INTRODUCTION

Cereals are processed grains from which the inedible parts are removed and some of these are broken
into small pieces. Cereals are rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, protein, minerals, and many other
nutrients. The term cereal was derived from Ceres, who is the Roman goddess of agriculture. Today,
cereal food is one of the most sought breakfast cereal options across the world since it can be quickly
prepared and has high nutritional value. Many ingredients such as milk, grains, sugar, fruits, mixed nuts
and berries are used to enrich the cereal. If you want to choose only the healthiest types of cereals, you
have to go for the ones with whole grains and avoid extra sugar. If you have a heart condition or
diabetes, you should prefer having whole grain cereal products as it is higher in fiber as compared to
refined grains. And if you want to add protein and calcium to your meal, you can add yogurt or milk to
your cereals.

WHAT IS BREAKFAST CEREAL?

Breakfast cereal, or simply cereal, is a grain-based food made from various grains (including wheat, corn,
and rice) that have been processed and are pre-cooked or ready to eat. In addition to grains, breakfast
cereals may also contain nuts, seeds, and/or dried fruits, are often sweetened with sugar, syrup, or fruit,
and most are fortified with vitamins and minerals.

HOW IS BREAKFAST CEREAL MADE?

Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals are typically made through the processes of flaking, puffing, or extrusion.
(1) Generally speaking, the grains are processed into flour and cooked with, water, flavors, and syrups.
Once cooked, the grains are then processed via extrusion, a high-temperature process that uses a
machine to shape the cereal, and then dried. (1) The exact process may vary from one cereal to another
since cereals can be flaked, puffed, shredded, or granular, however, once complete all cereal is then
treated with vitamins and minerals that were lost during the cooking process, and often coated with a
sweet flavoring.

THE PROBLEM WITH BREAKFAST CEREALS

Cereal is Made from Processed Grains. Although made from wheat, rice, and corn, the grains used to
make cereal are highly processed. The extrusion process used to make breakfast cereal strips the grains
of their vitamins and essential nutrients. This process creates a cereal made with refined grains and is,
therefore, considered a form of refined carbohydrate and processed food. Although grains can certainly
be included in a healthy diet, they are not ideal in the form of cereal.

Cereal Contains a Lot of Added Sugar

In addition to the grains being a source of refined carbohydrates, breakfast cereals are typically loaded
with added sugar. Not only has excess refined sugar been associated with a myriad of health issues, but
it helps to make breakfast cereals highly addictive causing you to overeat them and exceed the
recommended maximum daily sugar intake. Diabetes Canada suggests consuming no more than 10% of
total daily calorie intake, approximately 50 grams based on a 2,000 calorie per day diet, and ideally less
than 5%, approximately 25 grams of sugar per day. Unfortunately, some of the more popular “healthy”
brands of breakfast cereal contain as little as 11 grams per 1 cup serving. (2)(3)

Cereal Contains Additives and Preservatives

Not only do breakfast cereals contain large amounts of excess sugar, syrups, and sweeteners, but many
also contain potentially dangerous additives and preservatives. Many cereal brands, especially those
marketed at children, contain artificial colors, used to make them look more vibrant and appealing,
which have been linked to behavioral issues, increased risk of cancer, and allergic reactions. (4)
Moreover, some of the most popular cereal brands still contain butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). While findings on BHT have been mixed, international organizations
have found BHA to cause cancer in lab animals. BHA was evaluated under the Government of Canada’s
Chemicals Management Plan and was found to not present a risk at current levels of exposure, however,
the use of BHA and BHT in foods is restricted in Europe. Although in recent years some of the larger
companies have removed BHT from their products, they can still be found in some common cereal
brands. (5)

Misleading Health Claims

Part of the confusion around breakfast cereal can be found in the misleading health claims used on
packaging and in advertising. Processed food products, including cereal, are labeled with buzzwords
such as “all-natural”, “high-fiber” and “low fat”, which are used to encourage consumers to believe that
these products are healthier than they actually are. In fact, studies have shown that these health claims
are an effective tool in misleading people to believe that products, including cereals, are healthier than
they actually are. (6) Moreover, labels are often designed to target children, with bright colors and
cartoon characters to help make them seem more appealing, not to mention a sugary taste. Paired with
misleading health claims, all of this marketing can make things even more difficult for consumers to
dissect.

SO, IS CEREAL HEALTHY?

So, is cereal healthy or unhealthy? Well, it depends on the ingredients. Although cereal can be a healthy
choice, the healthy options are very few and far between since most cereals are made of highly refined
and processed grains, added sugars, refined oils, preservatives, and additives. However, if you must eat
cereal, there are some simple things that you can look for when shopping for healthy cereal.

HOW TO PICK A HEALTHY CEREAL

If you choose to eat breakfast cereal, here are some tips to help ensure you are choosing a healthier
option.
1. Ignore the Label

The front of most breakfast cereal boxes is filled with misleading health claims, such as “high protein”,
“low fat”, and “whole grain”, which can lead you to believe they are healthier than they really are. These
are simply marketing tactics used to sell products, which are often highly processed and high in sugar,
regardless of what the label says.

2. Read the Ingredients

The only way to determine if a cereal is healthy or not is to read the ingredients list. Legally, ingredients
must be listed in order of weight, beginning with the ingredient that is the most prominent, therefore,
the first few ingredients in the list are the most important and notable, as they make up the majority of
the cereal. It is important to look for lists that focus on whole foods and limit sugar and unnecessary
additives.

3. Pay Attention to Portion Size

Because breakfast cereal is designed to be hyper-palatable, they are really easy to over-consume.
Ensure that you read the portion size on the back of the cereal box to compare the suggested portion
size to the amount you are actually eating.

4. Limit Sugar

As with all processed foods, it is important to choose a cereal without, or with limited, added sugar.
Unfortunately, food manufacturers use a variety of code words for sugar to hide sugars from consumers.
It is best to opt for cereals with no added sugar, which you can sweeten or flavor yourself, or cereals
with less than 5 grams of sugar per serving.

5. Focus on Fibre

Cereals made of whole foods, specifically whole grains, are a much better source of fiber than refined
versions. Not only does fiber have numerous health benefits, but it will also help to balance your blood
sugar and keep you satiated for longer periods of time. Be sure to read the label and opt for breakfast
cereals with at least 4 grams of fiber per serving.

ALTERNATIVES TO BREAKFAST CEREAL

When it comes to eating a healthy breakfast, whole foods are always the best option. Although
breakfast cereal is convenient, there are many other ways to create a healthy breakfast that is focused
on whole food and requires minimal effort. Some healthy breakfast options include:

Oatmeal with diced apple, cinnamon, and maple syrup,

Scrambled eggs with sprouted grain toast,

Yogurt with homemade granola and berries,

Overnight oatmeal with Greek yogurt and fruit,

Mini egg frittatas with vegetables,

And many more!

Creating a healthy breakfast can be both quick and easy when you focus on whole foods. By
incorporating a source of protein, source of fiber, and some healthy fats, you can easily create a well-
balanced meal with minimal effort.

Most breakfast cereals are highly processed, often high in sugar, packed full of preservatives, and
contain misleading health claims. Although there are some healthy breakfast cereals on the market,
they are few and far between. If you must eat cereal, ensure that you read the ingredients and opt for
versions made of whole, unprocessed foods that are low in sugar and high in fiber. Alternatively, opt for
whole food alternatives; such as oatmeal, toast, or eggs, for a healthy and well-balanced breakfast to
start the day.

Breakfast Cereals: Healthy or Unhealthy?

Cold cereals are an easy, convenient food. Many boast impressive health claims or try to promote the
latest nutrition trend. But you may wonder whether these cereals are as healthy as they claim to be.
Breakfast cereal is made from processed grains and often fortified with vitamins and minerals. It is
commonly eaten with milk, yogurt, fruit, or nuts.

Here’s how breakfast cereals are typically made:

Processing. The grains are usually processed into fine flour and cooked.

Mixing. The flour is then mixed with ingredients like sugar, cocoa, and water.

Extrusion. Many breakfast cereals are produced via extrusion, a high-temperature process that uses a
machine to shape the cereal.

Drying. Next, the cereal is dried.

Shaping. Finally, the cereal is shaped into forms, such as balls, stars, loops or rectangles.

Breakfast cereals may also be puffed, flaked, or shredded — or coated in chocolate or frosting before it
is dried.

Breakfast cereal is made from refined grains, often by a process called extrusion. It is highly processed,
with many ingredients added.

Loaded with sugar and refined carbs

The modern diet provides easy accessibility to packaged and processed foods loaded with added sugar.
Excess consumption of added sugars can be harmful to health. Most people eat more than the daily
recommended limit for added sugars, which can contribute to increased risk of several chronic diseases.
Notably, most added sugar in the American diet comes from ultra-processed and packaged foods, which
include sugar-sweetened beverages, baked goods, candy, and breakfast cereals. Breakfast cereals are
actually the seventh biggest contributor to added sugar intake among adults in the USA. In fact, most
cereals list sugar as the second or third ingredient.

Breakfast cereals made with refined grains and sugars have a high glycemic index, which means it can
cause a sharp spike in your post-meal blood sugar levels. On the other hand, choosing a high-fiber
breakfast cereal made with whole grains and has little to no added sugars can help promote better
blood sugar control. Reading the nutrition facts label can help you identify how much added sugar is in a
serving of the cereal. Most breakfast cereals are loaded with sugar and refined grains. High sugar
consumption is harmful and may increase your risk of several diseases.

Misleading health claims

Almost all breakfast cereals are marketed as healthy, but many may not actually be ideal for optimal
health. It’s wise to read past any purported health claims and look at the nutrition facts label and
ingredients list to make an informed decision on your breakfast cereal choice. While cereals packed with
added sugars aren’t ideal for health, they may still be a good source of iron, folate and other B vitamins
as most refined breakfast cereals are fortified with these nutrients. Check the package labeling carefully
to identify if your cereal has been fortified with any nutrients. Again, choose a breakfast cereal with the
least amount of added sugar per serving to maximize on nutrition. Breakfast cereals often have
misleading health claims printed on the box — yet are filled with sugar and refined grains.

Selecting healthier types

If you choose to eat cereal for breakfast, here are some tips to help you select a healthier option.

Limit added sugar

Try to choose a breakfast cereal with under 5 grams of added sugar per serving. Read the food label to
find out how much sugar the product contains.

Aim for high fiber

Breakfast cereals that pack at least 3 grams of fiber per serving are optimal. Eating enough fiber can
have numerous health benefits.

Pay attention to portions

Breakfast cereals tend to be crunchy and tasty, and it can be very easy to eat more than the specified
serving size. Keep in mind that that the nutrition information provided on the packaging is per “serving”,
and often times this serving may be a lot smaller than what you may think a reasonable serving size is.
Read the ingredients list

Ignore the health claims on the front of the box, making sure to check the ingredients list. The first two
or three ingredients are most important, as they comprise the majority of the cereal. However, food
manufacturers may use tricks to hide the amount of sugar in their products. If sugar is listed several
times under different names — even if it is not in the first few spots — the product is probably very high
in sugar.

Add some protein

Protein is the most filling macronutrient. It increases fullness and reduces appetite. This is likely because
protein changes the levels of several hormones, such as the hunger hormone ghrelin and a fullness
hormone called peptide YY (14Trusted Source, 15Trusted Source). Greek yogurt or a handful of nuts or
seeds are good choices for extra protein. Another easy way to incorporate protein into breakfast cereal
is to eat it with milk or a protein-rich milk alternative like soy milk. Unfortunately almond milk and oat
meal are not great sources of protein. If you eat breakfast cereal, make sure it’s low in sugar and high in
fiber. Pay attention to portion sizes, and always read the ingredients list. You can also enrich your cereal
by adding your own protein.

Choose unprocessed breakfasts

If you are hungry in the morning, you should eat breakfast. However, it’s best to choose whole, single-
ingredient foods. Here are a few great choices:

plain oatmeal with raisins and nuts

Greek yogurt with nuts and sliced fruit

scrambled eggs with vegetables

Whole eggs are an excellent breakfast choice because they’re high in protein, healthy fats, and
nutrients. What’s more, they keep you full for a long time and may even boost weight loss. One study in
overweight and obese adults found that those who ate a breakfast of eggs and toast had increased
fullness and were less hungry for up to 4 hours later, compared to those who ate cereal with milk and
orange juice. Other studies note that incorporating eggs into your regular breakfast routine can increase
the overall nutrient density of your diet, meaning your diet is more nutritious. However, a study from
2022 found no differences in fullness levels after breakfast between those who ate an egg breakfast or a
cereal breakfast with the same amount of protein. This suggests that breakfast cereals can have the
same satiety-promoting (and in-turn weight loss) benefits of eggs if it contains as much protein as the
egg breakfast does. It’s best to choose whole foods like eggs for breakfast, as they’re very nutritious and
filling. High-protein breakfasts may help reduce cravings and promote weight loss.

Breakfast cereals are highly processed, often packed with added sugar and refined carbs. Their packages
regularly have misleading health claims. If you eat cereal, read the ingredients list and approach health
claims with skepticism. The best cereals are high in fiber and low in sugar. That said, many healthier
breakfast options exist. Whole, single-ingredient foods — such as oat porridge or eggs — are a great
choice. Preparing a healthy breakfast from whole foods is not only simple but starts your day with plenty
of nutrition.

Different Types of Cereals List With Benefits

Cereals come in great varieties. Here are the different types of cereals examples mentioned below:

Wheat

Rice

Oats

Barley

Quinoa

Millet

Rye

Sorghum

1. Wheat

It is one of the most important crops in the world. It is a source of protein and dietary fiber. Wheat is
mostly used for making bread, chapatis, and other baked goods in India. Wheat is harvested and once it
is ripe, it is threshed so that the chaff is removed. The wheat kernels are ground to make flour and then
it is used for making various types of food items.

Benefits of Wheat:

Helps in digestion

Rich in nutrients that are healthy for the heart

Lessens the risk of obesity

2. Rice

Rice is a staple food not only in various parts of India but the world as well. It is one of the most
significant in the cereals list. It is a gluten free meal and you will feel full for a long time after having it.
Benefits of Rice:

Rich in nutrients

Anti-inflammatory

Provides instant energy to the body

3. Oats

Oats or oatmeal is one of the cereals in India that is usually consumed as porridge. They are available in
a variety of forms including steel cut, instant and rolled oats. Also, they can be eaten in various ways.
The bran and endosperm layers of the oat grain contain soluble fibre called beta-glucan, which is
naturally abundant in oats. You can in fact choose gluten free oats to get the best possible nutritions and
quality .

Benefits of Oats:

Boosts weight loss

Helps in preventing constipation and enhances digestion

Good for people who have diabetes

4. Barley

Barley is one of the cereals names that is quite famous in India. Barley can be grown at the same
temperature as wheat. As a matter of fact, Barley is as much sought-after as wheat and rice in India.

Benefits of Barley:

Helps in weight loss as you feel full for a longer time

Reduces the risk of heart ailments

Reduces cholesterol level

5. Quinoa

If you are looking for cereals that are rich in protein, then you must choose quinoa. To fulfill the RDI of
proteins, you can have just one full bowl of quinoa and that will be enough.

Benefits of Quinoa:
Helps in preventing heart ailments

Regulates blood sugar

Good source of iron and protein

6. Millet

Millets are loaded with several types of nutrients. Millets are a great source of protein, minerals,
vitamins, and fiber. This cereal does not need a lot of water or fertile soil to grow. Additionally, choosing
millet muesli will give you significant levels of protein and fibre.

Benefits of Millet:

Aids in weight loss

Reduces risk of heart diseases

Regulates blood sugar levels.

7. Rye

Rye flour is substantially denser than wheat flour because it contains less gluten. The sourdough process
is used to make traditional rye bread, which has a mildly sour flavour. When compared to other grains,
rye is exceptional since both its endosperm and bran have substantial fibre content. As a result, rye
products often have a lower glycemic index (GI) than wheat and other grains.

Benefits of Rye:

Lowers the risk of constipation

Suitable for people with type 2 diabetes

Lowers the high cholesterol levels

8. Sorghum

Jowar, also known as sorghum in English, is frequently referred to as the "new quinoa" because of its
whole grain goodness and gluten-free status. As people turn away from refined flour products, which
are not thought to be nutritious, the ancient grain, a member of the millet family, is seeing a comeback.
The high nutritional value of jowar makes it a desirable grain for health.

Benefits of Sorghum:
Prevents growth of cancerous tumours.

Good for people suffering from celiac disease

Keep body's calcium levels stable.

Now that we know how helpful cereals are for our overall health, we must add them to our regular diet.

At first glance, cereal might seem like a healthy breakfast choice. Many popular brands of breakfast
cereal are touted as high in fiber and beneficial for lowering cholesterol, however, unfortunately, many
of these claims are misleading and it is important to understand not all breakfast cereals are created
equals. So, let’s discuss breakfast cereal, and answer the question – is cereal healthy?

Wheat Production: A gentle production guide

Planning for wheat production

The standard cost structure for wheat at high management levels ranges between $1700 and $2100/ ha
at full absorption (i.e. incorporating all variable costs). This cost outlay is huge on a per hectare basis and
as such farmers should always aim to achieve higher yields in the upwards of 6 tonnes per ha for them
to realise a margin. Zimbabwe used to achieve some of the highest national average yields of wheat
between 5-6t/ha in the past as compared to the current global average of 2.5 – 3t/ha. The genetics
(varieties) are still there and if we get our management right, we can achieve in excess of 10t/ha in the
high potential areas. Let us tap into the genetic gains. Using the current GMB prices, the break-even
yield (when the gross profit is zero) is 4 tonnes/ha. Some good farmers are getting above 8 tonnes per
ha and even up to 11 tonnes/ha. We can imagine the returns in such cases. It is imperative to adopt
Good Agronomic Practices (GAPs) to improve productivity levels and in order to optimise our top-lines
and bottom lines at farm level-the ultimate end game!

Soils and climate

Wheat is a temperate crop and is best grown in winter under irrigation with optimum day temperatures
of between 15 – 20OC and cooler nights giving the best yields. There are some varieties that may be
grown in summer (such as Sahai), but generally there is high disease and weed pressure in summer
accompanied by warmer temperatures that result in depressed yields (≤ 3t/ha), therefore, winter is the
best time for growing wheat. The crop is adapted to a wide range of soils. The soils must be well drained
with an optimum pH range of 5.5-6.5 on a Calcium Chloride scale. Wheat yields are greater in the
highveld (>1200 masl (metres above sea level)) and middleveld (800 – 1200 masl) with yield potential of
8 to 12 t/ha compared to the lowveld (<800 masl) where yields average of 4.5-7 t/ha under good
management.

Land preparation and soil conditioning

The most suitable soil for wheat is one with:

A good effective depth with a fine tilth to ensure seed-soil contact. Good seed-soil contact ensure good
crop emergence and stand which are the basis for good yields

Favourable physical properties: good internal drainage, an optimal moisture regime

Chemical properties: sufficient and balanced quantities of nutrients (NPK and other
micro-nutrients/trace nutrients)

Biological properties: good level of organic matter, and with beneficial micro-organisms

The objective of soil tillage is to maintain the existing structure of soil or to improve the structure of
poorly structured soils as well as addressing the three properties as mentioned above (physical,
chemical and biological).

Soil conditioning

Lime can be applied if required to ‘sweeten’ acidic soils to the pH optimum range. Lime application
should be based on soil analysis prescriptions.

Gypsum improves soil physical structure i.e. removes hard setting clodiness, removes surface crusting
and poor workability as well as supplying the soil with complimentary Calcium and Sulphur for good crop
standing and growth.

Tillage procedures

There are several options of tillage which fall under two broad categories: conservational and
conventional tillage which can be adopted in wheat production. The conventional tillage procedure
follows the following steps:

Deep ploughing (ripping or chisel plough), liming and basal fertilizer application, disking and then
followed by rolling. A roller can be pulled concurrently behind a disc harrow. Conservational tillage also
known as zero/minimum tillage is another cheaper and more sustainable option which farmers can
adopt.

Time of Planting

The optimum time for planting winter wheat is between mid-April and the last week of May and even
earlier in the Lowvelds. Sometimes planting time can be extended to mid-June but not normally
recommended. Delayed planting results in a loss of about 50kg/ha/day after May. The first two weeks of
May tend to give the best yields in the Highveld areas. Adhering to the optimum planting time has some
agronomic explanations and rationales:

Early summer rain escape. Rains which come after the wheat has reached physiological maturity causes
sprouting (grain germination in the ear) and result in down grading of the wheat due to a decline in
baking qualities
Disease escape – disease pressure especially for rust diseases normally rises when temperatures start to
warm up around August and an early planted crop would have gotten a good head start without disease
pressure.

Pest escape – likewise pest pressure such as aphids start to rise when temperatures start to rise. An
early planted crop will have a good head start ahead of pest pressure.

Early planting will result in early harvesting around September. One of the key considerations for the
adoption of double cropping is early planting and early harvesting for both summer and winter crops.
The farmer will come in with his summer crop on time when wheat is planted and harvested early.
Generally, wheat takes about 125-140 days to physiological maturity depending on variety, altitude and
weather conditions. The higher the altitude, the longer the time from planting to maturity.

Wheat critical stages such as crop establishment, tillering, flowering and grain filling will coincide with
the optimum growth conditions when the crop is planted early. For instance, for robust tillering i.e. for
the plant to produce secondary stems (4 – 5 weeks after crop emergence) requires very cool conditions
that normally occurs in May and June while Flowering (60 – 90 days) and Grain filling (> 90 days) must
not coincide with frosty conditions to avoid crop sterility.

Seeding Rates

The optimum plant population for wheat is 220-250 plants per m2. Seed rate depends on the seed size,
germination percentage, planting conditions and planting method. To achieve optimum population
density, a seeding rate of about 110-125 kg/ha when drilling and 125-135 kg/ha when broadcasting with
a vicon spreader is recommended. To ensure good crop standability and yield, farmers should adhere to
these optimum population densities. Diseases such as Powdery mildew are also minimized with good
agronomic practices.

Irrigation requirements and scheduling

Since there is very little or no rainfall during winter in Zimbabwe, irrigation is required to achieve a high
yielding wheat crop. The total gross amount of water required is between 450 and 600 mm per ha (i.e.
4.5 – 6 mega litres per ha) depending on method of irrigation (Overhead irrigation with sprinkler or use
of Centre Pivots) and must be applied as the crop requires it. The key points are:

the soil must be brought to field capacity to the full potential rooting depth (about 1,2 m) at planting to
emerge the crop;

a light irrigation must be applied at the 4th or 5th day after sowing, to break the crust to ensure good
crop emergence

a light irrigation must be applied at 14 to 17 days after emergence to stimulate crown root development
and tillering, and;
irrigation thereafter must be applied to match crop water use. On sandy soils with low water holding
capacities, irrigate frequently (7 to 9 day cycles with 30-35mm net). On clays and sandy clays, with good
water holding capacities, irrigation may be less frequent with larger amounts (10 to 14 day cycles with
40-45 mm net). This is a general irrigation scheduling guide. For an informed irrigation scheduling, the
use of a soil auger to evaluate the soil water content ahead and behind the irrigation line is a good aid to
irrigation management. Irrigation is terminated when the neck of the ears/spikes/head (peduncle) turn
yellow i.e. physiological maturity.

Crop hardening: After the crop has emerged, the hardening stage begins. This induces crown root
development as well as tillering. The recommended hardening period (irrigation is temporarily
terminated during this stage) is 10 and 14 days in light and heavy soils respectively.

Top dressing fertilizer and herbicide application is done after a light irrigation which follows the
hardening period, normally about 21 days after emergence.

Fertilisation

The fertiliser regime management in wheat, like any other crop must be tailored to the soil fertility
status, the yield potential and the grain quality requirements. As a general guide, wheat requires a basal
application of 300 to 500 kg/ha of a compound fertiliser (such as 7-14-7) and a top dressing of 350 to
500 kg of Urea or Ammonium Nitrate per ha. Both fertilizer dressings are broadcast by a vicon.

Generally, 160 -190kg/ha of Nitrogen Units (N), 50 – 70 units of Phosphorous (P) and 30 – 50 units of
Potassium (K) are adequate for optimum plant growth. Basal fertilizer need incorporation into the soil by
disking and should be applied after primary tillage. The top dressing is usually applied in one application
between 14 – 21 days after emergence on heavy soils, and in two applications of equal amounts at 14
and 35 days after emergence on sandy soils. Top dressing should be applied after the hardening stage.
Top dressing is essential for good leaf and general plant growth and ultimately the yield but also
importantly for attaining good protein levels. The minimum protein level requirement for “Premium”
(Good quality) wheat is 11%. It is one of the considerations for grading and pricing of wheat. Attainment
of good protein levels is also determined by varietal choice and general management. Application of
Nitrogen after flowering can also boost the Grain Protein Content of wheat.

All fertility management practices must be based on proper full soil analysis recommendations by
approved laboratories.

Weed control

Farmers are advised to use some wheat specific post-emergence herbicide which should be applied after
a light irrigation which follows the hardening period (2 WACE-Weeks After Crop Emergence). We also
recommend farmers to apply specific herbicides against volunteer crops. Puma super is normally
sprayed when wheat is planted after a maize crop against maize volunteer plants. For soya volunteers, a
herbicide called Ally is recommended. Banvel and MCPA combination covers a wide spectrum of broad
leaf weeds and is recommended. Farmers can consult agronomists and agrochemical companies for
herbicide recommendations and it is important for farmers to read labels whenever they are applying
herbicides.

Pests and diseases

Aphids and stalk borers can attack wheat with aphids coming in soon after tillering while borers can
attack the plant from flowering onwards. Farmers must also be on the look-out for “Fall armyworm”
given that wheat is one of the host crops to the pest. These pests can be controlled with appropriate
pesticide sprays after scouting.

During the late grain-filling period, Quelea birds may consume much grain and reduce yields significantly
if not attended to. A pesticide molecule called 9, 10-Anthraquinone 50% WP (Bird Shield) has been
developed, which can be used as a seed dressing or as a foliar spray at soft dough stage. Efficacy of this
pesticide molecule can be enhanced by applying with a sticker and also a rainfast period of 4 hours or
more. This pesticide molecule will act as a bird repellent. This is the best and the most efficient option.
The other option is bird-scaring using bells, tins, whistles, discs/reflectors etc. by bird scaring gangs.
Diseases such as Leaf rust, Stem rust, Powdery mildew, Fusarium head blight and Take-all may cause
yield reduction. Farmers must seek professional advice on how to control these diseases. The best bet is
for farmers to grow resistant varieties and Seed Co wheat varieties such as SC Select are resistant to
these diseases. Generally two preventative fungicide sprays are recommended if farmers are located in
disease prone areas and gives some form of insurance against climate change that can result in new
disease pathotypes.

NB: Farmers are encouraged to scout their wheat crop for diseases, pests and deficiencies and make
spraying decisions early when pest/disease reaches economic threshold levels. Consult Agrochemical
companies for more information on chemicals. Always read chemical labels carefully, use safe practices
and adequate protective gear during application.

Parting shots

A farmer must be a Crop Doctor, who takes time to investigate his fields in order to prevent problems
and improve productivity. He walks his fields regularly, observing, inspecting, evaluating and interpreting
the possible effect of the observations on crop growth. He diagnoses problems, seeks and offers
solutions.

Here are some tips on how to be a crop doctor:

Walk through your fields in a random manner, stopping every now and then to examine the soil, plants
and surroundings. Be observant, be an investigator, think and take notes.

Examine at least ten places in the field when taking a general inspection, but if scouting for pests and
diseases, it may be necessary to examine between 24 and 100 plants or more, depending on the pest
and the size of field. Inspection pattern can be random, zig zag or diagonal pattern.
Growing Rice: Sowing, Cultivating, And Harvesting

From the perspective of global food security, rice is a crucial crop. Yet, rice growing practices are still
frequently reliant on outdated manual methods that are inefficient in terms of both industrial
agriculture and environmental impact. Some of the environmental costs of today’s rice paddy growing
include the flooding of land to make it into cultivation fields, the massive emissions of greenhouse gases,
and the overuse of agrochemicals. Fortunately, there are numerous methods (such as the use of current
agricultural technologies) of how to grow rice more wisely, profitably, and sustainably.

Importance Of Rice And Its Growing To Global Nutrition

Rice, a grain high in starch, is a mainstay of the diets of about half of the world’s population. No other
crop cultivation is as crucial to human feed, the agricultural economy, and the planet’s ecosystem as rice
growing. While these crops, especially newly planted ones, need a wet environment, paddies (flooded
lowlands and waterlogged fields around rivers) are common places to grow them. Oryza sativa, also
known as Asian rice, is the most frequently cultivated and consumed type of rice in the world. There are
two main kinds of rice: indica, with longer grains, and japonica, with shorter grains. Some species, such
as brown rice, come in both long- and short-grain varieties. The long-grain crop is lower in starch and
higher in dry matter than its short-grain relative. Growing long-grain rice has the highest economic
return of all rice cultivars. The most widely consumed rice varieties are as follows:

long-grain: Basmati, Jasmine, Mogra, Carolina Gold, Wild, Red, and Black Rice;

medium-to-short-grain: Arborio, Koshihikari, Valencia, Carnaroli, Calasparra, Baldo, and Bomba.

With a growing global population, rice remains an essential staple food. Hence, it is crucial to grow it as
efficiently as possible by considering the best conditions for rice growth while also minimizing negative
impacts on the surrounding environment.

full grown rice plant

Optimal Growing Conditions For Rice

Growing rice, like any other crop, needs certain conditions to thrive. The most crucial rice growth
requirements are related to climate and soil. Now, we’ll consider what growing conditions lead to a
bumper crop and which regions should expect the finest harvests.

Ideal Climate For Growing Rice

Originally from tropical regions, rice is a warm-season crop that requires constant heat and humidity to
grow. It can be cultivated as an annual in warm climates, though, even if you don’t reside in the tropics.

Where is rice grown?

Most of the world’s rice grows in Asia, specifically in China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Vietnam.
At the same time, Africa, Europe, the Americas, and Oceania all have some warm areas with suitable rice
growing climates. During the growing season, the best temperature for rice is between 70°F and 99°F
(21°C and 37°C). Soil temperatures above 99 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Celsius) have a harmful
effect on crop. It is possible to grow it only where nighttime lows stay at 60°F (15°C) or higher for a
minimum of three months annually. How come it’s so important? Germination is temperature-
dependent, so the lows for the growing crop must always be above that mark.

The water needs of growing rice far exceed those of any other crop. Thus, only in locations with a
minimum annual rainfall of 45 inches (115 cm) does rice growing take place. The best growing
conditions can be found in areas where yearly rainfall is between 69 and 118 inches (175 and 300 cm) on
average. Paddies must be inundated for at least 10 weeks during the growing season, with water depths
ranging from 1 inch (25 mm) at the transplanting stage to as much as 6 inches (150 mm) throughout the
crop lifecycle.

Ideal Soil For Growing Rice

What type of soil does rice grow in? While it’s true that it can grow in just about any type of soil, it’s
most successful in rich, well-drained soils that can hold onto moisture. All soil types, from sand to clay,
will be suitable provided that they have an optimal rice growing pH of between 5 and 7.5. Soils high in
clay and silt, which are often unsuitable for growing other crops, are ideal for growing rice plants
because of how effectively they hold water. As the crop needs a great deal of water, it’s best to plant it
in soils that are easy to flood.

How To Plant Rice

Large-scale planting demands thorough planning, accurate execution, and constant monitoring. To
guarantee a prosperous crop, major agricultural companies must take the following actions:

choose a location with flat terrain and enough water resources. The soil needs to be both nutrient-rich
and well-drained;

prepare the land by getting rid of any rocks, trash, and weeds in the rice growing field. Plowing and
leveling will provide a uniformly smooth and flat land surface. Amend the soil with organic matter and
fertilizers as you see fit;

choose premium rice seeds for planting, with localized breeding for high yield and disease resistance;

guard the seeds against diseases and pests by using fungicides and pesticides;

plant seeds with a mechanical planter to ensure uniform spacing. The ideal depth for sowing seeds is
about an inch (2–3 cm), and the recommended planting distance between rows of rice is 8–10 inches
(20–25 cm).
By following these guidelines, large agricultural enterprises may build a solid foundation for plentiful
crop production.

EOSDA Crop Monitoring

Using satellite monitoring for remote fields management in one platform!

Different Ways Of Growing Rice

Methods of growing rice range from manual to highly automated, from traditional to cutting-edge. But
most countries still rely on tried-and-true growing methods that have been around for generations. Let’s
have a look at the most typical approaches:

Wet growing. Rice traditionally grows in flooded areas, or paddies. First, water (several inches deep) is
poured into the paddies until the plants are submerged, and then, before harvesting, it is drained from
the rice growing plantation.

Dry growing. Here, the crop grows in fields that are not flooded. This method is good for growing paddy
crops in regions with reduced rainfall or a lack of water supplies.

Upland growing is well-suited for areas, such as hills or mountains, where the topography does not
permit flooding. Terrace farming allows for growing crops on slopes causing minimal soil erosion.

Aerobic (aeroponic) growing is employed in places where water is scarce or flooding is not an option.
The crop grows in soil that drains effectively and is only watered sparingly when needed.

System of Rice Intensification (SRI). This type of rice growing prioritizes plant density, soil condition, and
irrigation to boost yields. It calls for planting seedlings at a younger age, with more space between them,
and with less water than conventional approaches imply .

Aquaponics, or rice-fish growing, is a technique for cultivation that combines wet growing with fish
farming. In flooded areas, fish are farmed alongside crops, and their feces serve as fertilizer.

Environmental conditions and available resources typically dictate the way to grow crops. Farmers must
select the approach that best suits their unique needs based on the benefits and drawbacks of each
option.

Why Is Rice Better Grown In Water?

Growing rice needs much water to thrive. For this reason, growing rice over water rather than land is
preferred. This approach to growing has many advantages:
the growing crops can easily get to the water they need, with less water being wasted due to
evaporation;

paddy fields keep the water level constant, which is crucial for rice plant growth and development;

most weeds and pests perish in the water;

at the same time, water serves to offer a habitat for numerous aquatic species helpful to the
environment. Certain fish and bird varieties prosper in the wetland where rice is grown and even act as
natural pest controllers.

Rice growing in water has the best conditions for producing high yields. Growing the crop in flooded
fields is a time-tested and efficient practice. As a result, it has become a cultivation standard.

flooded paddy fields

Weed And Pest Control

Employ pesticides to kill off weeds growing in your rice field that might otherwise steal water and
nutrients from your crop. Weed and pest detection and eradication should always be part of your crop
monitoring plan.

When is the rice growing season?

Rice is best planted in the spring/summer and harvested in the fall/winter. For instance, in the southern
states of the US, rice is often planted in April–May and harvested in September–October. While, in many
Asian countries, the rice growing season typically shifts by one month; it starts in May–June and ends in
October–November.

Rice Harvesting And Post-Harvest Techniques

The act of harvesting rice, which entails removing the grains from the plant, is an essential stage of the
growing process. Harvest timing has a significant impact on both the quantity and quality of the crop. It
is typically harvested when the grains have reached their full size and maturity.

When To Harvest Rice

For directly sown plants, the best time to harvest is between 110 and 120 days after sowing (DAS), while
for transplanted plants, it is between 100 and 110 days after transplanting (DAT). Look for the following
signs to make sure that rice is at its ripening growth stage:

Proportion of mature grain per panicle. When 80%–85% of the grains have turned yellow, it is time to
harvest .

Days since sowing. For late-maturing types, the best period to harvest is between 130 and 136 DAS; for
medium-duration varieties, it’s between 113 and 125 days; and for early-maturing cultivars, it’s about
110 days.
Days since heading. Harvesting in the dry season is best done between 28 and 35 days after heading,
while during the rainy season, it is best done between 32 and 38 days after heading.

Water content. The optimal water level (wet basis) for grains is 20–25% just before harvest. As a rule of
thumb, grains should feel solid yet not brittle when pressed between the teeth. Moreover, the crop
must be harvested while the soil is fairly dry, because then it is much easier to pick the crop close to the
ground.

Through EOSDA Crop Monitoring, you can get accurate agrometeorological data about precipitation, air
temperature, wind speed, and other growing conditions that can help you plan your harvest activities. If
severe rainfall has occurred or is expected in the rice growing field, historical weather data and a 14-day
weather forecast will let you adjust the upcoming harvesting work. Even if you have to manage a lot of
fields all around the world, this is not an issue. Should there be a risk of bad weather at any of them,
EOSDA Crop Monitoring will send you an email alert.

Harvesting Process And Methods

There are several steps involved in harvesting rice, and these can be completed one at a time by hand or
all at once with the use of a combine harvester. While harvesting manually with a sharp knife or sickle,
it’s critical to cut the stalk no more than 1–2 inches (4–5 cm) above the ground. In this way, farmworkers
remove stem borer larvae that would otherwise be left in the stubble and might cause severe crop loss
in the next rice growing season, even up to 100% in the case of the most destructive pest in Asia, strip
stem borer .A combine harvester typically cuts the crop, delivers it to the threshing system, threshes,
cleans, and then deposits it into a wagon. While harvesting, the combine leaves a windrow of straw in its
wake.

Post-Harvest Procedures

After the crop has been harvested, there are a few more steps to be taken. While using a combine
harvester, all of these operations occur simultaneously. But, if you opt for manual collection, you’ll have
to do the following steps in order:

threshing — paddy grain separation from the remainder of the harvested crop. It should be done as
soon as possible after harvesting to prevent grain rewetting and minimize its breakage;

cleaning — getting rid of immature, empty, and non-grain matter. Before cleaning, dry the grains (if
needed) and then clean them carefully to avoid damage;

hauling — transporting the harvest to the threshing floor;

field drying — having the harvested crop air-dry in the paddy;

stacking (or piling) — short-term storage of crops in stacks;

bagging — filling bags with threshed grain for storage and shipment.

Field drying and stacking, two common post-harvest practices, are not advised due to the rapid crop
quality decline and significant losses they can entail.

Environmental Impacts Of Growing Rice And Sustainable Solutions To Them

Now that we know how rice is grown and harvested, there is one more major concern. Is growing rice
bad for the environment? To put it briefly, yes. Farmers have resorted to more agrochemical use and
more intensive irrigation methods to keep up with the surging demand for grain. Let’s look at the root
reasons why there is such a negative eco-impact of growing rice:

Water consumption. To grow normally, rice needs a lot of water because it is an exceptionally thirsty
plant. In areas where water supplies are already low, this might cause a severe shortage.

Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Due to the lack of oxygen, methane-producing microbes flourish
in the paddies. Given that, growing rice is responsible for 12% of world methane emissions and 1.5% of
total GHG emissions . This is why rice farming is one of the major contributors to climate change, along
with GHG emissions due to deforestation.

Applying agrochemicals. Pesticides are frequently used in crop growing to keep pests and diseases at
bay. The excess of these chemicals may accumulate in the ground, endangering human health and
wildlife not intended to be exposed to them.

Loss of soil quality. Soil degradation is a potential long-term effect of growing rice. When water sits on
the ground for a long time, the soil compacts, its fertility decreases, and even soil salinization may occur.

Change in land use. Turning forested and wetland regions into paddies is linked to ecosystem decline,
forest fragmentation, and loss of biodiversity. These land use changes threaten water control and
carbon sequestration, two crucial ecological services.

Generation and disposal of waste. The leftovers of rice processing, such as straw, hulls, and bran, can
quickly amass. Mishandling this byproduct can increase pollution and greenhouse gas production.

These environmental challenges call for innovative, sustainable rice-growing approaches, both eco-
responsible and economically viable for farmers. To help feed the world’s expanding population, China,
a major rice producer and consumer, is investigating new eco-friendly methods of growing the crop .
International Rice Research Institute and Sustainable Rice Platform are just two of many international
non-profit organizations working to make crop production more resilient in service to the United
Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. This strengthens our confidence in the long-term viability of
rice growing and the pivotal role it will play in ensuring the world’s food security.

When And Where Do Oats Grow?

Oats are an annual crop that grows best in cold climates. Although they are most commonly sown in the
spring for grain harvest, planting oats in the fall for forage or cover cropping is also popular. The exact
growing window depends on local weather patterns and growing conditions. The crop grows in
numerous regions across the globe, with most production occurring in the European Union, Canada,
Australia, China, Brazil, and the USA. The five most important US states for oat production are North and
South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania. In the center and north of the US, the best time
to grow oats is from spring to the middle of summer. In the south, the best time is from fall to late
spring or from spring to early summer.

Optimal Growing Conditions For Oats

The plant thrives in relatively cold growing conditions and can even withstand mild frosts. Just like other
grasses, it prefers growing in soils with good drainage. The crop’s specific growing requirements are
further discussed in more detail.

Sunlight And Temperature To Grow Oats

Since there are numerous crop varieties, it is important to select one that has been adapted to your
growing zone. Plants need at least six hours of sunshine per day, preferably in full sun, but partial sun
will do as well. During the summer months, they are particularly fond of basking in the morning sun.
Although the plant prefers cooler temperatures for germination and growth, it can grow well in warmer
temperatures once it’s well established. Optimal temperatures for growth of oats are 68–70°F (20–
21°C). Be prepared to supply additional water as the temperature grows. While the plants are typically
hardy in mild frosts, most will perish at temperatures lower than 5°F (-15°C).

Keep track of the temperature in your field and growing region using EOSDA Crop Monitoring. Reliable
data from weather providers enables you to track past and present weather conditions and get a
forecast for the upcoming two weeks. Moreover, the Weather risk notifications feature allows you to
customize the temperature thresholds for your crop and receive timely notifications in case of extreme
temperatures in your field. With our services, you can have peace of mind knowing that you’ll have
ample time to address challenging conditions and mitigate any potential risks to your crop.

Water Requirements To Grow Oats

Oat plants are water-loving and thrive when they receive ample watering. To achieve high oat yields,
you need growing conditions with high relative humidity and regular precipitation. Crop yields are
almost directly proportional to the amount of rain that falls during the summer. Inadequately moist soils
hinder the establishment of seedlings. So, during dry spells, you’ll have to irrigate your fields. Morning
waterings at the plant’s base will help prevent over-transpiration and shield growing plants from the
midday sun’s heat.

Soil Requirements To Grow Oats

Although oats do best in soils with good drainage, they can grow in different soils. Soil pH levels
between 6.0 and 7.0 are suitable for growing oats, while some cultivars can withstand pH levels of
around 4.5. Thanks to its deep and branched root system, which is good at the assimilation of nutrients,
oats are less demanding in terms of soil fertility than other spring crops. Furthermore, they are capable
of soil nutrient extraction from hardly soluble compounds. Because of this, they are commonly believed
to be low-maintenance crops that can grow well even in poor soils, but in fact, the crops, especially
dwarf varieties, perform much better in healthy and fertile soils .

Soil Preparation And Planting Oats

Soil preparation for planting should begin well in advance of the actual start of the oats’ growing season,
preferably in the fall. At this time, farmers should disc and ridge the soil to improve its structure, aerate
it, accelerate its warming in the spring, and minimize the likelihood of crop damage by phytotoxins. Get
the seedbed ready at least two or three weeks before sowing the seeds. When the soil is smooth and
firm, seeds can germinate easier, and the seedlings can grow faster. Deep tillage may promote the
robust growth of spring-sown row oat crops. Harrows and tractors are a few examples of agricultural
machinery and equipment used for tilling the soil before planting.

When are oats planted?

Planting oats in the spring is a prevalent practice. Use the weather as a guide when selecting planting
dates. For planting oats, the soil temperature should be at least 40°F (4°C). The optimal air temperature
for planting ranges from 32 to 35°F (0 to 2°C), but plants can endure later frosts. Oats’ planting rate of
about 80 lbs/acre (90 kg/ha) and row spacing of 6 inches (15 cm) will work fine with grain drills. The
ideal planting depth for oats is around 1.5 inches (4 cm). However, if you are growing them for fodder, a
depth of 0.5 to 0.75 inches (1.3 to 1.9 cm) may be beneficial in terms of emergence rate and forage
production . To hasten the swelling and germination of seeds, sow them in sufficiently moist soil. Ensure
that the soil is consistently moist before the seeds sprout, and keep watering regularly to promote
seedling establishment.

Care For Oat Crops

Growing a productive crop requires constant care, from planting through harvest. Now, we’ll go over key
maintenance practices such as soil fertility management, irrigation, and disease and pest prevention.

Timely And Sufficient Fertilizing

Before planting, test the soil for nutrient deficiencies and add amendments if needed. The key nutrients
needed to grow oats are the same as for other cereal crops: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium
(K). Apply phosphorus and potassium fertilizer to your oat growing fields before soil treatment, and
nitrogen fertilizer before soil cultivation. The tillering stage is the time to apply meso- and micro-nutrient
fertilizers. During the oat growing season, plant coloration is a good indicator of soil nitrogen level.
Plants with a light green hue suggest that the nitrogen content of the soil is inadequate, which could
lead to low-quality yield; in contrast, a dark green hue indicates that the soil contains an excess of
nitrogen, making the plants more prone to lodging and falling over.
The variable rate application (VRA) supported by precision agriculture platforms allows crop producers
to fertilize their oats with just the right amount of nitrogen. By referring to the Vegetation map in
EOSDA Crop Monitoring, food producers can segment the field based on the vegetation status, estimate
the amount of N-fertilizer each segment needs, and compute savings from VRA. Begin with 30 pounds of
nitrogen per acre (33 kg/ha) in most fertile growing zones and increase the rate in less fertile zones . By
tailoring your fertilizer applications to the unique needs of each growing zone, you can both save
money, avoid fertilizer runoff, and prevent your crops from lodging. The red color on the Vegetation
map indicates areas with poor crop growth that require additional nitrogen fertilization.

Cost-Effective Pest And Disease Control

Bugs that grow in oats can harm the crop in two ways: by eating it and by spreading viruses (like aphids
transmitting barley yellow dwarf). Insect control with pesticides may not be cost-effective for oats if they
are supposed to be low-input crops. Instead, farmers can use different methods of IPM (integrated pest
management), primarily cultural and physical. For instance, to decrease the populations of aphids and
armyworms that feed on the plant’s leaves, you can deter pests with high-pressure water spray.
Reducing populations of stinkbugs and wireworms eating young plants is possible through weeding and
crop rotation.The most prevalent diseases in oats are fungi, typically growing in conditions of excessive
moisture. Growing genetically resistant varieties could be the most environmentally and economically
sound way to control major diseases such as crown rust and leaf rust. To further reduce the likelihood of
leaf or crown rust, it is recommended to clear fields of any potential host plants. Growing oats in
moderately dry areas and rotating crops may help prevent anthracnose, crown rust, septoria avenae
blotch, powdery mildew, fusarium ear blight, and loose smut. To keep pests and diseases at bay, rotate
crops so that oats don’t grow after oats and other grains. The Disease risk feature in EOSDA Crop
Monitoring allows for the recording of oat disease occurrences in one or multiple fields simultaneously,
facilitating prompt responses to potential threats.

Regular Watering During Times Without Rain

Oats are typically cultivated as rain-fed crops, but if there isn’t enough rain, you’ll need to irrigate them.
If soil moisture levels fall below 70–75%, it’s necessary to water. When deciding how often to water,
consider factors like the amount of precipitation, the soil’s ability to retain water, and the rate of
evapotranspiration. In hot and dry growing conditions, water your plants every three days. Growing
oats, a water-loving plant, requires more frequent watering and higher soil moisture levels than growing
barley. About 1 inch (25 mm) per week is how much water is needed to grow oats. The most crucial
times to water your growing plants are when they are tillering, booting, and starting to fill with grain.

During the process of growing oats, it’s important not to overlook the moment when soil moisture and
weather conditions dictate more irrigation. EOSDA Crop Monitoring may help you with this. On the
platform, pay close attention to the fields’ moisture levels and the weather forecasts over the next two
weeks. In times of low soil moisture or impending dry weather, watering your growing plants more often
will ensure that they reach their maximum potential.

How Long Does It Take For Oats To Grow?

The growth time for oats can be anywhere from 80 to 110 days, depending on the growing conditions
and crop variety. Factors like an abundance or scarcity of nutrients and moisture can lengthen or reduce
the time it takes for the plant to reach any given growth stage. Additional variables that could affect how
long it takes for plants to grow include plant density, disease and pest infestations, and weed pressure.

Harvesting Oats

It is common to harvest oats about twelve weeks after planting, in the middle of summer or later. You’ll
know it’s time to harvest oats when the field becomes uniformly yellow. Kernels ready for harvesting
and storage are hard and dry (12–12.5% moisture content). Opt for dry weather to harvest the crop;
ideally, wait at least 24 to 48 hours after the last rain. It is best to harvest the crop for grain by direct
heading when it is fully ripe, although swathing it earlier is an option if the crop isn’t evenly ripe or the
weather won’t allow the grain to naturally dry fast. Direct heading, which minimizes seed shattering, is
the most practical oats harvest method, provided that the grain moisture content is uniform. When
harvesting the crop, large-scale farmers use combine harvesters to separate the grain from the stem
promptly.

Post-harvest stubble will make a good snow trap and protect the soil from winter frosts. As a part of
crop residue management, you may chop the stalks that are left over after harvesting and distribute
them all across the field as mulch to improve the soil. When growing the crop for fodder, you have the
option of focusing on either quantity or quality. For more protein (quality), harvest oats during the boot
stage; for more tonnage (quantity), wait about a week until the flowering stage.

Growing Barley: Proper Crop Support For Yield Increase

Barley is one of the earliest cultivated and in-demand crops, and this plant is relatively easy to grow. This
is why growing barley seems to be a promising business, provided the plants’ needs are met with
adequate care. By knowing the soil type, climatic conditions, and nutrient requirements to grow barley,
farmers can produce high-quality yields.The newest agricultural technologies and online farming
platforms facilitate the field management task. Let’s consider growing conditions for barley and proper
care throughout the season with advanced crop monitoring tools.

Conditions For Barley Growth

Barley (lat. Hordeum vulgare) belongs to edible annual grain grasses with a ten-thousand-year history.
Barley farming is a popular business in countries with temperate climatic conditions, and it was one of
the first cereals grown in Eurasia. Depending on the season of growing, there are winter and spring
varieties that can be used both as cash or cover crops. The plant cultivation is quite similar to growing
wheat.
Weed and pest control, as well as prevention of nitrate leaching and soil erosion, are among the most
significant benefits of growing barley as a cover crop. It can also be used for grazing. Besides, barley
cover crops purify the air by blocking dust and boost soil fertility by building up organic matter when
used as green manure. By including these plants in a crop rotation sequence, farmers can essentially
improve soil health and optimize their weed, pest, and plant disease management programs, which is
easier to plan and implement with EOSDA Crop Monitoring’s Crop Rotation feature.

When And Where Is Barley Grown

Since this crop is typically produced in temperate climates, the growing zones for barley scale from 3 to
8 according to the USDA. The northern and western parts of the country are the main barley-growing
U.S. regions. Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, and Washington rank top crop-producing states. The plants
develop best at the temperature of 55°F (13°C), yet growing conditions for barley may vary from cultivar
to cultivar.

Most commonly, farmers grow barley for food (as cereal grain), malt (for beer production), and livestock
forage.

Humidity And Water Requirements To Grow Barley

The crop’s production will be the most successful when the weather is cool and dry. The plant can also
grow in hot areas provided the humidity is low. Hot but humid climatic conditions put the yields at risk
due to a higher plants’ vulnerability to plant diseases. This is why this plant is not common in the humid
southeastern part of the United States. Keeping the seeds moist will promote their germination. As the
seedlings grow, the soil should be slightly moist, not soaking wet. With further development, plant
water needs will depend on the weather conditions. Thus, irrigation rates will be higher when the
weather is warm, and they should be reduced as the temperature drops. Mind that the proper climate
to grow barley is cool and dry. Scheduling irrigation events is easier with EOSDA Crop Monitoring. The
NDMI index and the Soil Moisture feature on the platform will help you assess the stand’s water needs
and adjust your irrigation plan correspondingly. Improve your irrigation plans with the NDMI index and
the Soil Moisture feature on EOSDA Crop Monitoring.

Any irrigation type is suitable while growing these plants, yet most farmers prefer to use sprinklers.
Despite it may seem the easiest option, the risk of spreading fungal diseases in this case is higher.

Type Of Soil Needed To Grow Barley

The crop won’t grow in the fields with poor draining properties. The best soil types are clay loams and
loams provided they are sufficiently drained. Sandy soils are not suitable for this crop since the stands
won’t be uniform on such fields. Because these plants are quite salt-tolerant and can stabilize saline
soils, they can be helpful in soil degradation control. Furthermore, the crop can be used to combat soil
erosion and boost soil fertility by improving its tilt.
For proper seed germination, the soil temperature for planting barley should be at least 40°F (4-5°C).
Soil pH requirements range from 6.0 – 6.5 (sometimes 8.5), and these plants can survive better in highly
alkaline soils, compared to other small grain crops .

Barley Growing Requirements For Temperature And Sunlight

The plants need at least 6 hours of sunshine for adequate development, best provided in zones 3-8
(USDA). Even though the optimal growing temperature for barley is considered to be 55°F (13°C), it can
be individual for each variety, so it is possible to find a suitable option for a specific region. However,
frosty winters are dangerous for the plants, and temperatures below 17°F (-8°C) will kill the stands. The
yields should be harvested before the first frost. Still, crop production can also be feasible in warmer
regions (zone 8 and hotter). In these areas, the planting should be shifted to early spring or fall. Ideally,
the barley range of temperature for growth is 25°F to 70°F (-4°C to +21°C).

With the Weather Forecast feature on EOSDA Crop Monitoring, you will be aware of the exact
meteorological conditions in your fields. Besides, our users get timely alerts about the risks of cold/heat
stress, extreme rainfall, or strong winds enabling them to protect their stands properly.

How To Plant Barley

It is recommended to plant the crop at a depth with available moisture and close contact with the soil.
Thus, the planting depth for barley must not exceed 2.5 inches (6.3 cm) and is usually between 1 – 1.5
inches (2.5 – 4 cm). It is preferable to plant the seeds at the same depth throughout the whole field to
have a uniform stand. When to plant barley? Because the plants suffer from the heat at the stage of
flowering, the barley growing season in spring starts as early as possible. By planting spring barley early,
farmers will get stronger seedlings that will be able to resist pests that return from the southern areas
when it gets warmer. Despite it is good to take advantage of the soil moisture from the winter, barley
planting in spring cannot start when the field is excessively wet or the soil is not warm enough for seed
germination (37°F – 40°F, or 3°C – 4.5°C). For this reason, no-till planting typically takes place later and
requires proper crop residue management.

Barley Sowing And Optimization Of Seeding Rates

Because the highest yields can be expected from growing the stands in cool weather, the sowing time
for barley depends on the climatic peculiarities of the region. Sowing winter barley is typical for mid-
winter climates. In the areas with frosty winters, the crop is sown in early spring. Barley sowed in spring
typically ripens later than its winter varieties.

There are two options to sow barley: either uniformly or with variable rates. The latter option proves to
be more cost-effective and, thus, it is more preferable. Variable rate seeding allows for differentiating
the amounts of seeds and their distribution. Variable seeding rates are calculated according to the
specifics of the soil and weather conditions in the field. The application of the variable rate technology
for barley sowing becomes handy with productivity maps on EOSDA Crop Monitoring that reveal the
zones with higher or lower productivity, based on the average statistics of vegetation development in
the previous seasons.

How To Grow Barley: Throughout-The-Season Care

Plant management primarily depends on the purpose of growing. If the plants are used as a cover crop
they should be cut at the appropriate time. When used for grazing, mature plants are not suitable due to
the risk of livestock injuries with seedhead spikes. If the crop is grown for hay, it is good before the early
booting stage. The dough stage is the time for cutting the crop for silage. As for water requirements to
grow barley, it needs sufficient irrigation in the arid regions at the booting stage and after grazing. The
plants grown as fodder need more nutrients than the stands to produce grain. Understanding plant
needs throughout the season is easier for the EOSDA Crop Monitoring users. The NDVI index on the
platform helps to control the growing process and timely respond to any possible issues in the field.

Nutrient Requirements To Grow Barley

The crop needs different amounts of nutrients not only depending on the cultivation purpose but on the
sowing time. Growing spring barley requires phosphorous (P) feeding at early stages for root system
development, as well as for grain formation and ripening later. Potassium (K) makes the plants less
vulnerable to diseases and pests and reduces the probability of lodging. Because these plants are known
to accumulate nitrogen (N), nitrogen applications are not recommended at later development stages.
Growing barley in the winter, farmers are supposed to provide abundant fertilization due to the weak
root system of the crop. Apart from N-P-K fertilization, the crop should also be supported with calcium
(Ca), magnesium ( Mg), sulfur (S), boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo)
and zinc (Zn).

Pest And Disease Control In Barley Farming

The plants typically suffer from aphids, armyworms, wireworms, mealybugs, and stinkbugs. These
insects damage the plants’ heads, stems, and leaves. The stands are also attacked by pathogen bacteria,
viruses, and fungi. The most notorious crop diseases in barley growing are bacterial leaf blights,
Fusarium head blights, stripes, net blotch, yellow dwarf, downy and powder mildew, eyespot (foot rots),
and root rots, among others . Pests and diseases pose a serious threat to crop yields but the Disease Risk
add-on on EOSDA Crop Monitoring can timely report the possible danger. Being aware of the potential
damage to crops, farmers can grasp the situation and treat the field on time to prevent and mitigate the
losses.

How Long Barley Grows

The crop type (winter or spring) determines how long it would take the plants to grow. The number of
growing days for barley planted in spring is 60 to 70, and the duration of the crop development stages
from canopy formation and expansion to grain filling is 6 to 8 weeks. Some cultivars require up to 120 to
ripen, yet these plants mature faster than wheat. When it comes to winter varieties, the barley growing
time is around 60 days after it continues developing in spring. To establish and form 4-6 tillers before
winter, the plants will need around 50-55 days. In this case, they will be able to adapt to the winter.

When And How To Harvest Barley

The crop’s harvesting time depends on the grain moisture content and the weather in the field. If the
seed moisture content is adequate, the barley harvest season can start, provided there are no rains. The
crop is considered ripened with the grain moisture content varying from 12.5% to 18%. If the grain
moisture content is lower, the seeds are likely to lose their coating. Particular storing conditions will be
required if the grains are too wet.