INTRODUCTION ABOUT THE TELEVISION

Television is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be
monochrome (black and white) or coloured, with or without accompanying sound
―Television‖ may also refer specifically to a television set, television programming or television
transmission. The word television has been taken from Latin and Greek languages, as per the latin
meaning of television is visio, sight and in Greek, it‘s from Tele, far. Commercially available since the late
1920s, the television set has become common place in homes, business and institutions, particularly as a
vehicle for advertising, a source of entertainment and news. Since the 1970s the availability of video
cassettes, dvds and now blue ray disc, have resulted in the television set frequently being used for
viewing recroded as well as broadcast material. In the recent years, Internet television has seen the rise
of television available via the internet e.g iplayer and Hulu. All other forms such as closed circuit
television(CCTV) are in use, the most common usage of the medium is for broadcast television, which
was modeled on the existing radio broadcasting system developed in the 1920s and used the high
powered radio- frequency transmitters to broadcast the television signal to individual TV receivers.

Historical Perspectives of Television Production

In its early stage of development, television employed a combination of optical, mechanical and
electronic technologies to capture, transmit and display a visual image, By the late 1920s, however,
those employing only optical and electronic technologies were being explored. All modern television
system relied on the latter, although the knowledge gained from the work on electromechanical systems
were crucial in the development of fully electronic television. The first image transmitted electrically was
sent by early mechanical fax machines, including panteiegraph, developed in the late nineteenth
century. The concept of electrically powered transmission of television images in motion was first
sketched in 1878 as the telephonoscope, shortly after the invention of the telephone. At the time, it was
imagined by early sciences fiction authors, that someday that light could be transmitted over copper
wires, as sounds were. The idea of using scanning transmit images was put of actual practical use in
1881 in the pantelegraph, through the use of a pendulum- based scanning mechanism. From this period
forward scanning is one form or another has been used in nearly every image transmission technology
to day including television. This is the concept of ―rasterization‖, the process of converting a visual
image in to a stream of electrical pulses. In 1884 Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, a 23 year old university student
in Germany, patented the first electromechanical television system which employed a scanning disk, a
spinning disk with a series of holes spiraling toward the center, for rasterization. The holes were spaced
at equal angular intervals such that in a single rotation the disk would allow light to pass through each
hole and on to a ligh-sensitive selenium sensor which produced the electrical pulses. As an image was
focused on the rotating disk, each hole captured a horizontal slice of the whole image. Nipkow‘s design
would not be practical unit advances in amplifier tube technology become available. The device was only
useful for transmitting still ―halftone‖ images- represented by equally spaced dots of varying size- over
telegraph or telephone lines. Later designs would use a rotating mirror drums scanner to capture the
image and a cathode ray tube (CRT) as a display device, but moving images were still not possible, due
to the poor sensitivity of the selenium sensor. In 1907 Russian scientist Boris Rosing became the first
inventor to use a CRT in the receiver of an experimental television system, he used mirror drum
scanning to transmit simple geometric shapes to the CRT. Using the Nipkow disk, Scottish inventor John
Logie Baird succeeded in demonstrating the transmission of moving silhouette images in London in
1925, and of moving, monochromatic images in 1926. Biard‘s scanning disk produced an image of 30
lines resolution, just enough to discern a human face, from a double spiral of lenses. This demonstration
by Baird is generally agreed to be the world‘s first true demonstration of television, albeit a mechanical
form of television no longer in use. Remarkably, in 1927 Baird also invented the world‘s first video
recording system, ―phonovision‖: by modulating the output signal of his TV Camera down to the audio
disc using conventional audio recording technology. A handful baird‘s phonovision recordings survive
and these were finally decoded and rendered in to viewable images in the 1920 using modern digital
signal processing technology. In 1926, Hungarian engineer Kalman Tihanyi designed a television system
utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements, and employing the principle of ―charge storage‖
within the scanning tube. By 1927, Russian Inventor Leon Theremin developed a mirror drum-based
television system which used interlacing to achieve an image resolution of 100 lines. Also in 1927,
Herbert E. Ives of Bells labs transmitted moving images from 50 aperture disk producing 16 frames per
minute over a cable from Washington, DC to New York City and via radio from Whippany, New Jersey.
Ives used viewing screens as large as 24 by 30 inches. His subjects included the secretary of Commerce
Herbert Hoover In 1927, Philo Fransworth made the world‘s first working television system with
electronic scanning of both the pickup and display devices, which he first demonstrated to the press on
September 1, 1928. WRGB claims to be the world‘s oldest television station, tracing its roots to an
experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in
Schenectady, New York, under the letters W2XB. It was popularly known as WGY television after its
sister radio station. Later in 1928 General electric started a second facility, this one in New York City,
which had the call letters W2XBS, and which today is known as WNBC.
The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were
operated by engineers within the company.In 1936 the Olympic games in Berlin were carried by cable to
television stations in Berlin were carried by cable to Television stations in Berlin and Leipzig where the
public could view the games live. In 1935 the German firm of Frenseh AG and the United States firm
Fransworth television owned by Philo Fransworth signed an agreement to exchange their television
patents and technology to speed development of television transmitters and stations in their respective
countries. On November 2, 1936 the BBC began transmitting the world‘s first public regular high
definition service from Victorian Alexendra palace in North London. It therefore claims to be the
birthplace of television broadcasting as we know it today.

TELEVISION STUDIO SYSTEM

A System is a collection of elements that work together to achieve a specific purpose. Each of the
elements is dependent on the proper workings of all the others and none of the individual elements can
do the job alone. The television consists of equipment and the people who operate that equipment for
the production of specific programmes. Whether the productions are simple or elaborate, or originate in
the studio or in the field- that is, on location. The system works on the same basic principle: the
television camera converts whatever it sees in to electrical signals that can be temporarily stored or
directly reconverted by the television set in to visible screen images.

The microphone converts whatever it hears in to electrical signals that can be temporarily stored or
directly reconverted in to sounds by the loudspeaker. In general, the basic television system transducer
one state of energy in to another, the picture signals are called video signal, and the sound signals are
called audio signals. Any small consumer camcorder represents such a system.

The basic television system is considerably expanded when doing a television production in the studio or
in the field, such as a telecast of a sporting event. The expanded system needs equipment and
procedures that allow for the selection of various pictures and sound sources, for the control and
monitoring of picture and sound quality, for the recording, playback, and transmission of pictures and
sound, and for the integration of additional video and audio sources. Telecasts can originate anywhere,
indoors or out, so long as there is enough light for the camera to see. With the highly portable, battery
powered cameras and recording facilities and the mobile microwave transmitters, television has the
whole earth its stage. Our ability to transmit television programming from just about anywhere does not
render the studio obsolete; however, Television Studios persist because, if properly designated, they
offer maximum control and optimal use of equipment. This section focuses on the three major television
production centers.

 Layout of Television Studio: A well designed studio provides environment and coordination of all major
production elements camera, lighting, sound, scenery and the action of performers. Here we explore the
physical layout of a typical studio and the major studio installations.
 Most studios are rectangular with varying amounts of floor space. Because the zoom lens can make a
scene look closer or farther away, it has drastically reduced the need for actual camera movement, but
room size nevertheless greatly affects production complexity and flexibility.

 Size: The larger the studio, the more complex the productions can be and the more flexible they will
be. If all you do in the studio is news and an occasional interview, you may get by with amazingly little
space. In fact, some news sets are placed right in the middle of the actual newsroom. Other news sets
may take up a substantial portion of a large studio.
 Floor: The studio floor must be even and level so that cameras can travel smoothly and freely. It‘s
should also be hard enough to withstand the moving about of heavy equipment, scenery and set
priorities. Most studios have concrete floors that are polished or covered with linoleum, tile, or hard
plastic.
 Ceiling height: Adequate ceiling height-minimum of 12 feet- is one of the most important design
features of television studio. If the ceiling is too low, the lights are too close to the scene for good
lighting control and there is not enough room above them for the heat of dissipates. Also the low lights
and the boom microphone will encroach in to the scene, as well as make it unfortunately hot. Higher
ceiling can accommodate even tall scenery. Many large studios therefore have ceilings more than 30feet
high.
 Acoustic Treatment: The studio wall and ceilings are usually treated with acoustic material that
prevents sound from bouncing indiscriminately around the studio. This is why television studios sound
―dead‖. When you clap your hands in an acoustically treated sound, the sound seems to go nowhere, in
a more live studio; you hear reverberations, similar to a slight echo.
 Air Conditioning: Because Television Studios typically have no windows, air conditioning essential.
Incandescent lights generate a great amount of heat, which has an adverse effect on performers and
delicate electronic equipment. Unfortunately, many air conditioning systems are too noisy for studio
productions and must be turned off during the recording of show.
 Doors: Studio need heavy, sound proofs doors that are large enough to accommodate scenery,
furniture, and even vehicles, Few things are more frustrating than trying to squeeze scenery and
properties through undersized studio doors or to have transmit outside sounds, such fire truck
screaming by, right in the middle of a show.

TEAM OF TELEVISON PRODUCTION AND ITS ROLE

To make any television production successful, the production team play important role. The size of the
production team is dependable on the budget of the television production or nature of the production.
Some large Television station utilizes the variety of team members, who played different roles in the
production. But the overall production at Television Station highly dependable on the production staff
whether it is a live porgramme or recorded programme. The entire television production can be divided
in to three stages
 Pre Production

 Production
 Post Production

Pre- production: Pre- production stage is the stage before starting any production, in which team
members decides about the idea of the programme, target audience, duration of the production and
more important aspect i.e. budget. The following team members work in the preproduction team

1. Producer: In the entertainment industry, a television producer (compare to film producer) is generally
in charge of, or helps coordinate, the financial, legal, administrative, technological, and artistic aspects
of a production. In television, a television producer can be given one of the following titles:
a) Associate producer: The associate producer performs limited producing functions under the authority
of a producer; often in charge of the day-to-day running of a production. Usually the producer's head
assistant, although the task can differ. They frequently form a connection between everyone involved in
shooting (the production team) and the people involved after filming to finalize the production, and get
it publicized (the postproduction team). Occasionally, credit for this role goes to the product's financial
backer, or the person who originally brought the assignment to the producer.
b) Assistant Producer (AP): In the UK), assistant producer is the closest role to that of a film director. An
assistant producer often doubles as an experienced researcher, and takes direct charge of the creative
content and action within a programme. The title of television director is usually reserved for dramatic
programming, productions and most similar to films, or those who control a multi-camera set up from
the gallery.
c) Co-producer: Typically performs producing functions in tandem with one or more other co-producers
(working as a team, rather than separately on different aspects of the production). The coordinating
producer coordinates the work of two or more producers working separately on one or more
productions.
d) Executive producer: The executive producer supervises one or more producers in all aspects of their
work—and sometimes initiated the production. They are usually the ultimate authority on creative and
business aspects of the production (except to the extent that a film director retains creative control). If
the title is designated correctly, the executive producer arranges the project's financial backing and
maintains a sound production budget. Often times, the executive producer's role is given falsely to a
power player—an actor, actor's agent, or someone else who aided in the production of the project.

e) Line producer: A line producer supervises physical aspects of the production (not the creative
aspects), including personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling. The line producer oversee the
budget. This involves operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental
costs. The Line Producer works with the Production manager on costs and expenditure.
f) Segment producer: Produces one or more components of a multipart production.
g) Supervising producer: Supervises one or more producers in some or all aspects of their work; usually
works under the authority of an executive producer.
2. Director: A television director is usually responsible for directing the actors and other filmed aspects
of a television production. The role differs from that of a film director because the major creative control
usually belongs to the producer. In general, actors and other regular artists on a show are familiar
enough with their roles that the director's input is confined to technical issues. The director is
responsible for all creative aspects of a movie. The director typically helps hire the cast (and possibly
crew). The Director helps decide on locations, and creates a shooting plan. During shooting, the director
supervises the overall project, manages shots, and keeps the assignment on budget, and schedule.
Though directors hold much power, they are second in command after the producer. The producer
usually hires the director (unless the director is also the producer). Some directors produce their own
television programs, and, with formal approval of the funding studio, enjoy a tighter grip on what makes
the final cut than Directors usually have.
a) Associate Director (AD): An associate director (AD) in television production is usually responsible for
floor directing in the studio and ensuring that the sets, props and technical equipment are safe, ready to
use and positioned correctly before filming. Associate directors are also responsible for communications
with the audience and any guests, for example ensuring they are seated in good time, and assisting the
Director with production. In scripted television series, an associate director occasionally serves as an
episode's director, in which case someone else substitutes for the AD. Until the mid-2000s in the United
States, associate directors were usually credited as technical coordinators, for most sitcoms were shot
on film. Drama programs don't usually use ADs.
3. Researcher: Researchers research the project ahead of shooting time to increase truth, factual
content, creative content, original ideas, background information, and sometimes performs minor
searches such as flight details, location conditions, accommodation details, etc. They inform the
director, producer, and writer of factual information—technical, cultural, historical, etc.—that relates to
events that the production portrays.
4. Writer: The Writer creates and moulds an original story, or adapts other written, told, or acted stories
for production of a television show. Their finished work is called a script. A script may also have been a
contribution of many writers, so it is the Writers Guild of America‘s (WGA) task to designate that gets
the credit as 'the Writer'. 'Written by' in the credits, is a Writers Guild of America assigned terminology
that means, "Original Story and Screenplay By." A screenplay or script is a blueprint for producing a
motion picture, and ateleplay is the same thing for a television show. Writers can also come under the
category of screenwriters. Screenwriters (also called script writers), are authors who write screenplays
for productions. Many also work as script doctors, changing scripts to suit directors or studios. Script-
doctoring can be lucrative, especially for better known writers. Most professional screenwriters are
unionized, and are represented by organizations such as the WGA. A head writer oversees the writing
team on a television or radio series. The title is common in the soap opera genre, and in sketch
comedies and talk shows that feature monologues and comedy skits. In prime time series, an executive
producer fills this function.
5. Screen Writer: Screenwriters or scenarists or scriptwriters create short or featurelength screenplays
for films and television programs.

6. Story Editor: Story editor is a job title in motion picture filmmaking and televisionproduction, also
sometimes called supervising producer. A story editor is a member of the screenwritingstaff who edits
stories for screenplays.
7. Location Manager: The location manager finds and manages film locations. Most pictures are shot in
the controllable environment of a studio sound stage but occasionally, outdoor sequences call for
filming on location.
8. Set Designer: The scenic designer collaborates with the theatre director and other members of the
production design team to create an environment for the production, and then communicates details of
this environment to the technical director, production manager, charge artist, and property master.
Scenic designers create scale models of the scenery, artistic renderings, paint elevations, and scale
construction drawings to communicate with other production staff.
9. Costume designer: The costume designer makes all the clothing and costumes worn by all the Actors
on screen, as well as designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments down to the
fabric, colours, and sizes. They greatly contribute to the appearance of the production, and set a
particular mood, time, feeling, or genre. They alter the overall appearance of a project with their designs
and constructions, including impacting on the style of the project, and how the audience interprets the
show's characters.
10. Casting director: The casting director casts actors, and so is usually one of the first crew members on
the project. In fact, during initial casting for a television pilot, the executive producer andcasting director
are often the only crew members.
11. Makeup artist: A professional make-up artist is usually a cosmetology beautician, and applies
makeup to anyone who appears on screen. They concentrate on the area above the chest, the face, the
top of the head, the fingers, hands, arms, and elbows. Their role is to manipulate the actor's on-screen
appearance to make them look younger, older, larger, etc. Body makeup artists concentrate on the body
rather than the head. Make-up itself is substances to enhance the beauty of the human body, but can
also change the appearance, disguise, costume someone. Make-up artists, hair stylists, costume
designers, and dress technicians combine their efforts to transform actors into characters, presenters,
etc.

Production: Production is the second stage of the overall production, in which the entire production
strive to achieve their targets and also try to lay down production from paper to reality. Production is
the very crucial stage and any kind of negligence during the production can even spoil the exercise done
in the pre production stage. In this stage, the following team member more actively work behind the
camera on the floor.
1. Director: Unlike the film counterpart, a director in television usually refers to the gallery (or control
room) director, who is responsible for the creative look of a production through selecting which shots to
use at any given moment. The director views the action on the studio floor through a bank of screens,
each linked to one of the cameras, while issuing instructions down to the floor manager. They also
control the gallery area, calling for sound rolls, digital on-screen graphics (Astons) and video rolls video
tape recorder (VT's). Some directors also work more closely with on-camera talent and others also act as
both producer and director.
2. Production Manager: The production manager makes deals concerned with business about the crew,
and organizes the technical needs of the production. This would involve many things ranging from
gaining the correct equipment with the exact technical requirements; to arranging accommodation for
the cast and crew. The Production Manager reports their expenses and needs to the Line Producer.
3. Production Assistant: The production assistant (PA) occupies a prompting role in the Gallery or
Control Room. They communicate with the broadcasting channel during a live television broadcast,
counting down time-to-transmission aloud to the crew via the studio microphone. They also count down
time remaining for sections of a programme, such as an interview or an advertising break. Prior to a
production, the PA prepares and times the script, noting pre-recorded inserts, sound effects, etc.—and
clears copyright and other administrative issues.
4. Technical Director: In a production control room (PCR), the technical director (TD) has overall
responsibility for the operation of the production. The technical director ensures that all equipment in
the PCR operates correctly. They also match the quality and the output of all the cameras on the studio
floor through the camera control units (CCU) (Vision Engineering). The TD supervises the other crew
members in the PCR. The technical director also coordinates the working of the whole crew, and handles
technical problem before, during, or after the shooting of a project.
5. Camera Operator: As the head member of the camera crew, the camera operator uses the camera as
instructed by the Director. They ensure the required action is correctly filmed in the frame, and must
react instinctively as the proceedings take place. If the camera operator is also a cinematographer, they
also help establish the theme and appearance of the show. The cinematographer—or director of
photography (DP)—regulates lighting for every scene, frames some shots, chooses lenses, decides on
film stock, and strives to match the project's visual appearance to the director's vision. However, the
cinematographer does not usually move the camera on the set, as this is usually the exclusive role of a
camera operator.
6. Character Generator: The character generator (CG) Operator prepares and displays digital on-screen
graphics (DOG or BUG) and lower third graphics on the character generator that were created by the
broadcast designer.
7. Audio Assistant: An audio assistant interconnects audio devices, such as microphones and intercoms,
from the television production truck to the venue. Typically, larger productions use two or more audio
assistant.

8. Boom Operator: The boom operator is part of the sound crew, and an assistant to the sound engineer
or production sound mixer. The boom operator's main responsibility is microphone placement,
sometimes using a "fishpole" with a microphone attached to the end—and sometimes using a "boom"
(most often a "fisher boom"). The fisher boom is a piece of equipment that the operator stands on that
lets him precisely controls the microphone at a greater distance from the actors. They also place
wireless microphones on actors when necessary. The boom operator strives to keep the microphone
boom near the action, but away from the camera frame so it never appears onscreen. They work closely
with the production sound mixer, or sound recordists, to record all sound while filming including
background noises, dialogue, sound effects, and silence.
9. Stage or Floor Manager: The floor manager represents the director on the studio floor, and gives
instructions and direction to crew, cast, and guests. It is closest to the role of an assistant director, as the
job frequently entails barking orders to keep a production on schedule. The floor manager is always in
direct contact with the director via talkback in the gallery. The floor manager also checks that the floor is
clear and safe for the performance, checks that scenery and set pieces are ready, turns on appropriate
lights, makes announcements to staff and audience, helps maintain quietness and order, calls cues, and
prompts talents as required. An assistant floor manager (AFM) sets the stage, prompts contributors on
the studio floor, and ensures that everyone knows their place in the script. This frees the floor manager
for other duties. They often oversee a team of runners. Increasingly, assistant floor managers are asked
to help design and prepare props, and help set and reset action on the studio floor. Stage managers
organize and coordinate theatrical productions. The job encompasses a variety of activities, including
organizing the production and coordinating communications between various personnel (e.g., between
director and backstage crew, or actors and production management). Stage management is a sub-
discipline of stage craft
10. Graphics Coordinator: The graphics coordinator (GC) decides what graphic content should be
displayed on-air—such as on a full page (a full-screen graphic) or a lower third (a bar graphic in the
lower third of the screen). The GC should not be confused with the Duet operator, who usually operates
the Duet and is part of a television crew, or a Broadcast designer who physically creates the graphics.
11. Gaffer: The gaffer is the head electrician at the production set, and is in charge of lighting the stage
under direction of the Cinematographer. In television, the term chief lighting director is often used
instead of gaffer, and sometimes the technical director lights the set. The gaffer reports to the director
of photography, lighting director. or lighting designer, and usually has an assistant called a best boy and
a crew of electricians.
12. Control Room Team: These crew positions are only used on a multiple-camera setup production. The
gallery, or production control room, is a separate darkened area away from the studio floor, where the
action can be viewed on multiple monitors and controlled from a single source.
13. Runner: Runners are the most junior members of a television crew. They fetch and carry, and do
most production odd jobs. They support anyone who needs help until they learn enough to assume
more responsibility.
14. Vision Engineers: A video control operator (typically credited as video control, and sometimes as a
video engineer or video operator) controls the video console to regulate transmission of content—
everything from test patterns to live and recorded telecasts. Video control operators view the action on
set through video monitors and set switches and observe dials on the video console to control contrast,
framing, brilliance, color balance, and the fidelity of the transmitted image. They monitor the program
to ensure broadcast technical quality, and review the program to determine that the signal functions
properly and is ready for transmission on schedule. Video control operators and video tape operators
are used only in television productions recorded on video tape because of the growing use of broadcast
automation with video servers.

15. Video Tape operator: The video tape operator (VT operator or VTR operator) cues and prepares
video inserts into a program. A VT operator sets up and operates video tape equipment to record and
play back the program, reads the program log to ascertain when to record the program, and when it
airs. They also select sources, such as satellite or studio, for the program, and select the video recording
equipment to use. They are heavily used in sports programming, and in all videotaped productions,
including television news programming, and sometimes sitcoms, if they are shot on video tape), they are
also responsible for action replays and quickly editing highlights while a show is in progress. As the title
suggests, video tape operators only work in videotaped production.
16. Vision Mixer: The vision mixer, or technical director (TD) in the United States, switches between
video sources—such as camera shots and video inserts. They also maintain
colour and contrast balance between the studio cameras. A vision mixer (Video Switcher)

is, confusingly, also the name of the equipment the technical director operates.

Post Production: This is the final stage of television production or film production, which is essential to
improve the programme video footage. Without final finishing touch at the post production level, no any
production can be completed without the post production stage. The importance of this stage increases
especially when the programme is recorded or fictitious in nature. Among the team members of
television production, works after the production stage are as follows:
1. Editor: The editor works in tandem with the director to edit raw footage into a finished work. The
director has ultimate accountability for editing choices, but often the editor has substantial contribution
in the creative decisions concerned in piecing together a finalized product. Often, the editor commences
their role whilst filming is still in process, by compiling initial takes of footage. It is an extremely long
process to edit a television show, demonstrating the importance, and significance editing has on a
production. Gradually more editors work on non-linear editing systems (NLE), limiting physical touching
of the actual film, decreasing film corruption due to touch. The Editor follows the screenplay as the
guide for establishing the structure of the story, and assembles the various shots and takes for greater,
clearer artistic effect. There are several editing stages.
In the first stage, the editor is supervised by the director, who conveys their vision to the Editor.
Therefore, this first rough cut is created during offline editing. After the first stage, the following cuts
may be supervised by one or more television producers, who represent the production company and its
investors. Consequently, the final cut is the one that most closely represents what the studio wants from
the film, and not necessarily whatthe director wants during online editing.
2. Sound Editor: In television, the sound editor deals with audio editing, adjusting and fixing of the
soundtrack. They usually have a major decision-making and creative role when it comes to sound and
audio. A sound editor also decides what sound effects to use and what effects to achieve from the sound
effects, edits and makes new sounds using filters and combining sounds, shaping sound with volume
curves, and equalizing. A sound editor places the Foley artist's sounds into the sound track. Often, a
sound editor uses a sound effects library, either self-compiled, bought or both.
3. Colorist: The colorist interprets the program's visual look, often supervised by postproduction
producers and the cinematographer. Digital tools in the color grading suite control brightness, contrast,
color, and the general "mood" of each shot, usually in an effort to make a scene appear to flow naturally
from one shot to the next.
4. Composer: A composer writes the music for a production. They may also conduct an orchestra, or
part of an orchestra, that plays the music. The composer occasionally writes theme music for a
television show. A television program's theme music is a melody closely associated with the show,
usually played during the title sequence and end closing credits. If accompanied by lyrics, it is a theme
song.
5. Foley Artist: The Foley artist on a film crew creates and records many of the sound effects. Foley
artists, editors, and supervisors are highly specialized and essential for producing a professional-
sounding soundtrack—often reproducing commonplace yet essential sounds like footsteps or the rustle
of clothing. The Foley artist also fabricates sounds that weren't correctly recorded while filming, much
like the Sound editor does with digital sound effects.
6. Title Sequence Designer: A title sequence, in a television program, appears at the beginning of the
show and displays the show name and credits, usually including actors, producers and, directors. A
montage of selected images and a theme song are often included to suggest the essential tone of the
series. A title sequence is essential in preparing the audience for the following program, and gives them
a sense of familiarity that makes them trust, and feel comfortable with the film. It is up to the title
sequence designer to achieve this very goal, and make it catchy, entertaining.
7. Specialist Editor: Automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) is the process of replacing dialogue that was
recorded incorrectly during filming, with the actors voices recorded and put into place during editing.
The ADR editor oversees the procedure and takes the corrupted dialogue, and replaces it with newly
recorded lines to the actor's mouth on film to make it lip sync correctly.
8. Special Effects coordinator: Special effects (SPFX) are used in television productions to create effects
that cannot be achieved by normal means, such as depicting travel to other star systems. They are also
used when creating the effect by normal means is prohibitively expensive, such as an enormous
explosion. They are also used to enhance previously filmed elements, by adding, removing or enhancing
objects within the scene. The special effects co-ordinator implements these effects, and directs them
with the help of the visual effects art director. The task of the effects co-ordinator differs frequently, and
can range from extensive over-the-top special effects to basic computer motion graphics animation.
9. Publicist: A publicist or an advertiser has the task of raising public awareness of a production, and
ultimately increase viewers and sales of it and its merchandise. The publicist's main task is to stimulate
demand for a product through advertising and promotion. Advertisers use several recognizable
techniques in order to better convince the public to buy a product. These may include:
 Repetition: Some advertisers concentrate on making sure their product is widely recognized. To that
end, they simply attempt to make the name remembered through repetition.

 Bandwagon: By implying that the product is widely viewed, advertisers hope to convince potential
buyers to "get on the bandwagon."
 Testimonials: Advertisers often attempt to promote the superior worth of their product through the
testimony of ordinary users, experts, or both. For example using film critics or media personalities. This
approach often involves an appeal to authority such as a doctor of media science.
 Pressure: By attempting to make people choose quickly and without long consideration, some
advertisers hope to make rapid sales, and a sense of urgency to watch or buy a product.
 Association: Advertisers often attempt to associate their product with desirable things, in order to
make it seem equally desirable. The use of attractive models, picturesque landscapes, and other similar
imagery is common. "Buzzwords" with desired associations are also used.
 Imagery: Using advertising slogans, logos, or a common image increases familiarity, trust, and
personality of a production, and the ability for the show to be remembered.The publicist ensures the
media are well aware of a project by distributing the show as a trial run or sneak preview. They issue
press releases and arrange interviews with cast and crew members. They may arrange public visits to
the set, or distribute media kits that contain pictures, posters, clips, shorts, trailers, and descriptions of
the show.
10. Blue Screen Director or Matte Artist: Blue screen is the film technique of shooting foreground action
against a blue background, which is then replaced by a separately shot background plate scene by either
optical effects or digital composting. This process is directed and co-ordinated by the Blue screen. The
matte artist is a part of the special effects department who assists in making scenery and locations that
do not exist. They assemble backgrounds using traditional techniques or computers that mix with the
footage filmed to create a false set. Both are fairly alike, but blue screen technology is more modern and
more widely used.

TELEVISION WRITING
The essential difference between a television Scripts is that visual component is very important in the TV
Script. Equally essential is the careful blending of both the audio and video components-so as to leave a
harmonious impact on the viewers. Before scripting for the TV Programmes, it is essential to research
the subject, the visit various location and sites and have a feel of the general environment and
atmosphere. This exploration of all aspects including requirement of the crew and duration of their stay,
logistics, costs, etc, need to be adequately undertaken. This exercise is called recce. The primary
objective of recce enables the writers to develop the outline sufficiently so as to have proper idea of
phases of programme production. A Script writer plays a key role in a television programme production.
He works in the ―language of television‖. He translates ides and the content of the subject of
presentation in to the language of television i.e. the language of picture, words, sounds and electronic
effects.

Characteristics of a Good Script

 It should be simple and clear
 Developed logically
 Should maintain the overall purpose of the programme
 Should reinforce the viewers interest
 Should not be too long and too heavily loaded with content
 Should be based on proper research inputs
 Should have appropriate pace and rhythm and give occasional respite in the middle of the programme
 The script should allow the visuals to breathe and speak for themselves. Narration should not smother
the visuals.

Purpose of Good Script: Planning is the essential part of a serious production and the script forms the
basis for the plan. Scripts do the following
It helps the director clarify the ideas and develop a project that successfully communicates to the
viewers

It helps the director coordinate the entire production team

It also helps the director to determine what resources will be need for the television production
Although some professional crews on location may appear to be shooting entirelyspontaneously, they
are usually working through a tried and true procedure or pattern that has been proven successful in
past situations.
For certain types of production, such as narratives, the script usually begins the production process. The
director then reads the draft script, which usually contains general information on characters, locations,
stage directions and dialogue. He or she then visualizes the scenes and assess the possible treatment.
The director must also anticipate the script‘s potential and possible difficulties. At this stage, changes
may be made to improve the script or make it more workable. Next, the director goes on to prepare a
camera treatment.

Another method of scripting begins with an outline. In this method, you decide on the various topics you
want to cover and the amount of time that you can allot to each other. A script is then developed based
on this outline and decisions all made concerning the camera treatment for each segment. When
preparing a documentary, an extended outline becomes a shooting script, showing perhaps the types of
shots that the director would like. It usually also includes rough questions for on location interviews with
participants. All other commentary is usually written later together with effects and music, to finalize the
edited production. In order to have concise, easy to read script, abbreviations significantly reduce the
amount of wordage on the script, which also reduces the number of required pages.

Formats of Script Layout

Television Scripts follow several standard layouts. Other studios prefer a single column cinematic
format, with transitions in the left margin, and all video and audio information in single main column.
Other versions use two vertical columns, with picture treatment on the left, and action and dialogue on
the right, together with studio instructions and lighting effects/cues. Directors often mark up their script
by hand with their own instructional symbols to indicate transitions and shots.

 Single Column Formats: Although there are different variations of the single column format, all video
and audio information is usually contained in a single main column. Before each scene, an explanatory
introduction describes the location and the action. Reminder notes can be made in a wide left-hand
margin, including transition symbols (for example: X=Cut, FU=Fade Up) cues, camera instructions,
thumbnail sketches of shots or action and so on. This type of script is widely used for narrative film style
production and single Camera video, in which the director works alongside the Camera operator. It is
perhaps less useful in multi camera setup, in which the production team is more dispersed, with
everyone needing to know the director‘s production intentions.

 Two Columns Formats: Like one column format, there are many variations of the two column format.
This traditional television formats is extremely flexible and informative. It gives all members of the
production crew shot by shot details of what is going on. They can also add their own specific
information as needed. Two versions of the script are sometimes prepared. In the first(rehearsal Script),
the right column only is printed. Subsequently, after detailed planning and preproduction rehearsal, the
production details are added to the left column to form the camera script.

TELEVISION NEWS
These learning materials comprise several short tasks with key questions and resources focusing on
analyzing TV news.
 Narrative structure: Television news programmes are made up of lots of stories. Yes -they are based
on real happenings in the world, real events, meetings, arguments, conflicts, compromises and
agreements – but they have to be packaged and shown to us in a way that is intelligible. They must be
shaped so that they can be followed and understood. This shaping involves news programme makers
creating interesting and logical narratives. Most stories on a news bulletin have a simple structure - even
those that include several elements including a film report and an interview. They have an Introduction.
This will usually answer some of the five key news questions:
o Who is involved?
o When did it happen?

o What has happened?

o Where did it happen?

o Why did it happen?

It might even raise the question of how it happened. Of course, if the introduction answers these
questions in too much detail, there would be little point continuing with the story, so the introduction
may leave some of these questions unanswered and also may well pose several Questions or describe
significant Problems that needs exploring

Sometimes an introduction will be a bit more sophisticated, telling us the answers to the WHO and
WHERE questions, but leaving it up to the main report to answer the rest –WHY? HOW? WHAT?

Then there is the main body of the report in which the answers to some or all of these questions are
provided and elaborated. Part of this elaboration will be contained in the visual images that provide the
evidence that the story is genuine. Then there is the conclusion. Here the story is brought to a close and
loose ends are tied up. Of course, not all conclusions can be neat – the conclusion may point out that a
problem remains to be solved sometime in the future.
 The bulletin narrative: Just as books contain periods of excitement and description, humorous
passages and darker ones, so an overall news bulletin has a narrative shape created by the various
stories in concert. Each story will have its own tone or pulse, born of the events themselves and the
skills of the different reporters and technicians involved in their construction. Clearly, coverage of an EU
Finance Ministers‘ meeting in Manchester may have a very different impact compared to one in which a
reporter is seen following troops around a drowned city searching for stranded victims and looters.
 The schedule narrative: The news is a key part of the public service element of television stations‘
broadcasting licenses. It is something they have to provide, thought of as being among the main
‗quality‘ element of most channels‘ output. They are not allowed to be sponsored (and therefore
controlled editorially by commercial interests). But where news is placed in the schedule also has a
narrative effect – putting the world‘s disasters, politicians and policies, wars and peace negotiations
alongside everything else more usually described as entertainment. And, many argue, news is not
distinct, but a part of that diet of entertainment – packaging information in compelling and professional
ways so it is easily understood and brings the world into our homes. But when does the camera‘s
presence becomes intrusive rather than investigative, or our watching switch from curiosity and
sympathy to voyeurism?

DOCUMENTARY/ FEATURE
A documentary film is a nonfictional motion picture intended to document some aspect of reality,
primarily for the purposes of instruction or maintaining a historical record. Such films were originally
shot on film stock—the only medium available—but now include video and digital productions that can
be either direct-to-video, made into a TV show or released for screening in cinemas. "Documentary" has
been described as a "filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception" that is
continually evolving and is without clear boundaries. In popular myth, the word documentary was
coined by Scottish documentarian John Grierson in his review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926),
published in the New York Sunon 8 February 1926, written by "The Moviegoer" (a pen name for
Grierson). Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be
exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their
fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can
be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative
treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance, with this position at variance with Soviet film-
maker Dziga Vertov's provocation to present "life as it is" (that is life filmed surreptitiously) and "life
caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).
Documentary practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what do
with media devices, content, form, and production strategies in order to address the creative, ethical,
and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries. There are clear
connections in terms of practice with magazine and newspaper feature-writing and indeed to non-
fiction literature. Many of the generic forms of documentary, for example the biopic or profile; or the
observational piece. These generic forms are explored on the University of Winchester Journalism
Department 'features web' where 'long form journalism' is classified by genre or content, rather than in
terms of production as film, radio or 'print'. Box office analysts have noted that this film genre has
become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as Fahrenheit 9/11, Super Size Me,
Food, Inc., Earth, March of the Penguins, Religulous, and An Inconvenient Truth among the most
prominent examples.

Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which make them
attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.The
nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 20 years from the cinema verité style introduced
in the 1960s in which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed an intimate relationship
between filmmaker and subject. The line blurs between documentary and narrative and some works are
very personal, such as the late Marlon Riggs's Tongues Untied (1989) and Black Is...Black Ain't (1995),
which mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses subjectivities rather than historical
materials.
Although documentaries are financially more viable with the increasing popularity of the genre and the
advent of the DVD, funding for documentary film production remains elusive. Within the past decade
the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making
filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest
funding source.
Narration styles

 Voice-over narrator: The traditional style for narration is to have a dedicated narrator read a script
which is dubbed onto the audio track. The narrator never appears on camera and may not necessarily
have knowledge of the subject matter or involvement in the writing of the script.
 Silent narration: This style of narration uses title screens to visually narrate the documentary. The
screens are held for about 5–10 seconds to allow adequate time for the viewer to read them. They are
similar to the ones shown at the end of movies based on true stories, but they are shown throughout,
typically between scenes.
 Hosted narrator: In this style, there is a host who appears on camera, conducts interviews, and who
also does voice-overs.

Types of Documentary Film

 Docu-Drama: Docu-Drama or Docu-fiction is a hybrid genre from two basic ones, fiction film and
documentary, practiced since the first documentary films were made.
 Docu-eroticamentary: Docu-eroticamentary is a hybrid genre from two basic ones, erotica or romance
and documentary, the term coined by docu-eroticamentary author Gwendolyn Olmsted, from publisher
AuthorHouse's Eight Weeks in May, and Part II of that book through publisher Amazon's The January
Cruise.

 DVD documentary: A DVD documentary, is a documentary film of indeterminate length, that has been
produced with the sole intent of releasing it for direct sale to the public on DVD(s), as different from a
documentary being made and released first on television or on a cinema screen (a.k.a. theatrical
release) and subsequently on DVD for public consumption.

DISCUSSION
There are many programmes being presented on television now a day which require the ability to speak
spontaneously. Such programmes as the round table, forum, talk shows, discussions, interviews, man on
to the street, early morning variety programmes, breakfast shows with recording on the spot telecast,
and some of the news commentary programmes, require the telecaster and newsmen to be fluent and
spontaneous speakers. The art of announcing has become so standardized that at present one small bit
of impromptu extempore or unrehearsed television programme can be detected and frequently is a
welcome relief if well done and properly executed. For these types of programmes good vocabulary of
descriptive words, particularly action verbs, adverbs and noun is essential. The speaker must have good
cultural background. For he or she is not forgive for mistakes in grammer, pronunciation accent or
diction. The speaker in any instance is required to have excellent power of observation, to be able to see
ahead. While he is talking about something that he or she has previously observed. In too many instance
the TV Journalist is inclined to ―hem‖ or ―haw‖ while he or she is groping and searching for a word
that he or she feels will convey the correct impression to the listeners.In such unprepared programmes
there must be no dead air or silence, although brief pauses undoubtedly will make the material sound
more conversational. These pauses will be shorter than they would be if the anchor or the host were
conversing with a visible audience. Quickness in thought and expression are equally vital. Probably one
of the best practices to use in the production for this type of television programme is talking to oneself,
particularly describing the things that are being seen.
Another requirement of such extempore programme is an ability to time the material to be presented.
The programme will run for a definite period, and the TV journalist must time oneself so that he or she
will have rounded out one material, summarized if necessary, and come to a satisfactory conclusion at
the second that one goes off the air. On of the faults evident in the speech of the novice or new comers
is the repetition of the certain phases and words that piecre the ears of the listeners and both the
viewers. Some speaker, master of the ceremonies, street interviews are inclined to start their sentence
with an interjection or connective, in most instances ―ah‖ because they have not definitely formulated
the ideas about what they intend to say. It is much wiser to be silent for an instant while the sentences,
expression or thought is developed. Possibly good experience is smooth delivery can be obtained by
practice. If the programme is commercial one, the anchor or announcer is constantly aware of the fact
that he or she must lead in to the commercial break for that running talk show appropriately and nicely.

Basic Techniques to be followed in Talk Shows or Interviews for Television

Interviewer will introduce the guest and ask question which will also tend to introduce him. It is not bad
plan to ask some rather light, frivolous questions that may start theprogramme with a

spurt of humour, for this put the interviewee at ease and please the viewers

 It is essential that there be no pauses of any length, consequently the person who is doing the
interviewing must be alert to discover the leads in the answers he receives.

 First few minutes will be devoted to less serious discussion in order to brighten the subject and to
encourage the interviewee to articulate comfortably.
 There is a tendency to allow the interview to become argumentative but this should not be avoidable
because it makes the interviewer express his ideas, which are not importance.
 The interviewer must remember that he is not interviewing himself. His job is to ask stimulating
question, not to supply the answers, to bring out the interviewee‘s personality not of his own.
 Do not try to influence the guest by leading questions. The person who is important enough to be
interviewed must have something interesting enough to appeal the viewers.

 Try to dig down and disclose the person off guard, by that it is meant that there should be revelation
not the exposure.
 The host should have the general knowledge so that he can ask good and intelligent questions about
the relevant field of the guest and his interest.
 Repetition in style of questions should be avoided such as starting question with the word ―well‖, or
―see‖ or ―I see‖ or ―okay‖ and ―fine‖ after each answer.

DRAMA
In the context of film, television, and radio, drama describes a genre of narrative fiction (or semifiction)
intended to be more serious than humorous in tone, focusing on in-depth development of realistic
characters who must deal with realistic emotional struggles. A drama is commonly considered the
opposite of a comedy, but may also be considered separate from other works of some broad genre,
such as a fantasy. To distinguish drama as a genre of fiction from the use of the same word to mean the
general storytelling mode of live performance, the word drama is often included as part of a phrase to
specify its meaning.
Dramatic themes such as alcoholism, child abuse, drug addiction, infidelity, moral dilemmas, racial
prejudice, religious intolerance, sexuality, poverty, class divisions, violence against women and
corruption put characters in conflict with themselves, others, society, or even natural phenomena.
Drama is one of the broadest movie genres and includes subgenres such as romantic drama, war films,
sport films, period drama, courtroom drama and crime.
Subgenres: Because of the large number of dramas, they are often subcategorized:
 Crime drama and Legal drama: Character development based on themes involving criminals, law
enforcement and the legal system.
 Historical drama (epic) (including War drama): Films that focus on dramatic events in history.
 Docudrama: the difference between a docudrama and a documentary is that in a documentary it uses
real people to describe history or current events; in a docudrama it uses professionally trained actors to
play the roles in the current event that is "dramatized" a bit.
 Comedy-drama: is in which there is an equal or nearly equal balance of humour and serious content.
 Melodrama: a sub-type of drama films that uses plots that appeal to the heightened emotions of the
audience. Melodramatic plots often deal with "crises of human emotion,failed romance or friendship,
strained familial situations, tragedy, illness, neuroses, or emotional and physical hardship." Film critics
sometimes use the term "pejoratively to connote an unrealistic, pathos-filled, campy tale of romance or
domestic situations with stereotypical characters (often including a central female character) that would
directly appeal to feminine audiences." Also called "women's movies", "weepies", tearjerkers, or "chick
flicks". If they are targeted to a male audience, then they are called "guy cry" films.
 Romance: a sub-type of dramatic film which dwells on the elements of romantic love.

 Tragedy: a drama in which a character's downfall is caused by a flaw in their character or by a major
error in judgment.

Drama as a television genre: Drama in terms of television content is scripted and typically fictional, thus
excluding, for example, sports television, television news, reality show and game shows, stand-up
comedy and variety shows. By convention, the term is not generally used for situation comedy or soap
opera.
COMMERCIALS
A television advertisement also called a television commercial or ad, is a span of television programming
produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or
service. Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately owned
television networks. The vast majority of television advertisements today consist of brief advertising
spots, ranging in length from a few seconds to several minutes (as well as program-length infomercials).
Advertisements of this sort have been used to promote a wide variety of goods, services and ideas since
the beginning of television. Television was still in its experimental phase in 1928, but the medium's
potential to sell goods was already predicted.The effects of television advertising upon the viewing
public (and the effects of mass media in general) have been the subject of philosophical discourse by
such luminaries as Marshall McLuhan. The viewership of television programming, as measured by
companies such as Nielsen Media Research, is often used as a metric for television advertisement
placement, and consequently, for the rates charged to advertisers to air within a given network,
television program, or time of day (called a "daypart").The first official, paid television advertisement
was broadcast in the United States on July 1, 1941 over New York station WNBT (nowWNBC) before a
baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement for Bulova
watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT
test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the
phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the
second hand swept around the dial for one minute. The first TV ad broadcast in the UK was on ITV on 22
September 1955, advertising Gibbs SR toothpaste. The first TV ad broadcast in Asia was on Nippon
Television in Tokyo on August 28, 1953, advertising Seikosha (now Seiko), which also displayed a clock
with the current time.

Characteristics of Television Commercials

It is important to choose a television production company and advertising agency with pertinent
expertise in these two areas, and it is preferable to choose an agency that both produces
advertisements and places air time, because expertise in broadcast quality production and broadcast
standards is vital to gaining the advertisement's acceptance by the networks. After the advent of cheap
video software and consumer cameras, numerous individuals have offered video production services on
the internet. Video production companies that do not regularly place TV advertisements on the air often
have their productions rejected by networks for technical or content issues, due to their inexperience
with creating broadcast-ready content.
Many television advertisements feature songs or melodies ("jingles") or slogans designed to be striking
and memorable, which may remain in the minds of television viewers long after the span of the
advertising campaign. Some of these ad jingles or catch-phrases may take on lives of their own,
spawning gags that appear in films, television shows, magazines, comics, or literature.
These long-lasting advertising elements may be said to have taken a place in the pop culture history of
the demographic to whom they appeared. An example is the enduring phrase,"Winston tastes good like
a cigarette should", from the eighteen-year advertising campaign for Winston cigarettes from the 1950s
to the 1970s. Variations of this dialogue and direct
references to it appeared as long as two decades after the advertising campaign expired.Another
example is "Where's the Beef?", which grew so popular it was used in the 1984 presidential election by
Walter Mondale. Another popular catch-phrase is "I've fallen and I can't get up", which still appears
occasionally, over two decades after its first use. Some advertising agency executives have originated
more than one enduring slogan, such as Mary Wells Lawrence, who is responsible for such famous
slogans as "Raise your hand if you're Sure", "I ♥ New York" and "Trust the Midas touch.

KINDS OF CAMERAS

TELEVISION CAMERA
A wide range of television or video cameras are available today, from modestly priced designs for
consumers to very sophisticated state of the art cameras. The market spread of models suits a variety of
applications: as you would expect, both design and performance vary with cost. Although cameras at the
lower end of the range can provide very satisfactory image quality under optimum conditions, the more
advanced equipment designs produce consistently excellent pictures for long periods, even in difficult
circumstances. A number of factors can influence one‘s choice of camera like cost, physical aspects:
weight, portability, method of mounting and reliability; operational features: available options, controls,
handling or flexibility (eg Zoom range); image performance: resolution, colour quality and picture
impairment, performance stability and sensibility etc.
Basics of Camera: Television camera is an electronic device which can record the moving images
effectively and can capture it on their respective recording format. The basics of television camera plays
very important role in the video production and by using the camera various camera features, camera
operator can get maximum quality output. The basics of camera are as follows:
 Camera viewfinder
 Camera main controls

 Camera lens and how it behaves

 Technique of adjusting exposures for the best picture quality
 Methods of supporting the Camera

Camera viewfinder: An effective viewfinder is essential for successful camera work. It enablesthe camera
operator to select the frame and adjust the shot; to compose the picture and to assess focus
adjustment. When you are working along, with a portable camera, the viewfinder will usually be your
principle guide to picture quality and exposures, as well as providing continual reminders about
videotaping, the battery condition and other relevant factor.
Camera main controls: Television cameras have three different categories of control. First, those that
needs to be continually readjusted while shooting such as focus. Second, occasional adjustment such as
compensating for changing light and third, those involved in aligning the camera electronics in order to
obtain optimum consistent performance.
Camera lens: The lens determines what camera can see. One type of lens can provide a wide vista even
though you may be relatively clost to the scene. Another type may provide a close view of an object that
is quite far away. Different types of lens also determine the basic visual perspective-whether you see the
object as distorted or whether you perceive more or less distance between objects than there really is.
Technique of Adjusting Exposure: If you look directly in to a lens, you will see an adjustable circular
diaphragm or iris made up of a number of thin overlapping metal blades. The size of the hole formed by
these plates is carefully calibrated in graduated stops, which is known as Lens Aperture (f-stop) these f-
stops are usually marked around a ring on the lens barrel. Turning the ring alters the effective diameter
of the lens opening over a wide range. When the lens aperture is adjusted, two quite separate things
happen simultaneously
 It changes the brightness of the lens image failing on the image sensor (exposure of the image)
 It alters the depth of field in the shot- which is also affected by lens focal length

A picture is considered correctly exposed when the subject tones you are interested in are reproduced
the way you want them. Obviously this may vary in different situations and is ultimately up to the
director. In case of poor camera settings, a picture may fall in the category of under exposed or over
exposed.

TYPES OF CAMERAS
In the world of technological advancement, there are variety of cameras are available in the market. The
types of camera can classified on the basis of its working principles or on the basis of its application. On
the basis of working principles or Electronic makeup, Cameras cane be classified as follows
 Analog Camera
 Digital camera

On the basis of Usage of the Camera, Cameras can be classified in four groups
 Studio Camera
 ENG/EFP Cameras
 Consumer Camera
 Prosumer Camera

Analog versus Digital Camera: Although most cameras are digital, regardless of whether they are large
studio cameras or small camcorders, there are nevertheless many analog camera still in use, mainly
because of their high initial cost and their remarkably good picture quality like Beta camera, S-VHS and
Hi 8 camcorders. In analog camera, the video signal remains analog throughout the processing inside the
camera and during recording assuming that the VTR is also analog.
 In digital camera, however, the analog RGB video signals are digitized and processed right after leaving
the CCDs. Although digital signals are much more robust than analog ones, they are not automatically
high definition. Despite their superior picture quality, many digital cameras still operate on the
traditional 480i (interlaced), 30 frames per second NTSC system and therefore not considered high
definition, only 720p and 1080I systems or some variation are truly high definition.

Studio Camera: The term studio camera is generally used to describe high quality cameras, including
high definition television (HDTV) cameras. They are so heavy they cannot be handle with the aid of a
pedestal or some other camera mount. Studio Cameras are used for various studio productions such as
news, interviews and panel shows and for daily serial dramas, situation comedies and instructional
shows that require high quality video. But you can also see these camera used in the fields location as
concert, conventional hall, sports tournaments and medical facilities. The obvious difference between
the standard studio camera and ENG/EFP camera or consumer camera is that studio camera can
function only as part of a camera, all other camera types can be self contained, capable of delivering a
video signal to a recording device such as VTR, without any peripheral control equipment. Because the
picture quality of studio camera is determined by the VO, who is operating Camera Control Unit (CCU),
there are relatively few buttons on studio cameras compared with ENG/EFP models.

ENG/ EFP Cameras and Camcorders: The cameras for electronic news gathering and electronic field
production are portable, which means that they are usually carried by a camera operator or put on a
tripod. They are also self contained and hold the entire camera chain in the camera head. With their
built-in control equipment, ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders are designed to produce high quality
pictures that can be recorded on a separate VTR or disk recording device that it docked with the camera,
or on built-in VTR or disk recorder. The
ENG/EFP cameras has many more button and switches than does a studio camera or a home camcorder
mainly because the camera control unit, the VTR operation, and the audio control functions must be
managed by the camera operator. Fortunately, you can present many of these controls using an
electronic menu or by switching to automatic.
Consumer Camcorders: Despite the dazzling variety advertised in the Sunday papers, most consumers‘
cameras have a single chip imaging device and built in VTR. All have automated features such as auto
focus, which focuses on what the camera presumes to be the target object, and auto iris, which
regulates the incoming light. In addition to the have foldout screen (LCD or LED) on which you can see
the picture you are taking without having to hold the camera close to your eyes.
Prosumer Camera: Nevertheless there are smaller camcorders on the market that incorporate many of
the aforementioned features of professional camcorders. These high end consumer models, called
Prosumer camcorders, are finding more and more acceptance in news and documentary productions.
Some of the top documentaries shown in movie theatres are shot with such Prosumer camcorders.
HDV Camcorders: High definition video digital camcorders are the Prosumer model for high definition
television. The HDV Camcorder captures video with three fairly high quality imaging devices. They can
be standard high quality CCDs or high resolution CMOS chips, which are similar to CCD but draw less
power and worked as an image sensor in the camera. \

CAMERA MOUNTINGS
Camera mountings plays very important role in stabilization of the camera during the shooting a
programme. Some camera operators are used to hold camera on their shoulder or hand held but for
long hours of recording with camera requires suitable mounting device or equipments.
 Monopod: The monopod can be easily carried and is a very lightweight mounting. It consists of a
collapsible metal tube of adjustable length that screw to the camera base.This extendable tube can be
set to any convenient length. The monopod can provide a firm support for the camera, yet allow it be
moved around rapidly for a new view-points. Its main advantage is that it is easy to accidently lean the
camera sideways and get sloping horizons. And of course, the monopod is not self supporting.

 Camera Tripods: Although the tripod can‘t always be repositioned quickly, it does have advantages. It
is simple, robust and can be folded up and easily transported. It can be used in a wide variety of
situations on rough, uneven or overgrown surfaces, on stairs and so on. Basically tripod has three legs
that each has independently adjustable length. The legs are spread apart to form a stable base for the
camera.
 Tripod Dolly: A tripod dolly which can be folded for transportation, is added to the bottom of a tripod
in order to allow it to roll across a floor. Although the dolly moves around quite easily on a flat, level
floor, uneven surfaces will cause a jerky image, especially when a telephoto lens is used.
 Pedestal: A pedestal is the most widely used studio camera mount. Fundamentally, it consists of a
central column of adjustable height, fixed to a three wheeled base that is guided by a steering wheel.
The rubber tired wheels can be switched in to either a ―crab mode‖ in which all three wheels are
interlinked to move together or a ―steer or dolly mode‖ in which a single wheel steers while the other
two remain passive. Pedestal designs range from lightweight hydraulic columns on casters to
heavyweight designs for large cameras. The ideal pedestal is stable, eas y to move, and quickly
controlled by one person.
 Stedicam: The most advanced form of camera stabilizer, such as the stedicam, glidescam system, uses
a body harness with ingenious counterbalance springs, stabilizer of this kind will not only absorb any
camera shake but actually allow you to run, climb stairs, jump, shoot from moving vehicles-while still
providing smooth, controlled shots. The operator uses the small electronic viewfinder attached to the
stabilizer.
 Camera Jibs and Cranes: As film makers have demonstrated so successfully over the years, a large
camera crane offers the director an impressive range of shot opportunities. It can hover, then swoop in
to join the action. Or it can draw back, rising dramatically, to reveal the border scene. It allows the
camera to travel rapidly above the heads of a crowd, or to sweep around near level as it follows dancer
movements. A jib is more compact than the traditional camera crane, much more portable, and a lot
less costly buy or hire. The camera on jib arm may be handled by a single operator. It can stretch out
over the action, reaching over any foreground objects.

CAMERA ANGLES
The camera angles provide the relationship between the camera and the object. It also provides the
emotional information to an audience, and also guides their judgment about the character or object in
shot. There are some basic camera angles as follows

 Bird’s eye view: This show a scene from directly overhead, a very unnatural and strange angle. Familiar
objects viewed from this angle might seem totally unrecognizable at first. This shot does, however, put
the audience in a godlike position, looking down on the action. People can be made to look insignificant,
ant-like, part of a wider scheme of things.
 High Angle: Not so extreme as a bird‘s eye view. The camera is elevated above the action using a crane
to give a general overview. High angles make the object photographed seem smaller, and less
significant. The object or character often gets swallowed up by their setting- they become part of a
wider picture.
 Eye level Angle or Normal Angle: A fairly neutral shot; the camera is positioned as though it is a human
actually observing a scene at the eye level and look like actor‘s heads are on a level with the focus. The
camera will be placed approximately five to six feet from the ground.  Low Angle: These increase height
and give a sense of speeded motion. Low angles help give a sense of confusion to a viewer, of
powerlessness within the action of a scene. The background of a low angle shot will tend to be just sky
or ceiling, the lack of detail about the setting adding to the disorientation of the viewer. The added
height of the object may make it inspire fear and insecurity in the viewer, who is psychologically
dominated by the figure on the screen.
 Canted Angle: Sometime the camera is tilted to suggest imbalance, transition and instability. This
technique is used to suggest point of view shots (ie. When the camera becomes the eyes of one
particular character, seeing what they see-a hand held camera is often used for this.

CAMERA MOVEMENTS
As a basis for this each animation particular attention will be paid to the relationship between specific
camera techniques and the conceptual framework of the film/animation. Each person will choose two
specific camera techniques from a list of seven to use in their animation.

1. Pan

In pan shots the camera moves in a smooth horizontal motion from left to right, like a panorama.Always
start on a still shot, begin movement, and finish on a still shot. Panning shots are great for panoramic
views and scenery. Panning is also good for following a subject or to show the distance between
objects.'
2. Tilt

Tilt is like pan, turned 90 degrees, the camera moves up or down without raising its position. With a tilt,
you can also show how high something is. When you tilt up and shoot an object it looks larger and
thicker. The subject looks smaller and thinner when you tilt down. Start on a still shot, begin the tilt, and
finish on a still shot

3. Pedestal
Not tilting, but physically moving the height of the camera up or down. You pedestal the camera up or
down to get the height you prefer. If you want to get "eye to eye" with a six-foot-six basketball player,
you would pedestal up. While shooting a flower or a small child, you would pedestal down to their level.

4 Dollies
The camera is set on tracks or wheels and moved towards or back from a subject. Dolly is used to follow
an object smoothly to get a unique perspective. A dolly does not necessarily have to follow a straight
line, it could also follow a curved pathway.
5. Crane
Crane works and looks similar to a construction crane. It is used for high sweeping shots or to follow the
action of your subject. It gives a bird's eye view and looks as if the camera is swooping down from
above. Movie directors use this for street scenes so they can shoot from above the crowd and the traffic,
and then move down to eye level.

6. Zoom
On a physical camera you press a lever or rocker to zoom in or out. This lever controls the lens
mechanism inside the camera and zoom speed can be controlled. Usually, the harder you press on the
lever the quicker the zoom. Zoom is used to bring objects at a distance closer to the lens, or to show size
and perspective. Start on a still shot, then zoom smoothly, and end your zoom on a still shot.
7. Rack Focus
Focus on one object, like a building, and have everything behind it out of focus. Then adjust the focus so
the building becomes blurred and the scene behind becomes clear. In this movement, you are changing
the focal length so that one subject will go out of focus while the other comes into focus. The two
subjects must be at a correct distance from each other and from the camera for this shot to
work.Several short animation/film screenings and discussions are intended to set the stage for what is
possible and help us think outside of the typical architectural fly through animation.

Common uses of this rule in video are:

 Framing an interview: The eyes of your subject should fall in one of the upper power points and the
subject should be looking towards the empty space on the frame.
 Shooting a horizon: Rather than position the horizon on the center of the frame, align it along the
upper or lower third depending on what you want to emphasize. For example, if you‘re shooting a cloud
time-lapse you will want two-thirds of the shot centered on the sky.

Types of Camera Shots

1. Extreme Wide Shots (EWS) act to establish the area.
2. Wide Shots (WS) show the entire person or area. They‘re great for establishing the scene and allow
for good action of the characters. Sometimes this is known as the long shot.
3. Medium Shots (MS) frame the subject from the waste up. This is the most common shot and allows
for hand gestures and motion.
4. Medium Close Ups (MCU) shots show the subject in more detail and are often framed from just
below the shoulders to the top of the head.
5.Close Ups (CU) shows a particular part of your subject. For people this usually means the shot frames
just the head!
6. Extreme Close Ups (ECU) are much tighter close-up shots in which you get detail greater than the
human eye might be able to normally perceive. An example of this shot might be of the mouth and eyes
together

Two Shot: This is a shot of two peoples (or other individuals) together.
Cut Away (CA): Cutaways are used in the editing process to fill in footage which is different from the
main action. B-roll is often used for cut-aways. An example might be a cut away of a bird singing if the
shot is focused on a couple in the woods.Over the Shoulder Shots (OSS) are shot from behind the person
towards their subject.Generally the frame is cut off just behind the ear, although there are several
variations. A good technique to use to get this shot is to frame the person facing the subject with about
one third of the frame.
Point of View (POV): This is an effective shot that gives the audience the feel that you‘re seeing it from
the eyes of the performer. It is taken from near the eye-level of the actor and shows what he might see.
It could be used to give the perspective of other animals too like a frog, a bird, or a fish.

Selective Focus: By using a large aperture value (f/1.4, f/2.0) you will be able to create a shallow depth
of field. This effectively leaves one part of the frame in focus while blurring others, such as the
foreground or background. When you change the focus in the shot from the foreground to the
background you‘re doing another advanced camera shot called a rack focus.

What Is a Script?
A script is a document that outlines every aural, visual, behavioral, and lingual element required to tell a
story. Why "outlines"? Because film is a highly collaborative medium and the director, cast, editor, and
production crew will, based on your "outline", interpret your story their way when it is filmed. They may
consult you, or they may not. Other writers may be brought in or you may be asked to re-write the
entire thing. That's life, in the world of screenwriting. But because so many people are involved in the
making of a film, a script must conform to standards that all involved parties understand and thus has a
specific format or layout, margins, notation, and other conventions. This document is intended to
overview the typical elements used screenplay writing.It is crucial to remember that film is a VISUAL
medium. You don't tell your audience your story, you SHOW them. You must learn to write a screenplay
VISUALLY. Write what they will SEE and what they will HEAR. You might love your characters and know
what they are thinking, but the discipline of screenplay writing is how to show it on a screen. When it
happens, it may be just done with a look, often improvised on the movie set. So just write the pictures,
sounds, and speeches, and leave the rest for the filmmakers.

What Makes Good Story?

Let's hazard a guess. The movies you loved most featured characters that swept you up, who captivated
your emotions, got you involved. The audience viewing a movie not only wants to be interested in and
care about the people they see on the screen, they want to be PASSIONATE about them, whether they
like them or not. Great heroes and heroines inspire us; great villains make us want to jump into the
screen!There is always something at stake in a good movie. Not just something someone wants,
something that must be acquired, no matter what the risk, as in Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the
Lost Ark. Or something highly desired by as many main characters as possible, like the small black statue
in The Maltese Falcon. Some times it can be an intangible thing, like the freedom of a people in
Lawrence of Arabia or Gandhi. All these things drive the character's quest, even gives the hero
superhuman strength. It can be something personal (romance) or for the good of all (saving the world
from aliens) but it must be powerful and grow more desperate as the story unfolds.

There are always obstacles, which provide that catchword that actors love so much --CONFLICT. This is
the heart of drama. Someone wants something and people and things keep getting in the way of them
achieving the goal. At times, the obstacles can be common to both the hero and villain, and the ultimate
goal a laudable one for both parties, as in Jingle All The Way. In that film, Arnold Schwarzenegger and
Sinbad battle to achieve the same goal--the acquisition of the last popular action figure for sale that
Christmas season. Both of them have promised their son, and they must not fail. Conflict and obstacles
can be physical or emotional. But they have to be in your story or you don't really have a story. In most
good stories, the protagonist will also have an inner obstacle, some mental or even spiritual problem,
that will be resolved by the time s/he reaches the outward, physical goal of the story. Some people call
this inner demon a "ghost," while others call in a "wound."
You need a hook. That's a songwriting term that describes that thing that catches the public's attention.
A popular Hollywood term is a "high concept." A better idea might be a simple "What if?" In Galaxy
Quest, for example, the concept is "What if the washed-up actors from the crew of a cancelled but still
popular sci-fi TV show are pressed into a real war in space by aliens who think the TV show broadcasts
they received were documentaries?" A good enough "what if?" will set your script apart from the pack.
It is why people will leave the comfort of their homes and plunk down their hard-earned bucks at the
local cineplex.
Hollywood buys genres. Agents, managers, and producers are drawn to and specialize in specific genres
so approaching them with something they can recognize is a good idea. Successful stories have a fresh
face but are identifiable. You know what makes your idea unique, but can you describe it quickly to
others? Is it a fast-paced thriller, romantic comedy, action adventure?
Scripts have to look a certain way. I can't stress this point enough. You must present your work like an
insider. The sheer volume of submissions makes it so that if ANYTHING about your script looks strange
it's headed for the circular file. If you don't know the game they won't play. The scriptwriter has to
adhere to conventions covering everything from how many pages to what font and that's just the
beginning. I recommend you follow those rules, unless you're independently wealthy and plan to
finance, produce, and direct your movie. Even then, however, the people you'll need to work with will
be accustomed to standard formats.

Steps to write script:

1. Imagine you have a TV set in front of your eyes. When you switch on the TV I'd like you to see a white
screen. Switch on your TV now and see the white screen. (Wait 20 seconds)
2. Now write your name on the screen in black using your left or right hand. (Wait 20 - 30 seconds)
3. Now change the colour of the screen and your name. Choose your favorite colours. Make the colours
as bright as possible. (Wait 20 -30 seconds)
4. You are now going to turn up the volume. When you turn up the volume you will hear your favorite
music or song. Turn up the music so you can hear it clearly. (Wait 20 - 30 seconds)
5. Now let the music and the screen disappear and switch off your TV.

6. When you're ready open your eyes again.

Hints for writing

When the action should focus largely on only a few characters. This allows for central characters to be
fleshed out and developed.
Keep the script clear and direct. Don't let scenes become too wordy.

Look for alternative ways of presenting ideas or action. It may be a silent scene, a symbolic gesture or
the use of a prop.
Emphasize the visual as much as the verbal. Use interesting stage directions to create tension, comic or
ironic moments.
Use language appropriate to the characters. This may require extra research if it is a historical play.

Avoid writing material which copies other writers ideas.

Where possible, use settings familiar to the writer. Write about what is known. Research any unfamiliar
settings used.
Keep a copy of the first draft in your logbook