2c

TOPIC

Ancient Rome

A scene from the film Gladiator

(made in 2000), which depicts
the life of a Roman general who is
forced into the life of a gladiator

106
106 Retroactive
Retroactive 1:
1:Stage
Stage44History
History
 In the sixth century BCE, Rome was
just a small village in central Italy; but
within six hundred years the Roman
military controlled a vast empire
stretching from Britain in the west
to Palestine and Egypt in the east.
Roman influence on law, political
thought, literature and architecture is
still felt today.

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Sources: Ancient Rome
In this video lesson, visit the UQ Antiquities Museum
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society by exploring Roman coins.
Interactivity Searchlight ID: int-2958
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Use this fun interactivity to create a visual timeline of
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TOPIC 2a | Investigating
TOPIC 2c the
| Ancient
ancientRome
past 107
2c:1 Chronology
Most empires are either named after the ruling southern Italy. Once tribes were defeated they were
country — such as the British and Portuguese encouraged to enter into an alliance with Rome, and
empires — or named after a person — such as the their leaders took up Roman citizenship.
empire of Alexander the Great. The Roman Empire
is one of the few named after a city. Wars with Carthage 264–146 BCE
Carthage was located in North Africa, close to Italy.
Roman origins It was a powerful maritime trading centre with
trading posts in Sicily and Spain. From 264 to
In the tenth century BCE, the ancestors of the
146 BCE, Rome fought a series of wars with
Romans lived in huts on the Palatine Hill. This was
Carthage for control of Sicily. These wars were also
one of the several hills near a bend in the Tiber
known as the Punic Wars. After the final defeat of
River, about 25 km from its mouth. The language
Carthage, Rome occupied the city itself and put it
these people spoke, and the name given to them,
under Roman rule (see section 2c:6 for more detail).
was Latin.
Their neighbours to the north and west (in what
today is Tuscany) were the Etruscans. The Etruscans
Expansion and the end of the
were the most advanced civilisation in the region; Republic 146–44 BCE
from them the Romans developed a written script With control of Italy and a settlement in North
and learned about architectural features such as the Africa, Rome was now in a position to take control
arch. According to early histories, some of the kings over most of the land bordering the Mediterranean.
who ruled over the Romans were Etruscan. To the In this period Roman armies were continually
south were colonies of another advanced civilisation engaged in warfare as Rome expanded its control
— the Greeks (see Topic 2b). over Spain, Greece, North Africa and the Middle
Over the next few centuries the population grew East. As a result of this warfare, individual generals
and the Romans occupied the lower land between became very powerful and were in a position to
the hills and the Tiber. This land was swampy and challenge republican rule.
subject to flooding, but the Romans developed A struggle for power between two generals —
systems to drain the area. Pompey and Julius Caesar — dominated the end of
this period. Pompey was killed after being defeated
The Roman Republic in battle by Julius Caesar in 48 BCE. However, Julius
Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE by Romans who
Romans dated the foundation of their city to a felt he was becoming too much like a king.
legendary monarch, Romulus, in 753 BCE. During the
fifth century BCE, Rome was ruled by Etruscan kings.
In 509 BCE, the Romans defeated the Etruscans The Roman Empire
and overthrew the king of Rome. This marked the
beginning of the Roman Republic (from the Latin
27 BCE – 476 CE
res publicae, meaning ‘a thing of the people’). Caesar’s assassination was followed by nearly
twenty years of civil war. Forces led by Mark Antony
(Caesar’s ally) were opposed by forces led by the
Taking control of Italy 509–270 BCE much younger Octavian (Caesar’s adopted son).
It took just over 200 years for the Romans to take Octavian finally defeated Mark Antony in 31 BCE.
control of Italy. Two factors were to play a vital role In 27 BCE he gave himself the name Augustus. He
in all future Roman expansion: ruled for 41 years until his death in 14 CE. Emperors
• Rome’s initial military superiority continued to rule in Rome for another four centuries.
• the policy of making the conquered peoples feel From the late third century CE the empire was
they were a part of Roman civilisation by granting divided into western and eastern empires; one ruled
them citizenship rights. from Rome and the other from Constantinople. The
The first hundred years were spent in extending Western Roman Empire was defeated by invaders
control over northern Italy, including defeating the from the north in the fifth century CE. The Eastern
Gauls (from what is now France) who sacked Rome Roman Empire developed into the Byzantine Empire,
in 390 BCE. The Romans also conquered groups in which lasted for another thousand years.

108 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 500
476 CE
• Last emperor in Rome deposed
410 CE
400 • Visigoths sack Rome
337 CE
• Empire split on death 330 CE
of Constantine • Constantinople becomes
306–337 CE the ‘New Rome’
300
• Constantine
324 CE
• Capital moves to
Constantinople
200
27 BCE – 476 CE ROMAN EMPIRE
162–180 CE
117–138 CE • Marcus Aurelius
• Hadrian 100 98–117 CE
54–68 CE • Trajan
• Nero
14–37 CE 37–41 CE
• Tiberius • Caligula
27 BCE CE 27 BCE – 14 CE
• Octavian takes title of Augustus BCE • Augustus
44–27 BCE CIVIL WAR 30 BCE
44 BCE • Suicides of Mark Antony
• Caesar assassinated 100 and Cleopatra
• Lex Julia — all Italians become 60 BCE
Roman citizens • Caesar’s deal with
Pompey and Crassus
106 BCE 200 146 BCE
• Army reforms of Marius • Africa and Macedonia
become Roman provinces
149–146 BCE
300 • Third Punic War
• Second Punic War

264–241 BCE
c. 509–44 BCE ROMAN REPUBLIC 400 • First Punic War

312 BCE
• First aqueduct: Aqua Appia
500 493 BCE
• First tribune of Plebs

Source 1 Timeline showing the main

600 dates and periods in the chronology of
c. 753–509 BCE ROMAN MONARCHY ancient Rome

activities 700 4 As the Roman armies took control of the lands around
the Mediterranean, what problem did this pose for the
COMPREHENSION AND COMMUNICATION Republic?
1 Where was the original settlement of the Latin-
5 Who was the first Roman Emperor?
speaking peoples in the tenth century BCE? 800
6 Who was the last emperor to rule from Rome?
2 a Where were the Etruscans located?
b What did the Romans adapt from Etruscan Use the Ancient Rome timeline
civilisation? interactivity to create a visual timeline of
3 a Why did the Romans go to war with Carthage? eBook plus
key events in Ancient Rome. int-2958.
b What did Rome gain at the end of the Punic Wars in Complete the worksheet for this section,
146 BCE? located in your eBookPLUS resources.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 109

2c:2 Geographical setting
Three geographical features are important as a Apennines form a barrier between the Po River Valley
background to understanding the history of Roman and the rest of Italy. This region was not brought
Italy: the location of its mountain ranges and plains; under Roman control until the first century BCE.
its position in the Mediterranean; and the location The Central Apennines run close to the eastern
of the Tiber River. coast of Italy. To the west of the Central Apennines
are the valleys of the Arno and Tiber rivers. The
Mountain ranges valley of the Tiber was the original heartland of the
Roman Empire.
The Alps The Southern Apennines are closer to the western
coast and run down the ‘toe’ of Italy. They form a
These mountains sweep across the north and north-
chain with the mountains of Sicily, separated by the
west of Italy, separating it from the rest of Europe.
Strait of Messina. In southern Italy the lowlands are
They also offer some protection from cold northerly
on the east, facing Greece.
winds, giving Italy a milder climate, especially in
the south where average monthly maximums range
between 10 and 20 degrees Celsius. Position in the Mediterranean
The Italian mainland and Sicily together stretch
Source 1 A topographical map of Italy highlighting the
right across the middle of the Mediterranean Sea —
mountain ranges, the three lowland regions and the Po, Arno
the south-west tip of Sicily is only 140 km from the
and Tiber rivers
coast of Africa. Once the Romans had placed Sicily
0 200 400 and Carthage under their rule (see section 2c:6),
S kilometres
they were in a strong position to dominate the whole
P
L region around the Mediterranean Sea.
A
Source 2 A model of Rome as it may have looked around 300 CE
Po
R iv er
NOR
THE
RN
AP
EN
NI
Arno NE
S Emporium Exit of Cloaca Maxima Tiber
R iv e r
(Wharves) (Sewer) Island
Tib
er Rive
APE
CEN NIN

Corno Grande
2912 m A D R I AT I C
N
TR ES

Sardinia
r

Rome
AL

SEA
SO EN
AP
UT NIN
HE ES
RN

Corsica TYRHENNIAN SEA

Circus
Strait of Messina Maximus
ME
DI
TE Sicily
IONIAN SEA
RR
A
NE
AN
SEA
Palatine
Hill

Capitoline Hill and the

The Apennines Temple of Jupiter
These mountain ranges begin in the north-west,
linking up with the Alps and then running like
a backbone down Italy in a general south-east
direction. The highest peak is 2912 m (Australia’s
Mount Kosciuszko is 2228 m) and there are twenty
peaks over 2000 m.
The Apennines can be divided into three
approximately equal sections. The Northern

110 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

Rome and the Tiber regular supply of water to flush it out. The main
sewer was called the Cloaca Maxima. The path it
At 406 km the Tiber River is Italy’s third longest follows indicates that it began as a drain from the
river. In ancient times it formed the boundary marshes, but over time part of it was covered over
between three Italian tribes: the Etruscans to the and other sections were diverted by tunnelling
west, the Sabines to the east and the Latins to the under the ground. It flowed into the Tiber River
south. downstream from the city. Today it is still used as a
About 25 km from its mouth, the Tiber flows stormwater drain and its exit point can be seen on
through a series of hills, one on its west bank and the banks of the Tiber.
six on its east bank, and then turns towards the sea. At first the sewer was flushed by streams that
At this point there is an island in the middle of the came down from the hills. This changed after
river, and below it the river becomes shallow and 312 BCE when the first aqueduct was built. By
can be more easily crossed. The Latin-speaking 200 CE there were 11 aqueducts bringing water into
people who were the ancestors of the Romans first the city. The most striking features of aqueducts are
lived in huts on the Palatine Hill around the ninth the arches of those built above the ground to carry
or tenth century BCE. As the population expanded, water over valleys. However, less than 10 per cent
they occupied the Esquiline Hill to the east and then of the Roman aqueduct system was above ground;
moved down to the lowlands. This area was swampy most of the water was carried underground in clay-
and subject to flooding but was first drained and lined pipes. The water would first be used in public
later paved. This became the Roman Forum — the baths and fountains, as well as in water features in
centre of Roman life. the villas of the rich. The waste water would then
run through the Cloaca Maxima to flush the waste
Sewers and aqueducts into the Tiber.
As the population increased, the disposal of human Rome had an adequate supply of water and did
waste became a problem. Two things were required not need to store it, but in other Roman cities large
for this: a sewer to dispose of the waste and a cisterns, some the size of a three-storey building,
were built to store water. One in Puteoli, near
Naples, was 7 metres wide, 70 metres long and
5.2 metres tall, and could store more than 2 million
Colosseum litres of water.

activities
COMPREHENSION AND COMMUNICATION
1 What are the names of the two major mountain
ranges of Italy?
2 Which area of Italy is separated from the rest by
the Northern Apennines?
3 Name two other areas the Romans occupied after
their first settlement.
4 What evidence is there that by 200 CE Rome was
already a highly civilised city?
DEVELOPING SOURCE SKILLS
5 From source 1, how would control of Sicily give the
Romans a strong position in the Mediterranean?
6 From reading the section on Rome and the Tiber
and studying source 2, what advantages would
control of the Tiber near the island have for the
Romans?
Check your eBookPLUS weblinks to
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find more information or activities
related to this section.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 111

2c:3 The Republic
As Roman rule expanded over Italy and around
the Mediterranean Sea, Rome developed a form
Political structure
of government called a republic. The word came The main functions of government were in the
from two Latin words res publica — an affair of the hands of a group of men called magistrates. These
people. However, a person’s position and power in were elected annually by the people, but because
the republic depended on their social class, wealth winning elections depended on buying influence,
and gender. only the richest Romans could be magistrates.

Social structure Republican government officials

Roman society was divided in two ways, one based
around 100 BCE
on ancestry and one based on wealth. Consuls. These were the leaders of Rome. Like other
senior magistrates, they wore a white toga with a
Social division based on origins purple stripe. Consuls kept many of the powers of the
original Roman kings in military, religious and legal
One of the basic divisions in Rome was between
areas, including being commander-in-chief of the
the patricians and plebeians. The patricians were
military, but their power was still limited because:
those who could trace their origins back to nobility
• they were elected for only a one-year term
and were usually quite wealthy. The rest of the
• with two consuls, each could act as a check on the
population were plebeians. A few of these could be
power of the other.
quite rich, while others might be landless labourers.
Praetors. As the area controlled by Rome increased,
Since the plebeians formed most of the army and
the consuls could not supervise all the administration,
all the workforce, over time they were able to force
so praetors took over the legal responsibilities of
patricians to let them take part in government.
consuls. When administration of the expanding
republic became more complex, the number of
Social division based on wealth praetors increased from two to four and then to six.
The other social division in Rome was based purely Aediles. These people were responsible for the
on wealth. The wealthiest were the senatorial class, administration of Rome and its buildings and for
and this included most of the patricians. Their organising religious festivals. Aediles would often spend
wealth was based on land and they were forbidden a lot of money on festivals and entertainment in the
to engage in commerce. hope that this would help them get elected as consuls.
The second class, which could include some of the Quaestors. These were treasurers who looked
richest people in Rome, were the equites. Equites after finances.
made their fortune through trade or through Two other officials held power on special
collecting taxes and taking a share of the money for occasions.
themselves. • When Rome was under direct attack, a single
The least wealthy in Roman society were the strong leader was needed. In this situation, the
proletariat — those with no land at all. They had to two consuls could be replaced by a dictator. He
rely on selling their labour. held his position for only six months.
• Every five years, an electoral roll had to be made
Women in the Republic up. This was in the hands of the censor, who
The social and political position of women decided who could be on the electoral roll.
depended on that of their father before marriage
and their husband after marriage. Women were The path of honours
considered citizens and had the protection of The Romans were worried that an individual might
Roman law, but did not have a vote in any of the become too powerful, especially if he was a general,
Roman assemblies. so they introduced the cursus honorum — a path of
However, marriage contracts could guarantee honours. A man could not become a consul until he
that in the case of divorce a woman’s dowry would had held each of the other positions below it, and
be returned to her; and when men were absent on there was a minimum age limit for each position.
business or away fighting, a woman would run the However, a powerful figure such as Pompey or
household estate. Caesar could ignore any restrictions.

112 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 Magistrates
Gave
Senate (300) advice Ordinary citizens
Consuls (2)
Comprised former Managed army and affairs of Townsfolk, farmers, soldiers
magistrates, and
government. Could veto each other.
served for life. Managed
Could be replaced by a dictator
foreign policy and Slaves
(in emergencies) for six months.
controlled the money.
No rights. Regarded as possessions.
Proposed but could not
Worked on farms, in mines, as

CURSUS HONORUM
pass law.
Praetors (8) gladiators and as prostitutes.
Judges who administered Roman law.
(Could become governors of provinces.)
Patricians Slave Plebeian
Aediles (16)
Looked after particular matters of
government such as public buildings,
food supply and games.

Quaestors (20)
Managed financial and
administrative matters.

Tribunes (10)
Representatives of the plebeians

Source 1 A diagram showing

The senate the structure of the Roman
The senate was a group of 300 men whose role Republic around 100 BCE • Republican Rome
was to advise the magistrates. However, they had a
strong influence on the way Rome was governed:
• You became a senator after holding a high activities
ACTIVITIES
position as a magistrate, so senators were all
people with experience of administration. CHECK KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING
• Once you became a senator, you held your 1 Find the correct words in the text to match each of
position for life and did not have to worry about the following descriptions:
being re-elected. a the two leaders elected annually
• During the period of Roman expansion, the b the class of rich landowners and nobles
consuls were often leading armies that were
c the magistrates responsible for looking after
the city
fighting a long way from Rome. This meant the
d plebeians who were wealthy businessmen
senate could make more decisions. e the colour of the stripe on a consul’s toga
f the name given to the representative of the
Giving plebeians a role plebeians.
Plebeians took part in republican government in 2 a How did one become a member of the senate?
two ways: b What were the three ways in which the senate
1. They met in assemblies, where they had a vote was able to become a powerful body in Rome?
on electing magistrates. There were limitations on 3 Why was it important that plebeians were included
these powers because the more powerful people in the political structure of Rome?
were in smaller assemblies and voted first. Also USING SOURCES
they could not make laws but just voted ‘yes’ or 4 Study source 1 and answer the following questions:
‘no’ on laws that were put before them. a Name three groups that made up the plebeians.
2. They had their own elected officials called the b Who represented the plebeians among the
tribunes of the plebeians. They had the power to magistrates?
veto any decision of the senate. Plebeians also c List the four positions you would hold to follow
took an oath to kill anyone who threatened the the cursus honorum.
life of tribunes.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 113

2c:4 The Roman Empire
The Roman Republic came to an end in 44 BCE when all the old Roman forms of government and sought
Julius Caesar was assassinated (see section 2c:8). the approval of the senate for all his actions. At first,
Caesar’s death was followed by thirteen years of civil he did not call himself emperor but instead used
war as three men, each supported by his own army, the title ‘first among equals’ (in Latin principes inter
fought for control: Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus. pares). Octavian gave the people peace after almost
Lepidus was the first to withdraw from the conflict. 60 years of fighting.
In 41 BCE Mark Antony travelled to Egypt to get more Octavian acquired the title Augustus, and under
troops for his army. While there he met Cleopatra and, this name he ruled Rome and the empire for
like Caesar before him, fell in love with her. He spent 41 years, from 27 BCE to 14 CE. Strong frontiers
the winter of 41–40 BCE in Egypt with Cleopatra, but were established, taxes from the provinces flowed
returned to Rome in the spring of 40 BCE and did not into Rome, and a massive building program began.
see his twins to whom she gave birth. It was also an age of such great poets as Virgil and
Horace, and historians such as Livy.

Controlling the empire’s

frontiers
In order to rule the widespread Roman provinces,
Source 1 Augustus divided them into two groups. Those that
A carved portrait had been under Roman control for many years
of the emperor and were relatively peaceful were called senatorial
Augustus provinces. As in the Republic, these were ruled by
(Octavian). The provincial governors who had once held office as
headband was consul and praetor (see source 1 in section 2c:3).
added in medieval
The provinces where there was still a lot of fighting
times.
were called imperial provinces and they were
ruled by Augustus through people he appointed.
This was to prevent a repeat of the problem that
had occurred with Julius Caesar — an individual
building up powerful support among his own troops
and challenging the authority in Rome.
Back in Rome, Antony married Octavian’s sister, Augustus also reduced the size of the army. At
Octavia. However, three years later, he divorced the height of the civil war with Mark Antony, there
her and returned to Egypt to be with Cleopatra. had been 60 legions. Augustus reduced this number
Influential Romans saw this as a betrayal and began to 25 and settled the discharged soldiers on land
to question how loyal Antony was to Rome. mostly bought with his own money. He also used
Octavian took this as an opportunity to declare local people in the provinces as auxiliaries—
war on Mark Antony and, in 31 BCE, he defeated soldiers who could support the Roman legions.
Antony’s forces in the battle of Actium in Greece. Many of these had special abilities, such as skills in
Antony then fled with Cleopatra back to Egypt. archery or horse riding.
Later, Mark Antony stabbed himself to death To protect himself, Augustus also had a small
after hearing rumours that Cleopatra was dead. The body of selected soldiers in Rome and major
Romans then went to arrest Cleopatra, but she too Italian towns. These were the Praetorian Guard.
committed suicide rather than be a captive of the Other soldiers were jealous of the special pay and
Romans. conditions that the Praetorian Guard enjoyed.
The most difficult areas of the empire to control

Establishing the Roman Empire were the frontiers in the north, where skilful and
courageous fighters always posed a threat to the
Octavian was now the most powerful man in Rome Romans. In one battle, they had been able to destroy
and he gradually took more and more important three of Augustus’s legions. Most of the legions were
positions. At the same time he made sure to keep placed along this northern boundary.

114 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 rumoured that Claudius died as a result of being
poisoned by his young wife, Agrippina the Younger.
• Roman Empire Nero, who ruled from 54 to 68 CE, was the
nephew of Caligula and the adopted son of

Ruling the empire Claudius. His reign began well. However, when
a great fire took place in Rome in 64 CE, he took
The Julio-Claudians advantage of it to build a new palace. His last years
were ones of increasingly irrational behaviour and
After Augustus’s death in 14 CE, the Roman Empire brutality, and in 68 CE the senate declared him a
was ruled for the next 50 years by four emperors, public enemy. Nero committed suicide.
known as the Julio-Claudians, who were all in some
ways related.
Tiberius, who ruled from 14 to 37 CE, was the
Powers behind the throne
stepson of Augustus. His reign began well, and he Although Roman women could not vote, they could
continued the work of his stepfather. However, he still have a great influence on what happened in
grew increasingly suspicious and arranged a series of Rome. Upper-class women were well educated and
treason trials to get rid of his critics. He died in office. interested in power. Two examples are Livia, the
Gaius (better known by his nickname Caligula) wife of Augustus, and Agrippina the
ruled from 37 to 41 CE. At first he tried to restore Younger, who was the wife of
some peace, but he soon showed signs of increasing one emperor and mother of
another.
madness. He said he wanted to make his favourite
Livia was the third wife
horse a consul, and he had a three-kilometre
of Augustus. He married
bridge of boats built across the Bay of Naples so
her in 39 BCE. At first
that he could drive his chariot across it. He was
Augustus hoped that the
assassinated by members of his own guard.
next emperor would be the
Source 2 A simplified family tree of the Julio-Claudian son of his daughter Julia
emperors from his first marriage,
but when Julia’s husband
Scribonia (1) Augustus (2) (2) Livia (1) Tiberius Claudius Nero
Agrippa died, he turned
to Livia’s son Tiberius. He Source 3 A coin
forced Tiberius to divorce his depicting Livia
wife, Vipsania, and marry Julia.
Agrippa (2) Julia (3) (2) Tiberius (1) Vipsania Drusus Antonia Augustus and Livia lived modestly and it was said
that she made her own clothes.
After Tiberius became emperor, relations with his
mother became strained and he refused to attend
her funeral when she died in 29 CE.
Agrippina the Younger was related to three
Lucius Gaius Agrippina Germanicus (4) Claudius
Caesar Caesar ‘the Elder’
emperors: she was sister to Gaius (Caligula), wife
to Claudius and mother to Nero. She married
Key Claudius, her third husband, in 49 CE. Because
Marriage
Claudius was her uncle, he had to get special
Son, daughter (2) approval for the marriage. Agrippina persuaded
(1) Number of marriage Gaius Agrippina Domitius
Tiberius Emperor (Caligula) ‘the Younger’
Claudius to adopt her son Nero and make him the
Julia Female Adopted son next emperor instead of his own son Britannicus.
Nero
She also tried to remove as many rivals to Nero
as possible, so when Claudius died in 54 CE there
Claudius, who ruled from 41 to 54 CE, was the were rumours that she had poisoned him with
uncle of Caligula. Aged 51 when Caligula was mushrooms.
assassinated, Claudius was hiding in the palace at Nero became emperor, and at the start of his
the time. The guards discovered him and declared reign he gave his mother many privileges, such as
him emperor. Claudius was the only Julio-Claudian attending senate meetings hidden behind a curtain.
who had not been a military leader, as his main However, he later came to mistrust Agrippina and,
interest was in the history of Rome. However, the in 55 CE, he had her expelled from his palace. Four
empire expanded under Claudius’s rule, with Britain years later, in 59 CE, Nero decided to get rid of her
being conquered and made a Roman province. It was for good. First he tried to drown her by putting her

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 115

 in a collapsible boat, but she swam ashore. Then he and these provide a wealth of evidence about battle
arranged for her assassination. equipment in the first century CE.
Nero’s later years were marked by increasing Hadrian, who ruled from 117 to138 CE, was
cruelty, including the persecution of Christians. He married to Trajan’s niece. He is considered one
committed suicide in 68 CE after being declared a
public enemy. Source 5 Photograph showing detail from Trajan’s column

The Good Emperors

Following Nero’s death, there was a fresh period of
civil war in Rome but this was followed by a period
of relatively good government, led by emperors
known as the Five Good Emperors. Three of these
were Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. All three
had been born in Spain, which by this time had
been under Roman rule for over 200 years.
Trajan, who ruled from 98 to 117 CE, was the first
non-Italian to become emperor. He achieved much,
in times of war and of peace. One achievement was
the building of a new port at Ostia, on the mouth
of the Tiber. To celebrate his victories, he had a
large column erected in what is today Romania.
Detailed carvings of battle scenes spiral around
the column. There are about 2500 figures depicted

Source 4 A map of the Roman Empire at its height in 120 CE

Key
NORTH Cadiz Settlement
SEA DACIA Territory
Unification of Italy 272 BCE

Roman Italy 264 BCE

BRITTANIA Roman provinces by 201 BCE
GE

Londinium
RM

Roman provinces by 44 BCE

AN

Roman provinces by 96 CE
IA

Paris Roman provinces by 106 CE

GALLIA
NORICUM
AT L A N T I C
DA DACIA
OCEAN SI S LM
N EN AT
I
BO A MOESIA BLACK SEA
R ITALIA
A

CORSICA THRACIA BITHYNIA AND

N

Rome
Byzantium PONTUS
HISPANIA MACEDONIA ASIA GALATIA
MINOR CAPPADOCIA
SARDINIA
LYCIA CILICIA
Carthage SICILIA
Cadiz
NIA
E TA AFRICA SYRIA
UR
MA MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Leptis Magna JUDEA

ICA Alexandria
ARABIA
E NA
CYR

AEGYPTUS
RE

S A H A R A D E S E R T
D

0 500 1000 1500

SE

kilometres
A

116 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

of Rome’s greatest peacetime emperors. Rather these writings Ta eis heauton, meaning ‘thoughts
than trying to extend the empire, he worked on addressed to himself’, but the most common title of
defending its borders, spending more than half his work is Meditations (see source 4 in section 2c:9).
his time outside Rome. While in Britain in 122 CE, From around 340 CE onwards there were often
he ordered the building of a 122-kilometre wall to two emperors — a Western emperor based in Rome,
separate Roman Britain from the Scots in the north. and an Eastern emperor based in Constantinople
The structure is still known today as Hadrian’s Wall. (modern-day Istanbul). In 476 CE the Western
Like many Romans, Hadrian also valued Greek Empire collapsed under a series of attacks by
culture, and he spent the years 124–25 and 128 in northern European tribes, but the Eastern Empire
Athens. While there, he arranged for the rebuilding continued in some form until the time of the
of the Temple of Zeus. Ottoman Turks (see Topic 4c.)

Source 6 A photograph of a section of Hadrian’s Wall as it

appears today activities
ACTIVITIES
CHECK KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING
1 What were the main ways in which Augustus
created a strong empire?
2 Match the following descriptions with people
mentioned in this spread.
a The first Roman emperor
b Nicknamed Caligula
c A great fire occurred in Rome during his reign.
d The third wife of Augustus
e The mother of Nero
f Three Good Emperors
3 Make a list of the Julio-Claudian emperors from
Augustus to Nero.
a Which of these died naturally and which had a
violent death?
b Which ones showed signs of madness? How did
this show itself?
4 Read about the lives of Livia and Agrippina the
Younger. In what ways was marriage used to
ensure that a particular person had a chance of
becoming emperor?
5 List the achievements of the three Good Emperors
discussed.
DEVELOP SOURCE SKILLS
6 From source 2, describe the ways in which
Agrippina the Younger was related to three of the
Julio-Claudian emperors.
7 Source 5 is a photo showing a section of Trajan’s
column. Make a list of the details on it that you
could mention if you were going to describe
Roman warfare.
8 Source 6 shows a section of a wall built across
Marcus Aurelius ruled from 141 to 180 CE. He northern England. What aspect of Hadrian’s policy
had been brought up by philosophers but when does this demonstrate?
he became emperor, he found it more difficult to Check your eBookPLUS weblinks to
pursue his interest in philosophy. This was because find more information or activities
he spent most of his years on military campaigns eBook plus related to this section.
in the north of the empire, especially around the Complete the worksheet for this
Danube River. However, he still found time for day- section, located in your eBookPLUS
to-day administration of the empire, and he wrote resources.
down in Greek his own philosophy of life. He called

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 117

 2c:5 Everyday life
The forum romanum Roman women had to do as their fathers and
husbands told them. However, women still had a
Rome can be considered the world’s first large respected and important role to play in society.
city and, by 100 CE, its population had reached A married woman was known as a matrona. The
one million. The heart of political and intellectual historian Livy described how such women were
life was the forum. Around the sides of the forum recognised for their contribution to the state. In fact,
were many buildings vital to the functioning of an some religious festivals could not be held if there
imperial city: were no matronae available to celebrate.
• the curia, where the senate met Women could also use their influence to further
• the records office the political careers of their husbands and sons.
• temples One woman who did this was Servilia, the mother
• basilicas — buildings of up to three stories where of Brutus — one of the assassins of Julius Caesar.
legal and business matters were conducted. The Roman politician Cicero described Servilia as
The assembly of the plebeians met in an open ‘the most sensible and energetic woman, who was
space in front of the curia. In front of the curia completely absorbed in her son’s interests’.
there was a rostrum — a raised platform for the Roman women were particularly powerful in the
speaker — which was decorated with the front early Empire Period (first century CE). You have
sections of captured ships. read about some of these women in section 2c:4.

The Roman family Roman houses

The word family comes from the Latin word familia, Most of the population of a Roman city lived in one
meaning ‘household’. The father was the head of the or two rooms in overcrowded apartments that could
family, and Roman law gave him complete authority be up to five storeys high. Sometimes a family might
over all its members. For wealthy families this
included slaves.
The peristyle Small olive oil lamps made of pottery or
Furniture mainly consisted of
— a courtyard bronze provided lighting in the evening.
beds, couches, low tables and
and stables chairs, which sat on a mosaic
or tiled floor. The
floor was sometimes
heated from below.

The atrium, or
central courtyard,
contained a shallow
pool. The pool was filled by
rain that entered through an
opening in the roof (through
which light also entered).
The solid, high
external walls had
few or no windows.
The lararium, or household
shrine, was also usually
erected in the atrium.

Source 1 A modern artist’s impression of a Roman house,

with atrium

118 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

wash, cook, eat and sleep in the one room. These Source 3 A description of Roman education in the second
rooms were hot in summer, cold in winter, noisy and century BCE from Plutarch
smelly.
We can learn from the remains of Pompeii and When the child was capable of learning, Cato himself
Herculaneum how the better-off Romans lived. In took responsibility and taught him letters — although
the centre of their house was the atrium. This was he had a specialist slave called Chilon who was
an area open to the sky, and inside it was a pool himself a teacher who had many pupils of his own.
filled with rainwater. The atrium might also contain Cato himself says that he did not think it right for
the household shrine. his son to be disciplined by a slave, to have his ears
Many rooms opened onto the atrium. The floors pulled by a slave for being tardy [slow] at his lessons,
were often a mosaic of tiles. At the back of the house or to owe such a valuable asset as education to a
was an enclosed garden and courtyard area called slave. Cato himself taught him letters, taught him
the peristyle. the laws and taught him athletics. He instructed him
in how to throw a spear, fight in armour, to ride on
Schooling horseback and to box; he also taught him to endure
heat and cold, and to swim through whirlpools and
In the early Roman Republic, children were river-rapids. He says that he wrote the book entitled
educated by their parents at home. There is a record the Histories in his own hand and in large letters to
of a fee-paying school around 250 BCE, run by a enable his son to learn about the laws and customs of
former slave. Over the following centuries, fee- Rome at home.
paying schools became common in Rome. Students From Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder, XX. 3–6 in J. F. Gardner
sat on benches, wrote on wax tablets and read from and T. Wiedemann, The Roman Household: A Sourcebook,
scrolls. The carving in source 2 shows two pupils Routledge, London, 1991.
seated beside their teacher. Classes began early
in the morning, sometimes while it was still dark.
Teachers were very strict and used the cane or strap
on their pupils to make them learn.
Food and eating
After conquering Greek territories, the Romans Many Roman buildings were made of wood, and
modelled their education on the Greek system, and numerous emperors declared that it was illegal to
often used Greek slaves as teachers. However, the cook in apartments. People who did not have houses
focus of Roman education was public speaking and with proper cooking facilities bought their food
law rather than music and philosophy, which the from street vendors and cooked it in public ovens.
Greeks considered important. They bought salt, sausages, porridge and bread.
Wealthy citizens with a proper kitchen had slaves
who would cook and serve meals.
Source 2 A relief showing a Roman school

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 119

 The main meal for the Romans, the cena, was long bone pins and, in some cases, hair nets made
eaten in the evening. During the day they ate very of gold.
simple foods. The two basic foods were bread and At Pompeii, archaeologists found a woman’s
gruel, both made from wheat. The dough for the cosmetic box made from wood and metal. Mirrors
bread would be kneaded or left to ferment. It was were made of brightly polished bronze or silver and
then baked in a clay pot covered by embers. The could be elaborately decorated on the back.
bread could be enriched with grated cheese or
honey placed in the middle of the dough. Gruel was Togas
made from flour boiled in water. Once the flour had
In the cities, male citizens wore togas when outside
broken down, cheese, honey or egg could be added
their home. These could be worn over a tunic, or just
to the gruel. A few vegetables, grown in a garden
over a loincloth. Togas were long lengths of cloth
attached to the house, could be included.
wrapped around the body. They covered the left arm
The evening meal for a well-off Roman would be so only the right arm and the head could be seen.
held in the triclinium — a room with three couches The toga worn by an ordinary citizen was woven
arranged in a horseshoe shape around the walls of from wool. It was quite plain and was usually the
the room. The men ate lying down, leaning on their colour of natural wool, without any dyeing process.
left elbow. If women and children were present, they However, important officials wore coloured togas
would sit at a table in the centre of the room. The that showed their position.
evening meal was the one most likely to include • Magistrates’ togas had a border of purple wool
meat; this could be chicken or a young goat. Because sewn into the material.
Romans ate with spoons only, all meat had to be • Augurs, who interpreted signs,
thoroughly cooked. Any wine served was mixed with had bright yellow togas, dyed
water. in saffron.
A poorer family’s evening meal might include only • Censors’ togas were all purple.
a hambone or bacon cooked in a vegetable soup, • Victorious generals returning
served with a mixture of cheese, olive oil, garlic and from war had purple togas
salt, and spread on bread. edged in gold.
On special occasions such as weddings, birthdays • Candidates standing for
or visits by foreign guests, rich Romans would hold election wore a dyed
banquets that sometimes went on for days. This white toga (candida is
might begin with honeyed wine and small pieces the Latin word for
of food to whet the appetite. The main meal might ‘white’).
consist of wild boar or chicken. Finally there would
be a dessert of fruit, shellfish or oysters. Many
courses would be served, including delicacies such
Source 4 A statue of a
as oysters, truffles and mushrooms. The guests
Roman senator wearing
would eat and drink so much on these occasions a toga
that a room was often provided especially for
vomiting!

Roman clothing
The basic unit of clothing for both men and women
was the tunic. This was a piece of cloth folded in
two, with a hole cut out for the head, sewn on the
sides, and with space left for the arms. Men’s tunics
were short and without sleeves, but women’s tunics
were long, covering their arms and legs. In cold
weather, two or more tunics would be worn on top
of each other.
Married women (matronae) wore, over the top
of their main tunic, another sleeveless tunic called
a stola. Although their tunics were fairly ordinary,
they were able to make fashion statements through
elaborate hairdos, which could be held together by

120 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

Keeping clean Source 5 A description of a Roman bath house, from Seneca
(mid-first century CE)
Bathing was considered very important, both for
cleanliness and for purification before religious
I live right above a bath house so you can imagine the
ceremonies. Romans bathed daily, and many houses
varied sounds I hear coming from the people who go there.
had their own baths. If your house had no bath, you
I often hear a man exercising hard, or at least pretending
could use a public one.
to, with heavy leaden weights. I hear him grunting and,
There were normally three stages in having a whenever he releases his bottled-up breath, I can also hear
complete bath: him panting in wheezy and high-pitched tones.
• You would warm up by bathing in a hot pool, Sometimes I notice a lazy fellow who is content with a
sunbathing or exercising through ball games or cheap rub-down and I hear the crack of the pummelling
weight lifting. hands on his shoulders . . . I can also hear the arrest of
• This would be followed by a lukewarm bath in the a pickpocket, the racket of a man who always likes to
tepidarium. hear his own voice in the bathroom, or an enthusiast who
• Finally there would be a cold bath, and here a plunges into the swimming-tank with too much noise and
metal scraper would be used to scrape off the dirt splashing.
and sweat. Besides all those who excel in lung power, if nothing
The bathing process could then be followed by a else, imagine the hair plucker, who advertises his
massage — if you could afford it. services with a penetrating, shrill voice. He never stops
except when he is plucking the armpits and making his
victim yell instead. There is also the cake seller with his
atrium: an open area in the middle of a wealthy varied cries, the sausagemen, the sweets seller, and all
Roman house
the other food sellers trying to make a sale, each with his
forum: public space in Rome, centre of political life own distinctive voice.
and site of many important buildings Adapted from Seneca, Moral Epistles, LVI. 1–2.

activities
ACTIVITIES two columns headed ‘Education of the mind’ and
‘Education of the body’. Complete the table by using
CHECK KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING the appropriate heading to list the things Cato
1 The forum was an important part of a Roman city. wanted to teach his son.
a What was the forum? 5 Study the relief carving showing a scene from a Roman
b What buildings were located around the forum? school (source 2).
2 Compare and contrast families today with families in a Which person in the scene do you think is the
ancient Rome, as follows. teacher?
a Draw up a table of two columns, headed ‘Similarities’ b Describe each person in this school scene and what
and ‘Differences’. From the information in the text, list they appear to be doing.
features of family life today that are similar to those 6 Study source 1 carefully.
of the Romans, and list features that are different. a Where do you think the water came from to fill the
b Summarise your findings from the table by writing a pool in the atrium?
short paragraph that explains what modern families b What advantages would this house design and
have in common with those in ancient Rome, layout have on hot summer days?
and what you consider to be the most important c Where did light in villas come from (i) by day and
differences. (ii) by night?
3 When were togas worn rather than tunics? 7 A Roman senator is portrayed in source 4. Maintaining
DEVELOP SOURCE SKILLS his dignitas (dignity) was very important for a Roman.
How did a toga help him achieve this?
4 Read Plutarch’s account of the way Cato educated his
son (source 3). 8 Read the description of the Roman bath house in
a What evidence is there that slaves usually played an source 5. List the different activities that are going on.
important role in education? In the Sources: Ancient Rome
eBook plus
b What does this suggest about the intelligence and eLesson, visit the UQ Antiquities
education of some of the people who had been made Museum and learn about the everyday
slaves? life of Ancient Roman society by
c Cato considered that education of both the mind exploring Roman coins. eles-1092
and body was important. Draw up a table with

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 121

2c:6 Contacts and conflicts
beak-shaped spike, held up by ropes and pulleys.
It took over 200 years for the Romans to take control
Once the Romans came close to a Carthaginian ship,
of Italy. However, within a further 300 years the
the corvus was swung over and dropped onto the
Romans controlled an empire that stretched around
enemy’s ship, with the spike lodging in the deck.
the Mediterranean Sea. We will look firstly at the
Roman soldiers then ran across to the other ship
stages by which the Romans created the greatest
and engaged in hand-to-hand fighting.
military machine in the Ancient World, and secondly
Carthage finally surrendered Sicily in 241 BCE.
at some of the ways in which contact with other
Three years later, Rome also acquired the islands of
peoples influenced Rome.
Sardinia and Corsica.

War with Carthage (the Punic Source 2 A modern artist’s impression of how the corvus
operated during a naval battle between the Romans and the
Wars) Carthaginians
The first battles the Romans fought outside Italy
were with the North African city of Carthage.
Carthage controlled most of the island of Sicily and
as a result had control of movement through the
Mediterranean (see source 1).
The Carthaginians, a seafaring nation, realised
that the Romans were inexperienced at sea.
However, the Romans soon met the challenge. They
quickly built up their fleet and invented a device
called the corvus (Latin for ‘crow’), which allowed
them to use their soldiers at sea.
The corvus was a platform 1.2 metres wide and
11 metres long. It was hinged at one end to the side
of the ship, and underneath the other end was a

Source 1 The route taken by Hannibal in the Second Punic War, and some of the battle sites

0 150 300
S
kilometres
P
GAL L I A L
A

AT L A N T I C O C E A N ( FR ANC E ) Trebia 218 BCE

A P I L LYRIA
P
E
N
I
N

P Y R
E N E
E S

E S
Lake Trasimene
Corsica 217 BCE
Rome
I TAL I A

H I S PA N I A Cannae
216 BCE
( S PA I N ) Sardinia

MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Sicily
Carthago Nova Carthage
Zama
Key
202 BCE
Hannibal’s route in
the Second Punic War
Battle site

Carthaginian territory, 265 BCE

A F R I C A
Carthaginian territorial losses, 238 BCE

Carthaginian territorial gains, 219 BCE

122 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 Source 3 A modern artist’s impression of
the Battle of Zama

• Punic Wars
• Roman civil wars

Second Punic War, 218–201 BCE were divided into classes based on wealth. The
wealthiest, called equestrians, could go into war on
Carthage also controlled the east coast of Spain,
horseback, while the poorest soldiers might have
and the Carthaginian general Hannibal used this
only a spear.
as a base to launch an attack on Rome. This attack
Roman armour was adapted from that of the
involved taking his large army, including hundreds
Greek hoplites (see section 2b:5). However, instead
of elephants, across the Alps and into Italy (see
of using the phalanx method of fighting, they used
sources 1 and 3).
a more flexible method based on a fighting unit
In Italy, Hannibal had many victories against
known as the maniple. Soldiers were arranged in
Roman armies, but did not reach Rome itself. He
three rows, with 120 men in each row. The first two
was eventually forced back to Africa, where the
rows were made up of the fittest fighting men.
battle of Zama took place.
The maniples worked as individual units within
Source 4 A description of the Battle of Zama by the Roman the legion, so when the army was advancing over
historian Livy, writing in about 10 BCE rough land, each maniple preserved its shape
(though the advancing line as a whole might be
…Scipio made a change to the way the soldiers bent). This also allowed part of the line to bend
usually lined up. Instead of them being in solid without losing the formation, as occurred in the
formation in front of their standards, he formed the Battle of Zama against Hannibal in 202 BCE.
front line in smaller groups and left gaps between
them. This was to allow the enemy’s elephants to
pass through the gaps without breaking the Roman
Marius’s army reforms
army’s formation. A part-time army made up of farmers was good
Scipio filled the gap between the front-line groups enough to defeat the other Italian tribes, and led
with velites [lightly armed troops] and told some of to Roman control of Italy. However, following the
these men to retreat to the rear of the Roman army as victory over Carthage in North Africa at the start of
soon as the Carthaginian elephants charged. Others the second century BCE, Rome suffered a series of
were to move to the left or right, immediately behind defeats.
the front-line troops. In this way the elephants would In 106 BCE, the Roman Assembly chose Marius
pass through the Roman lines and could then be
(156–86 BCE) — a member of the equestrian class
attacked from both sides.
Adapted from Livy, History of Rome, XXX, 33. — to reform the army. Instead of a part-time army,
Marius decided to create a full-time professional
army. This was to be made up from the poorer

The early Roman army citizens — the proletariat — who did not have land
of their own
The earliest soldiers were part-time soldiers — after For these men, the army was a career. It gave
battles they would go back to being farmers. They them a regular income, and they could add to this
had to provide their own arms and equipment and by taking plunder during times of war. At the end of

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 123

 Source 5 A legion on parade, with three rows of ten maniples, plus the cavalry. Six tribunes stood at
the head of the legion. In actual battle, the lines could bend but each maniple kept its formation.
900 cavalry, organised Hastati (younger soldiers)
into turmae formed the front line.

T
Cavalry
Tribunes

Velites (lightly
armed skirmishers) Hastati
moved around the
Principes (more
battlefield to give
experienced soldiers)
support where Principes formed the second
needed or carry
line. They wore full
out mopping up
armour and were
operations.
Triarii armed with a sword
and two javelins.

Triarii (the oldest soldiers) formed the third line.

They carried a long spear instead of a javelin.

their military service, soldiers were given enough However, a professional army could also be a threat
land of their own to make a living for the rest of to the republic. The soldiers often felt that their
their lives. This made the soldiers dependent on loyalty lay with their general rather than with Rome
their leader. itself. For the next 80 years, generals used the backing
Over the next three years, Marius also changed of their armies to seize political power in Rome.
the way the army was organised for battle.
Instead of having three lines of soldiers, based on
experience and age, the basic building block of the
Contacts
legion became the cohort, which contained 480 men. As the area under Roman control spread, so did
The cohort was made up of six centuries of 80 men, contact with other cultures and civilisations. This
each century led by a centurion. All legionaries took place in a variety of ways.
now had a javelin, for fighting at a distance, and • Trade: As the empire spread by conquest, the
a gladius, or short sword, for close fighting. Each Romans became rich and had plenty of leisure
soldier had to carry all his equipment for fighting time. Money came through plunder by soldiers,
and camping on his back. Soldiers thus became and captured slaves did much of the hard
known as ‘Marius’s mules’. work. Food was needed to sustain the growing
The military system population: wheat was imported from Egypt
created by Marius and Africa, olive oil came from Spain, and wine
provided the basis for and honey came from Greece. Imported metals
Roman supremacy included copper from Cyprus and tin and lead
for the next 400 years. from Britain. Textiles included linen from Egypt
As the territory and wool from Gaul (France) and Britain. Goods
under Roman control also came from beyond the empire: gold and
expanded, there was spices came from India and silk from China.
also an increase in the • Culture: Macedonia had become a Roman
number of citizens who province in 146 BCE and it did not take long for
could be called on to the Romans to realise that a great civilisation
enlist in the army. had existed there for hundreds of years. Wealthy
Romans chose Greek slaves as tutors for their
young boys and, in the first century CE, Quintilian
— a tutor of the emperor’s sons — believed that
Source 6 An artist’s boys of the imperial class should learn Greek as
impression of a soldier at the their first language.
time of Marius. Each soldier had • Religion: New religions from the east were
to carry all his own equipment. worshipped in Rome, including those from Egypt,
These soldiers became known Persia and Palestine. You will learn more about
as ‘Marius’s mules’. Roman religion in section 2c:7.

124 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 Each legion marched into battle behind a
standard — a tall pole with a carved silver Roman forts were often Soldiers often stood side by side The short sword, about
eagle at the top. This ‘king of the birds’ protected by palisades — and overlapped their shields 60 cm long, was used
represented the legion’s power. sharp stakes of wood dug into to form a protective cover to stab rather than
the ground. called a testudo (Latin word for slash. It was a very
tortoise). effective killing device.

The dagger
had a double-
The shaft of the javelin
edged blade.
was made of soft
iron. When the point
Sandals had to be penetrated an enemy’s
strong to stand up to Decorated leather strips shield, the shaft bent,
long marches. Iron studs showed a soldier’s rank and making the javelin
in the leather soles Upper body armour was helped to prevent groin injury. difficult to remove.
supported the soldier’s made up of metal strips
Tall, crested
weight evenly, and held together
helmets helped
helped protect the soles. by leather legion: one of the main units of the Roman army
soldiers see their
straps.
leaders in battle. maniple: a military formation of three rows,
Source 7 A modern artist’s impression of the Roman army with the youngest soldiers in front and the most
engaged in battle experienced soldiers in the back

activities
6 Study the map in source 1.
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING a Name the mountain range that Hannibal crossed to
enter Italy.
1 Why did Rome believe it was important to control
b Name, in chronological order, the four battles that
Sicily?
Hannibal fought.
2 At the time of Marius, why did the government feel it 7 Sources 3 and 4 refer to the Battle of Zama. From a
necessary to change the way the army was made up study of these sources, explain the strategies the
and organised? Romans used to deal with Hannibal’s elephants.
3 Following the reforms of Marius, what class of Romans 8 Examine source 6. What kind of equipment did
now made up most of the army? soldiers have to carry? What name were they given?
4 a In what ways did troops now become more Why?
dependent on their leader? 9 After studying source 7, describe each of the following
b Why could this be a danger to the government of and write about its importance in battle.
Rome? a Palisades
DEVELOP SOURCE SKILLS b The testudo
5 Study source 2. c The standard
10 From source 7, what was the reason for each of the
a What part of the corvus led to it being called the following in battle?
crow?
b What military weakness of the Romans was it a Iron studs on the soldiers’ sandals
designed to overcome? b Crested helmets on leaders
c Why was it suited to the Romans’ style of fighting? c The use of soft iron in the javelin

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 125

2c:7 Religious practices and
festivities
It was very important for the Romans that the like the Greek god Source 2 Statue of the
rituals for each god were carried out at a precise Zeus, his power Roman god Jupiter
time and that the exact words and actions were was expressed
used. The Romans believed that doing this would through thunder.
help to hold the state and the family together and His statue was in
provide a basis for morality. The gods the Romans the middle room of
worshipped can be divided into two groups: gods of the temple. One of
the home and gods of the state. the side rooms was
devoted to Juno, his
Gods of the house and fields wife, who was the
queen of heavenly
Gods of the house and fields were some of the light and the new
earliest gods worshipped. They were also the gods moon. Juno was the
closest to the life of the ordinary Roman. Some of goddess of fertility,
them are described below. childbirth and
• Lares: the Lar was the god of the household. marriage.
• Penates: the gods of the larder, who ensured the In the room on
supply of food and drink. the other side of
• Vesta: the goddess of the hearth (fireplace) and the temple was the
the ploughed field. Vesta was also worshipped as a goddess Minerva.
state god. Six women — the Vestal Virgins — kept She was at first the
her sacred flame alive in Rome. god of commerce
and education,
Gods of the state but later became
a warrior goddess,
The main state gods were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.
depicted with
A temple to these three gods was erected on the
helmet, shield and
Capitoline Hill (see source 2 in section 2c:2 for its
armour. Source 3 Part of a statue of
location). Jupiter was the god of the heavens and,
the Roman goddess Minerva
Source 1 A modern artist’s reconstruction and plan of the temple on the Capitoline Hill.
A statue of Jupiter was in the central section, with statues of Juno and Minerva on either side.

126 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 Source 4 A bas-relief showing a sacrificial procession Hades the body of the deceased had to first pass a
many-headed dog called Cerberus and then cross
the River Styx. A coin was placed in the mouth of
the corpse to pay Charon, the ferryman.
The body would be on display for eight days.
The body of an ordinary person was dressed in a
white toga, but a magistrate would be dressed in the
colours of his official robes. This would be followed
by a funeral procession to a cemetery outside the
city boundary.
For a poor person, a funeral procession was
simple, but for a rich person there would be a
long procession. Musicians at the start would play
mournful music followed by wailing women who
Source 5 Part of the prayer said at the Ambarvalia, the were hired for the occasion. Then there might be
festival held before the harvest at the end of May (the start actors, with one imitating the words and actions
of autumn). This was recited as the worshippers walked three of the deceased. Slaves were often set free on
times around the field. the death of their master, and they would be
next in the procession. The corpse, carried on a
Father Mars, I pray and beg you to be good and couch, would be followed by the sons, with their
favourable to me and to my home and household. heads covered, and the daughters, with their hair
To achieve this I have ordered that the offerings of dishevelled.
a pig, a sheep and a bull be led around my land and If the person who died was an important political
fields and farms. I ask you to prevent all diseases, figure, there would be an oration — a speech
both visible and invisible, and all crop failures, crop praising the person’s life. An example of this was
destruction, misfortune and bad weather. Allow our Mark Antony’s oration on the death of Caesar, which
crops, corn, vines and bushes to grow and prosper. Antony used to try to strengthen his position as
Keep the shepherds and their flocks safe from harm Caesar’s rightful heir.
and give good health and strength to me and to our
In the late republic and early empire, the body
house and household.
would be cremated. The couch with the body
Adapted from Cato, On Agriculture, CXLI.
on it would be placed on a funeral pyre. In the
later empire, perhaps because of the influence
of Christianity, burial of the body became more
Some of the other important Roman gods were: common.
• Venus, the goddess of love
• Mars, the god of war
Source 6 A Roman sarcophagus
• Neptune, the god of the sea.

The augurs
Romans had a strong belief in fate — that there was
a plan already set for your life and the best thing to
do was discover what it was and follow it. The way
to find this plan was to study the natural world: the
movement of the stars, the behaviour of birds, and
the internal organs of sacrificed animals. Those
trained to do this were called augurs. Augurs were
in a very powerful position because the way they
interpreted the signs could influence decisions that
were made.

Roman funeral practices

The Romans had a complex view of death. They
believed that the underworld, called Hades, was
governed by Pluto, brother of Jupiter. To reach

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 127

 Festivals and games The most important games were provided by the
official known as the aedile (see section 2c:3). An
In the second century CE, a Roman writer called aedile tried to put on the most lavish games ever
Juvenal said that all the average Roman wanted seen, because he believed that when the time came
was ‘bread and circuses’ — by this he meant free for his election as praetor or consul, people would
food and entertainment in the arenas. Holidays for remember the types of games he had provided and
religious festivals and celebrations of victories were they would support him.
a feature of Roman life from the first century BCE Entertainment could take many forms. One form
onwards. By the time of the Emperor Claudius in of entertainment was the theatre. Although Roman
the middle of the first century CE, there were tragedies had been performed, by the empire period
159 holidays a year, and 93 of these were devoted people were more interested in being amused. They
to games provided free to the spectators. went to the theatre to see plays, mimes and concerts.
This entertainment played a very important part Roman playwrights wrote slapstick comedies about
in the stability of Rome. There was seldom enough village life and people.
work for most of the citizens and, if plebeians were The theatre, however, was never as popular as the
occupied in entertainment, it meant that they were Circus Maximus. This was a huge oval arena that
not getting involved in street fighting and riots. held 180 000 spectators. Chariot races in the Circus
could last up to 15 days, with up to 24 races a day.
Source 7 A modern artist’s impression of the fighting in the
arena of the Colosseum and the network of tunnels below the arena

128 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 Romans were also entertained by fights between
gladiators — armed men who fought to the death in activities
ACTIVITIES
amphitheatres such as the Colosseum. Gladiators,
who first appeared in 264 BCE and were outlawed CHECK KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING
in 404 CE, were extremely popular with the 1 Why did Romans believe that it was important to follow
spectators. For one celebration, it was advertised the correct procedures in religious ceremonies?
that 2000 gladiators and over 200 animals were 2 Name three of the household gods and the areas
to die.
each one protected.
3 Who were the three main state gods, and where
Gladiators often wore elaborate armour, partly
was their centre of worship?
for protection and partly for show. Many gladiators
4 Roman religion was influenced by the religions of
were treated like stars in ancient Rome, so they
countries that the Romans had conquered. State
needed to have equipment that was functional but which religion came from each of the following
also ‘flashy’. areas, and the groups to which the religions
People today consider that such entertainment is appealed.
very cruel. For example, in the mosaic in source 8 a Persia
we can see different aspects of the events in the b Egypt
arena. While gladiators fight and kill each other, c Palestine
musicians play in the background. Unarmed victims 5 a What would be the differences in burial
are fed to the animals and the animals themselves practices if a person was a rich magistrate?
are cruelly beaten. b How did burial practices change in the late
empire? What reason is given for this?
Source 8 Photo of an ancient mosaic depicting events in the 6 What reasons did the Romans have for providing
Roman arena free entertainment to the plebeians?
7 List three different forms of entertainment
provided for the Romans.
DEVELOP SOURCE SKILLS
8 Carefully study sources 4 and 5.
a What difficulties did the farmers hope the gods
would help them with?
b Make a list of religious practices carried out by
the Romans.
9 What features of the statues shown in sources 2
and 3 would give you clues about which gods these
statues represent?
10 Study source 7 and answer the following questions.
a Why do you think there was a metal fence
around the edge of the arena?
b Describe how animals were brought into the arena.
c Describe any mechanical equipment you can see.
11 Look at the mosaic in source 8, which shows
scenes in the arena.
a What musical instruments can you see being
played by the musicians?
b What animals can you see?
Check your eBookPLUS weblinks to
find more information or activities
eBook plus related to this section.
Complete the worksheets for this
section, located in your eBookPLUS
resources.

amphitheatres: large circular venues for gladiator fights

gladiators: armed men who fought for public
entertainment

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 129

2c:8 Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was one of the greatest military the people, which put him in debt for some years.
generals and political leaders of the ancient world, He was praetor in 63 BCE and his next step was to
and yet he was assassinated by some of the leading become a consul.
senators in Rome. Why was he so popular and yet so
feared by some in Rome? A deal to become consul
Caesar felt he needed help if he was to become
Caesar’s early career consul, and in 60 BCE he met with two of the most
Caesar was descended from two noble families. His powerful men in Rome: Crassus and Pompey the
social standing became even stronger in 84 BCE Great. The three men decided how they could divide
when, at the age of 16, he married Cornelia, a power amongst themselves.
consul’s daughter. His early career was typical for a Crassus was 55 years old. He was the richest
member of the patrician class: man in Rome, after having been a military leader and
• from the ages of 19 to 26, he was on military a consul. His riches had come from the sale of land
campaigns in the East seized by the dictator Sulla from his opponents and
• he was a military tribune at the age of 29 given to Crassus. Crassus had been a supporter of
(in 71 BCE) Sulla, a general who became a dictator.
• he was a quaestor in Spain at the age of 31 Pompey, aged 46, had been given the title ‘the Great’
(69 BCE). because of his many military victories during the
He then began to climb the ladder of positions — expansion of Roman control in Africa and the East. He
the cursus honorum (see section 2c:3). As an aedile had been given wide-ranging powers by the senate.
in 65 BCE, he organised magnificent games for Julius Caesar, at 40, was the youngest of the three.
He hoped to use the support of the other two to
build up his own power.
Source 1 Statue of
The three men made a secret deal. Caesar hoped
Caesar, Roman general,
to gain three things from a deal with Crassus and
statesman and historian
Pompey:
• to use money from Crassus to pay off the debts he
had made organising magnificent games for the
Roman people during his term as aedile
• to ensure he became consul the following year
(59 BCE)
• to be given, after his term as consul, a five-year
military command in Gaul (modern-day France).
This would enable him to build up his wealth,
military power and prestige in the eyes of the
Romans.
In return, Caesar promised that when he became
consul he would ensure that large amounts of land
were given to Pompey so that he could provide a
living for his soldiers. Caesar also gave land to some
of the poorer citizens.

Caesar as consul and general

Authority in the Roman Republic was supposed to
be shared between the senate and the two consuls,
but when Caesar became consul he ignored the
other consul, Bibulus, and the senate. He could do
this because he had the support of Pompey and
Crassus and was popular with the plebeians, the
ordinary people of Rome. As source 2 shows, this led
to serious unrest in Rome.

130 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 Source 2 Appian, a Greek historian of Rome in the second Source 3 An extract from Caesar’s speech to his troops
century CE, describes the uproar in Rome during Caesar’s before he crossed the Rubicon
consulship in 59 BCE.
‘The senate have seduced Pompey,’ he protested,
As many senators opposed [Caesar’s] motion he ‘and led him astray … yet I have always supported
pretended to be indignant at their injustice, and Pompey, and helped him secure advancement and
rushed out of the senate and did not convene it again reputation … I have been your commander for nine
for the remainder of the year, but harangued the years; under my leadership, your efforts on Rome’s
people from the rostra [platform for public speaking]. behalf have been crowned with good fortune; you
In a public assembly he asked Pompey and Crassus have won countless battles and have pacified the
what they thought about his proposed laws. Both whole of Gaul and Germany. Now I ask you to
gave their approval, and the people came to the defend my reputation against the assaults of my
voting-place carrying concealed daggers. enemies.’
The senate (since no one called it together and Caesar, The Civil War, translated by Jane F. Gardner, Penguin, 1976.
it was not lawful for one consul to do so without
the consent of the other) assembled at the house of
Bibulus, but did nothing to counteract the force and
preparation of Caesar. They planned, however, that Caesar and Cleopatra
Bibulus should oppose Caesar’s laws, so that they After the Romans conquered Macedonia, they took
should seem to be overcome by force rather than to an interest in who ruled Egypt because it bordered
suffer by their own negligence. Accordingly, Bibulus their territories of Cyrenaica (in North Africa) and
burst into the forum while Caesar was still speaking. Palestine.
Strife and tumult arose, blows were given, and those When the Egyptian king Ptolemy XII died,
who had daggers broke the fasces [axes tied together the kingdom was divided between his 18-year-
and the symbol of a consul’s authority] and insignia old daughter Cleopatra and his 12-year-old son
of Bibulus and wounded some of the tribunes who Ptolemy. When Cleopatra attempted to rule alone,
stood around him.
the young Ptolemy’s guardians tried to seize control,
Appian, Roman History, translated by Horace White,
Loeb Classical Library, 1912. with Roman support.
When Pompey arrived in Egypt, young Ptolemy’s
supporters killed Pompey, thinking this would get

His command in Gaul them Caesar’s support. However, Caesar became

fascinated with Cleopatra and she became his
After he had served his year as consul, Caesar took mistress, despite a 30-year age difference. (She
up the five-year military command in Gaul. This was 21 and he was 52.)
command had three advantages for Caesar: The following year Cleopatra gave birth to a son
• It would provide a group of loyal soldiers to back she claimed was Caesar’s, and called him Caesarion.
up his ambitions. Caesar returned to
• Gaul was close enough to Rome for Caesar to be Rome in 47 BCE,
able to keep his eye on political events there. and Cleopatra
• Caesar was also a great writer and he glorified and her son
himself in the accounts of the battle that he sent visited him
back to Rome. there and
By 50 BCE, Caesar was ready to return to Rome, settled in one
where he wanted to be re-elected consul. The of Caesar’s
senate was afraid of Caesar’s increasing power and houses.
popularity, and persuaded Pompey to join with them
and oppose Caesar. Caesar was told that he had to
disband his army before entering Italy, but Caesar
believed that without the support of the military, his
political career — and even his life — was at risk.
Caesar made the fateful decision to cross the Rubicon,
the river forming the boundary between Gaul and
Rome, at the head of his troops in January, 49 BCE. Source 4 Statue of
When Caesar and his troops arrived in Rome, the head of Cleopatra
Pompey fled to Greece, but Caesar followed him and
defeated him in battle. Pompey then fled to Egypt.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 131

 Source 5 The historian Plutarch (c.46–120 CE) describes • Caesar swamped the senate with his own
what happened when Caesar secretly arranged a meeting with supporters
Cleopatra. • with the support of the masses, he was continually
getting his period of dictatorship extended
Cleopatra, taking only one of her friends with her • he had coins minted with his own head on them.
(Apollodorus the Sicilian), embarked in a small boat No previous living figure had done this.
and landed at the palace when it was already getting • he seemed reluctant to refuse offers of a king’s
dark. Since there seemed to be no other way of getting crown.
in unobserved, she stretched herself out at full length On 16 March 44 BCE, a group of these senators
inside a sleeping bag, and Apollodorus, after tying assassinated Caesar in the senate.
up the bag, carried it indoors to Caesar. This little
trick of Cleopatra’s, which showed her provocative Source 6 An account of Caesar’s assassination, written by
impudence, is said to have been the first thing about
the historian Plutarch (c.46–120 CE)
her which captivated Caesar, and, as he grew to
know her better, he was overcome by her charm and
arranged that she and her brother should be reconciled The wound was not mortal and not even a deep one,
and should share the throne of Egypt together. coming as it did from a man who was no doubt much
Fall of the Roman Republic: Six Lives by Plutarch, disturbed in mind at the beginning of such a daring
translated by Rex Warner, Penguin, 1958. venture. Caesar, therefore, was able to turn round
and grasp the knife and hold on to it … So it began,
and those who were not in the conspiracy were so
horror-struck and amazed at what was being done
Caesar’s dictatorship that they were afraid to run away and afraid to come
While Caesar was continuing to fight Pompey’s to Caesar’s help; they were too afraid even to utter
supporters in various parts of the empire, friends a word. But those who had come prepared for the
in Rome, led by Mark Antony, organised his murder all bared their daggers and hemmed Caesar in
election for a second time as consul. In 46 BCE they on every side. Whichever way he turned he met the
arranged for him to become dictator for ten years blows of daggers and saw the cold steel aimed at his
and, in the following year, dictator for life. face and at his eyes. So he was driven this way and
Caesar was in Rome permanently only from that, and like a wild beast in the toils, had to suffer
October 45 BCE onward but he had many plans for from the hands of each one of them; for it had been
the improvement of Rome. One of his major plans agreed that they must all take part in this sacrifice
was to reform the calendar. The old Roman calendar and all flesh themselves with his blood. Because of
was 355 days long and was divided into 12 months, this compact, Brutus also gave him one wound in the
so every few years extra months had to be added
groin. Some say that Caesar fought back against all
the rest, darting this way and that to avoid the blows
to bring it into step with the seasons. However, this
and crying out for help, but when he saw that Brutus
was not done on a regular basis, and festivals got
had drawn his dagger, he covered his head with his
out of step with the seasons. Caesar introduced the
toga and sank down to the ground. Either by chance
calendar we know (more or less) today, with three
or because he was pushed there by his murderers, he
years of 365 days and a fourth leap year of 366 days. fell down against the pedestal on which the statue
Other plans he had included: of Pompey stood, and the pedestal was drenched
• introducing a scheme to prevent flooding of the with his blood, so that one might have thought
Tiber River that Pompey himself was presiding over this act of
• constructing a new road over the Apennine vengeance against his enemy.
Mountains Fall of the Roman Republic: Six Lives by Plutarch,
• creating 20 settlements throughout the provinces translated by Rex Warner, Penguin, 1958.
to provide homes for his soldiers
• increasing senate numbers to 900, to include
many of his supporters
• cutting a channel through the Isthmus of Corinth Assessing Julius Caesar
in Greece.
The day after Caesar’s assassination, Brutus
made a speech explaining why he had killed
Caesar’s enemies him. According to the ancient historian Plutarch,
Many senators feared that Caesar was becoming the people listened in complete silence, which
too powerful and was governing as if he was a king. indicated that ‘they both pitied Caesar and
Some of their concerns were: respected Brutus’.

132 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 Soon after, however, when Caesar’s Source 7 An artist’s impression of Caesar’s assassination. This was painted
will was made public and it was by Vincenco Camuccine (1771–1844).
discovered that he had left a generous
amount of money to each Roman
citizen, the crowds turned violent. After
cremating Caesar’s body they used the
flaming torches to try to burn down
the houses of those involved in the
assassination.
The question historians have asked
since is this: was Caesar assassinated
because he had become too powerful
and was becoming a threat to the
Roman Republic; or was he assassinated
by members of the Senatorial class
who felt he was becoming too popular
among the masses and was a threat to
their position?You can investigate this
question yourself by completing activity
10 below.

activities b What word meaning ‘being well thought of’ does

Caesar use twice in this speech — once of Pompey
CHECK KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING and once of himself?
1 Draw up a timeline covering the period 100 to 40 BCE c What reasons does Caesar give his troops for
and place the dates of events in Caesar’s life and his supporting him in his decision to enter Rome?
age when they occurred. 8 Read source 5.
Use the following dates: 100 BCE; 84 BCE; 71 BCE; a What qualities of Cleopatra impressed Caesar?
69 BCE; 65 BCE; 63 BCE; 60 BCE; 59 BCE; 58 BCE. b What action did Caesar take on the dispute between
2 a During what years was Caesar fighting in Gaul? Cleopatra and her younger brother Ptolemy on who
b How could fighting in Gaul be a help to Caesar’s should rule Egypt?
career? 9 Carefully study sources 6 and 7.
3 Who organised the killing of Pompey in Egypt, and a What details from the written source, source 6, have
why did they do it? been used in making the picture, source 7?
4 Why did a group of senators decide to kill Caesar? b What statue mentioned in source 6 is also depicted
What arguments would they have used to justify what in source 7? What is the significance of Caesar
they had done? dying against this statue?
5 On Caesar’s death, both Mark Antony and Octavian RESEARCH AND COMMUNICATION
claimed to be the true successor of Caesar. 10 Conduct an internet search to find out what each of
a How old was each at the time? the following historians believed about the reasons for
b What arguments could each put forward to support Caesar’s assassination. Use your online findings and
his claim to be Caesar’s successor? the information you have read in this section to make
a list of arguments for each of these opinions.
DEVELOP SOURCE SKILLS
a Plutarch (c.46–c.120 CE), a Classical Greek
6 Read source 2.
historian; The Life of Caesar, sections 58–69
a How did Caesar try to get support for his proposed b Theodore Mommsen (1817–1903), a German
laws? historian; The History of Rome Book 5, Chapter 11
b Which group opposed Caesar in 59 BCE? Who did c Robert Syme(1903–1989), a New Zealand-born
they go to for support? Oxford historian; The Roman Revolution
c What evidence does this source provide to indicate
Check your eBookPLUS weblinks to find
that violence had become part of Roman politics at
more information or activities related to
this time? eBook plus this section.
7 Read source 3.
Complete the worksheet for this section,
a Whose side is Pompey on now?
located in your eBookPLUS resources.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 133

2c:9 The Roman legacy
Many of the features and institutions of our time Source 1 The domed vault of the Pantheon in Rome
can be traced back to developments that took place
in ancient Rome from 100 BCE to 400 CE. Some of
the contributions that stand out are:
• recognition of the rights of the citizen and the
rule of law
• development of methods by which a vast empire
can be created and ruled
• lively political writing and the art of oratory
• great engineering achievements, some of which
still stand nearly 2000 years later
• incorporation of Christianity, which was brought
from Palestine to western Europe, and became
one of the major world religions.
The Roman Empire at its peak was spread over
much of Europe and Britain. Many modern-day
nations have inherited aspects of Roman life and
speak languages, such as French, Spanish and
Italian, that are derived from the Roman language,
Latin.

Law and government

Many elements of our political and legal systems
come from the Romans. Roman law was carefully
structured and recorded, so that every citizen could
know what the law was. The current legal systems
of many continental European countries, such as
France, Germany, Spain and Italy, are based on the
Roman Civil Code.
In our political system, words such as senate,
senator, candidate and republic all date back to
Roman times.

Architecture The use of arches and domes continued in

The Romans further developed the arch, which was Christian churches until the introduction of Gothic
first used by the Etruscans for bridges. They used it architecture in the twelfth century.
for vaults (long hallways with a semi-circular roof)
and finally for creating domes. Domes were used
in many public buildings, from baths to temples Engineering
and basilicas. Basilicas were large, covered halls The Romans were very skilled builders, engineers
used as courts of justice and for banking and other and town planners (see source 3). People living in
commercial transactions. The largest basilica in towns had well-built roads, plumbing and sewerage
Rome was built by the Emperor Constantine in systems. Some examples of Roman architecture and
311 CE. It covered an area of about 5800 square engineering that were the ancestors of those we use
metres, which is about two-thirds the size of a today are:
football field. The most famous temple in Rome is • town squares. In every town, the Romans built a
the Pantheon (built 120–124 CE), which has a space town square or forum. Forums were surrounded
43 metres in diameter, enclosed by walls 6 metres by public buildings such as temples, courts,
thick. Light enters through a central opening in the theatres, libraries and small businesses selling
dome of about 8.5 metres across. goods and services to the public.

134 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

• aqueducts. The Romans used an arched bridge • Bacchus, the god of wine, was based on the Greek
with a gradual slope to carry water across valleys god Dionysus. His festival in March (early spring)
and over long distances. was noted for its alcohol-induced excesses, and
• roads. The Romans constructed roads all over the for a time it was banned.
empire in order to move soldiers and supplies. • Isis was an Egyptian goddess who appealed
These stretched thousands of kilometres through particularly to Roman women, freedmen and
Europe and Africa, and some still exist today. slaves. She was also the protector of sailors and
• public baths. These were used as meeting fishermen, and her festival was held in early
and relaxation centres. They could hold up to March at the start of the sailing season.
1600 people and contained hot and cold baths, • Mithras was portrayed in Persian clothing, killing
steam rooms and massage rooms. the bull of cosmic darkness. It was believed that
worshipping Mithras would let you overcome
Source 2 Photographs showing examples of the Romans’
the control fate had over you. Mithraism was
skill in engineering. (a) A Roman aqueduct in Nimes, France,
particularly strong among soldiers.
built in the first century BCE; (b) Remains of a Roman public
• Christianity came from the Roman province of
lavatory, built in the first century BCE
Palestine, where Jesus Christ was crucified on
(a) the orders of Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor
around 30 CE. Jesus’ followers believed he
rose from the dead. In 64 CE, Nero blamed the
Christians for a great fire in Rome. Christianity
appealed to the poorer classes and slaves of
Rome, and its followers were often persecuted.
The number of followers of Christianity continued
to grow among both the upper and lower classes.
In the year 394 CE, during the reign of the emperor
Theodosius, Christianity became the official state
religion of Rome. For a thousand years after this, the
head of the Christian church in western Europe was
the Pope in Rome and the language of the Church
was Latin. Rome’s dominant influence on European
religious life ended with the Reformation in the
(b) sixteenth century, but Catholicism remains strong
in France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Ireland and in
other areas that were colonised by these countries
or where their people settled.

Literature
Roman literature did not develop until the first
century BCE. There were two main influences; one
was a popular oral tradition of songs composed
at events such as funerals, weddings or religious
festivals, while a more formal influence came
from Greek literature. Romans looked up to Greek
culture and, from the third century BCE, Greek
slaves were used as tutors for young people from
the noble classes, and the literature they studied

Religion was translated into Latin from the Greek.

By the first century BCE, Romans had developed
As Rome expanded, some Romans became their own literary style and, over the next two
interested in the new religions they discovered. hundred years, this was expressed in three main
However, the senate felt these strange beliefs would forms:
upset the stability of Rome, so they frequently • poetry
banned them. Some significant gods and religions • history
include the following. • political and legal writing.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 135

 Source 3 A modern artist’s impression of a Roman city. The Romans were skilled builders, engineers and city planners.
Aqueducts brought
water to a settlement Domes were used on many
by means of gravity. To public buildings, including
ensure that the water some baths. People went to
flowed, they had to be public baths every day to
built very precisely. wash and socialise.

Roman public toilets

consisted of stone or Roman cranes
concrete were wooden
benches with structures
holes in them. powered by a big
A channel of wheel and turned
running water by slaves.
removed human
waste.
Roman roads were usually
straight and often long. They
were laid on a bed of rubble,
with a layer of concrete or Romans made concrete from a
gravel on top. Sometimes volcanic dust called pozzolana
stone slabs were placed mixed with lime, water, gravel
on top. and sand.
The Romans were able to fire bricks and to
use building tools such as rulers, chisels,
squares (for measuring angles) and a
surveying instrument called a groma.

Poetry remained a close friend of Augustus. He wrote a

history of Rome from its foundations to about 10 BC.
The first two significant Latin poets, Virgil and
His history comprised 145 books; of these only
Horace, were born about thirty years after Cicero.
35 remain, but there are summaries of many others.
Virgil (70–19 BCE) first wrote a series of poems
He was followed some one hundred years later
about many aspects of rural life and then, in the
by Plutarch (46–120 CE), Tacitus (55–120 CE) and
next eleven years, under the direction of Augustus,
Suetonius (75–160 CE).
wrote a long epic based on the story of Aeneas of
From this point on most educated Romans began
Troy. He died just months after its completion.
to write in Greek; for example, the Emperor Marcus
Horace (65 BCE – 17 CE) was introduced to
Aurelius wrote his Meditations in Greek (see
Augustus by Virgil. His earlier poems satirised
source 4). Appian (c.95–165 CE) wrote his histories
aspects of Roman life but, by 19 BCE, he produced
his greatest lyrical poetry in a series of odes. A
Source 4 One of the meditations of Marcus Aurelius
later poet was Ovid (43 BCE – 17 CE). His earliest
masterpiece was Ars Amatoria — a book of poems
on the art of love with sections entitled ‘How to find Are you distracted by outward cares? Then allow
her’, ‘How to win her’ and ‘Have other friends but yourself a space of quiet, wherein you can add to
be careful’. He was exiled to the Black Sea by the your knowledge of the good and learn to curb your
Emperor Augustus in 8 CE, but continued to write restlessness. Guard also against another kind of
until his death in 17 CE. error: the folly of those who weary their days in
much business but lack any aim on which their whole
History effort, nay their whole thought, is focused.
Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth,
The first and second centuries CE marked the high Book 2, no. 7, The Folio Society, London, 2002.
point of Roman history writing. Livy (59 BCE – 17 CE)

136 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

in Greek, and surviving sections give a detailed
account of the civil war period leading up to the activities
victory of Augustus.
CHECK KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING
Political and legal writing 1 Copy the table below into your workbook and then
complete column B. Explain how the Romans
One of the great writers of this time was Julius influenced the aspects of our social system
Caesar (see section 2c:8). His accounts of his military shown in column A. The first one has been done
campaigns in Gaul were significant in bringing for you.
him to the attention of influential people in Rome,
A: Our social system B: Roman influence
and helped lay the groundwork for his period of
rule. He continued to write during the civil war • Legal systems • Many countries have
against Pompey and his supporters that followed his based their laws on the
taking up the position of leader in Rome. His works ancient Roman laws
continue to provide a rich source for historians today. and legal system.
Cicero (106–43 BCE) is recognised as the greatest • Architecture
of the Roman orators. One of his most important
• Engineering
early speeches led to the prosecution of the corrupt
governor of Sicily, Gaius Verres, in 70 BCE. • Public health
Cicero supported the assassination of Caesar in
• Roads system
44 BCE but believed that the assassins should also
have killed Mark Antony (see source 5). Cicero • Town planning
continued to support the senate against individuals • Religion
trying to take power for themselves. When Octavian
(Augustus) became consul in 43 BCE, in a pact • Government and
with Mark Antony and Lepidus, one of Octavian’s administration
first steps was to order the assassination of his ANALYSIS AND USE OF SOURCES
opponents and this included Cicero. 2 Carefully read source 5.
a List three pieces of evidence that indicate
Source 5 A letter written to Brutus in July 43 BCE — just a few that Cicero supported Brutus’s decision to
months before Cicero was assassinated. Cicero is responding to a assassinate Caesar.
charge by Brutus that Cicero favours rewards over punishment. b What does Cicero think that Brutus has failed
to do?
I will not just quote the saying of Solon, one of RESEARCH AND COMMUNICATION
the Seven Wise Men and the only one to write a 3 Roman achievements were far more extensive
code of law. He said that a state depends on two than could be shown in this unit. Combine
things, reward and punishment. There is, of course, illustrations and text to produce a short
a due limit in both, as in all other things, a sort of PowerPoint presentation on one of the following.
balance in each of the two categories. But it is not • Roman road design and building
my purpose to discuss so wide a theme here. I do, • Roman baths and the use of the hypocaust
however, think it appropriate to reveal the principle • Roman military tactics and military machines
which I have followed in the proposals I have made 4 Choose one of the literary figures discussed in
to the Senate during this war. this unit.
You will not have forgotten, Brutus, that after a Collect some extracts of translations of their
Caesar’s death and your memorable Ides of March I writing and provide a brief overview of the work
said that you and your associates had left one thing from which the extract came.
undone and that a mighty storm was brewing over the b Prepare a timeline of their life and works, and
commonwealth. You had driven away a great plague, add to the timeline three or four significant
wiped a great blot from the honour of the Roman events that took place during their life.
people, and won immortal glory for yourselves; but Check your eBookPLUS weblinks to
the apparatus of monarchy descended to Lepidus and find more information or activities
Antony, one more of a weathercock, the other more eBook plus related to this section.
of a blackguard, both afraid of peace and hostile to Complete the worksheets for this
domestic tranquillity. We had no force to pit against section, located in your eBookPLUS
their passionate desire for a political upheaval. resources.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 137

 Practise your historical skills
COMPREHENSION: CHRONOLOGY, TERMS AND
CONCEPTS   Source 1  
1 Match the following terms, places and names with the A tombstone of a
definitions. Roman soldier
Terms Definitions
1. aqueduct a. The largest division in the
Roman army, consisting of about
8000 soldiers
2. legion b. The overall ruler of an empire
3. forum c. A structure with a sloping channel
for supplying water over a long
distance
4. gladiator d. A public area and meeting place in
the centre of a town
e. Two officials elected to lead Rome
  Some key phrases from the tombstone are written
5. plebeian
for one year below, with the missing letters in brackets and the
translation beside them.
6. century f. A Roman company of
80–100 soldiers His name: M(arco) CAELIO
g. A group of about 300 Romans who
Where from: BON[onia] — modern Bologna
7. consul
advised the consul His military position: I O[rdinis] LEG[ionis] XIIX — first
h. Any Roman citizen who was not a centurion of the eighteenth legion
8. emperor
member of the wealthy class His age at death: ANN[oru] LIII S(emi) — 53½ years
9. patrician i. A rich Roman citizen How he died: OCCIDIT BELLO VARIANO — Fell in the Varian
War [which took place in 9 CE].
10. senate j. A slave trained to fight at a special
school What is buried: OSSA INFERRE LICEBIT — His bones may
be buried here.
2 Arrange the dates below on a timeline from 800 BCE to Who erected the monument: FRATER FECIT — His brother
400 CE and match them with the correct event. (Hint: first erected this.
arrange the events in their correct order.) a From this information, write a paragraph of what it can
753 BCE Caesar assassinated tell us about a typical Roman soldier. It will help if you
find out more about the Varian War.
509 BCE Constantine makes Greek city of
Byzantium his capital
b Write a similar description for an optio (second in
command to a centurion) from the twentieth legion who
390 BCE Last Emperor of Rome deposed was born in Pompeii but died at the age of 36 in a battle
241 BCE Colosseum in Rome dedicated to gods in Gaul with Julius Caesar. Write it in English, but if you
106 BCE Romulus first king of Rome feel really adventurous try to write it in Latin.
59 BCE Caesar’s first consulship
49 BCE Octavian takes title of Augustus
PERSPECTIVES AND INTERPRETATIONS
4 In 79 CE, the city of Pompeii and many of its inhabitants
44 BCE Romans defeat Etruscans
were buried in hot volcanic ash. Over time, the people’s
27 BCE Great fire of Rome bodies decayed, leaving hollow spaces in the hardened
64 CE Caesar crosses the Rubicon to enter Italy ash. Archaeologists found that plaster could be poured
80 CE Marius carries out reforms of army into the hollows to make a cast of the bodies, showing the
324 CE Caesar’s assassination form they took at the time of death (see source 2).
476 CE Rome conquers Sicily from Carthage   In many cultures we are taught to respect the dead,
yet these casts are on public display. Prepare a series of
arguments both for and against displaying these bodies.
ANALYSIS AND USE OF SOURCES
3 Look carefully at the tombstone in source 1. To get as
much information on a tombstone as possible, Romans
EMPATHETIC UNDERSTANDING
used common abbreviations, just as we use RIP, an 5 Brutus (full name Marcus Junius Brutus) first supported
abbreviation of the Latin requiescat in pace — ‘may he/ Pompey against Caesar, then became an admirer of
she rest in peace’. Caesar, but finally took part in his assassination.

138 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

   Conduct some research
  Source 2   Plaster casts
into Brutus, then refer back
of bodies at Pompeii
to section 2c:8. Write a letter
that Brutus might have written   Source 3   Statue of
to Cicero in 43 BCE explaining Romulus and Remus
why, despite taking these with she-wolf
different positions, he was
consistent in his beliefs.
  Source 4   A retelling of the legends of Rome’s origins
RESEARCH
6 The image of a wolf suckling
The Romans had two legends to explain their origins.
twins (source 3) has often
been used to depict the legend According to one legend, refugees from the Trojan War
of Romulus and Remus as were led away from Troy by the Trojan hero Aeneas.
founders of Rome (source 4), They found their way to Italy and settled there.
but the dating and the origin The second legend tells of twin brothers, Romulus
of the sculpture are currently and Remus, who were the grandsons of a king. The
being questioned. king’s brother wanted to make sure that he became the
  The twentieth-century next king, so he put the young twins in a basket, which
historian Howard Scullard he then floated on the Tiber River. The babies were
believed that the statue was composed of a she-wolf washed ashore and were rescued by a she-wolf who
from the fifth century BCE that had no connection with cared for the babies until a shepherd found them.
the story, and was combined with sculptures of the twins When the boys grew up, they discovered they were
during the Italian Renaissance (fifteenth century CE). descendants of the king. They decided to build a
  Recent studies reported in the Italian newspaper La new city on the banks of the Tiber. They argued with
Repubblica in July 2008 (source 5) have claimed that each other as to who should be king of the new city.
the wolf was a thirteenth-century CE production. This was Romulus eventually killed Remus and he named the
based on: new city Rome, after himself.
• evidence that the statue was made by the technique of
casting in wax, which was a method used in the Middle   Source 5   The attitudes of Roman archaeologists as recorded
Ages and not earlier in a newspaper article (an adapted translation of the original
• radiocarbon dating, which put the bronze between the
Italian)
eighth and thirteenth centuries CE.
a How can the name of the twin be connected with the
name of the city? In the Italian world of ancient art history studies, these
b What facts about the foundation of Rome are contained results were ignored with evidence of unanimous
in the legend? opposition of all the archaeologists of the City of
c The Renaissance in Italy was a period when the Italians Rome. These had overlooked and dismissed repeated
were rediscovering their ancient past. Why might this reports of the work of Anna Maria Carruba [the woman
be significant in relation to the statue? who did the research]. The archaeologists had been
d What reasons does the extract from the article in involved in the restoration of the wolf between 1997
source 5 give for historians not accepting the new and 2000. They were also opposed because they felt
findings?
threatened by academic success of new techniques
e What further questions and investigations could be carried
out to see if the historians or Anna Carruba are correct? of investigation. The work of Carruba also broke the
relationship between the historian who interprets the
EXPLANATION AND COMMUNICATION artistic phenomena and other researchers who study the
subject matter of works of art and its transformations.
7 Prepare a poster advertising a day of games and
Adriano La Regina, La Repubblica July 2008
gladiatorial contest in the Colosseum. http://roma.repubblica.it/dettaglio/articolo/1485581
• Include at least three different events.
• Make this as historically accurate as possible, collecting
information from section 2c:7 and using Roman
numerals and letters, dating system and currency. Complete the end-of-topic worksheets and
• Note that Romans dated their years from the time interactivities located in your eBookPLUS
of Romulus (753 BCE in our calendar) and used resources.
eBook plus
the letters AUC (ab urbe condita meaning ‘from the Worksheets doc-11233, doc-11234
founding of the city’). Key terms crossword int-3256
• Note also that the Colosseum was dedicated in 80 CE End-of-topic quiz int-3225
and the emperor from 81 to 96 CE was Domitian.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 139

 eBook plus
ProjectsPLUS
Your task
Create a website that entices people into a virtual

Time travel to ancient Rome visit to Rome: eat like the Romans, dress like them,
take a bath, see a show, visit a Roman home, take a
SEARCHLIGHT ID: pro-0008 holiday to Pompeii, be a good citizen and listen to
the senators. You might also want to let them know
Scenario what Rome is like in the present — a kind of before
and after.
Welcome to the future. Non-disruptive time travel
Your employer might want you to work in a web-
has been invented; this allows you to look, hear and
design team, so be prepared to collaborate and work
even smell the past but not affect it. That’s right —
with others.
they don’t know you’re there …
Your company, Two Places at Once, wants you to
put together a website advertising a time trip to Process
ancient Rome that will let people know just what it • Open the ProjectsPLUS application for
was like living in the time of the Caesars (without this chapter in your eBookPLUS. Watch the
being eaten by a lion). introductory video lesson and then click the

140 Retroactive 1: Stage 4 History

 ‘Start Project’ button and set up your project • Use FrontPage, Dreamweaver, iWeb or other
group. You can complete this project individually website-building software to build your website.
or invite other members of your class to form a Remember that less is more with website design.
group. Save your settings and the project will be Your mission is to make people aware of ancient
launched. Rome in an entertaining and persuasive way. You
• Navigate to your Research Forum. Here you will want people to take the time travel tour.
find a series of topics just like those you would • Print your Research Report from ProjectsPLUS
find in a travel guide: Getting Around, Eating and and hand it in with your website.
Drinking, Accommodation, Sights, Entertainment,
History, Health and Safety. Choose a number of
these topics to include in your website or add
your own.
• Research. Make notes of cool facts and intriguing
ideas that you discover. Enter your findings
as articles under the topics in your Research
Forum. To discover extra information about life
in this time and place, find at least three sources
other than the textbook. At least one of these
should be an off-line source such as a book
or encyclopaedia. The weblinks in your Media
Centre will help you get started. You can view and
comment on other group members’ articles and
rate the information they have entered.
• Visit your Media Centre and download the
website model and website planning template to
help you build your website. Your Media Centre
also includes images and audio files to help bring
your site to life.

Your ProjectsPLUS application is available in this chapter’s

Student Resources tab inside your eBookPLUS. Visit
www.jacplus.com.au to locate your digital resources.
• Use the website planning
template to create a design Suggested software
spec for your site. You • ProjectsPLUS
should have a home page • Word
(individual or group) and • FrontPage, Dreamweaver, iWeb or other website-
at least three link pages building software.
per person. You might want Media Centre
to insert features such as Your Media Centre contains:
‘Amazing facts’ and ‘Did you • a website model
know?’ into your interactive • a website planning template
website. Remember the • a selection of images, audio and video files to add
three-click rule in web richness to your website
design — you should be • weblinks to sites in ancient Rome and see website
able to get anywhere in a building software
website (including back • an assessment rubric.
to the home page) in a
maximum of three clicks.

TOPIC 2c | Ancient Rome 141