Value addition:

CASE STUDY

Surajit Sinha had observed that for the

tribe Bhumij of Barabhum, the Rajputs
have always been the reference group
due to their high social status.

2. Similarly, in the case of Westernisation,

the reference group for the higher castes
and other groups were the Britishers or in
general the Western society. They viewed
it as a symbol of power, modernity and
progress.
Hence, the concept of reference group has
been instrumental in examining social change
in India.

2.3 Marriage
A. DEFINITION AND UNIVERSALITY

Scholar and books Definition Issues

Malinowski and A legal marriage is “one which gives a

Brown 1. He emphasized on legitimacy
woman a socially recognize husband
however he did not answer
and her children a socially recognized
what exactly marriage was.
father”.

Objections by Edmund Leach :

1. Union between a man and a
woman: It does not justifies
» Polygamy
Example: Fraternal (Todas of
Nilgiri) non-fraternal

Defines marriage as a “union between Example: Nayar

Figure: Malinowski » Polygamy
man and a woman such that the child
born to the women is recognized as a Example: Muslim tribe
legitimate offspring of both parents” » Polygyny
Example: Khasa of Jaunsar and
Bawar
2. Women to women marriage
Example: Nuer of South Sudan
3. Ghost marriage
Notes and Queries
Example: British Columbia
(1951)

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 1. One or more other person:
The term “person” is gender-
neutral
Kathleen Gough 2. Rules of relationship: Every
in “The Nayar and society has different rules
Define marriage, “as a relationship which must not broken
the Definition of
between a woman and one or more 3. Full birth status right:
Marriage (1959)”
other persons, in which the child Rights can be social, political
born to the woman under certain economical etc.
circumstances not prohibited by the 4. Society or social stature:
laws of relationship is accorded full Society have common rights for
birth status rights, common to normal their members but society like
members of the society or social Indian varna based society have
stratum.” different rights for different
strata
5. It excludes male to male
marriage: which is recognized
by several European societies.
Example: Azande, Cheyne
Indian

According to him, role of husband and

wife must be discussed in terms of
1. Does not account for legitimacy
Prince Peter rights and obligation, thus, he defined
accounted to children
marriage in terms of “role performed
by couples”

Thus, Edmund Leach concluded that a single definition of marriage cannot be applied to all
cultures

Anthropological perspective on marriage:

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 Universality of Marriage:

Universality of marriage can be explained via functions and need it serves Edmund Leach (1955),
give following function of marriage:

B. RULES OF MARRIAGE:
Murdock in his book, Social Structure (1949) has focused on laws of marriages such as:

Endogamy Exogamy

Endogamy is cultural rules emphasizing the Exogamy is cultural rules emphasizing the
need to marry within a socially defined unit needs to marry outside a socially defined unit
i.e.to marry within one’s own group. but within an endogamous group as there
exist further the smaller groups within which
Example: Indian Hindu society follow caste
endogamy one cannot marry.
Example: Naga, Garo, Munda follow village
exogamy.

CASE STUDY

Navajo of Native American tribe,

considers a taboo for a Navajo person to
marry someone who is also Navajo. It is to
prevent inbreeding and to create alliances
with another tribe

Figure : Hindu Social System

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 CASE STUDY

Ethnic groups like Amish and Hasidic Jews

in The United States practices endogamy.

CASE STUDY
Marriages are arranged by families of
bride and groom in Japan to maintain
strong tradition of endogamy.

CASE STUDY

Robbin Joel (2004), in his journey,

Becoming Sinners: Christianity and Moral
Torment in a Papua New Guinea Society:
Explains that Urapim, a small tribe
practices strict endogamy.

Hypergamy: Hypogamy:
Hypergamy means “the act or practice of a It is “the act or practice of a person marrying
person marrying another person of a higher another person of a lower caste or social status
caste or social status than himself/ herself.” than himself/ herself”.

CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

A Hindu man, does not loses his caste Under the Hindu caste system, if a high-
status by marrying a low- caste women caste woman marries is a low-cost man,
because until marriage, a women shares she loses her caste status and becomes
her father caste status but after marriage impure.
she shares her husband’s caste status.

CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
Traditional Chinese family, where the
In The United States, there is a strong elder son is heir to family property and
correlation between education and marries a woman of lower social status than
income. A women with higher education himself in order to receive dowry to offset
are more likely to marry men with higher cost of wedding and son’s inheritance.
level of education and income.

Anuloma: Pratiloma:
Manu has prescribed Anuloma i.e.“hypergamous Manu forbade Pratiloma i.e. hypergamous
marriage for a woman, so that she marries a marriage for a woman, so that she cannot
man higher in caste to her to avoid losing caste marry a man lower in her cast to her.
status and becoming impure.

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 CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (Mahar caste, one M.N. Srinivas (1950) found that Pratiloma
of the lowest castes) marriage to Savita is relatively common in Lingayats in
Ambedkar (Brahmin, highest caste). Karnataka as it was a new caste and was
less concern to maintain traditional caste
system.

CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

Rukmini Devi Arundale (Brahmin) G.S.Ghurye (1960) found that Pratiloma

married to George Arundale (was an marriages were very rare in Mahar in
Englishman). Maharashtra in order to maintain their
caste status.

Incest Taboo:
It is prohibition of mating within socially recognized very close relations.
Example: Father-daughter incest taboo

CLIFF NOTECLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE

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 Theories of explain Incest Taboo:

Scholars and theories Postulates Criticism

1. Studies shows that some

A male child has instinct for incest but children do have instinct for
he does not put his thought into action incest but generalizing such a
Psychoanalytic Theory due to fear of elders of the same sex. statement is incorrect.
by Sigmund Freud When the child becomes a father, he 2. Theory fails to explain as to
does not let his son do what he himself why majority of children do
could not do in his childhood not indulge in incest in a family
where elders are absent.

States that early man, who lived in

It fails to account why man did
small mutually hostile groupings, had
not choose to marry one or two
two choices- either to marry outside
members outside the group and
Family Cooperative the group as to reduce hostility, or to
rest within. This would have led to
Theory by Levis Struass continue marrying within his group
several new ties, and prevented the
and succumb to the larger group. Thus,
pain of losing many members, along
incest taboo originated to prevent
with diversion of resources.
marriage within groups.

The theory states that the role of a

person as a father, mother, daughter,
Family Disruption Theory does not account for
son etc.is simply incompatible with
Theory by Freud and brother- sister marriage in the
that of a husband or a wife. Thus,
Malinowski ancient Egypt and Inca empires.
incest would result in confusion,
conflict and chaos.

According to this theory “inbreeding

results in harmful successive genes
and off-springs produced may have This theory was rejected because
Inbreeding Avoidance illness, weakness and later die due to inbreeding was practiced in ancient
Theory genetic diseases. Egyptians and there were no
The modern investigators consider associated harmful disease.
endogamous marriage as harmful and
incest taboo is necessary

The theory states, “incest taboo is

necessary for co-operation and healthy
relationships among family members.
Incest taboo accelerate cooperation
among the members and if there is no
restriction of sexual relations, it would
Cooperation Theory
lead to suspicious and hostility among
By E-B-Taylor
members.”
Incest taboo enforce a person to marry
outside one’s family (exogamy), then
alliance is formed. Hence, the bond of
cooperation with another family will be
strengthened.

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 Functions of Incest Taboo:
1. Prevents genetic problems in offspring as close more likely to share harmful genes
2. Incest can disrupt family dynamics leading to unhealthy relationship.
3. It strengthens family ties.

CASE STUDY

Ashanti tribe of Ghana, punishes incest by death as it is considered as a sin against God, also
a form of pollution that can contaminate entire community.

Exceptions to incest taboo

CASE STUDY

Royal family of kingdom of Hawaii, Egypt and Inca were considered so sacred and separate
from ordinary people that brothers and sisters (commonly, half- brothers and half- sisters)
could marry each other

C. TYPES OF MARRIAGE:
Monogamy: Polygamy:
An individual is married to only one spouse at a An individual is married to more than one
given time. spouse at the same time.

Reasons to practice Subtypes:

» To control reproduction » Polygyny
» To provide economic support » Polyandry
» To promote social stability » Polygynandry or group marriage
Polygyny:
A man is married to more than one woman at
the same time.
Example - Islamic community

CASE STUDY
» Non serial monogamy-
Example: Indian Hindi, where a man tends to Abagusii tribe of Kenya, man is allowed
have a single wife throughout his life to marry as many wives as he can afford
to support due to economic reasons.

CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
Matrilineal society of Nayar of Malabar
practice non- serial monogamy to allow The Fulani tribe of Nigeria practices
women to have more control over their Polygyny as a means to increase a man’s
own lives status.

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 Serial monogamy- Sororal Polygyny: It is a type of Polygyny where
Example: American Society, where a man has a a man marries multiple sisters.
series of life after divorcing previous one. Example: Australian aborigines.
Significance:
Reasons to practice
It is an egalitarian form of marriage as it gives 1. Way for a man to ensure that his children
both men and women the opportunity to have has same mother
multiple partners.
2. Way to gain access to the labor of multiple
women

CASE STUDY

Swazi of Africa, practices sororal polygamy

because it is believed that two sisters
have better chances of getting along with
one another and it avoids competitive
approach towards husband’s affection.

Non- Sororal Polygyny: It is a type of Polygyny

where a man marries wives who are not sisters.
Example - Coromo Islanders (Madan and
Majumdar, Mair et.al)
CLIFF NOTE

CASE STUDY

Karimojong of Northeastern Uganda

practices non sororal Polygyny due to high
bride wealth, to maintain male dominance,
to earn cattle to settle debts.

Polyandry: Group marriage/Polygynandry:

A woman is married to more than one man at Several men are married to several women at
the same time. the same time.
Example: Society of Tibet, India, Nepal, China Example: of Khasas of Jaunsar- Bawar (D.N.
etc. Majumdar)
Subtypes:
» Fraternal polyandry: It means a
woman is married to more than one CASE STUDY
men, who are brothers.
Oneida community of New York in
1848, practiced group marriage as they
believed that this form of marriage was
best to achieve goals of love, unity and
cooperation.

Example: Todas of Nilgiris

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 CASE STUDY CASE STUDY

In Mahabharat, all the five Pandava Israeli kibbutz, where Kibbutzim are
brothers were married to princess agricultural communities that share
Draupadi. property, income, their children and
have communal living.

CLIFF NOTE
CASE STUDY

In Nayar of Kerala, paternity is not

ascribed to biological father (genitor)
but to sociology father (pater) by paying
midwife.

Reasons to practice: Reasons for decline:

» Spread to Christianity and Islam which
» To avoid division of land.
prohibits polyandry
» Women, children will have support of » Rise of individualism
more than one man. » Nuclear families.
Non-Fraternal Polyandry: if woman marries
more than one man who are not related or
brothers.

D. FUNCTION OF MARRIAGE:
1. Procreation: It is a natural way to have children and to provide stable environment for
children to be raised.
2. Economics Support: For both partners, earlier the husband was the breadwinner and wife
were responsible for taking care of home and children. However, couples are sharing financial
responsibility nowadays.
3. Social Status: It confers social status to both partners; marriage is sign as a sign of maturity
responsibility. It strengths ties between families.
4. Emotional Support: It is a source of love, companionship and intimacy, sense of security and
belonging.
5. Sexual Satisfaction: It provides sexual satisfaction while helping to regulate sexual behavior.

Marriage regulations:
Marriage regulations refers to the” norms that direct the nature, structure and functions of
marriage in a society.”

According to Neelam 1962, they are classified as:

1. Preferential marriage:
Preferential marriage norms promote a particular kind of relationship for marriage purposes.This
preferences are based on factors like kinship, social status or wealth. However, breaking these
norms does not entail severe sanctions.
It includes cousin marriage (Example-Middle East), levirate and sororate.

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 Levirate and sororate:

CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
In Tlingit people of North America,
cross cousin marriage helps to maintain
For Mossi of Burkina Faso, the levirate
alliance between families as the mother’s
system provides widows and children
brother’s daughter is considered to be
with financial and emotional support.
the ideal wife. (Matrilineal kinship)

CASE STUDY

Nuer of Sudan (voluntary) and Yanomami

of Venezuela (mandatory), sororate is
considered ideal form of marriage in order
to take care for children and to continue
relationship between two families

Figure: Types of Cousin Marriage

Prescriptive marriage:
Prescriptive marriage norms are too strictly followed in a society and breaking them entails strong
sanctions.
» It includes endogamy i.e. caste endogamy and exogamy i.e. gotra exogamy

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 Figure: Caste System in India

Prospective marriage :

Prospective marriage norms forbid marriage between specific social relations, so as to prohibit
mating between such relations. Prospective norms include incest taboo and avoidance.
Example: Father-daughter incest is tabooed in all society

CASE STUDY

Laura Fortunato studied Kpelle people of Liberia and found out they have complex system
of rules and regulations governing prospective marriage

CASE STUDY

The Mosuo of China, does not practices

incest taboo due to matriarchal
society where men are not involved in
child bearing and no opportunity for
incestuous relationship to develop.

CLIFF NOTE

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 Live in relationship:
It refers to arrangement of living under which couples that are unmarried decide to live together
on a long term or permanent basis in an emotional or/ and sexually intimate relationship similar
as in marriage.

Reasons for rise:

To test their mutual compatibility before committing to a legal union

Immense personal freedom without having to worry about family responsibility
Financial independence as there is no need to enter into a joint fund venture as as in marriage
To easily dissolve the relationship, without worrying about finances, family view and social
norms
To live with each other if marriage is allowed due to law restrictions. Example- homosexual
couples

Inclusion in ambit of marriage:

Depends upon social recognition and not legal recognition
Example- Many Western European communities gave live- in- relation equal rights as bestowed
upon same status as by marriage whereas in India, it is recognized but as of now, society does
not accept them in general.

Threat to marriage:

Live- in- relationships cannot replace marriage because they can never offer the kind of security
and emotional fulfillment that a marriage provides. Even in modern society, live- in- relationship
are treated as precursors to marriage, to check compatibility. it is not considered as an outright
replacement of manage.

E. MARRIAGE PAYMENTS
All the transactions involving exchange of goods and/ or services between bride and groom’s kin
group that take place before, after or at the time of marriage, are termed as marriage payments.

Subtypes:

1. Bride Wealth: It is paid by the groom’s family or kin group as a whole to the bride’s family. It
is common in simple society. Bride wealth is seen as compensation to the bride family over
the loss of two working hands as well as of the children to be born. it guarantees sexual rights
to the groom, and cements the relationship between the kin groups. If divorce occurs due to
the fault of the bride, then payment is returned to the groom.
Example- Cattle are given as bride wealth by the Neurs and Masai of Africa

CASE STUDY

In rural Mozambique, bride wealth is seen as a way to ensure the bride’s obedience and
fidelity to her husband.

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 2. Gift exchange: It is a way to understand 3. Suitor service: It is a replacement of bride
social structure of a particular group, also is wealth in poor sections of societies. the
a powerful tool to use to build relationship groom or any of his kin work for a specific
period to acquire right over the bride and
her future children.
CASE STUDY Example: Birhor, Purum tribe of India

Potlatch Of British Columbia is a

valuable gift giving or exchange ceremony. CASE STUDY
It is a way for hosts to demonstrate their
wealth and status.
In Gond society, it is customary for the
suitor to serve bride family for a period
of time (cooking, cleaning, serving in
fields) before marriage
CASE STUDY

Kula ring which is a system of exchange

involving two valuables i. e necklace CASE STUDY
(Mwey) and armshells (Soulava). It is
a way for Trobriand Islanders to build Neur of Sudan has suitor service
relationships with other communities (month/years) as principal form of
marriage payments. Once his service is
completed he is considered to be married
to the women

CLIFF NOTE

CLIFF NOTECLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE

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 Regional trends in bride price and dowry Bride price list of Yoruba tribe of Togo, Benin

Figure: Anderson, Siwan (2007): “The

Economics of Dowry and Brideprice”

Gift exchange: It is a way to understand

social structure of a particular group, also is a
powerful tool to use to build relationship

Bride wealth is not bride price

Bride price is payment made to purchase a
CLIFF NOTE bride.

CASE STUDY

Jie tribe of Kenya and Sudan, bride

price is seen as compensation to bride
family, it is paid in livestock depending
upon social status of family

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 Regional trends in bride price
It is given by the bride’s family to w the bride
(indirectly the groom’s family) at the time
of marriage, meant to establish her new
home or help the groom to establish himself
professionally (Goody, 1973). It is found in
patrilineal and patrilocal societies.
Example- Indian Hindu society.

Figure: Bride Payment

Prevalence of dowry world wide

Average Indian family spends US dollar 10,000

in dowry at the time of marriage

Ways of acquiring mates in simple Societies:

Explained by D N Majumdar and T.N Madan (1985), An introduction to Social Anthropology

also non -existence of religious rituals and rites explain by J. P. S. Rana(1998) in Marriage and
Customs of Tribes of India.
1. Married by purchase: The groom’s family pay bride wealth or bride price to acquire the bride
from her family and gain right over her sexual services and progeny.
Example: Neur and Massai of Africa
2. Marriage by service: Groom or his closed kin offer their services to the bride’s family in order
to compensate for their inability to pay the bride wealth
Example: Naga, Birhor, Kharia
3. Marriage by capture: The man captures/snatches a woman away from a village and marries
her. This represents valor and chivalry. it is also done due to high bride price
Example: Nagaas, Birhor, Kharia of India

CASE STUDY

Nagas of India take course to physical capture women during raids from one village to
another and marry them as wives.

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 CASE STUDY

In Kharia and Bihir of Bihar ceremonial capture, a boy desiring to marry a girl makes his
intention know by either holding her hand or marking her with vermilion during community
fair or festival.

4. Marriage by elopement: The couple marry in secretive fashion, away from their residential
places. this is generally done due to parents disapproval or high bride price
Example: Karbi of Assam

CASE STUDY

Youth Dormitories
Tribes like Gond have youth dormitories to provide wide scope for youth to choose their
mates.

5. Marriage by intrusion: A woman, in order to marry an unwilling man, thrusts herself on his
family. She serves the family but is tortured and humiliated in return. If she persists for a long
period, she gains acceptance.
Example: Hos’ anadar system (Bihar) and Kamar of Madhya Pradesh
6. Marriage by mutual consent: It has risen mostly due to cultural contact with outside
communities.
7. Marriage by probation: It is a version of modern live-in relationship, a man and woman
allowed to live together for some time in a woman’s house. If both want to marry afterward,
the elder arranges it. If not, the man pays compensation to girl’s parents
Example: Raazi-Khushi of Chhota Nagpur tribe, kukis of Manipur
8. Marriage by exchange: Two household exchange women. It is often resorted due to high
bride prices.
Example: Sister exchange among Koya and Soara of Andhra Pradesh (Majumdar1986)
9. Marriage by trial: The man has to prove his courage and bravery by performing a heroic task
to win a girl’s hand
Example: Gol Gadedho of Bhil

CASE STUDY

In Mahabharat and Ramayan, Draupadi and Sita were claimed by Arjun and Lord Rama
after they proved their skills in the Swayamvar

Divorce:
Divorce or dissolution of marriage is Murdok has mentioned grounds for divorce:
practice and tribal society may follow
certain rules and regulations. Incompatibility, adultery, disease, impotency, sexual
unwillingness, economic incapacity etc.

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 CASE STUDY

Indian tribals do not consider marriage as a religious sacrament and the process and
procedure of divorce is simple.

» Gond: Allows divorce freely on grounds of marital infidelity, carelessness in household

work, barrenness
» Khasi: Permits divorce for incompatibility of temperament
» Kharia: Allows divorce for laziness, wife’s refusal to live with the husband and theft.

Deviation in marriage:

Features

Lesbian relationship:
It is based on liking of a girl for another girl CASE STUDY
instead of a man
Swahili Muslim of Mombasa, Kenya
studied by Gill Shepard, women are
allowed to choose another woman at
CLIFF NOTE sexual partners after they are married

CASE STUDY

1. In Nicaragua, the term “machismo”

is used for sexual relationships
between men.
2. Greek history, where Apollo fell in
Gay relationship: love with a mortal boy, Hyacinthus
It is based on a man liking for another man 3. Brazil hosts Sao Paulo Gay Pride
commonly, it is known as homosexual Parade, with 2 million participants in
relationship support of homosexual rights

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 2.4 FAMILY

Family and its Universality Definition by other anthropologist:

Differences: 1. George Peter Murdock (Social
Structure1949): “A social group
» William N. Stephens, definesthe characterized by common residence,
family as “a group based on marriage economic cooperation, and reproduction.”
and marriage contract, including
2. Bronislaw Malinowski (The Family: Its
the recognition of rights and duties
Origin and Function,1913): “A group
of parenthood; common residence
of persons united by ties of marriage,
for husband, wife and children; and
blood, or adoption, constituting a single
reciprocal economics obligation
household, cooperating economically for
between husband-wife.”
the satisfaction of common needs and for
However, all the above features of the the reproduction of the group.”
definition may not be found together in every 3. Margaret Mead (Kinship in the Admiralty
human society. Islands, 1934): “A group of people who
» Types of family: are socially recognized as a unit, who
Structurally, a family can be : share a common residence, and who are
responsible for the care and socialization
1. Nuclear family: A nuclear family includes
of children.”
a couple with their unmarried children
2. Extended family: Any extension to nuclear
family is called extended family nuclear family
of orientation =
3. Joint family: A joint family is a type of
extended family in which there are at
least two nuclear families; at least three =
Ego
generation: and the joining of the nuclear
families is as per the rules of residence of
that society. nuclear family
of procreation

CLIFF NOTE =

= = = =

=
Fig. 1 : Nuclear Family Fig. 2 : Extended Family Fig. 3 : Patrilocal Joint Family

Universality of Family:
Murdock studied 250 societies and found CLIFF NOTE
that nuclear families existed in all of them.
Thus, in his work, ‘Social Structure (1949),he
concluded that nuclear family is universal.
He explained its universality saying that there
are certain ‘essential’ functions necessary for
human survival, which can only be performed
by nuclear families.

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 These functions are
1. Permanent gratification of sexual needs
2. Child birth Procreation
3. Economic functions
Regulation
4. Socialisation of children Educational
of sexual
Maintenance
Behaviour
Both extended and joint families have at least FUNCTIONS
one and two nuclear families respectively. OF
Thus, following Murdock as nuclear family THE FAMILY
is universal, family itself must be universal. Emotional/
Psychological Socialization
However, Kathleen Goughhas given the Support
following examples to show that the four
Economic
essential functions are not universal
Maintenance
domains of nuclear family:
1. Sexual needs and child birth - The non-
universality herein is evident from woman-
to-woman marriage in Nuers; ghost
marriages in British Columbians; and
CASE STUDY
NayarsTheravada.
2. Economic functions -The modern welfare In South Sudan, ghost marriagesare
state has taken over many such functions. arranged when a man dies without
Societies like the Kibbutz of Israelare also leaving any children and his brother may
an exemption. marry his widow in order to continue the
3. Socialisation of children -In large extended family line.
families, socialisation function is performed
by grandparents and not parents.
Example: In modern West, due to high rate
of divorce, the frequency of single parent CASE STUDY
households has also increased.
Single-parent householdsare becoming
increasingly common, with about 25% of
all households with children in the United
Statesheaded by a single parent.
Single-parent households can be headed
by either a mother or a father, and can be
formed due to a number of reasons, such
as divorce, death or never having been
married.

Value addition
Kibbutzim in Israelare characterized by
their communal way of life, in which
members share everything from property
to work to childrearing
Figure: kibbutz of Israel.

Thus, Gough concludes that family is not universal, both structurally and functionally. She says only
the mother child unit is universal, with its sole universal function being primary socialisation.

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 HOUSEHOLD AND DOMESTIC GROUP

Definition of household: Definition of Domestic group:

1. Haviland (CulturalAnthropology, 1993), Meyer Fortes defined domestic group“as
refers a household“to a group of members essentially house holding and housekeeping
living together who may or may not be groups which organise to provide material
relate by blood, yet they fulfil all the and cultural resources to maintain and bring
functions of a family”. up its members.”
2. George Murdock (Social Structure,1949): “A Meyer Fortes gave three phases in the
social unit of one or more persons who co- developmental cycle of a domestic group, as
reside, who are usually related by kinship,
follows:
and who share a common economy.
3. Melville Herskovits (Man and His Works,
1948): “A group of persons who share a Phase of expansion
common dwelling and who cooperate in
Starts with marriage, and expands
the satisfaction of economic needs.” by birth of children.
4. E. E. Evans-Pritchard(The Nuer,1940):
“A group of persons who normally eat
together, who sleep together in the Phase of Dispersion
same house, and who cooperate in the
production and consumption of food.” Starts with marriage of first/eldest
child and it continues till the marriage
of last youngest child.

CASE STUDY Phase of replacement

Among the Munduruku of Amazon, all Starts with ageing of parents and
males aged above 13 years live together continues till their death. The children
replace parents/head of the family
in one household. Females and children
and then undergo the phase of expansion.
aged below 13 years live in another
household. These two households
perform all family functions, including
economic production, child rearing and
socialisation.

Both household and domestic groups are instrumental in shaping the individual

CLIFF NOTE

Figure: household

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 Difference between Family and household

Family Household

Consists of people connected by marriage, Consists of people who live together,

blood or adoption. irrespective of their marital or blood ties.

Essentially a kin group. Essentially a residential group.

Members of a family may be spread over Members of a household live together, under
several households, not necessarily living one roof.
together.
Mobility out of family relations is unlikely and Mobility out of a household is easy.
very difficult.

FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY
Definition: FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY
Claude Lévi-Strauss defined family as “a social
group characterized by a special type of
relationship between spouses, parents, and
children.
He argued that the family is a universal human
institution, but that its form and function vary
widely from culture to culture.
Child Learnshis roles and and Status
Anthropologists generally agree that a family
performs two types of broad functions :
1. Essential: Murdock in his work, “The Social
Structure (1949), ”said that family, specifically
a nuclear family, fulfils four essential functions CLIFF NOTE
-permanent gratification of sexual needs; child
birth; economic functions: and socialisation of
children.
Some believe that socialisation of children is CLIFF NOTE
the most important of these four functions.
2. Non-essential: These include functions like
taking care of formal education and health of
children: religious functions; recreation among
others.
Kathleen Gough has noted that these
functions, including the essential ones, are
not the sole domains of family. Nonetheless,
family continues to remain the most important
unit for primary socialisation and thus, is a
cornerstone of human society.

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 D. TYPES OF FAMILY
Different types of family are found due to the variations in human culture.
Family can be classified on the basis of:

1. Structure
Types of Family
Independent families

Nuclear family - Includes a couple with = = = = =

their unmarried children. It is also known
as primary family. Mother-child family Nuclear or Polygynous polyandrous
with two children monogamous family family
Extended family - Any extension to a (one male; one female) family

nuclear family is called extended family. Extended families

= Legend
Joint family -A type of extended family, is a male

in which there are at least two nuclear = = = is a female

families; at least three generations; and = married

the joining of the nuclear families is as per Three-generation Two-generation children of

extended family with extended family with
the rules of residence of that society. two nuclear family units two nuclear family units siblings
united by a sibling tie in
the senior generation

2. Nature of Blood Relations

Conjugal family- The couple are related
to each other by marriage, and are a
heterosexual pair, who may/may not have
children.
Consanguineous family- The couple are
related to each other by blood. They are
either cross-cousins or parallel cousins.
Example: Muslim communities

3. Marriage:
Monogamous Family - Comprises a Outsiders
husband, a wife and may/may not include
children. Both the spouses are prohibited Endogamous
to have more spouses. Group
Polygamous family - One individual has
more than one spouse.
Exogamous
Group
Polygamous family is of three types:
1. Polyandrous (one woman, many husbands)
2. Polygynous (one man, many wives)
3. Polygynandrous (many husbands and
many wives).
1 2 3
Endogamous family- An individual is
Social Distance
supposed to marry within his/her own
social unit.
Exogamous family- An individual is
supposed to marry outside his/her own
social unit.

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 4. Residence
Value addition:
Patrilocal family - After marriage, daughter
moves out of her natal residence and joins 1. Patrilocal family: In China and among
her husband’s patrilineal family. Yanomami of Venezuelait is traditional for
the bride to move in with her husband’s
Matrilocal Family - After marriage, a man
family after marriage
joins his wife’s matrilineal residence.
2. Matrilocal Family: Khasi of Meghalaya in
Bilocal family- After marriage, the married India.
couple change their residence alternatively. 3. Avunculocal family: Nayar of Kerala in
Both paternal and maternal families are India and Naxi of China has such family as
given importance. it ensures that the children will be raised
Virilocal family - The wife stays near the by their mother’s family, who has a vested
husband’s patrilineal relatives along with interest in their well-being.
her husband. 4. Neolocal family: Inuit of North America

Uxorilocal family - The husband stays near

the wife’s matrilineal place along with his
wife.
Avunculocal family- After marriage the
married couple reside in maternal uncle’s
house. This is usual found in matrilineal
societies.
Neolocal family- The couple decide to stay
from their parents’ residence, and set up a
new independent family at a new place.

5. Succession (Descent/Ancestry):
Patrilineal family - Descent is inherited
through father.
Matrilineal family - Descent is inherited
through mother.
Bilineal family - Descent is inherited
through both parental lines.

6. Authority:
Patriarchal family- The eldest male
member of the family exercises absolute
authority over other members.
Patriarchal family
Example: Indian joint families.
Matriarchal family - The eldest female
member of the family exercises absolute Authority
authority over other members. There is no
contemporary society that may be called
truly matriarchal. Matriarchal family Egalitarian family
Egalitarian family - Authority is equally
distributed among husband and wife. Both Figure:Family According to Authority
son and daughter together inherit rights
and obligations equally.

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 CASE STUDY of Matriarchal family :
The Mosuo tribe of China come close, as women are the head of families, and make economic
decisions. But Mosuo men hold political power.
Kindly note that Khasis, Jaintia and tribes of Meghalaya have matrilineal families, not
matriarchal. This is because the eldest male remains the head of the family. While the property
is in the name of women, it is the male members that take all financial and other decisions.

CHANGES IN FAMILY STRUCTURE

Introduction:
Family is a function of culture, since culture is dynamic, family is also dynamic and thus continuously
changing. Numerous studies revolving around the issue of structural change of family from joint
family to a nuclear one, have been conducted.

CASE STUDY
In India, city-wise studies like that of - Nagpur (by Prof. Shils), Pramala Kallar in Tamil Nađu (by
Prof. Lamb), and Sirkanda in Uttarakhand (by Prof. Braibanti) - have all reported at least 60%
of the families to be nuclear.

Two-fold factors have been given to support

these findings Value addition
1. Economic factors – The impacts of factors have been studied
Industrialisation has facilitated factory by J.P. Singh (Eastern Anthropologist, 2010),
employment, thereby freeing young adults who has listed the
fromdirect dependence on a joint family. following features of the modern family:
It has promoted rural-to-urban migration, 1. Equal rights of men and women
further causing a rise in nuclear families. 2. Decreased control of marriage contract
Urbanisation has followed industrialisation. 3. Increased tendency to be filiocentric
It has brought up several specialised 4. Decreased religious control
agencies that have taken over functions 5. Economic independence of both sexes
that were earlier the sole domain of family,
6. Reduced size of family members
also informal controls in the family have
been replaced by legal ones. 7. Increasing rates of divorce and single
parent households due to weakened
2. Cultural factors- emotional bond and socialisation
The growing acceptance of democratic process.
institutions and modern values have
inculcated a new found ‘respect of the However, the above studies are more
individual’. relevant for Western societies than
Another crucial factor has been the spread traditional ones like India.
of modern education Studies by LP. Desai
and Alien Ross have concluded that modern
education works against joint family in two
ways - by increasing occupational mobility;
and by promoting individualism.

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 A new trend has been that of thefeminist
movement whereby women are demanding Value addition:
equality between sexes, equal legal rights and
Census 2011 has shown that joint family in
cultural freedom. They wish to be no longer
India has increased by 26% in urban areas,
considered as subordinates in the family but
and by 2% in rural areas. This latest trend
as equal partners with their husbands.
contrasts with the earlier studies.
Extended Reconstituted Reasons:
families families
Marriage Feminism
Postmodernism Sociologists like Janaki Abraham and Rajni
Single and and
Single
Person The main Parent divorce gender and
individualisation Palriwala have enlisted two reasons behind
households roles
households types
Social
this:
The rappoports How are
families/
Explaining policy
1.Rising costs of land
increasing family
Conceptualising
households
becoming
diversity
Economic
2. A new found realisation of the psychological
more
family diversity
diverse?
factors and social security provided by a joint family.
Postmodern ideas Trends in family
of radical diversity diversity Life course Generation
Thus, Yogendra Singh concludes that despite
Was it Perspectives
How do all the changes, the traditional world view of
Is the nuclear family families vary
ever the
norm or
really in decline? to apply by Ethnicity the joint family still prevails in societies
just a
myth? Still the main Post
like the Indian society.
type? and late Feminisms Class
New
right modernism
Sexuality

Figure: Trends in Family Diversity

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALISATION ON FAMILY

Definition:
Industrialisation refers to “the social and economic changes that transform a human group from
an agrarian society into an industrial one.”
An industrial society is driven by the use of technology to enable mass production.

Associated Changes:
Note:
1. Employment Opportunities - Impacts will be same as changes in family
Industrialisation has facilitated factory
employment, thereby freeing young adults
from direct dependence on a joint family.
It has promoted rural-to-urban migration, CASE STUDY
further causing a risein nuclear families.
1. In China industrialization has had
2. Urbanisation- Industrialisation has been
a significant impact on family life.
succeeded by urbanisation. It has brought
The one-child policy, which was
up several specialised agencies that have
implemented in 1979, has led to a
taken over functions that were earlier
decline in the size of families.
the sole domain of family. Also, informal
2. In Japan, industrialization led to a
controls in the family have been replaced
number of changes in family life,
by legal ones.
including the decline of arranged
3. Cultural changes - Industrialisation has also marriages, the rise of the nuclear
led to spread of democratic institutions family, and the increasing emphasis
and modern values which have inculcated on individualism.
a new found ‘respect of the individual.”
Another crucial change has been the
spread of modern education.

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 3. In the United States, industrialization
CASE STUDY led to a shift from a rural to an urban
society. This shift had a number
Studies by I.P. Desai and Allien Ross
of impacts on family life, including
have concluded that modern education
the rise of the nuclear family, the
works against joint family in two ways -by
decline of extended families, and the
increasing occupational mobility; and by increasing participation of women in
promoting individualism. the workforce.
4. In India, industrialization has had a
4. Feminist movements- Industrialisation has mixed impact on family life. On the
given a new found feeling of financial and one hand, it has led to the decline of
personal freedom to women. They are extended families and the increasing
now demanding equality between sexes, participation of women in the
equal legal rights and cultural freedom. workforce. On the other hand, it has
They wish to be no longer considered as also led to an increase in the number
subordinates in the family, but as equal of single-parent households and the
partners with their husbands. prevalence of child labor.

Industrialisation has both positive and

negative impact on family
Thus, we may now be witnessing a reverse
trend in modern industrial families, with a
desire to combine the security provided by
a traditional family, and the independence
provided by a modern one.

IMPACT OF THE FEMINIST MOVEMENTS ON FAMILY

Definition
Feminist movements refer to the” attempts to gain equal political, economic and cultural rights
for women at par with men in the contemporary society”. The concept originated in the mid-20th
century, and until now, the world has witnessed several waves of feminist movements.
History
The pre-Cursor to these movements can be linked with the coming of industrialisation and
urbanisation, These factors enabled women to enjoy a new found feeling of independence from
their husbands and families. Combined with the spread of democratic institutions, modern values
and formal education, women soon began to assert their demands for equality of both sexes in
all spheres.
Feminist movements have had both positive and negative connotations on the institution
of family.

WORKPLACE
FAMILY Less sexism (nude
Women go to work and calendars, innuendos)
contribute financially Have Better chance of promotion
more say in family matters
Stay at home dads less of a
stigma LAW
Equal pay act
IMPACTS OF FEMINISM Pension age
ON SOCIETY discrimination

EDUCATION Girls are

treated more equally in SOCIAL POLICY Maternity
schools and are out leave Paternity leave Family
achieving tax credits Nurserv vouchers
boys

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 Positive Impact
1. As females have grown more aware of their CASE STUDY
rights, they are now getting the strength
to take a stand against injustice. They no 1. Katherine R. Allen: male members are
longer accept to serve as a subordinate to now slowly accepting the changing
men in their family, but as equal partners. gender roles, and are also involving
As a result the old patriarchal norms for themselves more in the socialisation
women are slowly breaking down. process of the children.
2. Women are availing more economic 2. In the US has led to more women in the
opportunities and this has had a positive workforce, declining stay-at-home
effect on the family income as well moms, and more egalitarian families
whereas it has also challenged gender
3. Families are recording better social
roles, leading to acceptance of single-
indicators like reduced poverty, improved
parent and same-sex households
literacy rate and health status.
3. In India has led to greater awareness of
Negative Impact domestic violence, legal protection for
1. The new-found social and financial women and acceptance of women’s
independence of women has also led to whereas it has also challenged
ego-clashes and self-centered tendencies. gender roles, leading to more
women in education, employment
and property ownership.
As per the sociologist Arlie Russel
Hochschild, women are now viewing
children as a restriction on their freedom,
and as such, nuclear and sub-nuclear
CASE STUDY
families are on the rise. This has also
led to clashes with the older generation, In Sweden has one of the highest rates
especially on the issue of child birth. of single-parenthood in the world where
Thus, kinship bonds between the family
it is argued that this is a direct result of
members are weakening.
the feminist movement, which has led to
a decline in the importance of marriage
2. A high rates of divorce and frequency of and the nuclear family.
single parent households The socialisation
process and development of children has
also been hampered.
3. The rising incidences of live-in relations
and extra-marital affairs are affecting the
notion of family unity.
It has today become essential to separate the more radical extreme feminists from the more
balanced ones. While the former call for an all-out attack on the opposite sex, the latter have
rational demands for both the sexes to equally share their responsibilities and recognise each
other’s freedom and aspirations within the family as well as in the society at large.

CLIFF NOTE

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 E. 2.5 KINSHIP
Definition: Value addition:
Abercrombie, has defined kinship as “the social
relationships deriving from blood ties (real
and supposed) and marriage are collectively
referred to as kinship”.
Types: 2
1. Consanguineal kinship: Kinship based on 1
blood relations 3
2. Affinal kinship: kinship based on relations
by marriage. Affinal Kin Consanguineal Kin
1 Primary Kin 2 Secondary Kin 3 Tertiary Kin

Fig. 1: Types and levels of Kin

Marriage Regulations:
These refer to the set of rules that determine
the nature, structure and function of marriage.
As per Needham, these are of three types:
1. Proscriptive:
Rules that forbid certain kinds of marriage.
Example: Incest taboo and avoidance.
2. Prescriptive:
Norms that are strictly followed by the society. Patrilateral Patrilateral Matrilater-Matrilater-
Breaking them entails strong social sanctions. Cross Parallel al al Cross
Cousin Cousin Parallel Cousin
Example: Endogamy (e.g. caste endogamy) Cousin
and Exogamy (e.g. Gotra exogamy)
Fig. 2: Types of Cousin Marriage
3. Preferential:
Refer to norms that promote any particular
kind of relation(s) for marriage proposes.
Breaking them however entails mild sanctions
only. Fig. 3: Levirate Fig. 4: Sororate
Example: Cousin marriage, levirate and
sororate.

ROLE OF KINSHIP IN REGULATING MARRIAGE

Definition:
Value addition:
A closed system is characterised by strong
Consanguinity and affinity are the major
kinship bonds. A person depends upon the
principles that govern types of kinship
larger kingroup for his/her survival. All rules,
groups.
including marriage, are followed strictly.
Levels/Degrees of kin include:
In such systems, preferential regulations,
1. Primary kin - People who are directly
endogamy and avoidance are widely
related to each other are known as
practised because of their emphasis on:
primary kin.
1. Purity of blood, in social sense.

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 2. Re-enforcement of pre-existing strong It is of two types:
kinship bonds, as highlighted by Levi- Primary consanguineal kinship: It refers to the
Strauss in his Alliance Theory. direct relationship formed due to marriage,
3. Marriage in which even if the spouse-to-be with the only such relationship being between
is not known, at least his/her family group husband and wife.
is known. Primary affinal kinship: It refers to the
4. Retention of traditions and customs. direct relationship formed due to birth.
Example:Parents-children and sibling-sibling.
5. Protection of family especially children and
retention of rights and obligations. This 2. Secondary kin - People who are directly
specifically is the rationale behind levirate related to one’s primary kin are his/her’s
and sororate. secondary kin.
6. Handling affinal relations with It is of two types:
sensitivity, thereby preventing any Secondary consanguineal
chaos. This specifically is the rationale Secondary affinal kin.
behindavoidance.
3. Tertiary kin - These include
An open system is characterised by
Secondary kin of one’s primary kin, or primary
individualism. The kinship bonds are weak,
kin of one’s secondary kin.
and a person is not dependent on the larger
kin group. But nuclear family is important and It is of two types:
continues to play a vital role in a person’s life. Tertiary consanguineal
Thus, the only rules of marriage followed are Tertiary affinal kin.
family exogamy and incest taboo. Further,
high rates of divorce are prevalent.

Thus, kinship plays an important role in determining the marriage regulations followed in a
society

DESCENT IS A CULTURAL RULE

Definition Value addition:
Descent refers to “the relationship between an
individual and their ancestors through blood
(consanguinity), marriage (affinity) or adoption. Ancestor Ancestor
Patrilineal
It is a system of reckoning kinship that is used Matrilineal
(uterine)
(agnatic)
descent
to determine an individual’s membership in a descent
female male
particular social group.
It also refers to “inheritance and succession”. marriage

The rules of descent are important for the

proper distribution of rights and obligations in sibship

a family. son
daughter
Rules of Descent:
1. Unilineal Descent:
Descent is traced exclusively from one line of
parentage, while the other one is ignored.
Types:
Patrilineal descent: If descent is traced from
the male line, it is called patrilineal descent.
Matrilineal descent: If descent is traced
from the female line it is called matrilineal
descent.99% of the global societies follow
this rule.

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 2. Double/Bilineal Descent:
Descent is traced from both lines of parentage,
with the inheritance of non-overlapping
natural elements from each line.
Example: in Yako herders of Nigeria, rituals
are traced matrilineally, while productive
resources patrilineally.
3. Parallel Descent:
Each individual of the family traces descent
but from the line of their own sex.
Example: Saha of Santa Marta
4. Ambilineal Descent:
Individuals are free to trace descent from any
FIG. 1: DOUBLE DESCENT
line of parentage. Thus, it is the only use where
males andfemales can trace descent from the
same line.
Example: Samoans of West Pacific Value addition:
The rules of descent followed in a society
depends upon its socio-cultural needs.
The factors governingrules of Descentare:
1. Economic factors:
Contribution to family economy: In societies
where the nature of production activity is
same for both the sexes, descent is traced
from the line of sex who contributes more
to the family.
E.g. food gathering societies may be patrilineal
or matrilineal.
Prestige of profession: In societies where
the profession’s prestige is more valued
than its actual productivity, then the
descent is traced from the line of the sex Parallel Descent
engaged in the particular profession.
Example: hunter gatherers societies are thus
patrilineal.
Division of labour: Societies following strict
division of labour between both sexes
usually follow parallel descent. Oppositely
double descent is followed.
2. Political factors:
In societies where males stay away from their
families for long periods, the maintenance of
social order is performed by women. Such
Ambilineal Descent
societies follow matrilineal descent.
Example: Nayars of Malabar
3. Demographic factors: If a natural calamity
wipes out majority population without
affecting the resources, it may lead to Ambiline
aldescent.
Example: British Columbians
Since all these factors represent various socio-cultural needs of a society, therefore descent is a
cultural rule.
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 RESIDENCE AS A CULTURAL RULE
Rules of residence define the residential status of the spouses post marriage.
The following classification is modified from the one given by Murdock:

1. Patrilocal residence: Value addition:

After marriage, the couple stay with the
groom’s father’s family.
If the couple stay near the groom’s patrilineal
relatives, it is called virilocal residence.

Patrilocal Residence

2. Matrilocal residence:
After marriage, the couple stay with the
bride’s father’s family.It is exactly opposite of
patrilocal residence.
Example: Khasis of Meghalaya and Nambiars
of Kerala.

Matrilocal Residence

3. Uxorilocal residence:
Value addition:
After marriage, the couple stay near the bride’s
1. In many uxorilocal societies, the couple
patrilineal relatives, it is called uxorilocal
after marriage stay with particular kin
residence .It is the opposite of virilocal
of the bride, usually her maternal uncle.
residence.
This is called avunculocal residence.
Example: Nayars of Malabar
2. Rarely, in matrılocal societies, if the
bride and groom continue to stay at
their natal places after marriage,
tenure it is called neolocal residence.

4. Matri-patrilocal residence:
The couple initially reside uxorilocally for some time after marriage, and then permanently shift
to their virilocal residence

5. Bilocal residence:
The couple reside at both uxorilocal and virilocal residence from time to time.
Example: British Columbians.

6. Ambilocal residence:
Since, bilocal residence cannot be followed for long especially after child birth. If the couple
has freedom to decide whether to permanently reside uxorilocally or virilocally, then it is called
ambilocal residence.
Example: British Columbians
7. Neolocal residence:
The couple after marriage tend to permanently reside away from all kin.
Example: Modern societies,

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 RULE OF RESIDENCE:
The rule of residence followed depends upon the socio-cultural needs of a society.
These can be based on:
1. Economic factors
Contribution to family economy:
If the nature of production activity is same for both the sexes, then the one who contributes
more to the family decides the residence rule.
Prestige of profession:
In societies where prestige of profession is given more importance than actual contribution,
then the one practising this profession decides the residence rule.
Example: Hunter gatherers societies are thus patrilocal.
Nature of the economy:
Example: Cash based economies with surplus promote neolocal residence.
Type of marriage payment
Societies where bride wealth is paid in instalments or that pay in service, residence tends to be
Matri- patrilocal.
Example: Gond, Baiga
2. Political factors:
In societies where the men tend to stay away from their families’ for long periods, the maintenance
of social Order is carried out by women. Thus, there societies are matrilocal.
Example:Nayars, Trobriand Islanders
3. Demographic factors:
Ifa natural calamity wipes out a large segment of the population without affecting the resources,
it may lead to bilocal residence, followed by ambilocal.
Example: British Columbians

FORMS OF DESCENT GROUPS:

Definition:
Unilineal descent groups:In societies that follow the rule of unilineal descent, the rule is sostrict
that it forms the basis of residential group known as unilineal descent groups. Two such are clan
and lineage.
Value addition:
Tribe

Moiety Moiety

Phratry

Clan

Lineage
Fig. 1: Unilineal Descent Groups

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 Difference between lineage and a clan

Lineage Clan
Smallest unilineal descent group Comprises several lineages and is thus almost
always bigger than lineage
Member are descendants of a common Members claim to be descendants of a
ancestor common ancestor whether it may be true or
not
The ancestor is not remote and is generally Is remote and may be true or symbolic, with
the 5th or 6th generation ancestor the latter termed as totem

Genealogical links from ancestor to present All genealogical links cannot be demonstrated
generation can be easily demonstrated
Very strong kinship bonds Strong, but less than that of lineage
Except in a few Muslim groups, lineages are May or may not be exogamous, but totemic
always exogamous clans are exogamous
Example: In Indian Hindu society, lineage is Example: In Indian Hindu society, clan is
called ‘vansha’ called ‘gotra.’

Phratry -Two or more clans related through a common ancestor.

Example: Gonds, North East Tribes.
Moiety -The whole society is divided into two well identifiable groups, each called a moiety

DOUBLE AND BILATERAL DESCENT:

Value addition:
Definition
Double descent is a rule in which” descent is
traced from both lines of parentage, with the
inheritance or no overlapping natural elements
form each line.”
Example: In Yako herders of Nigeria rituals are
traced matrilineally, while productive resources
patrilineally.

Fig. 1: Double Descent

Value addition:
Bilaterals descent
It comprises of both patrilineals and matrilineals.
Descent is shared lineally, no laterally, and thus,
albeit for a specific purpose. Bilateral descent
is only a temporary arrangement to affiliate
with the kin on both sides of parentage almost
equally.

CLIFF NOTE Ego

Fig. 2: Bilateral Descent

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 Value addition:
Bilateral descent is ego-centric, temporary
and thus ends when the ego dies, varies from CLIFF NOTE
individual to individual within the family,
while double descent is ancestor-focused,
permanent and continues even after ego’s
death also double descent is same for all
members.
Realising that bilateral descent is not true descent, anthropologists have now replaced it with
the term kindred

KIN TERMS
Definition:
Kin terms are the basic terms that refer to social relations within a family/domestic group.

Types:
Value addition:
L.H. Morgan, in hisbook, ‘System of
Consanguinity and Affinity of Human Family
(1871), has classified kin terms as
descriptive and classificatory.
1. Descriptive kin terms: definitely pinpoint 2

a relationship, and are used to denote 1

primary kin. 3

Example: Father, mother

Affinal Kin Consanguineal Kin
2. Classificatory kin terms: refer to a group 1 Primary Kin 2 Secondary Kin 3 Tertiary Kin
of relations, usually beyond the nuclear Fig. 1: Types and levels of Kin
family.
Example: Cousin, uncle.

Value addition:
The classification represents two idealised
extremes and no society in the world follows it
CLIFF NOTE
in absolute sense.
Reasons: Due to enormous cultural variations
across societies most of the societies, be it
simple or modern, have both classificatory and
descriptive terms.
Example: In Hindu society, the term “dadi”
(grandmother) is often used to address any
elderly woman of the village

Following Kroeber and Lowie, today’s anthropologists usually accept that one or more following
factors determine choice of kin term.
Factors determines the choice of kin terms:
On the basis of these
criteria, Murdock gave 4. Collaterality 7. Relative Age
six- fold classification
for kin terms but it 2. Sex 5. Bifurcation 8. Speaker’s Sex
is not universal due
to enormous cultural 6. Polarity 9. Decadence
variation.

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 RELEVANCE OF KIN TERM
The relevance of kin terms thus does not lie in
Value addition:
their classification, but because they-
1. Denote a social status with an associated English Kin Terms
role
Example: Father
2. Almost always exist in pairs Uncle Aunt Mother Father Uncle Aunt
Example: Father-son
3. Denote higher and lower social status.
Example: Father has a higher status than son Cousin Cousin
Sister Ego Brother
Cousin Cousin
4. As per W.H.K. Rivers, by studying kinship
terms we can trace those marriage customs
and practices that may have vanished Niece Daughter Niece
today in societies. Nephew Son Nephew

Example: Devar and Mausi in traditional Hindu

society probably denote the existence of etc
levirate and sororate respectively.
5. As per Radcliffe-Brown by studying the
kinship system and terminology of a society, (grandfather, (great uncle,great aunt)
its social structure can be understood. grandmother)

Thus, kin terms are very important to

understand human societies from an 1st cousin
(uncle, aunt)
anthropological perspective. (father, mother) once removed

first cousin
Criteria/Determinants of kinship self (brother, sister) second
cousin
Terminology :
Kroeber, in a 1929 paper, looked at the (son, daughter)
1st cousin
(nephew, once
principles that were used in separating kinds niece) removed
2nd cousin
once removed
of kin, and suggested eight determinants:
generation, affinity, collaterality, and sex of
(grandson,
relative, bifurcation, sex of speaker, relative granddaughter) etc etc 2nd cousin
age, and decadence. Lowie added a ninth - twice removed
polarity.
1. Generation- Relations belonging to etc
different generations are denoted by parent child
etc

different terms. Most kinship systems give

recognition to this criterion.
Example: Father and son differ only on the
dimension of generation
But societies like Omaha, Crow and Red Indians
do not follow this criterion. They classify
relations of different generations through one
classificatory term only.

2. Affinity - Consanguineal and affinal relations are denoted by different terms.

Example: Father and father-in-law differ in that the latter is an affine.
This is a very commonly found criteria, but not in societies which prefer cross-cousin marriages.

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 3. Collaterality - This criterion rests on the distinction between siblings and lineal relatives. It is
based on the fact that among consanguine of same sex and generation, some are more closely
related to ego. Example: Father and uncle are distinguished by collaterality

4. Sex of relative - It is highly common in most societies.

Example: Father-mother, uncle-aunt,

5. Bifurcation - Bifurcation means ‘forking,” and it recognises that relatives may be traced through
either a male or female connecting relative.
Example: In Hindu society, one’s grandparent from the father’s line is called ‘dada-dadi,’ while
from the mother’s line is called ‘nana-nani.”
6. Sex of speaker - It is seen in some societies like the Haida.
Example: There are two terms for father, one used by the son, and other used by the daughter,
that is depending on the sex of the speaker

7. Relative age - It recognises that within a generation, people differ in age. Thus, there are
separate terms for younger and elder kin.
Example: In Telugu speaking society, the term “anna” is used tor big brother, while the term
“thammudu” is used for younger brother.
8. Decedence - A different term is assigned to a relative depending on whether the relative is
alive dead. It is found in very few societies only.
9. Polarity – It recognises that a relationship consists of two parties, and thus two terms.
Example: Aunt-niece.
If this criterion is ignored, the two parties call each other by the same name. In English, cousin is
an example.

FILIATION AND COMPLEMENTARY FILIATION

Definition:
1. Filiation: Allocation of individuals to a
descent group is known as filiation. This Complementary
Descent
Filiation Personhood
allocation is based on the rules of descent
followed by a society.
Filiation
2. Complimentary filiation: Refers to the fact
that in societies with unilineal descent
groups, individuals nonetheless recognise Adulthood
kinship links with the relatives that do
not belong to their own descent group.
Human Rights

It is a concept given by a group of

anthropologists called as ‘descent Man (husband Linkages
theorists,’ foremost of which was Meyer or father)

Fortes. Extent of
Woman (wife
or mother) relationship
for Right and
Obligation

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 Example: In many patrilineal societies, individuals recognise kinship ties with relatives from their
mother’s side.
As linkage links tend to be political and hierarchical in character, complimentary filiation links
are sometimes more personal and emotional. This is because members of the same descent
group can have different complimentary filiation links, and thus, an element of individuality gets
involved.

Value addition:
CASE STUDY
J. Goody has further added that in some
Fortes while studying Tallensi of
societies, members inherit certain types
Ghana found that Tallensis treat their
of property and status along the lines of
complimentary filiation links as different
complimentary filiation.
from their lineage links, yet nonetheless
essential for their well-being.

DESCENT AND ALLIANCE THEORIES

Introduction:
Kinship was at the core of socio-cultural anthropology for much of the 20h century. In this time,
two main theories emerged to explain the role of kinship in social structure and continuity

Theories to explain the role of

kinship in social structure and Value addition:
continuity: Descent theory came to the fore in the
1940s although tracing its origin in the
1.Descent Theory:
works of evolutionists like Morgan and
Descent theorists compared unilineal descent functionalists like Radclife-Brown. This
groups to corporations. Members of such was the time when works like The Nuer (l
groups behaved as a single unit while dealing 940), ` by Evans- Pritchard, and African
with economic, legal and political matters, Political Systems (1940)’ by M. Fortes
as well as dealing with other groups. Thus, and Evans-Pritchard were published.
he concluded that descent, in particular
unilineal descent, was the basis of the stability
and structure of a society absence of state
Value addition:
institutions.
Criticism of descent theory:
2. Alliance Theory:
The theory was first highlighted by Claude Levi- 1. The theory was heavily criticised as
Strauss., in his book. Elementary Structures of it became evident that kinship was not
Kinship (Unlike the descent theory, this theory always organised through unilineal
put affinal relations as the basis of kinship and descent in various societies.
social structure.) 2. It also minimised the importance of
Details: marriage and affinal relations in the
1. According to Levi-Strauss, the theory is structuring of kinship.
based on the principle of reciprocity and
the universality of incest taboo.
2. For Strauss, marriage is fundamentally
a ‘reciprocal exchange’ involving women
that forges a relationship i.e. an alliance,
between two men or families.

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 3. Incest taboo positively forces men to marry
women outside their own descent groups. Value addition:
Thus, incest taboo dictates an ever-
continuing reciprocal exchange of women. Criticism of Alliance theory:
4. Levi-Strauss therefore termed incest taboo 1. The theory was criticised by feminist
as a positive marriage rule, which ensures anthropologists for objectifying women.
that a spouse must be from a certain social 2. It also minimised the role of
category. consanguinity and residence on kinship.
5. It is the positive marriage rules that give
rise to what Levi-Strauss calls ‘elementary
structures.”

KINSHIP BEHAVIOUR

Definition:
Kinship behaviour refers to the definite and comparatively permanent behavioural patterns
between kin.
They are of the following types:
1. Avoidance - Certain affinal relations
avoid physical contact and/or familiarity.
Kinship Usages
This is done as such relationship Joking
is deemed vulnerable to socially Avoidance Avunculate
Relationship
condemned acts.
Example: among Onge, as observed by
Radcliffe-Brown, the elder brother must
avoid his younger brother’s wife.
2. Joking Relationship - Certain affinal
relatives liberally exchange interactions,
be it abuses, gestures, verbal talk. Their TeknonymyA mitate Couvade
behaviour crosses ordinary permitted
limits of acceptance, and is yet permitted
by the society.
Example: jja-sali and devar-bhabhi in
Indian Hindu family
Joking relationships are also seen in
tribes like Ho, Oraon, and Baiga.
3. Teknonymy - Two relations use symbols/third person to address each other.
Example: In traditional Hindu families, a wife does not call her husband by name, and rather uses
third person like ‘woh’ (him) or ‘bacchon ke papa’(father of their children).
4. Avunculate - In many matrilineal societies, the maternal uncle-nephew relationship is treated
as highly important and special. This is because the maternal uncle has a permanent place in the
family.
Example: Khasi, Tsonga, Nyoro
5. Amitate - It is the patrilineal version of avunculate, involving the relationship between the
paternal aunt and the nephew.
6. Couvade - The husband imitates the behaviour of his wife during pregnancy, delivery and child
birth He behaves as though he feels the same pain and joy as his wife does during this period.
This is symbolic of a Strong bond between the couple.
Example: seen in Khasi, Toda and Maler.

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 KINSHIP AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN ANTHROPOLOGY
Definition: Value addition:
1. Lewis Henry Morgan: “Kinship is the
relationship of persons to each other Guide to kinship diagrams
through ties of consanguinity or affinity.
2. Claude Lévi-Strauss: “Kinship is a system blood relationship
of classification of the sexes which is divorce marriage
at the same time a system of social
organization.” descent adoption
3. Margaret Mead: “Kinship is a network
of social relationships that is based on
shared ancestry, marriage, or adoption.” male female Ego death

Importance in Anthropology:
1. In social relations: Value addition:
Kinship plays an important role in determining Malinowski studied Kula gift exchange
the marriage regulations followed in a society. among Trobriand Islanders. In strict
In simple societies characterised by strong economic terms, Kula is an uneconomic
kinship bonds, preferential regulations and irrational venture involving long
(cousin marriages, levirate and sororate) hazardous voyages to exchange
and endogamy are widely practised. This is economically irrelevant items among kin.
due to their emphasis on re-enforcement But Malinowski says it reinforces kinship
of pre- existing strong kinship bonds within bonds, and its role as a cementing agency
the social group. is such that the Trobriand society would
In modern complex societies characterised disintegrate without it.
by individualism, kinship bonds beyond
the nuclear family are weak. The only rules B
of marriage followed are family exogamy
Mwali (Armbands)
and incest taboo.
B
2. In economic relations:
Soulva (Necklaces)
In simple societies, rationality requires
maintenance of social order even at the cost
of profit and resource maximisation. Thus, CC
kinship herein plays a vital role in economic AA
functions.
Example: Kula ring
3. In political relations: D
In simple societies the concepts of law and
social sanctions are built around kinship. The
D
aim of justice is not to punish the guilty, but to
maintain harmony, so as to avoid breakdown
in kinship bonds.
4. In religion: CASE STUDY
This is especially evident in Totemism. As per
Durkheim, the totem is bound to the members Evans Pritchard observed that in the
of a clan in kinship-like bonds, based on Nuer, feuds between lineages are solved
descent. The totem symbolises both the clan by the leopard skin chief, a respected
and the clan’s ancestors. All the activities with elder from a neutral line age who works
in and with other clans as a mediator.

Thus, kinship has been a major area of focus in socio-cultural anthropology as evident from the
work on kinship terminology, descent and alliance theories.

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