1

INDEX
Syllabus Topics
CHAPTER 1
Archaeology: Section 1.8-Paper 1 & Unit 1-Paper 2 03

CHAPTER 2
Demographic Profile of India 35

CHAPTER 3
Indian Social System 51

CHAPTER 4
Contributions Of Indian Anthropologists 69

CHAPTER 5
Indian villages: Socio-Cultural Dynamics, Agrarian Relations, and the Impact of
Globalization and Modern Processes 80

CHAPTER 6
Tribal Communities in India: Situation and Challenges 109

CHAPTER 7
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes 136

CHAPTER 8
Impact of Religions on Tribal Societies 164

CHAPTER 9
Tribal Development And Anthropological Perspectives 171

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CHAPTER 1
Archaeology: Section 1.8-Paper
1 & Unit 1-Paper 2
Syllabus Topics Past Year Themes/Questions

1.8-Paper 1 1. Discuss the salient features of different

traditions of European Mesolithic.
(A) PRINCIPLES OF PREHISTORIC
(15 Marks, 2021)
ARCHAEOLOGY. CHRONOLOGY:
RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING 2. Describe the features of early farming
METHODS. cultures and Neolithic of the Near East.
(15 Marks, 2021)
(B) CULTURAL EVOLUTION- BROAD
3. Thermoluminescence (TL) dating.
OUTLINESOF PREHISTORIC
(10 Marks, 2021)
CULTURES:
4. Natufian culture. (10 Marks, 2020)
I. PALEOLITHIC
5. Differentiate between lower palaeolithic
II. MESOLITHIC and middle palaeolithic culture with
suitable examples. (15 Marks, 2020)
III. NEOLITHIC
6. Discuss with examples the megalithic
IV. CHALCOLITHIC culture of India in the archaeological
V. COPPER-BRONZE AGE context. (15 Marks, 2019)
7. Olduvai gorge. (10 Marks, 2019)
VI. IRON AGE
8. Elucidate Mesolithic culture and associated
rock art with examples from India.
(15 Marks, 2019)

1.1 EVOLUTION OF THE INDIAN 1. Critically discuss the origin of Indus Valley
CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION — Civilization. Mention the evidences of its
endogenous origin from the pre-Harappan
PREHISTORIC (PALAEOLITHIC,
MESOLITHIC, NEOLITHIC AND sites. (20 Marks, 2021)
NEOLITHIC CHALCOLITHIC). 2. Give the distribution and characteristic
PROTOHISTORIC (INDUS features of Upper Paleolithic culture in
CIVILIZATION): PREHARAPPAN, India. (15 Marks, 2021)
HARAPPAN AND 3. Harappan Seals. (10 Marks, 2021)
POSTHARAPPANCULTURES.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF TRIBAL 4. Discuss the characteristic features of
CULTURES TO INDIAN Neolithic-culture in India. (20 Marks, 2020)
CIVILIZATION. 5. Discuss the Contributions of V.N.Misra to
archaeological anthropology in India.
(15 Marks, 2020)
6. Contributions of Robert Bruce Foote to
Indian archaeology. (10 Marks, 2020)
7. Debates on Aryan invasion.
(10 Marks, 2020)

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 1.2 PALAEO – ANTHROPOLOGICAL 1. Discuss the morphological features and
EVIDENCES FROM INDIA phylogenetic position of Ramapithecus.
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO (15 Marks, 2021)
SIWALIKS AND NARMADA BASIN
(RAMAPITHECUS, SIVAPITHECUS & 2. Narmada man. (10 Marks, 2020)
NARMADA MAN). 3. Phylogenetic position and morphological
features of Ramapithecus.
(10 Marks, 2019)
4. Describe the salient features of
Sivapithecus. (15 Marks, 2018)

1.3 ETHNO-ARCHAEOLOGY IN INDIA: 1. Discuss the importance of

ethnoarchaeology in reconstructing the
THE CONCEPT OF ETHNO-
ARCHAEOLOGY; past citing Indian examples.
(15 Marks, 2020)
SURVIVALS AND PARALLELS
AMONG THE HUNTING, FORAGING, 2. Ethnoarchaeological analysis of hunting
FISHING, PASTORAL & PEASANT activities of contemporary tribal
COMMUNITIES INCLUDING communities. (10 Marks, 2019)
ARTS AND CRAFTS PRODUCING 3. Ethno-archaeology as a research strategy.
COMMUNITIES. (10 Marks, 2018)
4. Write short notes on Ethno-archaeology.
(10 Marks, 2017)

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1. Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology. Chronology : Relative and Absolute
Dating methods
Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology:
Introduction: Prehistoric archaeology sheds light on societies before written records. Through
material culture—tools, art, structures—we reconstruct ancient lives, behaviors, and societies.
A. Research Methods in Prehistoric Archaeology
Excavation Techniques
» Stratigraphic Excavation: Sequential removal of archaeological layers, studying time-
based changes.
» Grid Excavation: Divides sites into squares/rectangles for precise recording and comparison.
Dating Methods
» Relative Dating: Stratigraphy-based chronological order, e.g., seriation, typology.
» Absolute Dating: Provides specific dates/ranges, e.g., radiocarbon dating,
dendrochronology.
Various Approaches of Prehistoric Archaeology
Ethno-Archaeology
» Study of living people and material culture.
» Aim: Improve understanding of archaeological records.
» Example: Study of butchery practices among Nunamiut Eskimo by Lewis Binford.
Environmental Archaeology
» Zooarchaeology: Study of ancient animal remains.
» Geoarchaeology: Study of soil, sediments, rocks, and natural deposits.
» Archaeobotany: Study of ancient plant remains.
Marine Archaeology
» Study of human interaction with aquatic bodies.
» Investigates: Vessels, shore-side facilities, cargoes, human remains, submerged landscapes.
B. Key Concepts in Prehistoric Archaeology
» Cultural Evolution: The progressive change in human societies through adaptation. Tracks
technological, subsistence, and societal progress.
» Typology: Classifying artifacts by characteristics; reveals cultural change and establishes
chronologies.
» Settlement Patterns: Distribution of human habitation. Informs on socio-economic
structures and human-environment interactions.
C. Future Directions in Prehistoric Archaeology
» Remote Sensing: Non-invasive methods like satellite imagery and LiDAR for site
identification.
» Ancient DNA Analysis: Insights into population movements, gene flow, and domestication.
» Isotopic Analysis: Reveals ancient diets, migrations, and social structures.
» Digital Reconstruction: 3D models and VR for enhanced understanding and wider
engagement.
D. Geological Time Scale: The geological time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that
classifies geological strata (stratigraphy) in time. It is used by geologists, paleontologists, and
other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships of events that have occurred
during Earth’s history.

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6
E. Relative and Absolute Dating Methods:
a) Relative Dating: Relative dating deals with deciphering the chronological sequence of
archaeological events without necessarily determining their absolute age.

Relative Dating
Description Example
Method

Stratigraphy Studies sequential layering of deposits. Discovering Stone Age tools in

Oldest layers are at the bottom, newest at distinct cultural layers.
the top.

Seriation Orders artifacts chronologically by observing Changes in pottery styles during

changes in styles or frequencies over time. various periods.

Typology Categorizes objects based on similarity or Classifying arrowhead designs

dissimilarity, associating them to specific from different time periods.
periods.

Geo- Uses organic remains like pollen to date sites Dating a site based on the types
relative to known climatic history. of pollen found.
Archaeological
Dating

Fluorine Measures fluorine absorbed by bones from Bones in different layers having
soil to estimate the duration since burial. varied fluorine levels.
Dating

Nitrogen Test Evaluates collagen decay in bones, Bones buried longer have lesser
transforming it into nitrogen, to determine nitrogen content.
relative age.

Faunal Uses known evolutionary sequences of fossils Identifying a rock layer’s age
Succession to date rock layers. using specific fossils.

b) Absolute Dating: Is the process of determining an age on a specified chronology in

archaeology. Absolute dating provides a numerical age or range in calendar years. This gives
a more accurate picture of an artifact or site’s actual age.
I. Dendrochronology (Tree Ring Dating)
» Description: The most accurate chronometric dating method.
» How it works: Every year, trees produce a new ring of wood under their bark. Rings are
wider in good conditions than in poor ones, providing a record of local climatic variation.
» Usage: Trees in the same area show similar ring patterns, allowing wood from different
periods to be matched in overlapping sequences.
» Historical Sequences: Californian Bristlecone Pines used for 7,000 years sequences in
the USA. Oaks preserved in bogs in Europe for nearly 10,000 years sequences.
» Limitations: Not all areas have enough timber or varied seasons. Requires around 50
years of tree rings. Best for dating building timbers.
» Example: The Sweet Track, a Neolithic pathway, used trees felled in the winter of 3807–
3806 BC.

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 II. Radiocarbon Dating (C-14 Dating)
» Description: A method for dating organic material based on the decay rate of C-14.
» How it works: All living things absorb carbon isotopes, including C-14. By comparing the
weight of remaining C-14 with other carbon isotopes, the time since decay began can be
determined.
» Calibration: Radiocarbon dates are calibrated due to varying amounts of carbon in the
atmosphere over time.
» Limitations: Margin of error even after calibration. Most accurate for materials between
200 to 10,000 years.
» Sample Size: Previously required 10 grams of charcoal or 200 grams of bone. New
methods allow much smaller samples.
III. Thermoluminescence (TL)
» Description: A method for dating ancient pottery based on the release of stored energy.
» How it works: Radioactive decay in quartz crystals in clay builds up an electric charge.
When heated, the charge is released as light, which is used to calculate the time since the
pottery was fired.
» Limitations: Can give false readings due to radiation from the soil or initial low temperature
firing.
IV. Potassium–argon Dating
» Description: A method used to date rock layers and the fossils they contain.
» How it works: As potassium decays in rock crystals, it produces argon gas. Measuring the
amounts of potassium and argon provides a date for when the rock was formed.
» Applications: Used to date early hominid remains. For instance, remains at Koobi Fora in
East Africa were dated to 1.89 million years BP.
V. Other Absolute Dating Techniques
» These methods are less commonly used, some still experimental.

Absolute Dating What It Can Be Used for

How It Works Used For Limitations Examples
Method the period

Amino Acid The chemical structures of Bones, teeth, and 1,000 to 1 Must not be Ostrich eggs
Racemization the amino acids in all living shell. million years cooked. on Palaeolithic
things change slowly over sites in Africa.
time at a known rate.

Archaeomagnetism The earth’s magnetic field Ceramics, lava, Up to 5,000 Needs Clay ovens in
changes over time. When hearths, and kilns years. calibrating; south-west
iron oxide is heated to that contain iron can be USA.
around 600°C and cools, it oxide. inaccurate
records the magnetic field where the
at that time. same polarity
occurred more
than once.

Electron Spin Electrical charges build up Teeth enamel, 50,000 to 1 Works Paleolithic
Resonance (ESR) at a known rate in some shells, and calcite million years. best in dry sites in Israel
crystal structures. Time deposits in caves. environments; and Africa.
since the process began wide error
can be calculated by margins.
measuring the charge.

Fission Track Dating Uranium decays regularly Glass, burned Mainly Difficulty in Homo Habilis
through fission, which obsidian, heated 100,000 to differentiating bones at
damages crystalline stones containing several million tracks from Olduvai Gorge
structures, leaving a ‘track’. uranium years although crystal defects. from around
Tracks are counted to some recent 2 million years
estimate the time decay glass has been ago.
has taken. dated.

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 Uranium Series Uranium isotopes U235 Sites sandwiched 50,000 to Needs a high Dentine on
and U238 decay to produce between 500,000 years. uranium Neanderthal/
deposits of thorium and volcanic layers. content; prone early human
protactinium at known Analyzing calcium to ambiguous teeth in Israel.
rates. By measuring the carbonate results; over
ratios of the elements, the deposits where 10% error
date at which the deposits water containing margins.
were laid down can be uranium has
established. seeped into
caves (e.g., as
stalactites).

Varve Analysis Melt-water from glaciers Teeth enamel, Up to 20,000 Key dating role Fossils in
lays down different shells. Analyzing years. is by calibrating Siberia
sediment at different times cores taken from other
of year, creating annual ancient lake techniques
layers. Changing climate beds. Where they such as
will lead to changing contain pollen, radiocarbon
deposits which can be they can be tied to and archaeo-
cross-referenced over geoarchaeological magnetism.
large areas. sequences.

2. Cultural Evolution—Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures(section 1.8

paper1+1.1 paper2)

Indian Context (Source-

Cultural Period European Context (approx.)
IGNOU)

Paleolithic

Early 2.6 million - 250,000 BCE 2.5 million - 100,000 BCE

(Lower)

Middle 250,000 - 40,000 BCE 100,000 - 40,000 BCE

Late (Upper 40,000 - 10,000 BCE 40,000 - 8,000 BCE (or more recent)

Mesolithic 10,000 - 5,000 BCE 8,000 - 6,000 BCE

Neolithic 5,000 - 2,000 BCE 7,000 - 2,500 BCE

Bronze Age 3,300 - 1,200 BCE 3,300 - 1,300 BCE

Iron Age 1,200 - 500 BCE 1,300 - 500 BCE

1) Paleolithic:
1. Stone Age Duration and Significance: Spanning ~2.5 million years, the Stone Age
dominates human history. It’s known as “pre-history” due to the absence of written
records, with knowledge sourced from archaeology.
2. Tool Use Variations: Throughout the Paleolithic, stone was the primary tool material. Its
complexity evolved, and bone and wood became supplementary materials.
3. Homo Genus Evolution: Different species within the Homo genus emerged across the
Paleolithic, notably including Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and
Homo sapiens sapiens.
4. Paleolithic Subdivisions:
» Lower (simple handaxes),
» Middle (advanced tools like Mousterian),
» Upper (blade-based tools, symbolic artifacts).

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 (a) Lower Paleolithic
Time Scale & Early Humans
» Homo habilis: Known as the “handy man”, lived around 2.6 to 1.5 million years ago and is
credited with creating some of the earliest stone tools.
» Homo erectus: Recognized for its upright posture, this species displayed significant
cultural and cognitive advancements. Some of its populations, like the Java Man or Peking
Man, are well-known.
» Transitional Humans: Around 400,000 to 100,000 years ago, intermediate species such
as Homo heidelbergensis displayed features of both Homo erectus and later species like
Neanderthals.
Tools & Technological Innovations:
» Oldowan Tools: Dating from 2.6 to 1.7 million years ago, these are among the earliest
stone tools, mostly pebble tools used for butchering.

Acheulian Tools Oldowan Tools

» Acheulian Tradition: Spanning 1.76 million to 100,000 years ago, these bifacial tools,
especially hand axes and cleavers, signify a major technological leap.
» Levallois Technique: A sophisticated stone knapping technique prevalent between
600000-100000 year ago, this method allowed for more controlled and predictable flake
production.
Hand Axe & Flake Traditions:
Pre-Chellean (c. 1.5 million years ago, England): Rudimentary tools from basic flaking
techniques.
Chellean/Abbevillian (c. 1.2 million - 500,000 years ago, Western Europe): Improved
shaping with a refined working edge.
Acheulean (c. 1.6 million - 100,000 years ago, widespread): Advanced bifacial flaking with
teardrop-shaped handaxes; introduction of specialized tools like cleavers.
Habitation & Lifestyle:
» Homo habilis: Likely subsisted primarily on plants, fruits, and occasionally scavenged
meat.
» Homo erectus: Introduced landmark practices into early human life—control of fire,
building basic shelters, communal living, and coordinated hunting strategies.

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Lower Palaeolithic Culture in India: An
Overview
Time Frame & Characterization:
» Span: The Lower Palaeolithic
culture in India extends from
around 2.5 million years to
1,00,000 years ago.
» Tool Typology: This era is typified
by its unique pebble and core tools,
including choppers, chopping
tools, handaxes, cleavers, and
scrapers.
» Major Cultural Assignment: The
dominant cultural tradition during
this period was the Acheulian.
Climatic Context:
» In the Himalayan region,
alternating cycles of glacial and
interglacial phases occurred.
» In the Peninsular region, the
climate varied between wet
(pluvial) and dry (interpluvial)
periods.
Geographical Distribution:
» The Lower Palaeolithic sites are
dispersed across India, with the
notable exception of the Indo-
Gangetic plain, which wasn’t
conducive to human settlement at
that time.
Major Archaeological Findings:
» Sohan River Valley: Researchers
De Terra and Patterson unearthed evidence of early human activity along terraces by the
Sohan River near Rawalpindi. Here, five terraces formed due to climatic changes were
identified. The area is rich in chopper and chopping tools.
» Southern India: Notable Lower Palaeolithic sites such as Pallavaram, Vadamadurai, and
Attirampakkam lie near the Kortalaiyar river valley close to Chennai rich in hand axe
tradiiton.
» Singi Talav: Professor V. N. Misra led a multidisciplinary investigation at this Acheulian
site near Didwana in Rajasthan. The excavation revealed three distinct layers named Jayal,
Amarpura, and Didwana formations, suggesting a complex timeline of human occupation.
Other Notable Sites:
» Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, Alampur in Madhya Pradesh, Chirkhi Nevasa in
Maharashtra, Paisra in Bihar, and Hunsgi in Karnataka all stand out as primary Lower
Palaeolithic sites in India. However, most of these sites only present the Lower Palaeolithic
culture in a single layer.
Tool Context:
» Many of these sites, particularly Bhimbetka, are characterized by a rich collection of upper
Acheulian tools, often found alongside chopper and chopping tools.
» The scarcity or absence of certain tools, like in Bhimbetka’s cave III F-23, may be attributed
to the lack of suitable raw materials in the vicinity.
Evolutive Aspects:
» The archaeological evidence from these sites suggests a transition from non-Acheulian
or Mode I assemblages to an early Acheulian phase before evolving into a developed
Acheulian culture.

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 (b) Middle Paleolithic
Time Frame, Main Inhabitants & Key
Sites
» Time Period: Spanning
approximately 300,000 to 40,000
years ago.
» Neanderthals: Dominant species
with stout bodies, broad brows,
narrow foreheads, and a cranial
capacity of around 1450 c.c.
» Prominent Sites: Shanidar Cave in
Iraq (revealing evidence of flower
burials), and La Ferrassie and La
Quina in France, providing insights
into Neanderthal daily life.
Tool Development & Usage:
» Mousterian Tradition: Reflects a deeper
understanding of tool-making, strongly linked
to the Neanderthals.
» Tool Finds: Main discoveries from Europe and
Asia include versatile tools such as scrapers (for
cleaning hides), borers (to create holes), knives,
blades, and burins (used for engraving).
» Binford’s Tool Kits Analysis:
• Tool Kit I: For bone and wood processing,
incorporating borers and scrapers.
• Tool Kit II: A focus on hunting and
butchering, showcasing points and
scrapers.
• Tool Kit III: Prioritized fine butchering with
flake tools.
• Tool Kit IV: Geared toward plant food and
wood processing.
• Tool Kit V: A versatile set for hunting,
butchering, and other tasks.
» Material Use: Incorporation of bones, horns,
and even wood, hinting at the evolution of tool-making materials and techniques.
Habitation & Societal Practices:
» Burial Practices: Distinct rituals emerge, with Shanidar Cave as a prime example, where
the deceased were laid on a bed of branches, surrounded by flowers, suggesting some
form of ritual or respect for the dead.
Artistic Expressions & Culture:
» Bone Art: Many bones were engraved with abstract patterns, perhaps a rudimentary
form of symbolic expression or storytelling.
» Pigments: Ochre, a natural pigment, was often used to color tools and ornaments, hinting
at early forms of personal decoration or even ritualistic use.
» Ornaments: Some sites have unveiled perforated shells and animal teeth, suggesting the
early use of jewelry or amulets.
Diet and Lifestyle:
» Diet: Predominantly large mammals. Dental analyses hint at plant consumption,
diversifying their diet.
» Lifestyle: Evidence of group living, care for the injured, and a rudimentary societal
structure is evident, hinting at complex social interactions.

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Middle Palaeolithic Culture in India: An Overview
Introduction and Time Period
The Middle Palaeolithic culture thrived in India between approximately 105,000 to 40,000
years ago, coinciding with the Middle to Upper Pleistocene epochs. During this time, there was
a significant transition in the types of tools used, emphasizing the creation of smaller, more
specialized tools.
Distribution and Key Sites
Middle Palaeolithic sites are scattered across India. Notable sites include:
» Rock Shelters: Bhimbetka rock shelter, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, exhibits
a continuous record of human settlement and tool production, from the Lower
Palaeolithic to the historic period.
» Open-Air Workshops: Areas such as Kovalli and Devapur in Karnataka were bustling
with activity and tool-making.
» River Sites: Nevasa (Maharashtra) and Taminhal (Karnataka) highlight the importance of
river valleys for resources and habitation.
» Northern Discoveries: The Kangra district’s Ror site, explored by Sahni and Mohapatra,
reveals a rich collection of tools.
Tool Types and Material
The Middle Palaeolithic toolkit displays a shift towards more specialized tools, including:
» Scrapers: Diverse varieties, often made on Levalloise flakes. These were essential for
hide processing and woodworking.
» Points: Some were bifacially worked, used possibly for hunting or butchering.
» Borers: These sturdy tools often combined scraping functionalities.

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 » Raw Materials: There’s a discernible shift from bulky materials like quartzite to finer
ones like chert, jasper, and chalcedony. The techniques, including the Levalloise method,
became more refined.
Settlement Patterns
» Caves and Rock Shelters: Like Sanghao cave in present-day Pakistan, these provided
natural protection from the elements and predators.
» Rivers and Streams: The alluvial plains offered resources such as water, food, and raw
materials.
» Plateaus: Regions like Eastern India’s plateaus provided vantage points and were suitable
for larger settlements.
Lifestyle
» Diverse Diet: The tools suggest a diet rich in large mammals and possibly supplemented
by plants, fruits, and fish from the rivers.
» Group Living: The size and layout of sites indicate communal living, with shared spaces
for activities like tool-making.
» Mobility: The spread of sites suggests these populations were semi-nomadic, moving
seasonally or based on resource availability.
» Art and Symbolism: While not as advanced as the Upper Palaeolithic, there’s evidence to
suggest early forms of symbolic expression, possibly in tool design or simple engravings.
(c) Upper Paleolithic:
Phases of the Upper Paleolithic:
I. Châtelperronian (~44,000-36,000 years ago): Found mostly in France and Spain, this
culture represents a transition between Middle and Upper Paleolithic. The tools of this
era combined elements of the Mousterian and Aurignacian toolkits.
II. Aurignacian (~38,000-28,000 years ago): Tools from this era, named after the type-
site Aurignac in southern France, exhibit a marked advancement. Blades and burins
(for carving) were common. We also see the first evidence of symbolic art, such as cave
paintings and carved figurines.
III. Gravettian (~33,000-22,000 years ago): This phase is notable for its Venus figurines, small
carved depictions of women. Tools were diverse, with microliths starting to appear, and
the culture was widespread across Europe.
IV. Solutrean (~22,000-17,000 years ago): Originating in present-day France and Spain, this
phase is known for its impressive flint work. Leaf-shaped points are its hallmark. Advanced
techniques like “pressure flaking” were employed.
V. Magdalenian (~17,000-11,000 years ago): This culture, concentrated in Western Europe,
brought forth a wealth of bone tools and intricate cave art. Different subphases, from
Magdalenian-I to VI, show a progression in tool and art sophistication.
VI. Perigordian: Overlaps with the Gravettian and is most often associated with the Dordogne
region in France. Known for its distinctive flint knives with a single sharp edge.

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Geographical Reach:
From Europe to Asia and even to the farthest
reaches of North and South America, evidence
of Upper Paleolithic activity and migration is
found everywhere. Their capacity to adapt and
innovate allowed for colonization of diverse
environments, from icy tundras to dense forests.
Artistic and Symbolic Expression:
This period marks a veritable explosion of
artistic creativity, best epitomized by the
intricate cave paintings in places like Altamira
(Spain) and Lascaux (France). Alongside these,
personal ornaments, musical instruments, and
other symbolic artifacts emerged, reflecting
the cognitive sophistication of these ancient
humans.
Habitation and Social Constructs:
Whether in caves or in constructed huts, sites
suggest community living with a proximity to
water and hunting grounds. These communities
exhibited traits of social care, ensuring survival
and thriving of even the injured or infirm.
Paleolithic Art Overview:
» Originated between 40,000 to 35,000 years ago.
» Earliest non-figurative art dates back at least 40,000 years, with potential Neanderthal art
dating to 64,000 years ago.
Key Discoveries by Region:
1. Europe:
Germany: Swabian Jura
» Venus of Hohle Fels and Löwenmensch statuette: ~40,000 years.
France: Multiple sites
» Chauvet, Lascaux, Altamira, Cosquer, Pech Merle showcasing paintings and engravings.
» Finds include Venus figurines and musical instruments.
2. Asia:
Sulawesi: ~40,000 years old hand stencils and babirusa paintings.
South Korea: ~40,000 years old carved deer bones and depictions.
Borneo: Over 40,000-year-old figurative art painting.
Siberia: Mal’ta Venus figurines dating to ~20,000 years.
3. Australia:
Gabarnmung: Paintings dating before 27,000 years.
Western Australia: Gwion Gwion rock paintings over 17,000 years old.
4. Near East & North Africa:
Israel: Hayonim Cave carving of a running horse ~28,000 years old.
Algeria: Tassili n’Ajjer petroglyphs dating ~12,000 to 10,000 years old.
5. Sub-Saharan Africa:
Namibia: Apollo 11 Cave with animal figures ranging ~27,500 to 22,500 years.
Zimbabwe: Matobo National Park rock paintings ~7,000 to 13,000 years old.
6. Americas:
Peru: Toquepala Caves paintings dating ~11,500 years.
Amazon: 11,800 to 12,600-year-old rock art featuring extinct animals.

15
 Intriguing Insights:
Presence of possible Neanderthal art implies they might have engaged in symbolic behavior.
Early art discoveries hint at migration and spread of art and culture along Eurasia’s southern
coast.
Functional tools, like spear throwers, were ornately crafted, displaying the blend of utility
and artistry.

Upper Palaeolithic Culture in India: An Overview

Span: Upper Pleistocene, approximately between 40,000 and 12,000 years ago.
Distribution
Primary Locations: Northern Vindhyas (Belan and Son valleys), Chota Nagpur plateau in
Bihar, Upland Maharashtra, Orissa, Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh.
Reference: Distribution map based on Misra 1989.
Key Characteristics: Emphasis on blade and burin tools, with regional technique diversities.

Tool Types and Material

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Main Tools:
» Scrapers of various kinds (side, convex, notch, end, etc.).
» Flake-blades, blades, cores.
» Backed blade variants.
» Burins.
» Points (unifacial, bifacial, tanged).
» Choppers.
Material: Tools made of stone and bone. Stone tools primarily used quartzite in various shades.
Bone tools crafted from long bone shafts.
Settlement Patterns
» Locations: Proximity to river banks is common, with several sites in valleys like the
Swarnamukhi, Krishna, Godavari, Narmada, Tungabhadra, Bhima, and Belan.
» Caves: Important cave sites in Andhra Pradesh (e.g., Billasurgam, Peddapuvudala) and
Madhya Pradesh (e.g., Bhimbetka).
Lifestyle
Hunting and Gathering: Tribes likely used prototype traps, snares, and nets. Blades and
backed blades had multiple utilities, from spear points to slicer knives.
Diet: Proximity to water bodies hints at aquatic food sources, with the discovery of grinding
stones suggesting the consumption of wild rice.
Art and Religion: Emergence of art is seen, with ostrich egg shell pieces bearing engravings
from Patne being an early example.
Important Sites
Muchatla Chintamanugavi: Excavated by Murthy (1970) and team. Revealed a
predominant reliance on stone tools, with tools indicating hunting and gathering lifestyles.
Borivili and Kandvili: Discovered by Todd in 1939. Presence of blade and burin industry.
Patne: Excavations by Sankalia (1971-73) unveiled classic Upper Palaeolithic tools, including
an ostrich egg shell ornament with an engraved design.
Wainganga and Hoshangabad: De. Terra and Paterson (1936) found Upper Palaeolithic
blade and burin industries by the Narmada river.
Bhimbetka: Mishra (1973) found burins and various scrapers in rock shelter III F – 23.
Belan Valley: G. R. Sharma (1972) discovered Upper Palaeolithic tools, including a carved
bone female figurine.
Upper Palaeolithic Art in India
1. Portable Art (Art Mobilier):
Characteristics:
Consists of movable objects.
Predominantly made from materials such as ostrich eggshell and bone.
Examples & Key Sites:
Ostrich Egg Shell Beads: Found in various locations, these beads serve as evidence of
ornamentation and perhaps symbolic communication.
Engraved Fragments: These might have served decorative or communicative purposes.
Sites:
» Bhimbetka III A-28, Madhya Pradesh
» Ramgar (Chambal valley), Madhya Pradesh
» Khaparkheda (Narmada valley), Madhya Pradesh
» Chandresal and Kota (Chambal valley), Rajasthan
» Patne, Maharashtra

17
 2. Mural Art (Art Parietal):
Characteristics:
» Found predominantly on cave walls and ceilings.
» Art mainly in the form of paintings, displaying both fauna and humans.
Examples & Key Sites:
Bhimbetka Caves and Rock Shelters:
» Period I rock paintings belong to the Upper Palaeolithic phase.
» Fauna Depicted: Large herds of rhinoceroses, bisons, wild buffaloes, mammoths, and
boars. These depict the significant fauna of the time, hinting at possible human-animal
interactions.
» Human Figures: Stick-like depictions, possibly indicative of hunting-gathering
communities or symbolic rituals.
» Colors Used: Predominantly green and dark red.
(d) Mesolithic:
Environmental Changes:
» End of Pleistocene Glaciers: Melting caused by global warming led to rising sea levels.
» Altered Landscapes: Changes in topography reshaped the fauna and flora. Forests
grew, creating new foraging opportunities.
Human Adaptation & Lifestyle:
» Sedentary to Nomadic: While some groups settled, others maintained a nomadic
lifestyle.
» Early Agriculture: Evidence of small-scale farming and animal domestication.
» Social Structures: Typically lived in smaller groups, subsisting on hunting, fishing,
fowling, and gathering.
Tools & Artifacts:

» Microliths: Small, geometrically shaped tools often made of flint.

» Macroliths: Larger tools such as scrapers, axes, made mainly from flint.
» Bone & Antler Tools: Includes items like barbed harpoons, fish hooks, needles, and
tools made from antlers and teeth.

18
Art & Religion:
Murals and Cave Paintings: Especially noted in India, these may symbolize successful
hunts or rituals.
Ritual Burials: Indications of evolving religious beliefs and practices.
Key Cultures & Sites:
Maglemosian Culture (Denmark): Situated near water sources, relied on fishing and used
diverse tools made of stone, wood, amber, and animal teeth.
Tardenoisian Culture (France): Known for distinct microlith tools and a hunter-gatherer
lifestyle.
Mesolithic Culture in India: An Overview
Introduction
Post-Paleolithic stage: Late Stone Age, microlithic, or mesolithic.
Microliths as primary industry.
A.C.L. Carlleyle’s discovery of microliths in 1867, followed by more.
Microlithic industries not associated with pottery, predating farming-based cultures.
Rich evidence for this stage in India.
Time Period
Western and central India, from ca. 10,000 to 2,000 B.P.
Beginning of the Mesolithic culture around c. 8000 B.P.

19
 Distribution
Microliths widespread across the subcontinent.
Notable presence in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Succession from the upper paleolithic to mesolithic.
Tool Types and Material
Predominant use of microliths.
Techniques used: microblades production, steep retouch, pressure flaking.
Primary materials: chalcedony, chert, and occasionally quartz.
Main tool types: backed blades, truncated blades, points, crescents, triangles, trapezes.
Tools used for various purposes including hunting, cutting, and agriculture.
Settlement Patterns
Locations include sand dunes, rock shelters, alluvial plains, rocky plains, lake shores, and
coastal areas.
Lifestyle
Predominantly hunter-gatherers.
Increase in sedentary settlements.
Rudimentary dwelling structures with evidence from various sites.
Initial instances of intentional burial.
Artistic expressions primarily as rock shelter paintings, showcasing daily life and battles.
Limited material culture, evolving only in later contacts with metal-using cultures.

Discoverer/ Key
Site Location
Excavator Significance

Bagor Rajasthan V.N. Misra (1967) Largest Mesolithic site in India with
evidence of three distinct cultural
phases over 5,000 years.

Langhnaj Gujarat H.D. Sankalia One of the oldest Mesolithic site in

(1942-1963) India period ranging upto 10,000
BCE - 8000 BCE.

Bhimbetka Rock Madhya Pradesh Dr. Vishnu UNESCO World Heritage site
Shridhar with paintings from Paleolithic to
Shelters
Wakankar (1957) Historical periods.

Adamgarh Hoshangabad H.D. Sankalia Early prehistoric rock art, with

district, Madhya Mesolithic era paintings.
Pradesh

Sarai Nahar Rai Prayagraj G.R. Sharma Abundance of microlithic tools

district, Uttar showcasing a robust Mesolithic
Pradesh presence.

Lekhahia Mirzapur A.K. Ghosh Prime Mesolithic site with

district, Uttar extensive microliths and habitation
Pradesh evidence.

Chopani Mando Allahabad R.V. Joshi Provides insights into the transition
district, Uttar from nomadic to settled life during
Pradesh the early Mesolithic period.

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(e) Neolithic:
Meaning & Timeline:
» Definition: Last phase of the Stone Age.
» Start: Around 7000 years ago, after the
glacial period.
Origin & Geography:
» Core Regions: West Asia, especially
the Levant, followed by areas like the
Yangtze valley in China (rice) and Mexico
(maize).
Key Developments:
1. Tools & Technology:
» Introduced polished/ground stone axes
and tools.
» Tools like celts, ring-stones, chisels, and
hoes.
» Materials: Hard rocks like basalt, dolerite,
and schist.
2. Food Production:
» Transition from hunting-gathering to
agriculture and animal domestication.
» Early crops: Barley, wheat, paddy.
» Animals: Goats, sheep, cattle.
3. Settlement & Society:
» Shift from nomadic life to sedentary living.
» Construction of durable houses; rise in
village formations.
» Increase in population; growth in the number
of settlements and cemeteries.
» Familial units became central to community
structure.
4. Pottery & Craft:
» Utilization of clay for pottery, toys, and other artifacts.
» Development from handmade to wheel-made pottery.
» Decorative patterns emerged on pottery over time.
5. Belief Systems:
» Emphasis on fertility cults.
» Appearance of female figurines, precursor to the ‘Mother Goddess’ cult.
» Death rituals and ancestor cults, seen in sites like Jericho and Ain Ghazal.
6. Neolithic in West Asia:
» Key Area: Levant (current Israel, Palestine, etc.) and ‘Fertile Crescent’.
Stage I: Advanced Mesolithic (Natufian):
» Sites: Wadiel-Natuf, Jericho, Beidha.
» Characteristics: Laid foundation for food production.
Stage II: Proto-Neolithic (8900-8500 BCE):
» Sites: Natuf, Jarmo in Iraq.
» Characteristics: Sporadic attempts at cereal cultivation and taming of wild animals.
Introduction of mortars, pestles, and sickles.
Stage III: Archaic/Aceramic Neolithic (8500-6000 BCE):
» Sites: Jericho and Ain Ghazal
» Characteristics: Emergence of sedentary life, use of unbaked bricks for housing,
fortification of settlements, domestication of sheep, goats, and later cattle. Continued
hunting and gathering.

21
 Stage IV: Developed/Ceramic Neolithic (6000-4000 BCE):
» Sites: Catal Hüyük in Turkey.
» Characteristics: Expansion in size of settlements, use of sun-dried bricks, rectangular
houses, and full-fledged domestication of animals and cereals. Society moved towards
surplus food production.
Significance:
» The Neolithic period, often termed the Neolithic Revolution by scholars like V. Gordon
Childe, marked a pivotal shift in human history, ushering in agricultural practices,
sedentary lifestyles, and more complex societies.
Neolithic Culture in India: An Overview
Introduction:
» The Neolithic era, or New Stone Age, followed the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras.
» It marked the start of agriculture with the domestication of plants and animals, leading to
settled communities.
Time Period:
» The Neolithic period in India lasted between 4000 BC and 1050 BC.
» Different regions in India have varying start and end dates for the Neolithic period, like
in Karnataka, it’s from 1800 to 1500 B.C, while in Kashmir, radiocarbon dating suggests a
start in the middle of the fourth millennium B.C.
Distribution:
» The Neolithic culture in India can be divided into three groups based on geographic
distribution: Eastern, Southern, and Northern.
» Each region has numerous archaeological sites providing evidence of Neolithic settlements.
Tool Types and Material:
» Neolithic tools were smooth, ground, and polished. They included celts, chisels, ring-
stones, and querns.
» The tools were made from locally available materials like basalt, dolerite, and epidierate.
» The pottery of this era evolved from handmade types to those made using a slow wheel.
Settlement Patterns:
» Neolithic settlements varied by region, from pit-houses in the Kashmir valley to wattle-
walled houses in Bihar and mud plastered reed wall huts in Burdwan.
Lifestyle:
» In the Southern region, people practiced agro-pastoral activities, predominantly cattle
farming, and cultivated millets, pulses, and legumes.
» In the Eastern region, rice was a staple diet, complemented by fish and meat.
» In the Northern region (Kashmir), the diet was a combination of cultivated plants,
domesticated animals, and hunted animals.
Important Sites:
» Daojali Hading in North Cachar Hills
of Assam, excavated in 1963, revealed
the presence of ground stone tools
and pottery.
» Excavations at Sarutaru in Assam
showed cultural contents including
stone celts and pottery.
» Sites in Kashmir like Burzahom,
Gufkral, and Kanishkapura have
yielded a variety of Neolithic artifacts,
including polished axes, chisels, and
bone tools.

22
 Region Neolithic Site Location Special Features

Eastern Daojali Hading Assam Cultivation of rice, use of advanced pottery techniques, finely polished
Neolithic ground stone tools.

Sarutaru Assam Presence of microlithic blades, choppers, and ground stone tools; evidence
of early horticultural practices.
Golbai Sasan Odisha Houses made of bamboo and mud with circular shape; pottery with intricate
painted motifs, possibly indicating societal hierarchies.
Utnur Andhra Abundance of microlithic tools; presence of stone circle graves indicating
Pradesh burial rituals.

Northern Burzahom Jammu & Use of subterranean pit dwellings; evidence of early domestication of
Neolithic Kashmir animals and agriculture including wheat and barley.

Koldihwa Uttar Distinctive red ware pottery; tools crafted from animal bones; evidence of
Pradesh rice cultivation.
Mehrgarh Balochistan, Early evidence of wheat and barley cultivation, domestication of cattle;
Pakistan emergence of complex society with crafts specialization.
Chopani Mando Uttar Bone tools indicating animal hunting and possibly early rituals; stone
Pradesh artifacts including blades and burins.

Southern Hallur Karnataka Evidence of megalithic burial practices; presence of early iron objects
Neolithic pointing to advances in metallurgy.

Paiyampalli Tamil Nadu Predominance of black and red ware pottery; microlithic tools suggesting
advanced stone tool technology.
Brahmagiri Karnataka Large ash mounds resulting from seasonal burnings; pottery with painted
designs depicting societal and ritualistic practices.
Maski Karnataka Rock engravings hinting at early art and communication forms; pottery with
geometric patterns suggesting a developed pottery tradition.

(f) CHALCOLITHIC :
» Serves as a bridge between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age.
» Prominent for the use of copper.
» This era witnessed a tremendous evolution in socio-economic and cultural facets, building
on Neolithic advancements.
Southeast European Chalcolithic Age:
» Spanned between 5000 and 3500 B.C.
» Boasted advanced metallurgical practices, architecture, trade, and arts.
» Settlement patterns included “tells,” which became the norm around mid-fifth millennium
B.C.
» Metallurgy: The Balkans led Europe
in metallurgy with significant mines
at Rudna Glava, Serbia, and Aibunar,
Bulgaria.
» Arts: Transitioned from abstract to
more naturalistic figurines over the
era, showcasing intricate designs and
costumes.
Chalcolithic Period of Levant:
» Stretched between 4500–3900/3800
BCE.
» Notable for dense settlements, ritual
practices, and intricate copper artifacts.
» The cultural attributes had unique
attributes, sparking debate on their
origins, with theories ranging from
migration to idea borrowing.
Other Chalcolithic Cultures:
Zagros Mountains, Iraq: Early copper extraction around 6000 B.C.

23
 Nile center: Had scripts and centralized religion but lacked urban centers.
Sumerian center: Featured scripts, religious practices, and fortified centers with military
emphasis.
Uruk and Ur: Theocratic state with Ziggurat temples, showcasing a strict hierarchical structure.

Chalcolithic Culture in India: An Overview

The Chalcolithic Age, also known as the Copper Age, is a significant phase in Indian prehistory
where the use of metals, primarily copper, was introduced. During this era, several distinct
cultures emerged across various parts of India, each with its unique characteristics, pottery
styles, tools, and settlement patterns.

Culture Region Sites Material Culture Settlement Time

Pattern Period

Ahar- South-east Ahar, Dominated by copper Extensive 3600 B.C. to

Banas Rajasthan and Balathal, objects like axes, settlements at 1500 B.C.
Saurashtra Gilund in knives, chisels. Rich Ahar and Gilund
Banas Valley ceramic tradition: with multi-roomed
BRW, cream slipped rectangular and
ware, redware, grey circular houses.
ware.

Kayatha Northern Kayatha Use of both copper Small huts with 2450 to
Madhya and stone tools. well-rammed 1700 B.C.
Pradesh Distinctive ceramics: floors.
chocolate-slipped
Kayatha ware.

Malwa Malwa and Eran, Nagda, Copper tools like Evidence of 2020 B.C to
Chambal Navdatoli axes and spearheads. fortification walls, 1600 B.C.
regions in Malwa ware ceramics. wattle-and-daub
West Madhya Ornaments: beads, houses.
Pradesh bangles, rings.
Terracotta figurines.

Jorwe Western Jorwe, Copper objects like Classified Early Jorwe

Maharashtra Nevasa, axes, chisels. Beads settlements: (1500-
Daimabad, of gold and ivory. villages, hamlets, 1100B. C.),
Inamgaon, Characteristic Jorwe farmsteads. Late Jorwe
Chandoli Ware ceramics. Over 130 houses (1100-800B.
excavated at B.C.)
Inamgaon.

OCP Ganga- Kausambi, Dominated by pottery Most sites located Approx.

(Ochre Jamuna Doab Alamgirpur washed with ochre on or near river 2000 B.C. to
Colour region in colour. Terracotta banks. Sites are 1500 B.C.
Pottery Uttar Pradesh animal figurines, small with low
Culture) beads, stone querns, mounds.
and pestles.

Eastern Bihar, West Narhan, Weapons of copper, Primarily agrarian 1500 B.C. to
Cultural Bengal, Orissa Chirand, stone, bone, and settlements, with a 700 B.C.
Zone Panduraj antler. Ceramic wares: few urban centers.
Dibi red, black, red ware, Some sites suggest
and black-slipped granaries and
wares. storage facilities.

Southern Karnataka Brahmagiri, Use of microlithic Agrarian Approx.

Cultural and Andhra Piklihal, tools and occasional settlements with a 1800 B.C. to
Zone Pradesh Maski copper objects. blend of pastoral 800 B.C.
Predominance of lifestyle. Fortified
hand-made pottery. and unfortified
sites observed.

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(g) Copper-Bronze Age Culture :
» Time Span: 3,300 - 1,200 BCE.
» Characterized by copper and bronze use.
» Sumerians might’ve initiated the Bronze Age.
» Technological advancements: wheel, writing systems.
» Copper smelting started circa 6,000 B.C.
Script:
» Earliest period with written accounts.
» Development varied across cultures.
» Viable writing in Egypt (hieroglyphs), Near East (cuneiform), and the Mediterranean.
» Petroglyphs (rock engravings) from the period depict animals, humans, and scenes.
Metallurgy:
» By fourth millennium BCE, copper and tin combined created bronze.
» Bronze tools/weapons were more durable than stone/copper.
» Initial bronze made of copper and arsenic; by 3,500 BCE, tin became a key ingredient.
» Indus Valley Civilisation used the lost-wax technique.
Bronze Age Collapse:
» Causes: Natural catastrophes, climate change, rebellions, invasions, trade disruption.
» Post-collapse, the Iron Age (c. 1200-550 BCE) began, favoring iron over bronze.
Bronze Culture in the Fertile Crescent:
» Intensive year-round agriculture.
» Developed writing systems.
» Inventions like the potter’s wheel.
» Centralized government, law codes, and empires.
» Social stratification, slavery, warfare.
» Usage of mud brick leading to architectural advancements.
» Color-plated walls; three-dimensional figures in Babylonia.
Bronze Age in China:
» Began by 1700 B.C. with the Shang dynasty.
» Either utilitarian artifacts or “ritual bronzes.”
» Decorated with taotie motifs.
» Used piece-mold casting, different from the lost-wax method.
» Society structure resembled Medieval Europe.
Bronze Age in Egypt:
» Commenced around 3,150 BCE during the Protodynastic period.
» Shaped art, architecture, religion.
» Creation of Egyptian imagery, symbolism, and hieroglyphic writing.

Indus Valley Civilization

Introduction
» The Indus or Harappan civilization was rediscovered in the late 19th century..
» Harappa and Mohenjodaro were found to be contemporary with Old Kingdom of Egypt
and Mesopotamian empires.
» The civilization collapsed around mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Distribution
» Covered regions in present-day Pakistan and North-Western India.
» Ghaggar-Hakra river system in Rajasthan and Cholistan desert.
» Hunter-gatherer and pastoral communities in central India.

25
 Settlement Pattern
» Cities with two planned mounds, east
and west.
» Grid pattern streets, uniform clay
brick construction.
» Public architecture, central
marketplace, granaries, baths.
» Extensive canal network for irrigation.
Lifestyle
» Agriculture: wheat, barley,
domesticated animals.
» Artistic skills: pottery, carving, gold
and silver ornaments.
» Trade routes across Iranian plateau
and Arabian Sea.
» Script: around 250 symbols, written
from right to left.
Time Period
» Neolithic to Mature Harappan phases.
» Emergence of settlements, uniformity in material culture.
» Decline of urbanism, return to village life.

Important Sites

Site Location Special Features

Mohenjo-daro Sindh, Pakistan Planned layout, granaries, baths, trade routes

Harappa Punjab, Pakistan Urban planning, advanced drainage system

Dholavira Gujarat, India Sophisticated water management, reservoirs

Lothal Gujarat, India Dockyard, evidence of maritime trade

Kalibangan Rajasthan, India Unique fire altars, extensive town planning

Rakhigarhi Haryana, India One of the largest known IVC sites

Ganweriwala Punjab, Pakistan Cemetery with unique burial practices

Surkotada Gujarat, India Presence of horses and evidence of fortifications

Sutkagen Dor Baluchistan, Pakistan Coastal trading outpost

Kot Diji Sindh, Pakistan Fortifications and granaries

Amri Sindh, Pakistan Early settlement with pottery and bead making

Rupnagar Punjab, Pakistan Urban center with well-structured buildings

Chanhu-daro Sindh, Pakistan Circular and orthogonal patterns of streets

26
Theories of Decline
» Climatic Change: Reduced rainfall affecting civilization.
» Foreign Invasion: Questioned due to skeletal evidence.
» Tectonic Phenomena: Flood theories questioned by geomorphic evidence.
» Environmental Deterioration: Overexploitation of resources.
» Hydrological Changes: Shift in river courses affecting agricultural land.

h) Iron Age Culture :

» Metal Evolution: Introduction of iron, reducing the dominance of stone, copper, and
bronze.
» Expansion: By 1500 B.C., civilization expanded beyond river basins to major regions in
Asia, northern Africa, and Europe.
» Impact: Iron availability led to socio-cultural changes and influenced relations among
social classes.
» Timeframe: Spanned from 1200 B.C. to 600 B.C. with variations based on regions,
succeeding the Stone and Bronze Ages.
» Tools: Iron and steel became the prime materials for tool and weapon crafting.
» Metallurgy: Iron was dominant but other metals persisted. Steel’s creation, via iron and
carbon heating, is attributed first to the Hittites of Turkey.
Greek Iron Age
» Mycenaean Era: This prosperous civilization focused on trade and had opulent palaces
and structured societies.
» Decline: Circa 1200 B.C., the Mycenaean civilization fell, leading to the Greek Dark Ages –
marked by depopulation, societal fragmentation, and a hiatus in literacy.
» Recovery: Greece rejuvenated during the late Iron Age, achieving cultural milestones and
introducing democracy.
Early State Society of Meso America
» Phases: Spanning from Rosario (700–500 BC) to Monte Albán II (100 BC – AD 250).
» San José Mogote: A chiefdom capital with evidence of war and human sacrifice practices.
» Monte Albán: A pivotal town influencing socio-political structures and amplifying
agriculture and trade.
» Zapotec State: Flourished with Monte Albán as its center until its decline in the eighth
century AD.
Early State Society- Egypt
» Origins: Predynastic evidence suggests southern roots.
» Graves: Indicators of wealth and social stratification.
» Major Sites: Hierakonpolis and Abydos showcase advanced economies, craft production,
and trade.
» Trade: Vital for the Nile region with leaders ensuring route safety.
Iron Age in Indian Subcontinent
» Duration: As per T.N. Roy, spans from 600 BC-100 AD, with possible evidence extending
from 1000 BC-1000 AD.
» Pottery: North India features Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW). Megaliths define the Iron Age in peninsular India.
» Metallurgy: Iron was primarily for weapons; household tools were rare. Copper persisted
for various uses. Glass emerged as a material for ornaments.
» Culture: Societies combined agriculture, herding, and hunting. Architectural advances
included terracotta ring-wells, fortifications, and coinage.
» States/Kingdoms Emergence: Late Iron Age saw urbanization and the birth of state
societies.

27
 Megalithic Cultures
» ‘Megalith’ means large stone in Greek.
» Megaliths are big stone monuments related to burials, memorial stones, or religious
commemorations.
» Megalithic culture is associated with burial sites and Black and Red pottery.
» This culture’s existence is debated among scholars.
Distribution
» Found mainly in India: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh,
and Telangana.
» About 2,200 megalithic sites are in peninsular India, mostly unexcavated.
» A living megalithic culture exists among tribes like the Gonds and Khasis.
» Megaliths in India are distributed across five regions: South, North, West, Central, and
East.
Typology
V. D. Krishnaswamy classified megalithic structures
into types:
» Alignment: Arranged lines of monoliths.
» Avenue: Cluster of parallel monoliths.
» Barrow: Mounds made of earth.
» Cairns: Mounds made of stone rubble.
» Cists: Stone box graves.
» Clan ossuary: Stone chambers for bones
and ashes.
» Dolmen: Stone table supported by
boulders.
» Cromlech: Circle of monoliths.
» Topikal/Hatstone: Stones specific to
Kerala.
» Hood stone: Dome-shaped stones, also in
Kerala.
» Menhir: Single, massive stones.
» Rock-cut caves: Tombs made in rock.
» Sarcophagus: Cists, sometimes with legs.
» Stone circle: Circle made of juxtaposed
stones.
» Stone seats: Ceremonial stone slabs.
Material Culture
» Tools and weapons were made of metals and stone. Pottery was common, and ornaments
were made of various materials.
» Rock paintings were also prominent.
Settlement Pattern
» The megalithic people preferred hilly areas near water sources and followed a lifestyle
which likely succeeded Neolithic cultures.
Lifestyle
» Megalithic communities had strong religious beliefs.
» Different burial traditions might signify different social groups.
» The community included diverse professional groups.
» They depended on agriculture and hunting.
» Domesticated animals included cows, goats, dogs, and horses.
Time Period
» The dating of the megalithic culture varies among researchers. Current estimations place
them between 1000 B.C and 1000 A.D.

28
Contributions of Tribal Cultures to Indian Civilization
India’s cultural diversity and richness owe a considerable debt to tribal influences. These Adivasi
groups, scattered across India’s diverse landscapes, have bequeathed an indelible mark on the
country’s heritage. Their contributions span various domains:

1. Philosophical Influence:
Buddhist Sanghas’ Design: Inspired by Adivasi societies, Gautam Buddha’s early
Sanghas reflected values like gender equality and mutual respect intrinsic to these tribal
communities.
2. Societal Ethics:
Role-based Status: Adivasi societies advocate a unique structure built on equality, with roles
defined by functionality, ensuring sustained societal parity.
3. Trade Integrity:
Tribe-backed Commitments: Tribal cultures have historically upheld impeccable standards in
trade practices, ensuring integrity.
4. Cultural Integration:
Hindu ‘Vratas’: Many tribal customs, deities, and rituals found their way into mainstream
Hinduism, showcasing a blend of beliefs.
5. Linguistic Influence:
Oriya Language Evolution: Tribal words and linguistic patterns have significantly shaped
regional languages, enriching their vocabulary and structure.
6. Medical Wisdom:
Ayurvedic Plant Remedies: Tribes have been custodians of vast medicinal plant knowledge,
laying the groundwork for many Ayurvedic treatments.
7. Agricultural Innovations:
Rotational Cropping: Pioneering advanced farming techniques and introducing new crops,
Adivasis have significantly influenced India’s agricultural practices.
8. Art, Craft, and Cultural Contributions:
Bansuri (Flute): The Adivasi legacy extends to folk tales, instruments, dances, and festivals
that have become integral to Indian traditions.
Examples like Warli painting and bamboo craft also underscore this point.
9. Historical Legacy:
Gond Kingdoms: Adivasis weren’t just nature dwellers; they established vital kingdoms and
cities, with Nagpur being a prime example.
10. Sustainable Farming and Nature Conservation:
Tribes are eco-champions, introducing techniques that respect and sustain the environment.
They’ve also preserved seeds crucial to India’s agri-diversity.
11. Nature’s Stewardship:
Chipko Movement: This tree-saving initiative drew from tribal values and saw significant
participation from women.
Tribes like the Dongria Kondh have shown unwavering resilience against environmental
threats.

29
 1.2. Paleo—Anthropological Evidences From India
I. Ramapithecus:
Time Period: Ramapithecus existed between
14-10 million years ago, during the Miocene
period.
Discovery: Initially uncovered by G.E. Lewis
in 1932 in the Siwalik Hill region of India. It
was named after Rama, a mythical prince
from Indian epics, and its Latin species name
means ‘short snouted’.
Distribution: Fossils have been found in
various regions:
» Siwalik Hills, India (discovered by G.E.
Lewis in 1932 & 1934)
» Fort Ternan, Kenya (unearthed by L.S.B.
Leakey in 1961)
» Athens, Greece (found by Bruno Von
Freyburg in 1972)
» Candir, Turkey (by Ibrahim Tekkaya in
1973 & 1974)
» Rudabanya, Hungary (by Miklos Kretzoil
in 1977 & 1979)
» Pakistan (by D. Pilbeam and colleagues)
Environment: Originally lived in forest woodland settings. As the species evolved, it inhabited
drier, savanna-like terrains.
Dietary Adaptation: Transitioned from relying on soft forest fruits and vegetables like other
apes to consuming harder foods like seeds, nuts, and grasses.
Key Anatomical Features:
Facial Structure: Ramapithecus had an orthognathous profile, meaning a nearly vertical
face with a straight jaw.
Teeth:
» Vertically placed incisors and canines.
» Reduced or absent diastema (gap between teeth).
» Thick enamel on premolars and molars for heavy chewing.
» Y-5 cusp pattern on molars, with the size of the third molar being smaller than the first
two.
» Parabolic or V-shaped tooth rows.
Jaw:
» Maxilla (upper jaw) reduced in size.
» Presence of shelf-like ridges inside the lower jaw.
» Presence of a large inferior torus on the mandible.
Palate: Arched, similar to humans.
Significance:
» Ramapithecus is viewed as one of the first true hominids, suggesting an essential branch
in human evolution.
» Its transition from forested to open environments, and consequent dietary shifts, might
hint at the evolutionary pressures that steered the progression towards more advanced
hominids.

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II. Sivapithecus:
Time Period: Sivapithecus lived around 12.2
to 8.6 million years ago during the Miocene
epoch.
Discovery: Fossils of Sivapithecus were first
discovered in the Siwalik Hills of India, much
like its contemporary, Ramapithecus.
Distribution: Fossils have been unearthed in
several locations:
» Siwalik Hills, India
» Pakistan
Environment: Sivapithecus predominantly
occupied forest environments, suggesting a
more arboreal lifestyle compared to some of
its contemporaries.
Dietary Adaptation: Given its forested
environment, it likely relied heavily on fruits
as well as other plant material.
Key Anatomical Features:
Facial Structure:
» The face of Sivapithecus was
prognathous (having a projecting
lower jaw or chin).
» Large, thick-boned brow ridges.
Teeth:
» Similar dental formula to modern orangutans, with large canines.
» Dental microwear suggests a diet rich in hard and tough foods.
» Robust premolars and molars.
Jaw:
» The jaw showed heavy muscle attachments, hinting at a strong bite force.
» The mandible (lower jaw) was broad and sturdy.
Cranial Features:
» Skull structure was more similar to that of modern orangutans.
» A short and broad cranial base.
Phylogenetic and Taxonomic Status: While Ramapithecus was once considered an early
hominid, Sivapithecus is now thought to be more closely related to the orangutan lineage than
to the human lineage. Its morphological features, especially the dental and cranial resemblances,
indicate a close relation to Pongo (modern orangutans).
Significance:
Its existence, along with other ape fossils from the Miocene, challenges our understanding of
hominid evolution and provides a clearer picture of the complex web of evolutionary relationships.
Revaluation of Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus:
Ramapithecus was initially thought to be a direct human ancestor based on jaw and teeth
structures. Meanwhile, Sivapithecus appeared closer to orangutans due to cranial features.
New Fossil Discoveries:
Later findings in the 20th century suggested Ramapithecus might better fit as a species within the
Sivapithecus genus.

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 » David Pilbeam: Early on, he
considered Ramapithecus a
hominid. Later discoveries shifted
his stance, aligning Ramapithecus
closer to Sivapithecus and
orangutans.
» Elwyn Simons: His research in the
1970s and 1980s supported the
view that Ramapithecus was more
akin to orangutans and should be
within the Sivapithecus genus.
Current Consensus &Phylogenetic
status:
By the late 20th century, most experts
agreed on classifying Ramapithecus as a
species of Sivapithecus, emphasizing its
orangutan affinity.
III. Narmada Man:
» Location: Narmada Valley, Madhya
Pradesh.
» Discoverer: Dr. Arun Sonakia,
December 5, 1982.
» Classification: Initially as Homo erectus.
» Era: Middle Pleistocene, approximately 500,000 years ago.
» Significance: Connects archaic humans to modern Homo sapiens in South Asia.
Fossil Discoveries
» Main Find: Calvaria (partial skull), missing facial structure and teeth.
» Location: Quaternary sediment near Narmada River.
» Additional Find (1997): Hominid right clavicle, possibly female, linked to the calvaria by
Dr. A. A. Sankhyan.
Evolutionary Positioning
» Initial Classification: Homo erectus narmadensis by Sonakia (1984).
» Age Indicator: Presence of Acheulian tools, characteristic of Middle Pleistocene.
» Debates: Some academics argue its classification, suggesting proximity to early Homo
sapiens or a different subspecies.
Phylogenetic Significance in the Indian Context
» Soil Challenge: India’s acidic soil complicates ancient remains preservation.
» Debate Reignited: Presence and role of Homo erectus in India.
» Migration & Settlement: Offers understanding of ancient human patterns.
» Connecting Dots: Links India with fossil records in Africa and Southeast Asia.
Broader Insights
» Lifestyle Peek: Suggests adaptations and survival strategies of early humans in India.
» Technological Insight: Associated stone tools indicate cognitive and technological
advancements.
Conclusion
» Role: Narmada Man is crucial in understanding Homo erectus’ migratory and evolutionary
patterns.
» Bigger Picture: Helps paint a comprehensive human evolutionary narrative, connecting
various Middle Pleistocene hominid fossils.
» Future Exploration: Continued research will refine the Narmada Man’s placement in our
evolutionary history.

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1.3Ethno-Archaeology In India:
A. The concept of ethno-archaeology
Ethnoarchaeology, stemming from Jesse
Fewkes’s early 20th-century description
of an archaeologist with an “intensive
knowledge of the present life,” serves as a
potent research strategy, rather than merely
a theory or method.
This sub-discipline acknowledges that by
observing and understanding modern
traditional lifestyles, archaeologists can
derive meaningful analogies about past
societies.
The Ethnoarchaeological Framework
Ethnographic Analogy and
Parallelism: Analogies drawn from
present-day human adaptations offer
insights into bygone behaviors. Several
types of analogies exist, such as:
General Comparative and Direct
Historical: Highlighting cross-cultural
correlations and continuity from
prehistoric to present, respectively.
Discontinuous, Continuous, Formal,
and Relational Analogies: Addressing
variations in cultural adaptations,
similarities in properties, and natural or
cultural links.
New Analogy: Concentrates on cultures interacting similarly with analogous environments.
Research Design in Ethnoarchaeology: Beyond just ethnography, ethnoarchaeology
requires meticulous research designs like Agorsah’s seven-stage methodology, which includes
hypothesis formulation, testing, and cross-cultural comparisons.
Ethnoarchaeology and Archaeological Theory: It’s essential to understand its historical
evolution in theoretical perspectives:
» Processualism: A 1960s’ movement promoting scientific testing.
» Post-processualism: From the 1980s, spotlighting the symbolic aspects of material
culture, and advocating for context-specific interpretations.
Ethno-archaeology in the Indian Context
Notable mentions include John Marshall, Mackay, and Cunnighum’s attempts to utilize existing
ethnographic evidence for interpreting Mohenjo Daro and other sites’ excavated materials.
Recent studies in the sub-discipline shed light on various aspects:
Dr. Malti Nagar’s study on the Bhils of Rajasthan and interpretations of excavations at Ahar.
K. Padayya’s work on the Hunsgi Valley’s palaeolithic hunter-gatherers.
Observations by M. L. K. Murthy revealing congruencies between ancient and present-day
tribal habitats in Andhra Pradesh.

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 Limitations and Challenges
The observed behaviors in modern primitive
societies may not always reflect past ones,
especially when separated by vast temporal
gaps.
Ethnographers primarily focusing on social
facets may unintentionally overlook pertinent
archaeological details.
Over-reliance or over-interpretation of oral
history, without anchoring them to physical
attributes or material forms, might lead to
skewed conclusions.
Conclusion
Ethnoarchaeology, embedded deeply within
anthropology, provides an invaluable lens
to interpret the past using present-day
observations. By meticulously understanding the
present’s material culture and drawing parallels,
archaeologists can demystify ancient lifestyles,
especially when conventional historical sources are scant or ambiguous. The challenge remains
in discerning which aspects of the present can authentically mirror the past.
B. The archaeology Survivals and Parallels among Traditional Communities:
Traditional societies worldwide, including India, offer a rich understanding of adaptive strategies
spanning hunting, foraging, fishing, pastoral, peasant, and arts and crafts producing communities.
Drawing parallels and understanding survivals among these groups gives insights into the deep-
rooted cultural practices and their ongoing significance.
Hunting and Foraging Societies: The indigenous tribes of India, such as the Baigas and Birhors,
have maintained ancient foraging and hunting techniques. Their deep-rooted beliefs, communal
sharing, and connection to the environment mirror the practices of other global counterparts, like
the San of Southern Africa.
Fishing Communities: The fishing communities along India’s vast coastline, such as the Koli of
Maharashtra and the Mukkuvars of Tamil Nadu, exhibit parallels in their fishing methods, rituals,
and boat designs. Their traditions resonate with those of the Moken “sea gypsies” in Southeast
Asia, underscoring a shared maritime legacy.
Pastoral Societies: The Rabari of Gujarat and the Raikas of Rajasthan are nomadic pastoralists
who migrate seasonally, showcasing survival strategies reminiscent of Africa’s Maasai. Their
livestock-centered rituals and practices highlight the cultural significance of pastoralism in their
respective societies.
Peasant Communities: In the terraced fields of Uttarakhand or the rice paddies of West Bengal,
India’s peasant communities practice traditional farming techniques passed down through
generations. Their reliance on monsoon patterns, communal labor-sharing, and local market
systems offer parallels with other subsistence agricultural societies worldwide.
Arts and Crafts Producing Communities: The potters of Khurja, the Dhokra metalworkers of
Chhattisgarh, or the Kanjeevaram silk weavers of Tamil Nadu exhibit techniques and motifs that
have survived centuries. These communities, much like the potters of Rajasthan or the weavers of
the Andes, emphasize a shared human penchant for aesthetics and craftsmanship.
To conclude, India, with its vast cultural diversity, offers a myriad of examples of survivals and
parallels among traditional communities. These examples not only highlight the resilience of
indigenous practices but also underscore the shared threads of humanity woven across different
geographies and cultures.

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