
Table 3
coal resources, a sharp reduction in the use of this raw material in energy
Generation of electricity from renewables in Poland (2014–2018) [61].
production should not be expected. It should be assumed that reducing
Specification 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 the share of energy generated on the basis of coal will be a process
GWh spread over a long period of time.
Total 19841.8 22684.1 22807.4 24122.1 21617.2 Poland has significant backlogs related to the implementation of
Water of which: 2182.5 1832.2 2139.4 2559.6 1970.0 innovations in the operations of enterprises, particularly in the energy
Hydro-1 MW 322.0 328.0 320.5 366.6 299.0 sector, especially the development of renewable energy. There are a
Hydro 1–10 MW 564.6 493.5 588.3 688.0 528.5 number of reasons for this, including the following: insufficient state
Hydro 10+ MW 1295.9 1010.7 1230.6 1505.1 1142.5
Wind 7675.6 10858.4 12587.6 14909.0 12798.8
support, relatively low GDP per capita, and insufficient involvement of
Solid biomass 9160.2 9026.6 6912.7 5308.6 5333.2 the R&D sector. It is important to strive to maintain economic growth
in which co- 4510.5 4286.1 2087.9 1810.8 1461.0 against growing legal requirements, e.g., EU regulations and to take into
combustion account the opinions of an increasingly environmentally aware society,
Municipal wastes 12.7 80.7 85.0
– –
which notices the need to reduce the environmental impact of not only
Biogas of which: 816.3 906.4 1027.6 1096.4 1127.6
Landfill gas 225.3 226.8 223.5 199.6 169.6 large industry, but also recognizes the potential of locally implemented
Sludge gas 252.5 275.6 364.4 340.1 336.5 measures.
Other biogas 338.4 404.0 439.7 556.7 621.6 New solutions in the field of reforming R&D policies in developing
Biofuels 0.3 3.8 3.4 2.4 2.0 renewable transitions are an important element of the development in
Photovoltaics 6.9 56.6 123.9 165.5 300.5
the studied subject. An example of such activities may be the adoption of

6
M. Dzikuć et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 38 (2021) 100769

Fig. 3. Prices of CO2 emission allowances (in EUR) [62].

new legal solutions in the area of the program for the development of Acknowledgement
production and use of renewable energy in Polish agriculture. An
example is the creation of preferential financial conditions (subsidies, This study was conducted and financed in the framework of the
allowances, etc.) in the area of creating and operating energy clusters research projects:
(cooperatives) in rural areas. Mechanisms allowing for the creation and/ 2018/31/B/HS4/00485 (Economic aspects of low carbon develop­
or increase in the activity of research centres in this area, operating both ment in the countries of the Visegrad Group), granted by the National
within higher education and public-private partnerships, are also Science Centre, Poland;
important. 2018/31/B/HS4/00048 (Socio-economic, environmental and tech­
Currently, in Poland, wind energy has the largest share among nical determinants of the energy poverty in rural areas in Poland),
renewable energy sources. Another RES in terms of installed capacity is granted by the National Science Centre, Poland;
photovoltaics, and due to its dynamic development, it may overtake 812391 – SCENT, the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
wind energy in the coming months. The third largest renewable energy innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie.
in Poland in terms of installed capacity is hydropower, which because of,
e.g., permeable land, gives no possibility of dynamic growth. Biomass is References
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