Superconductivity
Superconductivity
Teacher’s name:
Mahmoud Khalel
Qena STEM School Subject: Physics
Authorized by:
Authorized
Ahmed Emadby:Ahmed,
ahmed.2321003@stemqena.moe.edu.eg
Ahmed Emad Ahmed,
ahmed.2321003@stemqena.moe.edu.eg
Ahmed Magdy Ahmed,
ahmed.2321005@stemqena.moe.edu.eg
Ahmed Magdy Ahmed,
ahmed.2321005@stemqena.moe.edu.eg
Mahmoud Ahmed Abbas,
mahmoud.2321048@stemqena.moe.edu.eg
Mahmoud Ahmed Abbas,
mahmoud.2321048@stemqena.moe.edu.eg
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Table of content
Abstract ………………………………………. 3
Introduction …………………………………... 5
Literature survey ……………………………... 8
Experiment and results ……………………….. 10
Conclusion …………………………………… 11
Reference …………………………………….. 13
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Abstract
Superconductivity is a phenomenon characterized by the absence of electrical
resistance below a critical temperature; it has been a subject of intense study since
its discovery in the early 20th century. Initially observed in certain metals cooled
to extreme temperatures, the mysterious behavior of superconductors challenged
conventional understanding and triggered the development of novel theoretical
frameworks and experimental techniques.
One of the most significant advancements in understanding superconductivity
came with the formulation of the BCS theory, named after its creators John
Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer. This theory proposed that electron
pairing is mediated by lattice vibrations, or phonons, within the material. The BCS
theory provided a comprehensive explanation for the disappearance of electrical
resistance and other key properties observed in superconductors.
After the BCS theory, scientists and engineers have made remarkable progress in
discovering and developing superconducting materials with higher critical
temperatures. Early superconductors required temperatures close to absolute zero
(-273.15°C) to exhibit their remarkable properties, but newer materials, such as
certain ceramic compounds known as high-temperature superconductors, can
operate at significantly higher temperatures but still require cryogenic cooling.
The practical implications of superconductivity are vast and diverse, impacting
numerous fields such as energy transmission, medical diagnostics, transportation,
and information technology. For instance, the phenomenon of magnetic levitation,
made possible by superconductors, has revolutionized high-speed transportation
with projects like the maglev trains in China and ongoing developments in Japan.
These trains float above their tracks, propelled forward with minimal friction and
noise, offering efficient and environmentally friendly transportation solutions.
In the realm of medical imaging, superconducting magnets form the backbone of
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines, allowing for detailed and non-
invasive visualization of internal bodily structures with unprecedented clarity. The
use of superconducting magnets in MRI not only enhances diagnostic capabilities
but also contributes to the advancement of medical research and treatment.
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Furthermore, superconducting quantum devices, such as Josephson junctions and
superconducting qubits, hold promise for revolutionizing information processing
and communication technologies. Quantum computers based on superconducting
qubits have the potential to solve complex problems that are currently intractable
for classical computers, offering breakthroughs in areas such as cryptography,
drug discovery, and materials science.
Despite these remarkable advancements, challenges remain in the widespread
adoption of superconductivity in practical applications. Ultra-cooling
requirements, complex manufacturing processes, and the ongoing quest for new
superconducting materials present significant hurdles that researchers continue to
address through collaboration and technological innovation.
Introduction
Superconductivity, a phenomenon discovered over a century ago, continues to
change and revolutionize various fields of science and technology, captivating
researchers, and engineers alike with its extraordinary
properties. Initially observed in certain metals cooled
to extremely low temperatures as shown in Figure 1,
the discovery of superconductivity defied the
conventional understanding of electrical resistance.
Today, our comprehension of superconductivity spans
from fundamental quantum mechanics to practical
Figure 1
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applications in diverse fields such as energy transmission, medical imaging, high-
speed transportation, and beyond, shaping the landscape of modern technology
and scientific inquiry.
At its core, superconductivity is characterized by the complete absence of
electrical resistance in certain materials below a critical temperature as shown in
Graph 1, allowing for persistent currents to flow Graph 1
Electrical Resistivity
indefinitely without any dissipation of energy. This
remarkable property, first demonstrated in mercury by
Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911,
sparked intense scientific inquiry and led to the
discovery of numerous superconducting materials with
increasingly higher critical temperatures, expanding
the frontier of what is achievable in superconductivity Temperature
research and application.
The theoretical framework explaining superconductivity took shape in the mid-
20th century with the development of the BCS theory by John Bardeen, Leon
Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer. This groundbreaking theory, based on the concept
of electron pairing mediated by lattice vibrations, provided a comprehensive
explanation for the phenomenon and started the way for further exploration and
experimentation, laying a solid foundation for the understanding and manipulation
of superconducting materials.
The practical implications of superconductivity are vast and multifaceted. From
enabling the efficient transmission of electricity with minimal loss to
revolutionizing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology in healthcare,
superconductors have found widespread application in various fields, driving
innovation, and enhancing efficiency in numerous technologies. Moreover,
ongoing research endeavors seek to harness the potential of superconductivity for
quantum computing, particle accelerators, sustainable energy solutions, and even
advanced propulsion systems for space exploration, promising further
breakthroughs in the years to come and unlocking new avenues for exploration
and discovery.
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Literature survey
Superconductivity has many applications in real life that can make it easier for
people’s daily life, here are some applications of superconductivity.
First A Magnetic Levitation Train which is shown in Figure 2 is one of the main
applications of superconductivity in transportation, more specifically in trains
through the magnetic levitation. Due to this, the friction between the train and the
rail is eliminated. As a result, these trains can achieve high speed with lower
consumption and noise. The maglev train in Shanghai that began commercial
operations in 2004 is one example of a real application where this technology is
used. That line is around 30km between the financial area of Shanghai and the
airport (Pudong). It can achieve 450km/h with a time travel of 8 minutes. Another
commercial maglev train is the one that was built in
Changsha, China. This train is the first one fully
developed in China, being the first mid-low speed
maglev in China, and to be an experimental line. It
is the longest one of its kind in the world. It opened
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Figure 2
in May 2016. However, it is expected to implement new projects with this
technology. The Japanese rail operator announced the implementation of a new
magnetic levitation train able to achieve 600km/h.
Second Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which is shown in Figure 3 is a scan
used for a medical imaging procedure. It uses a magnetic field and radio waves to
take pictures inside the body. It is especially helpful to collect pictures of soft
tissue such as organs and muscles that don't show up on x-ray examinations. The
most critical component of an MRI machine is the superconducting magnet. These
magnets generate the powerful magnetic fields required for imagining the body's
internal structures. Superconductors allow these magnets
to produce very high magnetic fields without dissipating
energy as heat, which would otherwise be impractical or
impossible with conventional materials. The conductor
used in all modern superconducting MR scanners is
niobium-titanium (NbTi) which becomes superconductive Figure 3
below 9.4°K.
Third Quantum computing which is shown in Figure 4 is a multidisciplinary field
comprising aspects of computer science, physics, and mathematics that utilizes
quantum mechanics to solve complex problems faster than classical computers.
The field of quantum computing includes hardware research and application
development. Quantum devices often look very different from their classical
computers. There is one exception, the central piece of some of the most advanced
quantum computers is still a chip. It is not made from silicon but from materials
that are superconducting. The core chip of quantum computers is called a qubit,
Superconducting qubits are typically implemented using superconducting circuits.
These circuits consist of Josephson junctions, which are highly nonlinear electrical
devices formed by two superconducting
electrodes separated by a thin insulating barrier.
The Josephson junction provides the necessary
nonlinearity to create a two-level quantum
system, analogous to the qubit in classical
computing.
Figure 4
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Fourth A superconducting transformer (SCT) as shown in Figure 5
uses a small current as its primary and obtains a large current output
at its secondary, which is a very efficient way to provide a large
current to superconducting cable samples. In the past decades,
several SCTs have been developed for superconducting cable testing.
Superconducting materials have virtually zero electrical resistance
when cooled below their critical temperature, which can significantly
reduce energy losses in transformers. Lower resistance means less
energy is wasted as heat during transmission, resulting in higher Figure 5
efficiency. Superconducting coils can be integrated into transformers
to store energy in the form of a magnetic field. This technology, known
as Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES), offers fast response times
and high energy density, making it suitable for applications requiring short-term
energy storage, load balancing, or power quality improvement.
Despite the potential advantages and applications, there are significant
challenges associated with superconducting transformers, including the need for
cooling systems to maintain superconducting temperatures, complex
manufacturing processes, and high initial costs. Additionally, materials with
suitable superconducting properties must be developed and scaled up for practical
use in transformer applications.
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Experiment and results
Josephson's experiment was quite genius and simple in concept. He put two
superconductors remarkably close together with a thin insulating barrier between
them.
Next, everything was cooled down to super cold temperatures, close to absolute
zero. At these temperatures, both pieces of metal become superconducting. Here's
where what happened: without applying any voltage, a tiny electric current started
flowing between the two superconductors through the insulating barrier as shown
in Figure 6. This current kept flowing steadily, without
any resistance or voltage applied. Josephson also tried
to apply a voltage across the barrier and found that the
current oscillated back and forth between the
superconductors at a very specific frequency.
Figure 6
Discussion
In the experiment, it can be found that Electrons in the form of Cooper pairs in
superconductors can pass through the insulating barrier despite lacking the energy
to overcome it in classical terms.
Josephson junctions have enabled the development of superconducting electronics
with unique properties, such as ultra-low power consumption, high-speed
operation, and quantum coherence. Superconducting devices based on Josephson
junctions offer promising solutions for energy-efficient computing, signal
processing, and communication systems.
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Conclusion
The exploration of superconductivity has traversed over a century of scientific
inquiry and technological innovation, unveiling a realm of possibilities that
continue to captivate researchers and engineers across various fields. From its
humble beginnings with the discovery of zero electrical resistance in certain
metals at ultra-low temperatures to the modern-day advancements in high-
temperature superconductors and superconducting quantum devices, the journey
of superconductivity has been marked by profound discoveries and transformative
applications.
Superconductivity represents a shift in our understanding of electrical conduction,
offering a glance into a world where energy can flow indefinitely without loss or
dissipation. This fundamental property, first observed by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
in 1911, has since become the base of numerous technological innovations,
reshaping industries and pushing the boundaries of what is achievable in science
and engineering.
The development of the BCS theory by Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer in the
mid-20th century provided a theoretical framework that revolutionized our
understanding of superconductivity. By proposing that electron pairing is mediated
by lattice vibrations, or phonons, within the material, the BCS theory offered a
comprehensive explanation for the disappearance of electrical resistance and other
key phenomena observed in superconductors. This seminal work not only laid the
groundwork for further research but also started the way for the discovery and
engineering of new superconducting materials with higher critical temperatures.
Today, the practical implications of superconductivity are vast and diverse,
permeating various aspects of our lives and industries. In transportation, magnetic
levitation (maglev) trains exemplify the potential of superconductivity to
revolutionize high-speed transportation by eliminating friction and noise, offering
efficient and environmentally friendly mobility solutions. Similarly, in healthcare,
superconducting magnets form the backbone of magnetic resonance imaging
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(MRI) machines, enabling non-invasive and detailed visualization of internal
bodily structures with unprecedented clarity, thereby enhancing diagnostic
capabilities, and advancing medical research and treatment.
Furthermore, the emergence of superconducting quantum devices, such as
Josephson junctions and superconducting qubits, holds promise for revolutionizing
information processing and communication technologies. Quantum computers
based on superconducting qubits have the potential to solve complex problems
that are currently intractable for classical computers, offering breakthroughs in
areas such as cryptography, drug discovery, and materials science.
However, despite these remarkable advancements, challenges remain in the
widespread adoption of superconductivity in practical applications. Cryogenic
cooling requirements, complex manufacturing processes, and the ongoing quest
for new superconducting materials present significant hurdles that researchers
continue to address through interdisciplinary collaboration and technological
innovation.
References
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Ginsberg, D. M. (2024). Superconductivity. Britannica, 1-12. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/superconductivity/Higher-temperature-superconductivity
Sousa, A. R. (2017). Superconductivity and their Applications. Spain: Department of Electrical
Engineering. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/A-Roque/publication/316307569_Superconductivity_and_t
heir_Applications/links/594ba6d1458515077c70e63d/Superconductivity-and-their-
Applications.pdf
GIERAS, J. (2020). Ultra high-speed ground transportation systems: Current status and a vision for the
future. PRZEGLĄD ELEKTROTECHNICZNY, 1(9), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.15199/48.2020.09.01
Palmer, C. (2021). Engineered to go fast, maglev trains inch forward. Engineering, 7(7), 891–893.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2021.06.001
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