ABW 507 Research Method

Research Project

“The Effects of Remote Working on

Employee Performance”

Name Matric No. Phone No.

Hew Xue Qi (Group Leader) S-EM0333/23 012-4718098
Prithivirajan A/L Theventhiran 22201944 017-6173274
Liow Zee Wei 22201011 016-2202223
Jothi A/P Vellayutham 22201764 018-5917120
Teo Hsiu Peng 22304289 012-5975025
Nurfatin Amirah binti Amir
22203492 017-4830380
Hamzah

Semester 1
Academic Year 2023-2024
School of Management
Universiti Sains Malaysia
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report was prepared as part of the final requirement for ABW507/ ABW507D –
Research Method course. We would like to take this opportunity to express our appreciation to
everyone who had lent a hand to us in completing our assignment directly or indirectly.

First of all, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to Profesor T. Ramayah for
his great patience and guidance through out the semester to share with us his knowledges and
expertise on research methodology. It will be a hard time for us to complete the assignment if
without his readiness in assisting us with good advices and references in writing our research
proposal. With his great support, we able to complete our assignment on time.

Besides, we would like to thank our group members: Hew Xue Qi, Prithivirajan
Theventhiran, Liow Zee Wei, Jothi A/P Vellayutham, Teo Hsiu Peng, and Nurfatin Amirah
binti Amir Hamzah. With the effective discussions and great collaboration among our members,
we able to complete our tasks efficiently in a timely manner. Sincere appreciation on the great
teamwork and effort which have been contributed by all members.

Last but not least, we would like to thank our family members for given their
unconditional support and motivation through out our Master studies. It is not an easy task for
an working adult to achieve the balance between work, study, and family but their kind
understanding as well as tolerances has greatly eased our lives.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement I

Table of Contents II - IV

List of Tables & List of Figures V

Abstract VI
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Background of Study 1-3

1.2 Problem Statement 3-8

1.3 Research Objectives 8-9

1.4 Research Questions 9

1.5 Significance of Study 9 - 10

1.6 Definition of Key Terms 10 - 12

1.7 Organization of the Proposal 12

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction 13

2.1 Overview of the Theoretical Framework 13 - 14

2.2 Theoretical Background 14 - 24

2.3 Gap in Literature 24 - 25

2.4 Job Autonomy with Job Motivation and Employee 25 - 26

Performance

2.5 Professional Growth with Job Motivation and Employee 26 - 27

Performance

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2.6 Technological Infrastructure with Employee Performance 28

2.7 Working Environment with Job Motivation and Employee 28 - 29

Performance

2.8 Salary with Job Motivation and Employee Performance 29 - 30

2.9 Social Isolation with Employee Performance 31

2.10 Research Model 32

2.11 Summary of Hypothesis 32 - 33

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 34

3.1 Research Setting 34

3.2 Research Paradigm 34 - 37

3.3 Research Design 37 - 38

3.4 Population and Sampling Choice 38 - 39

3.5 Data Collection Procedure 39 - 40

3.6 Questionnaire Design 40 - 41

3.7 Measurement Instrument 41 - 42

3.8 Pre-testing of Questionnaire 42

3.9 Preliminary Data Assessment 43 - 44

3.10 Statistical Analysis 44

3.10.1 Asssessment of the Measurement Model 44 - 45

3.10.2 Assessment of the Structural Model 45 - 47

III
References 48 - 60

Appendix A: Cover Letter 61

Appendix B: Survey Questionnaire 62 - 64

IV
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Definitions of Key Terms

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Change in Employee Perception of WFH after MCO Experience in Malaysia
Figure 1.2 Employee Preference for Work From Home (WFH) Frequency in Malaysia
Figure 1.3 Employee Perceptions of Workplace Openness to WFH under Normal
Conditions in Malaysia
Figure 1.4 Productivity of Employee in Malaysia during WFH by Support Received
Figure 2.1 Proposed Conceptual Framework

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 ABSTRACT

Due to technological advancement and recent COVID-19 pandemic, remote working had
became a common practice in many modern organizations. This research aimed to study the
effects of remote working as well as the relationships between those identified effects to
employee performance. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory of motivation had been served as a
foundation for this study. Mentioned theory had been applied to explore the motivation and
hygiene factors in the context of remote working. Additional variables like technological
infrastructure with data security and social isolation, which are significant factors to study the
effects of remote working on employee performance in the context of remote working had been
included in this study. Quantitative approach was proposed for this study whereby
questionnaires will be distributed to target respondents – employees as well as their managers
who work in Multinational Corporations (MNC) Penang for data collection. Responses
received through questionnaire will be analyzed using statistical techniques.

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 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

The background of study for this research will be discussed in this chapter. With the detailed
background of study, problem statement had been defined followed by the research objectives
as well as research questions. Nevertheless, the significant of study and definition of key terms
will be explained further in this chapter.

1.1 Background of Study

Remote working is a term which also known as ‘working from home’, teleworking,
telecommuting, virtual office and home office. All these terms describe the working from
locations other than dedicated area provided by employer (Aczel et al., 2021, p.2). Employee
performance in remote settings is greatly influenced by several factors, including the
availability of adequate home offices, the usage of collaborative technologies, and the degree
of corporate support (Howe & Menges, 2022). The trajectory of remote work has been evolving
from a specialized technique to a widespread phenomenon that profoundly influences modern
work cultures. Historically, telecommuting was seen as the exception rather than the rule, due
to remote work is frequently restricted to particular sectors or jobs. However, the broad use of
remote work has been made possible by developing high-speed internet and expanding
sophisticated communication technologies to eliminate geographical constraints (Soroui, 2023).

The integration of technology infrastructure is a key factor in determining how remote work is
structured. Cloud computing, high-speed internet, and collaboration tools are the cornerstones
that enable staff members to work outside the boundaries of conventional office facilities.
Strong internet connectivity is widely available, making it possible for teams spread
geographically to work together efficiently by facilitating file sharing, real-time
communication, and collaborative project management (Olson & Olson, 2022). Sophisticated
video conferencing systems are now essential for online meetings, connecting distant
coworkers and enabling in-person conversations, although virtually. Furthermore, cloud-based
apps guarantee that distant workers may easily coordinate their activities by offering a
centralized and accessible repository for documents and data. The technology infrastructure

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supporting remote work improves connection and makes flexibility and agility easier, two
qualities necessary for a dynamic work environment.

By successfully utilizing and investing in these technologies, organizations may foster a work
climate favourable to remote work. The calibre and availability of technology assistance greatly
impact the effectiveness and productivity of remote workers. Progressive organizations
understand how important it is to give staff members the skills and tools they need to use virtual
workplaces. As more workers operate outside typical office networks, investing in
cybersecurity becomes critical to protecting sensitive data (Abdel-Rahman, 2023). Moreover,
workflow continuity requires integrating virtual communication solutions, collaboration
platforms, and project management systems. Analyzing technology infrastructure and how it
fits in with remote work procedures reveals the organization's dedication to offering a strong
digital environment. Knowing the technology behind remote work helps to create a flexible
and robust basis for the future of work and increases individual productivity.

Even though diverse industries are adopting remote or hybrid work models, there are those who
are more cautious. These developments in remote work are evident in the report by
Grzegorczyk et al. (2021). Sector-specific differences in remote work may be attributed to
various variables, including job complexity, corporate culture, and role adaptation to virtual
settings. Hence, comprehending the development and patterns of remote work is essential for
manoeuvring through the intricacies of the modern work environment, customizing approaches
that correspond with the requirements, anticipations of a labour force progressively searching
for adaptability and balance between job as well as personal life.

While in terms of productivity, working remotely has gained both advantages and
disadvantages. Positive qualities linked to increased productivity include the capacity to
customize one's workspace to personal tastes, the option to work from home, and the flexibility
to choose one's hours. Employees who work remotely can arrange their days to fit their natural
cycles better, which may improve their attention and productivity during set working hours
(Mohezar et al., 2021). However, obstacles like possible diversions at home, a blurring of the
boundaries between business and personal life, as well as lack of on-the-spot monitoring might
introduce factors that negatively affect productivity. This dichotomy emphasizes how crucial
it is to comprehend the complex interactions between the benefits and drawbacks of working
remotely in relation to personal productivity.

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In addition, remote workers' well-being is a complex issue beyond productivity indicators. The
work-life balance may change due to remote work, allowing workers to combine personal and
professional obligations more easily. The ability to design a personalized and cozy home office
space, on the same time, reduce commuter stress may improve workers' general well-being.
However, issues like burnout and elevated stress levels may also result from the blurred lines
between work and home life, which are made worse by an "always-on" digital culture (Murphy
et al., 2021). Besides, employee morale may be impacted by the lack of in-person encounters
with coworkers since it can negatively damage social ties and a feeling of community within
the greater professional group. Organizations which hoping to cultivate a work environment
that emphasizes both productivity and the overall well-being of their remote workforce must
strike a balance between the advantages and disadvantages of working remotely. Hence,
knowing the effects of remote work on employee performance is essential to understand the
larger ramifications of this changing work paradigm.

1.2 Problem Statement

Remote working has become a new norm and widespread adoption for many organizations in
recent years. Unforeseen COVID-19 pandemic have further expedited the use of remote work
in Malaysia through the enforcement of Movement Control Order (MCO) to eliminate the
spread of disease in the community. Based on the report – Making Flexible Work, Work:
Towards Better and More Inclusive Work-Life Practices which jointly produced by Talent
Corporation Malaysia Berhad (TalentCorp) and United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) Malaysia, back to 2017, the adoptable rate of remote work in Malaysia is low
comparing to Asia’s regional norm which is 16% against 50%. This low adoptable rate could
due to lack of confident in employee productivity or too much focus on on-site collaboration
and communication. Hence, to improve the adaptation of telecommuniting in Malaysia’s
workplaces, it is important to study the effects of remote working on employees performance
which can be used as reference for organizations to gain a better understanding on those
potential positive and negative implications while trying to adapt remote working in their
organizations which welcomed by majority of the employees nowadays.

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Figure 1.1

Change in Employee Perception of WFH after MCO Experience in Malaysia

Note. From “How We Worked From Home: Findings from the WFH experience in response to
the COVID-19 global health crisis in Malaysia”, United Nations Development Programme,
2020.

The paradigm change experienced during MCO period has redefined the concept of office-
centric work, as both employers and employees had been enforced to carry out their
responsibilities from various places whereby they need to find ways to overcome the limitations
in case they had been used to work in physical office premises all this while. Referring to Figure
1.1, 59% of employees feedback that they have a better opinion of WFH arrangement after
MCO experience while only 10% of respondents responsed that they had bad view about WFH
after gone through the MCO period.

Figure 1.2

Employee Preference for Work From Home (WFH) Frequency in Malaysia

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Note. From “Making Flexible Work, Work: Towards Better and More Inclusive Work-Life
Practices”, Talent Corporation Malaysia Berhad & United Nations Development Programme
Malaysia, 2021.

The workforce landscape in many countries have witnessed a significant shift towards Work
from Home (WFH) policies which primarily driven by the technological advancements and the
global outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic that has accelerated organizations in adapting quickly
to a remote work environment to sustain the business continuity amidst the lockdown period
imposed by the government (Mahmud et al., 2020). This transition in work arrangements has
not only played a part as a survival mechanism for businesses, on the same time, has also
prompted many organizations to reconsider the traditional work structures to embrace the
remote or hybrid working environments in the longer term.

Based on Figure 1.2 retrieved from the report published by TalentCorp and UNDP Malaysia
(2021), 16% of employees would opt to fully WFH whereby 29% of the employees perfer to
WFH 3 to 4 days in a week and 26% of them would like to work remotely 1 to 2 days weekly.
In conclusion, 71% of the employees would like to have at least 1 day to work remotely in a
week while only 8% out of the total respondents would prefer to work fully on-site. This
findings showed that majority of the employees are satisfy with remote working mode and
would like to continue the approach during non-pandemic or normal situation.

Figure 1.3

Employee Perceptions of Workplace Openness to WFH under Normal Conditions in Malaysia

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Note. From “How We Worked From Home: Findings from the WFH experience in response to
the COVID-19 global health crisis in Malaysia”, United Nations Development Programme,
2020.

Organizations worldwide are increasingly adopting remote work policies as part of their
strategies to attract and retain top talent, reduce operational costs and promote a more inclusive
work environment. Figure 1.3 displayed the employee perceptions of their workplace openness
regarding WFH on normal situation. In overall, only 20% among the respondents feedback that
their workplaces already adapted with WFH arrangement and 15% of them commented their
workplaces are actively reviewing to consider WFH approach. While, there were 30% of the
respondents responsed that they do not foresee their organizations will consider to implement
WFH arrangement in normal condition. This showed the big gap of expectations between the
employees as well as their employers which need to be treated wisely to avoid job
dissatisfaction that could later lead to job performance issues.

Thus, employers and workers are required to support transitioning from the traditional office
environment. To facilitate the setup of virtual work environments, organizations typically need
to invest significantly especially in technology and resources. With the assistance of advanced
communication technologies, employees can perform their tasks from the comfort of their
homes or any location outside of the traditional office settings. One of the examples is that
employees can conduct and attend all meetings remotely via videoconferencing tools such as
Zoom, Microsoft Teams or Skype. While advanced technology enables communication and
work to be done remotely, businesses are remained doubtful and concerned on the effects of
remote settings on the performance of their employees which may subsequently hinder the
organizations’ ability in formulating the relevant strategies to optimize its workforce and
resources effectively.

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Figure 1.4

Productivity of Employee in Malaysia during WFH by Support Received

Note. From “Making Flexible Work, Work: Towards Better and More Inclusive Work-Life
Practices”, Talent Corporation Malaysia Berhad & United Nations Development Programme
Malaysia, 2021.

There are many employees experienced working from home during the pandemic who prefer
to continue working remotely even when no longer required after the pandemic-related
restrictions are relaxed (George et al., 2022). Although the remote working concept is widely
welcomed by many employees whereas there are also some employees who hesitate to embrace
the opportunity to work remotely and prefer to return to pre-pandemic office environments.
This group of individuals who have no intention to continue working remotely after the
pandemic generally believed to have no prior remote working experiences before the pandemic
and had difficulty in adapting themselves to the advanced technologies as well as managing
self-discipline while they were working remotely (Kong et al., 2022). Figure 1.4 presented that
the productivity of 42% of employees who had received both material and technical support
during WFH had been improved when compared with those employees who either get material
or technical support only or no received any material and technical support from their
organizations.

In addition, there are other different perspectives on the aspect of remote working effects as
well. Remote working is claimed to possess advantages including flexibility in the work
arrangement that can improve focus to the works (Mohezar et al., 2021). Moreover, the remote
work landscape also seems to offer a way for employees to expose themselves to the diverse

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opportunities for ongoing learning experience in developing skills for professional growth.
However, some studies have also discovered challenges associated with remote working
including difficulty in creating boundaries between work and personal life as employees are
still used to the fixed working hours (Irawanto et al, 2021). Remote working arrangements
could also possibly reduce the opportunities for social interaction and access to resources such
as technical assistance which might cause increased stress and delay in the task completion.
All in all, remote working can be considered as having benefits but also some challenges.

In-depth understanding of the effects of remote settings in employee performance is essential

as this helps the organizations to better optimize its work policies and practices such as
developing relevant talent management strategies and design effective virtual collaboration
efforts to makes business operations more sustainable and competitive in the long run. In view
of this, research needs to be conducted to facilitate a clear and comprehensive understanding
of the implications of remote working on the employee performance by mediating job
motivation on job autonomy, professional growth, work environment, and salary towards
employee performance besides study the effects of technological infrastructure with data
security as well as social isolation on employees’ performance when working remotely.

1.3 Research Objectives

With the implementation of Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory, the purpose of this study is to
analyze the positive and negative effects which may affect employee performance in the
context of remote working which can help the organization to develop a competitive work
environment that emphasizes both productivity and the well-being of their employee. Therefore,
the objectives which going to be achieved through this study are:

1. To analyze the influence of job autonomy towards job motivation and overall employee
performance in the context of remote working.
2. To study the effect of professional growth opportunities on the job motivation and
performance for remote working employees.
3. To identify the relationship between technological infrastructure and how it can affect
the employee performance for those under remote working.
4. To examine the impact of work environment towards remote working employees’ job
motivation and their performance.

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 5. To determine the correlation between salary structures of remote working employees
with job motivation as well as their performance.
6. To investigate the impact of social isolation and how it can affect the employee
performance of those remote working employees.

1.4 Research Questions

This study seeks to investigate the key aspects which influencing employees' performance in
remote work through the following research questions:

1. Does job autonomy influence job motivation and overall employee performance in the
context of remote working?
2. How does professional growth opportunities affect the job motivation and performance
for remote working employees?

3. What is the relationship between technological infrastructure and how it can affect the
employee performance for those under remote working?
4. Would work environment plays a role towards remote working employees’ job
motivation and their performance?
5. What is the correlation between salary structures of remote working employees with
job motivation as well as their performance?
6. Could social isolation impact the employee performance of remote working employees?

1.5 Significance of Study

The findings of this research will have implications for the organizations which offering remote
working facilities for their employees and the organizations which has yet to do so.
Nevertheless, as far as the workplace environment is concerned, there has been few concerns
being associated with the effects of remote working on employee performance, for example,
social isolation impact on employees’ job motivation and performance, environment of the
residential or home office, level of job autonomy granted and utilization of technological
infrastructures for communication and collaboration. This research is to contemplate the effects
of remote working on employee performance and enables the business owners and organization
management to measure the benefits and challenges that are associated with remote working

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patterns. With an in-depth understanding of the drivers of employee performance in remote
settings, organizations can better optimize remote work policies and practices, enhance talent
management strategies and design effective virtual collaboration efforts to achieve more cost-
effective and sustainable business operations, thereby improving long-term competitiveness
and management. In the near future upcoming business owners also able to benefit from this
research by deciding if their employees are better off adopting the remote working options.

Furthermore, this study also helps to provide thorough understanding of the advantages and
challenges of this evolving work culture to the employees of organizations who have already
engaged in remote working or in the midst of adopting the remote working options.
Understanding the effects of remote work on employee performance is crucial for employees
to manage time effectively, optimize their work environment and identify areas for skill
development as well as adopting strategies that contribute to enhanced performance. Finally,
the government authorities also able to gain a comprehensive understanding of remote work's
impact from this study that helps in crafting policies that align with the evolving dynamics of
work and ensuring regulations remain relevant and supportive of changing employment
patterns. Studying its effects helps the policy makers to address evolving labor market trends,
ensuring that regulations support a balanced and thriving remote work environment and
providing technological infrastructure and tailor training initiatives that support a dynamic and
inclusive workforce.

1.6 Definition of Key Terms

Based on the research study, we have defined nine key terms. Those definition of key terms
will help to gain more understanding about variables that are used in this study. Table 1.1
defines the primary important phrases that will be utilized throughout this research to ensure
consistent comprehension of the study's content.

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Table 1.1

Definition of Key Terms

Key Terms Definition

Remote Working A term that typically covers working from any location
other than the dedicated area provided by the employer.
(Aczel et al., 2021, p. 2)

Job Autonomy The degree of freedom and discretion of the employee

in the work situation. (Clausen et al., 2022)

Professional Growth An ongoing learning process for working life

knowledge and skills necessary to obtain the official
competent in handling changing requirements. (Veigel,
2019, p. 294)

Technological Infrastructure The existence of technology-based systems owned by

with Data Security organization to support the implementation of the
organization's core business online securely with
prevention measures on cybercrime. (Afrianty et al.,
2021)

Work Environment Physical and psychological dimensions that surround

and affect employees’ activities and tasks execution.
(Badrianto and Ekhsan, 2020)

Salary The salary structure established by organizations and

reasonably given to employees based on their services
offered. (Le et al., 2021, p. 1065)

Social Isolation The absence of casual conversations and ties with

friends and coworkers within the company. (Thi Thu
Ha, 2021)

Job Motivation A positive feeling in a job with considerasion of

various aspects which will affect work behavior and

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 performance. (Basalamah and As’ad, 2021)

Employee Performance The results of one's work in term of quality, quantity

and timeliness in an organization or company.
(Kuswati Y., 2020)

Note. This table demonstrates the definition of Key Terms.

1.7 Organization of the Proposal

The research proposal consists of three components whereby each of the subsection has its own
set of subjects and subdivisions. The first chapter is about introduction of research which
explain the need to carry out this study. Specified research objectives and research questions
on what to achieve through this study has been discussed as well. The second chapter focus on
reviewing publications from other researchers whereby through the literature review, the
theoretical framework and assumptions of this research has been developed. Last but not least,
research approach which will be applied in this study will be discussed further in Chapter 3.

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 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

In this chapter, theory and variables that applied in the research will be discussed. First of all,
theoretical framework on following section. Lastly, the chapter finishes by suggesting
hypotheses. and a research model.

2.1 Overview of the Theoretical Framework

While there are different theories proposed regarding the factors influencing employees’
motivation and job performances, this study will be conducted on the basis of the renowned
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory in view of the considerable amount of research that has been
published about its principles. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory, also widely-known as the
Motivation-Hygiene Theory, posits a dual-factor framework that distinguishes between
motivation factors and hygiene factors, each of which is fundamentally different and exerts an
independent effect on job satisfaction. (Ozsoy, 2019). Originating in the 1960s and influenced
by the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the theory classifies factors affecting job satisfaction into
two categories, with motivation factors lead to employees’ positive attitudes towards work
when the intrinsic elements that propel individuals to achieve job satisfaction and self-
actualization are addressed, whereas the hygiene factors that are determined extrinsically can
contribute to employees’ negative attitudes towards work in an attempt to avoid unpleasantness.
(Galanakis & Peramatzis, 2022).

To better understand the motivation factors, Bevins (2018) has described them as “satisfiers”.
This is because they are relevant factors pertinent to doing the job. They do not affect job
dissatisfaction and are rated from a scale from neutral to highly satisfied. These factors are also
considered to be far more complex and subjective to measure as they go beyond the mere
content of the job to encapsulate the core of an individual's psychological needs for recognition,
achievement, growth opportunities, advancement, responsibility, and the intrinsic nature of the
job itself. (Acquah et al., 2021). In essence, motivation factors serve as drivers for employees'
job satisfaction and performance. They play a pivotal role in fostering employees’ positive
attitudes towards work by recognizing their innate needs for personal development while

13
propelling them to seek fulfillment beyond the basic requirements of the job. (Galanakis &
Peramatzis, 2022).

Conversely, the hygiene factors integral to Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory revolve around
employees’ imperative need to avoid unpleasantness in the workplace. These factors, also
referred to as the “dissatisfiers”, are predominantly external factors shaping the job context,
encompassing salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, subordinates, and peers,
working conditions, company policies, status and job security. (Galanakis & Peramatzis, 2022).
Notably, hygiene factors are measured on a continuum from neutrality to high dissatisfaction,
emphasizing their role in preventing dissatisfaction rather than directly influencing job
satisfaction. (Bevins, 2018). Herzberg also argued that the opposite of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction but rather the absence of satisfaction. In other words, the hygiene factors do not
actively contribute to job satisfaction and cannot serve as motivators to employees. (Acquah et
al., 2021). Instead, they can only be leveraged to improve employee performance by reducing
unpleasantness, implying the unique nature of hygiene factors in workplace dynamics

To summarize, Herzberg's Two Factor Theory has elucidated the complex dynamics that
affects employee attitudes, satisfaction and job performances in the workplace. Interestingly,
empirical evidence from scholars has found intrinsic motivators to be more important than
extrinsic hygiene factors in increasing job satisfaction. (Alshmemri et al., 2017). Specifically,
recognizing and nurturing these motivational factors is critical to creating an environment
where employees are motivated to go beyond contentment and reach their full potential. In the
meantime, concentration on using hygiene factors as motivators can be counterproductive and
potentially discourage employee motivation in the long run. (Acquah et al., 2021). In short,
Herzberg's two-factor theory has provided a nuanced perspective that organizations can
effectively use as a guide to develop strategies that optimize the delicate balance between
motivation and hygiene factors, thereby creating a motivated and satisfied workforce.

2.2 Theoretical Background

In this section, definitions of each variable employed in this study which are job autonomy,
professional growth, technological infrastructure with data security, work environment, salary,
social isolation, job motivation and employee performance will be discussed in detailed.

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2.2.1 Job Autonomy

Job autonomy means employees have some level of control over how they get work done, such
as how they accomplish tasks, set deadlines, and where or when they work. A workplace can
be “flexible” without actually granting worker autonomy (Zhou, 2020). Murad et al. (2022)
assert that it gives employees the power to decide on things like workflow priority, scheduling,
procedures, and process management while keeping in mind overarching goals. In typical
office environments, managers are able to monitor progress and collaboration because of fixed
schedules, availability expectations, and on-site monitoring, which place functional restrictions
on total autonomy. However, within these inevitable bureaucratic boundaries, empowering
leadership methods acknowledge the performance benefits of allowing some authority (Paluch
et al., 2021).

Based on Cronin-Golomb & Bauer (2023), self-motivation which stems from internal
inspiration rather than external pressures always increases goal-directed efforts, perseverance,
and job satisfaction. As a result, the Job Characteristics Model developed by Hackman and
Oldham in 1976 supports the idea that employees feel independent when performing essential
activities, which increases purpose and ownership and stimulates internal motivation (Raihan,
2020). Despite the drawbacks of organized coordination, governmental organizations tend to
provide less discretion than private enterprises, according to Ahakwa (2021). However, for
organizational commitment and performance, moderate autonomy which takes the form of
courteous, supportive supervision and participatory decision-making remains crucial (Han &
Hong, 2019).

Schwartz (2021) argues that remote work solutions provide unparalleled control over
scheduling, procedures, environment design, dress, and more, radically altering traditional
autonomy restrictions. This seismic shift results from communication technologies that enable
output assessments in conjunction with a physical separation that is unfriendly to direct
monitoring. Employees can arrange routines flexibly around personal energy patterns that are
in line with their chronobiology without being constrained by commutes when there is no
continuous in-person supervision (Cronin-Golomb & Bauer, 2023).

Metselaar, den Dulk, & Vermeeren (2023) found that telecommuters' perceptions of increased
autonomy and work-life balance are the strongest. Due to reduced unproductive transitions,

15
unprecedented flexibility enables remote workers to combine typical desk work, self-care,
household requirements, and childcare with ease. Comparing virtual workers to their on-site
counterparts, over 60% claim having more control over their schedules, whereas just 16% do
so (Borup et al., 2019). This explains why, despite working longer hours, job satisfaction is
extraordinarily high.

Crucially, remote workers' productivity is directly boosted by their sense of autonomy

(Virtanen, 2020). Research conducted by Bortolato (2021) on Fortune 500 retail corporation
compared the utilization of flexibility options and sales performance of remote workers to their
office-based counterparts. When more autonomous flexibility was used, sales conversion rates
rose gradually and eventually plateaued at 63% higher production after months of using fully
autonomous scheduling. Increased autonomy boosts engagement in addition to directly
increasing productivity. Study by Hu et al. (2022) found that when given the power to oversee
virtual collaboration protocols, teams demonstrated cooperation twice as high as their co-
located counterparts, even in the face of communication difficulties. Furthermore, given digital
infrastructure and broad flexibility, remote employees' self-rated performance and
psychological involvement remained consistently high over a two-year period (Mutiganda et
al., 2022).

Personalized design, however, fails in the absence of formal guidelines. Despite loving their
liberty, newly remote team members using home offices became significantly distracted by
personal duties, TV, and hobbies, according to a six-month ethnographic case study (Paluch et
al., 2021). Focus did not return until defined hours and management supervision were
implemented. This perfectly captures the dangers of excessive, unbridled autonomy. Therefore,
even while research on the benefits of performance is still ongoing, possible drawbacks call for
regulations that are balanced, maximize the motivating qualities of flexibility, and provide
procedures for accountability. As shownb Baker et al. (2021) leaders must make smart
situational assessments in order to grant the degree of autonomy most appropriate for the needs
of a function. Therefore, more freedom and discretion in scheduling may be granted to top
achievers who have a tendency to self-regulate. Tech-based monitoring systems can also
discreetly produce productivity statistics to inform regulatory changes. Moreover, providing
direct guidance to remote workers on how to best set up their home offices helps identify the
level of individualized autonomy necessary for optimal performance (Lund et al., 2020).

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2.2.2 Professional Growth

Professional growth refers to a comprehensive developmental process occurring throughout an

individual's career and lifespan and focused particularly on broadening the expertise, both in
terms of knowledge and skills in this study. Personal growth can lead to professional growth
and increased opportunities to acquire new skills and techniques along with the acquisition of
additional professional knowledge (Alshmemri et al., 2017). Pylvas et al., (2022) assert that
professional growth is dependent on social and institutional contexts, along with personal
attributes and circumstances. Furthermore, the promotion of professional growth in workplaces
is intricately linked to both formal and informal practices, the adaptability of working
environments and social relations based on the multi-dimensional model of professional growth.
The continuous process of learning is described as an inevitable aspect of professional growth
as articulated by Clarke & Hollingsworth, (2002).

Long-term career success is contingent on personal and professional growth to both

employees and managers in the workplace. The ongoing learning process aimed at acquiring
the knowledge, skills and ability necessary for effectively navigating challenges and utilizing
official competence to adeptly address evolving requirements throughout an employee’s career
(Veigel, 2019). Similarly, this is also aligned with the study from Pylvas et al., (2022) that the
continuous learning and professional growth is crucial and it challenges the current workforce
to take concrete actions to update their knowledge and skills rapidly and flexibly to ensure the
continued employability in the evolving professional landscape of the future. Therefore,
professional growth also denotes the continuous development of individual’s skill and ability
to cope with the work tasks in different settings and circumstance that would result in certain
performance result.

2.2.3 Technological Infrastructure with Data Security

IT infrastructure or also known as technology infrastructure empowers an organization to

figure and run the application that support its business. It consists of organization, work
environment, data information and edge capabilities. In this contemporary era, businesses have
made extensive use of information technology to maximize profits. Technological
infrastructure is the process of combining and rearranging information in order to generate new
ideas is the progress of technology; the fast advancement of innovation that will affect the

17
performance of organizations (Sapta et al., 2021). Information technology has proven to give
significant advantages to various associations (Sutrisno et al., 2023).

On top of that, technology is connected with the learning experience as a successful and
productive media. As a learning medium of technology especially for information and
communication technology (ICT) is related with different action likes gather, control and
present the data of information. There are three fundamental parts of learning that established
on information and communication technology which is equipment, multimedia and
telecommunications. Moreover, the information and communication technology (ICT) is an
inseparable state that embraces a comprehensive understanding of all activities associated with
information processing, manipulation, management, and media transfer (Susanto et al., 2020).

In addition, the digital technology infrastructure is planned, constructed and kept one of the
most fundamental angles to consider is the business necessities where the whole technology
should be lined up with the business qualification (Jayalath & Premaratne, 2021). There are
few of the most parts that ensure digital technology infrastructure is safe which is information
security implementation, operation and incident response. Furthermore, Information Security
Compliance and Governance a significant part in controlling the data security scene by
ensuring the previously mentioned advances to convey the normal results with successive
survey. Then, information security awareness which is Chief Information Security Officer
(CISO) is one of meaningful part for representing the top management commitment in
developing, managing and operationalizing in information security planning (Jayalath &
Premaratne, 2021).

2.2.4 Work Environment

Most studies share a similar definition of the work environment. As articulated by Badrianto
and Ekhsan (2020), the work environment encompasses both physical and psychological
dimensions that surround and affect employees’ activities and tasks execution. It extends
beyond the confines of the workspace, enveloping a multifaceted structure within the entire
collaborative space and considers various elements that shape the way employees work,
including indicators such as lighting, air temperature, noise, decoration and interpersonal
relationships. (Nitisemito, 2000, as cited in Badrianto & Ekhsan, 2020).

18
Likewise, Nguyen et al. (2019) assert that the work environment is divided into physical and
non-physical domains. The former pertains to immediate surroundings, facilities, materials,
and tools, while the latter delves into working methods, work arrangements, co-worker
relations, and other social aspects supporting work. These arguments are also consistent with
those of Kurniawaty et al. (2019), who suggest that the work environment include physical
elements like infrastructure, humidity, air circulation, lighting, noise, odors, etc. that affect
employees’ condition, as well as broader non-physical elements related to workplace
relationships.

On the other hand, Purwanto (2020) offers a slightly different yet more holistic definition of
the work environment. The authors add depth by portraying it as an overall condition
comprising physical, psychological, and social constituents. This nuanced classification further
categorizes the work environment into three groups: physical aspects that adjust employees’
compatibility with the workplace (temperature, ventilation, noise, lighting, equipment), mental
aspects experienced in workplace (fatigue, boredom, coworker attitudes), and social aspects of
interacting with others (administrative system, policies, cleanliness, safety). In each instance,
these varying perspectives have enriched our understanding of the definition of work
environment.

2.2.5 Salary

Le et al., (2021) mentioned that salary or pay is referred to salary structure which established
by organizations to their employees whereby the rates of salary given is based on the services
provided by the employee. Based on Somrit and Romprasert (2022), salary is one of the
hygiene factors which indirectly motivate employees’ job satisfaction. In other words, when
the hygiene factor which is salary has been well addressed, the motivator will bring job
satisfaction to employees. Employees’ job satisfaction is essential in the sense that well
motivated employees who with self-driven skills able to achieve desired organization’s results
easier compared to those with less motivation.

While in another research studied by Ju (2021), salary is defined as one of the negative external
factors of work that will not cause long-term satisfaction. However, in case of neglection on a
negative external factor, it could lead to employees’ dissatisfaction. Based on case studies
performed by Ju (2021), companies established their salary system to reduce employees’

19
dissatisfication, attract new talents, retain high skilled and well-performed employees and
utmost important is to enhance work performance by attaining organization’s goals.

Referring to Noorazem et al., (2021), salary is the main method to reward employees for their
works and contributions given to the organization. To boost employees’ performance through
salary or rewards structure, organizations should study and identify those favourable amenities
that valued by most of their employees. Nevertheless, appropriate amount of salary should be
given to employees with consideration of their living needs and expenses. Positive
improvement on the salary range will serve as motivation that able to encourage employee
performance for the benefits of the organizations. (Noorazem et al., 2021)

2.2.6 Social Isolation

Social isolation refers to the lack of social interactions, connections, and ties with neighbors on
a personal level, family, and friends on a larger scale and society at large on a smaller scale.
The absence of casual conversations and ties with friends and coworkers within the company
is known as social isolation (Thi Thu Ha, 2021). According to Sahai et al., (2020), there are
three different kinds of workplace isolation: social, professional, and physical. Besides that
Cho et al., (2022) affirm that some of the employees loved the idea of remote working due to
the independence associated with it but there are people who felt it challenging to work in
remote working as they felt lonely and mentally worn out. Therefore, losing one's position
inside one's group constitutes social isolation. Either voluntary or involuntary seclusion is
possible. Social isolation in people with intact cognitive abilities can be recognized as such by
the solitary person. One way to define social isolation is as the integration of subjective and
objective components of a person's health (Nicholson Jr., 2009).

Moreover, social isolation also can be classified as professional isolation where remote workers
may experience a sense of professional isolation because they are unaware of organizational
developments and, to be further mentioned, may have little to no interaction with their
coworkers, leaving them feeling excluded as asserted by (Bailey & Kurland, 2002).
Furthermore, for remote workers, a lack of communication may also reduce organizational
affiliation (Ammons & Markham, 2004).

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2.2.7 Job Motivation

Job motivation is considered “a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as
beyond an individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form
direction intensity and duration (Pourtousi & Ghanizadeh, 2020). Traditionally, office
environments have seen the operation of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, driven mostly
by management control (Apex-Apeh et al., 2020). Virtually distant locations, however, require
customized strategies that address isolation hazards and account for physical separation.
According to expectancy theory, employees are kept interested in normal workplaces by
extrinsic rewards including pay, benefits, and opportunities for advancement (Dale, 2020).
These material rewards are conditioned on observable work toward predetermined
organizational goals. Performance reviews, profit-sharing plans, and social recognition events
are examples of extrinsic policy components that provide on-site workers with a clear goal-
outcome relationship that boosts productivity.

Moreover, innate enthusiasm for the task at hand has demonstrated its global significance
(Huang, 2021). Based on Simonet & Castille (2020) study, the Job Characteristics Model,
meaningful positions are defined by skill diversity, relevance, identity, and autonomy.
Leadership that fosters growth and acknowledges competence ignites internal motivation. Thus,
well-designed work stimulate internal drive and contentment. On the other hand, office-based
supervision allows for both internal purpose-building and contingent external rewards.

Jiang et al., (2020) stated the challenges of motivation during remote working where it is
difficult to prove production by direct observation when there is no physical control.
Communication obstacles hinder both formal performance management procedures and
informal social feedback. Isolation hazards weaken friendships and lower spirits (Albrecht et
al., 2021). Such limitations require completely rethought strategies. Reduced visibility can
potentially lead to unconscious prejudice for remote workers. In companies that still adhere to
antiquated practices, home-based employees receive less recognition while equal or even
surpassing outputs. Lack of proactive re-engagement promotes drift towards misalignment due
to relative obscurity. There are psychological hazards in addition to physical ones. Davis (2021)
study reveals that when the novelty wears off, remote employees find it difficult to stay
motivated, which leads to a life of grinding solitude. Loneliness breaks important social ties
that stoke enthusiasm. On the other hand, employees who work on-site are constantly exposed

21
to the larger purpose and community. Replacing existing intrinsic and extrinsic sources is
necessary to sustain inspiration while one is far away.

Dryselius & Pettersson (2021) indicates that modified approaches may successfully inspire
remote teams. Initially, supervisors need to enforce more regular check-ins while maintaining
a sense of autonomy (Apex-Apeh et al., 2020). Mutually agreed-upon conversations on a
regular basis encourage accountability toward individual goals. Offering liberal schedule
authority while yet seeking progress reports is how leaders demonstrate trust. In addition,
purpose reinforcement fosters the growth of intrinsic passion. Research shows that supervisors
who highlight how remote work contributes to the overall goal increase employee engagement
more than those who only focus on transactional benefits (Dale, 2020). Motivating messaging
ignites the soul.

Similarly, Cronin-Golomb & Bauer (2023) shows that virtual festivities facilitate camaraderie
and unofficial acknowledgements among distant employees. Peer recognition, creative
competitions, and digital happy hours all aid in the fight against disconnection. Incorporating
such programs shows that workers are important in ways that go beyond output targets. Lastly,
certain adjustments are needed for particular de-motivators in the home, such as caregiving
responsibilities or dull settings (Schwartz, 2021). Despite variations in availability, morale is
maintained by compassion for family duties. To avoid burnout, remote cultures need to validate
whole-life balance.

2.2.8 Employee Performance

a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual's being, to
initiate work-related behavior, (Baker et al., 2021). Leaders may actively evaluate speed,
accuracy, competency, and engagement levels by going around and observing people
completing tasks directly because of the visibility that on-site locations provide (Raihan, 2020).
This makes it easier to give candid criticism, coach others, and acknowledge accomplishments
in public, and point out errors early on. Additionally, a shared physical workstation fosters peer
responsibility, competitive motives, and cultural norms that naturally improve group
production. These intrinsic dynamics explain why standardized performance evaluation
systems, which are mostly based on managers' direct assessments of dedication and effort, are
widely used in traditional workplaces (Metselaar et al., 2023).

22
Additionally, managers may feel even more certain that staff members exhibit the discipline,
zeal, and initiative that the organization values by looking for them and by seeing them
participate in collaborative interactions (Furterer & Wood, 2021). It is easier to be passionate
and committed when you are around other people who have similar temperaments in the same
environment. Therefore, in conventional workplaces, performance evaluations, promotion
choices, and general receptiveness are influenced by the combination of official productivity
measurements and evaluations of demonstrated work ethic. Essentially, on-site settings offer
inherent benefits that make it possible to measure employee performance in a variety of ways
through close contact and interaction (Dale, 2020).

Schneider (2023) shows that the emergence of remote and hybrid physical-digital work
arrangements, however, significantly hinders managers' capacity to keep an eye on scattered
team members in real time. Only employee-initiated communications and prearranged video
conferences are used for communication during asynchronous work. Managers are unable to
observe behavioral signs that indicate disengagement, distraction, or developing misalignment
informally because to this lack of sight (Semsøy, 2022). Not having the anchoring effects of
common organizational locations and synchronized hours, the start-stop rhythm of work also
changes considerably. The flexibility that come with work-from-home arrangements increases
the danger to productivity since it becomes more difficult to distinguish between work-related
and personal responsibilities.

Despite matching actual output statistics and satisfaction scores of office-based colleagues in
several studies, these barriers have a detrimental influence on virtual employees' perceptions
of effort and performance (Dix et al., 2022). Pre-existing managerial prejudices stemming from
antiquated co-location company customs characterize remote labor as often less disciplined
and serious (Ghinami, 2023). Telecommuting employees often receive lower formal
assessment scores from leaders than their office colleagues with comparable production
quantities, job quality, and external customer ratings, according to a two-year study of
performance ratings across five large corporations (Gutu & Medeleanu, 2023). Based on
physical visibility and availability expectations derived from co-located norms, research thus
confirms that evaluating remote workers tends to severely backfire, eroding distributed staff
morale, fulfillment, and intention to stay long-term compared to peers afforded more empathy
and work-life support.

23
Once mindsets change, there are workable options for tracking distant contributions efficiently
and virtually giving developmental feedback. For instance, Aloisi & De Stefano (2022) shows
that limiting timeframes, public exposure, and particular deliverable outputs as the main
emphasis of performance indicators promotes alignment and clarity about expectations while
preventing isolation. According to Kathleen et al. (2021) collaborative, dashboards that
illustrate both individual and team performance provide remote employees even more ability
to see how their efforts fit into larger goals. Creating customs for marking mutually significant
anniversaries also contributes to the maintenance of informal recognition and companionship.

Additionally, when communication gaps appear, formal self-reported updates on blocks are
supplemented with additional signals from passive data such as email volume, meeting
attendance rates, and training participation (Dryselius & Pettersson, 2021). These variables
provide baseline evidence of availability, learning orientation, and devotion in between talks,
even though they are imperfect proxies. Nevertheless, before misrepresenting objectives,
holistic profiles should contextualize emerging statistics against job content and employee
situations. Most importantly, though, is that increasing unofficial check-ins and touchpoints
fosters connections, communicates expectations, and averts motivational problems before they
result in distant workers becoming withdrawn or disengaged (Simonet & Castille, 2020).
Despite intrinsic coordination challenges, focused empathy and compassion serve as the glue
tying disparate groups together towards shared objectives (Dale, 2020). Building on trust, more
communication enables managers to support remote employees as they navigate the questions
and concerns that are particular to distributed teams.

2.3 Gap in Literature

In this study, researchers will measure the employee satisfaction using Herzberg Two Factor
Theory that divided into two sections which is hygiene and motivation. Our study aims to focus
the significant gaps that have been recognized in previous research.

According to the researcher, Herzberg two factor theory a theoretical gap has been discovered
in previous study. The fundamental hypothesis of this model is outdated and has been featured
by current research. Some of theory still to be significant and seemly to be mentioned. This
topic is necessary to research because employee performance is one of the factors in

24
organization become growth. Herzberg and other motivation have shown that depending on
hygiene or the other factors may not give the imperative outcomes because all categories of
representatives can be supposed to be fulfilled and produce a rising degree of performance only
when they see work to be challenging, significant and having prospect for career improvement
(Ihensekien & Joel, 2023).

From the previous study, the researcher found out that both factors are very important to
measure the job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Additionally, some hygiene factor has
significantly with job satisfaction. According Thant & Chang (2021), the main factor of job
satisfaction among the employee was affected by interpersonal relationship and factor in their
personal life which is hygiene factors.

2.4 Job Autonomy with Job Motivation and Employee Performance

According to Raihan (2020), the Hackman and Oldham's 1976 revolutionary Job
Characteristics Model, autonomy—or the sense of independence one has in doing essential
tasks—is a crucial factor in determining the significance of employment. The paradigm states
that more autonomy promotes internal motivation, job happiness, and performance among
other employee outcomes (Parker & Grote, 2022). This shows itself as a greater sense of
accountability for outputs when one has the authority to choose the workflow protocols, pace,
scheduling, and other process parameters.

Nevertheless, further studies also point out that in order to coordinate efforts and maintain
quality standards, autonomy must be balanced with adequate coordinating mechanisms (Grote,
2020). According to Gutu & Medeleanu (2023), giving liberty in a piecemeal manner raises
the possibility of confusion or even blatant defiance of authority. Therefore, the ideal level of
autonomy is giving workers flexibility in how they achieve their goals while still offering
project visibility and developmental support. While providing freedom and establishing
performance dashboards, mentorships, and regular check-ins, leaders also allow autonomy
(Dryselius & Pettersson, 2021).

Finding this balance becomes more crucial but also more challenging in remote work situations.
Physical absence interrupts the flow of natural communication between managers and
employees about expectations, requirements, and progress. Therefore, the danger of distraction

25
is increased by uncoordinated autonomy (Murad et al., 2022). However, ironically, in order to
maximize chronobiological cycles and reduce interruptions to the family, focus also depends
increasingly on self-designed, cozy home surroundings and independent pacing (Cronin-
Golomb & Bauer, 2023).

Research on remote teams shows the effects of this imbalance: although proactive relationship
building reduces departure rates below on-site numbers, laissez-faire leadership results in a 22%
yearly turnover rate (Metselaar et al., 2023). Alignment is maintained and disengagement is
avoided by making investments in technologies that visualize contributions and putting in place
compassionate supervision procedures. Qualitative evidence also demonstrates that giving self-
driven workers a great deal of schedule flexibility after properly communicating objectives
enhances their output from a distance (Simonet & Castille, 2020).

H1: Job autonomy has close correlation to influence job motivation and overall employee
performance in the context of remote working

2.5 Professional Growth with Job Motivation and Employee Performance

The development and advancement of an individual's skills, competencies, and career

trajectory signify professional growth. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (1989) stated that the
motivational factors include achievement, growth and development opportunities increase job
satisfaction and enhance the employee performance through improving motivators. Remote
work has reshaped the professional development landscape and provided numerous
opportunities for growth and the enhancement of skills. The absence of professional stimulation
while working from home has led to a rise in self-directed knowledge-seeking which is driven
by the desire to learn, grow and demonstrates competence amid the COVID-19 pandemic
(Sambhalwal & Kaur, 2023). Notably, the usage of online learning courses has increased
significantly since the commencement of stay-at-home orders based on Koksal (2020).

In the context of remote work, employees were forced to acquire proficiency in various digital
work tools and platforms as well as adopting a more proactive approach, practicing self-
leadership to effectively manage their workload, establish positive habits, prioritize mental and
physical well-being and strike a sustainable balance between productivity, well-being and
learning and development based on Babapour et al., (2021). Moreover, the remote setting has

26
accelerated the development of digital skills and self-leadership capabilities which concurs
with the study from Veronica et al., (2021) that opportunities advancement and skills
development opportunities have significant effect on employee performance.

In addition, remote work can provide a platform for individuals to develop and showcase skills
such as leadership in virtual teams. For example, a distinct form of leadership which is referred
to as e-leadership, involves the cultivation of specific abilities to enhance organizational
functioning in virtual and remote work environments (Roman et al., 2019). Leaders typically
need to master, manage, and coordinate in view of the surge in teams, telework and distributed
leadership patterns which relies heavily on expedited electronic communication. The aspects
of leadership development in a remote working context include leading remote teams,
effectively communicating across distances and managing projects remotely. Developing new
leadership skills allows one to adapt quickly to constant changes and find innovative solutions
which can contribute to their professional growth in their career.

Moreover, the training that is being conducted for the employees in remote environments will
provide opportunities for employees to be able to develop skills, knowledge and abilities. For
instance, the cross-cultural training during COVID-19 pandemic offering skill-building in areas
such as collaborating across cultures, inclusive use of technology and establishing team-level
ground rules for communication and workflow according to Caligiuri et al., (2020) &
Sambhalwal & Kaur, (2023). Through the training program that has been implemented within
the company, it will have a positive impact on increasing the skills, insight, knowledge and
behavior of employees in their duties so that the performance of the company's employees can
be increased. Likewise, the findings from Sugiarti, (2022) emphasized that training, work
environment and career development simultaneously have a positive and significant effect on
work motivation and through motivation, workers will become more skilled and therefore more
productive.

H2: Professional growth is positively related to job motivation and employee performance
in remote work settings.

27
2.6 Technological Infrastructure with Employee Performance

Nowadays, the improvement of technological infrastructure is extremely quick. The increasing

of business competition such as worldwide competition and development of marketing
strategies encourage the organization to make improvement technologies for assist company
operation, increases employee effectiveness and performance that will give more experience to
them. However, accumulated the information technology infrastructure in organizational will
help the management to make decision-making and organizational performance (Havidz &
Mahaputra, 2020).

On the other hand, employees can convey the quality performance when the organizational
gives consistency of efficiency and speed of network. Organizations that lack technology will
make their employees compete with their work to get accurate information and give low
performance. According to Alam & Murad (2020), there is a relationship between the
technological progress and employee performance. When utilized the productivity, technology
give the outcome in performance improvement or productivity when combined with other
resources (Sapta et al., 2021).

Additionally, some researcher has defined telework as a flexible working arrangement without
personal contact among colleagues but able to communicate using information and
communication technology. Telework decidedly affects employee performance through
empowering information sharing, cross-practical participation and between authoritative
involvement, teleworks enhance on the speed and nature of product improvement (Aropah et
al., 2020).

H3: Technological infrastructure with data security has a positive relationship towards the
employee performance for those under remote working mode.

2.7 Work Environment with Job Motivation and Employee Performance

Previous research findings have demonstrated the important role of the work environment in
affecting job satisfaction and employee performance. Anggi (2015) emphasizes that a favorable
work environment offering security and comfort can positively affect employees’ emotions and
lead to increased productivity, optimal use of working hours, and employee performance (as

28
cited in Badrianto & Ekhsan, 2020). This view aligns with the findings of Hafeez et al. (2019),
who suggest that physical factors like noise, temperature, and workplace design significantly
influence employee well-being, motivation and thus, their job performance. The authors also
affirm the central role of a healthy and safe work atmosphere in promoting effective skill
utilization and efficient task execution, thereby showing the critical link between a conducive
workplace and employee performance. Similarly, the study by Nguyen et al. (2020) proposes
that a conducive work environment, both in physical and non-physical aspects, correlates
positively with employee performance in terms of competencies, responsibility, initiative, and
interpersonal relationship skills.

In addition, Choudhury et al.'s (2021) research provides a quantitative view of the relationship
between work environment and employee performance. Empirical evidence of the authors
shows that remote working contributes to a remarkable 13 percent increase in employee
performance due to the advantages of a quieter and more convenient work environment.
Moreover, a recent study by Basalamah and As’ad (2021) further ascertains the significant
impact of the work environment on personal pride, job satisfaction, and employee productivity.

A well-designed and supportive workplace will enhance job satisfaction and employee
productivity, whereas job dissatisfaction originating from a poor work environment will result
in negative emotions and counterproductive behaviors. Overall, these findings have highlighted
the relationship between the work environment, motivation, and remote employee performance,
together with the importance of maintaining a conducive work environment in optimizing
employee performance in remote work settings.

H4: Work Environment has a significant impact on job motivation and employee
performance in remote work settings.

2.8 Salary with Job Motivation and Employee Performance

Based on Le et al., (2021), salary or pay is considered as hygiene factor which represents
physiological needs that an individual expected to be fulfilled. In case of the salary structure
provided by the organization does not meet the expectation of the employee or inequality exists
between the efforts spent in work or given workload with the received salary, it can cause job
dissatisfaction. For instance, referring research conducted by Somrit and Romprasert (2022),

29
marital status of employees can affect their satisfaction level on the given salary. This is due to
higher expenditures will incur for those in marital life. When their pay not reviewed by
organization and with high stress level caused by increasing expenditures, some of the
employees will be demotivated and started looking for next job opportunity. Salary which is
considered as direct compensation, promotion, as well as job satisfaction have significant
impact on employee performance. (Rinny et al., 2020)

In the context of remote working, both employers and employees gain benefits through the
shift to remote working. (Barrero et al., 2022) From employers’ perspective, remote working
served as one of the elements in compensation package. By offering the opportunities for their
employees to remote work, employers able to moderate the salary growth pressure. While, from
the employees’ viewpoint, based on study performed by Barrero et al., (2022), although the
rate of wages growth might restraint due to remote working, evidence shows most employees
highly value with remote working option that resulting lower employees’ turnover rate. This
situation has been further elaborated by Arntz et al., (2019) as wage premium or wage penalty.
Wage penalty indicates the employee’s willingness to compensate for their unfavourable job
features. For employees who opt for working remotely due to schedule constraints or to save
transportation time may need to deal with wage penalty.

On the other hand, Arntz et al., (2019) stated that in case remote working is due to job
requirements but not because of the preference of the employee, this working mode will has
less chance to bring job motivation to employee. As individual fixed-effect is one of the factors
that significant to achieve satisfaction, job satisfaction will be most likely to happen in case the
employee gains positive values while working remotely with consideration of appropriate
adjustment in terms of salary and working hours. Nevertheless, Paais & Pattiruhu (2020)
mentioned that prioritied in giving high salaries or bonuses do not always bring employees’
satisfaction and performance in return.

H5: Salary has no significant correlation on job motivation and employee performance in
remote work settings.

30
2.9 Social Isolation with Employee Performance

Workplace well-being is the sum of an employee's attitudes regarding their workplace, working
conditions, work culture, and work organization, as well as the physical environment's quality
and safety. The performance of employees during remote working has a big impact on how
well it does in the long run. Some employees suffered from mental health problems because of
their social isolation and lack of social interaction whereby this case mostly happened during
MCO period to control the spread of Covid-19 diseases in the workplaces.

Although working from home offered independence to certain individuals, working alone or in
a tiny space often left one feeling inadequate, lonely, and mentally exhausted (Cho et al., 2022).
Besides, the lack of readiness for switching to remote working, the lockdown-induced decrease
in physical activity, and the mental health issues brought on by stress and social isolation all
combined worsened the situation. Particularly, workers with mental health disorders often
experienced low productivity at work due to the feeling that each day was the same as the last,
the unpredictability of the lockdown's duration, and the lack of human interaction among
coworkers, which eventually became unbearable in the absence of phone calls and Zoom.

People who work remotely might feel as though they don't have enough social support from
coworkers and other sources (Hager, 2018). It is totally feasible for managers to facilitate
communication among their remote workers. Though it may still have flaws and many
employees will always long for human interaction, managers can help the work-from-home
experience feel a little less isolated by regularly adding comedy and fun. If these tools are
prohibited, companies would come seen as uncaring. In times of extreme stress, managers
should show compassion and provide whatever resources are required to foster peer support
and social collaboration. In conclusion, social isolation has become to be a significant challenge,
particularly for those who operate remotely.

H6: Social isolation has a significant impact on employee performance in remote work
settings.

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2.10 Research Model

The diagram presents the proposed conceptual framework for this research project that visually
depicting the correlation between various independent variables to the dependent variables.
The conceptual framework displays the dependent variable which is employee performance in
the context of remote working while job autonomy, professional growth, work environment,
salary, technological infrastructure with data security, and social isolation are those
independent variables. Job motivation acts as mediator for independent variables: job
autonomy, professional growth, work environment and salary.

Figure 2.1

Proposed Conceptual Framework

2.11 Summary of Hypothesis

Based on the relationship between dependent variables and independent variable, the
hypotheses of each of the relationship have been formulated. The hypotheses for this research
project are outlined below:
H1: Job autonomy has close correlation to influence job motivation and overall employee
performance in the context of remote working
H2: Professional growth is positively related to job motivation and employee performance
in remote work settings.

32
H3: Technological infrastructure with data security has a positive relationship towards the
employee performance for those under remote working mode.
H4: Work Environment has a significant impact on job motivation and employee
performance in remote work settings.
H5: Salary has no significant correlation on job motivation and employee performance in
remote work settings.
H6: Social isolation has a significant impact on employee performance in remote work
settings.

33
 CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter's purpose is to discuss and explain the methodology used in this research project.
There will be eleven segments in this chapter based on the research project, which is the
research setting, research paradigm, research design, population, and sampling techniques.
Besides that, data collection techniques, questionnaire design, measurement design,
measurement instruments, pre-testing, preliminary data analysis and statistical analysis will be
discussed in this chapter.

3.1 Research Setting

Research setting is an important component of research design/methodology. It covers the

physical, social, and cultural side in which researchers conduct the study (Given, 2008). The
setting was focused on employers and employees engaged in remote working practice. There
are approximately 350 multinational corporations (MNCs) in Penang (Liew and Lim, 2022).
The data collection lasted for 1 month, which is in January 2024. We have targeted about 100
respondents who with remote working experiences and work in manufacturing companies that
located in Penang, Malaysia. Target respondents should in the age ranging from 21 to 51 and
above. Using a quantitative research method, the questionnaire of this study was designed via
Google Forms to test the research variables in this research.

3.2 Research Paradigm

Previous studies have defined the research paradigm as the theoretical or philosophical ground
guiding social work research. This is because the research paradigm represents the
philosophical ways of thinking of a researcher, hence their role is foundational in providing
intent, motivation, and expectations for the research. The authors explain that, without adopting
a paradigm, subsequent choices regarding research designs and methodologies could lack a
solid foundation (Ugwu et al., 2021). This argument is in accordance with those of Kamal
(2019), who highlights that paradigms are essentially beliefs and values guiding the researchers'
actions and decisions. The selected paradigm not only establishes the basis for research designs
and methodologies, but also directs the investigation, including data collection and analysis

34
procedures in the research process. Therefore, it is important to select a paradigm that serves
as a comprehensive worldview and beliefs of scholars while guiding them what to study, how
to study it, and how they should interpret their findings (Kankam, 2019).

According to Park et al. (2020), research paradigms encapsulate common elements of axiology,
ontology, epistemology, and methodology that collectively determine the nature and scope of
the framework, as well as the way in which researchers understand and interpret the social
world. Specifically, axiology involves the researcher's beliefs about the role of values and
ethics in the research process. Ontology delves into how the nature of reality is being viewed,
while epistemology pertains to assumptions regarding the acquisition of knowledge and the
relationship between the knower and the known. Methodology, on the other hand, reflects a
shared understanding of the best means for research approaches (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019).
Regardless, paradigms in research are generally categorized into four distinct types:
pragmatism, positivism, constructivism, and postpositivism. These paradigms, with their roots
in different philosophical traditions, are associated with qualitative and quantitative research
methods, each providing researchers with unique perspectives on how the research should be
conceptualized and conducted (Mohajan, 2020).

Pragmatism, as a research paradigm, focuses on the results of research, prioritizes research

questions over methods, and advocates the use of philosophical and methodological approaches
that best suit the research problem at hand (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019). It emphasizes the
paradigm’s orientation toward problem-solving in the real world and enables a dynamic
interchange between qualitative and quantitative data by challenging their perceived
incompatibility. Given that the pragmatic framework allows the flexibility in mixing the
paradigms, assumptions, approaches, and methods as long as it addresses research problems,
Biddle & Schafft (2015) suggest that pragmatic researchers have the option to conduct
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed research based on what serves their research purposes (as
cited in Maarouf, 2019). But overall, most of the previous studies posit the significance of
pragmatism lies within its role in mixed research approaches, serving as a philosophical
justification and partner in combining quantitative and qualitative methods (Maarouf, 2019).

Positivism, commonly known as a truth-seeking paradigm, asserts that human behavior is

predictable and subject to both internal and external forces. (Kamal, 2019). Positivists believe
the possibility of reaching truth exists and emphasize understanding human behavior through

35
observation, reason, and the expression of these insights through theoretical descriptions.
(Mohajan, 2020). In line with this, positivism actively seeks to reveal objective truths of nature
by observing regularities and extracting empirical laws using hypothesis testing and
quantitative methods (Ugwu et al., 2021). Park et al. (2020) also support the view that
positivism is characterized by a focus on identifying explanatory associations or causal
relationships with quantitative methods. This involves prioritizing large sample sizes to ensure
consistency in data, enhance the representation of population characteristics, and facilitate the
generalization of empirically-based findings.

The constructivist paradigm, also known as interpretivism, positions itself as an approach that
delves into understanding the subjective world of human experience (Ugwu et al., 2021). In
this paradigm, realities are not only perceived as multiple, subjective, and constantly changing,
but also as having deep personal meaning shaped by an individual's social and historical
contexts (Kamal, 2019). In the same vein, Mohajan (2020) suggests that knowledge in the
constructivist paradigm is not objective. Instead, they are created by individuals through their
interpretation and understanding of phenomena in social and historical backgrounds. Since
constructivism denies the existence of universal truth by arguing that reality or truth is socially
constructed and fluid, researchers adhering to this paradigm advocate exploring the minds,
inner feelings, and views of participants using qualitative methods such as case studies,
interviews, and observations to gain diverse perspectives from human experiences and the ways
individuals encounters with the world (Kaushik & Walsh, 2019).

As for post-positivism, this paradigm is developed as a revision and extension of positivism.

While maintaining an emphasis on quantitative methods to build strong causal understandings
of the world, post-positivism challenges the positivist notion that theories can be definitively
proven correct. In other words, post-positivism acknowledges objective truths, but holds the
view that they may never be discovered due to limitations in time, techniques, and existing
knowledge (Young & Ryan, 2020). Similarly, Mohajan (2020) also supports that observational
data in post-positivism are biased and can be influenced by theories, hypotheses, background
knowledge, and values of the researcher. Therefore, the paradigm values subjectivity and
multiple perspectives and stresses the need of testing, refining, or refuting hypotheses derived
from relevant theories (Young & Ryan, 2020). As post-positivism insists on using observation
to drive scientific progress and discover reality, this also means that the paradigm allows for
alternative ways beyond the scientific method to refine theories, including quantitative,

36
qualitative, or mixed approaches, thus providing a comprehensive framework for examining
real-world problems (Kankam, 2019).

In view of all the four research paradigms explained above, positivism is the paradigm that
aligns most closely with this research. The reason to adopt positivism is because this research
employs quantitative approaches to investigate the impact of remote working on employees'
job motivation and performance. Statistical tests will be utilized for data analysis to provide a
structured and objective basis for understanding the complex dynamics of remote work.
Besides that, hypothesis testing that will be carried out also conforms to positivism’s advocate
on validating the theoretical propositions derived from the established framework, which is the
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory in our case. Collectively, the chosen positivism paradigm
corresponds well with the research objectives in ascertaining measurable effects of remote on
job motivation and performance through quantitative methods.

3.3 Research Design

The research design serves as the blueprint for achieving the objectives of a study while
influencing decisions crucial to the research approach (Sileyew, 2019). Since this study
employs a quantitative research design for hypothesis testing and statistical analyses, a
structured questionnaire could effectively facilitate the collection of quantitative data.
According to Sileyew (2019), the questionnaire method is crucial in obtaining primary
information that offers the researcher the flexibility to determine the sample size and formulate
specific questions tailored to the research objectives. In addition to this, Aithal & Aithal (2020)
also emphasized the usefulness of structured questionnaires in collecting and supplementing
quantitative data, initiating formal surveys, and validating hypotheses. As in terms of achieving
the research objectives of this study, the questionnaire method is effective in targeting the
desired sample population and ensuring that the expected and specific information related to
the research questions is collected to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of
remote working on job satisfaction and employee performance.

Table 3.1 below is a summary of the research methodology used by various authors in similar
research. Together, we can observe that past studies tend to adopt the questionnaire method to
gather comprehensive insights into investigating the impacts of remote working on job

37
motivation and employee performance as it enables a systematic collection of quantitative data
to measure the significance of the independent variables selected in the study.

Sample
Author(s)/Year Research Topic Analysis Tool
Size

Work From Home During The COVID-

Galanti et al. 19 Outbreak: The Impact on Employees’ IBM AMOS
209
(2021) Remote Work Productivity, and SPSS
Engagement, And Stress.

The Impact of Remote Work During

Hafshah et al. COVID-19 Pandemic on Millennial
367 SmartPLS-3
(2022) Employee Performance: Evidence from
the Indonesian Banking Industry.

Task Performance and Job Satisfaction SmartPLS

Aslan et al.
Under the Effect of Remote Working: 421 3.2.9 and
(2022)
Call Center Evidence. SPSS 21

Overall Job Performance, Remote Work

Toscano & Engagement, Living With Children, and Mplus 8 and
171
Zappalà (2021) Remote Work Productivity During The SPSS 26
COVID-19 Pandemic.

The Impact of Remote Working on

Kurdy et al. Employee Productivity During COVID-
110 SmartPLS
(2023) 19 In The UAE: The Moderating Role of
Job Level.

Table 3.1 An Overview of Relevant Studies that Used Questionnaire Method.

3.4 Population and Sampling Choice

Sampling process is an essential step for quantitative research which to acquire representative
sample by selecting small number of units from a larger group which also known as population.

38
(Rahman et al., 2022) Well-established sampling process can help researchers to provide valid
overview and focus on high comparable samples. The sample population chosen for this
research are those remote working employees and their managers in Penang, Malaysia.
Purposive sampling techniques was implemented in this research with focus on those remote
working employees and managerial staffs from MNCs of manufacturing sector which located
in Penang, Malaysia.

G*Power software has been used in this research to perform power analysis for minimum
sample size estimation purpose. G*Power computes minimum sample size by analyzing the
highest number of predictors in the research’s model. There are 6 independent variables and 1
dependent variable in this research model. With the criteria setting as effect size at medium
effect (0.15), significance level at 0.05, power at 0.80, and the highest number of predictors is
4, G*Power computed the minimum sample size for this research as 85 to show the real
influence. To prevent further data collection issues afterward, proposed sample size for this
research will be 100. For this research, questionnaire was developed using Google Form and
the link will be sent through email and social media to collect data from minimum 85
respondents who are remote working employees or managerial staffs from MNCs of
manufacturing sector which located in Penang, Malaysia.

3.5 Data Collection Procedure

Data collection is the most common way of gathering and surveying information on factors of
interest, advertised deliberate design that empowers one to address expressed research
questions, test speculations, and figure out of results.

In this research, data collection will be used as a quantitative method by an online survey
questionnaire. A set of questionnaires are designed based on our research objective and
literature review. Online survey questionnaires will be created by using Google form and
shared with our target respondent. We will use social media platforms to distribute this form
such as Whatsapp, LinkedIn and WeChat as well as through email address to collect the data
from our respondent.

Online survey is the best way to get engaged with our respondent and get fast response from
them. This data collection will give advantages to our side which is increase our productivity

39
by saving time. In addition, the result of this survey will be directly and ready to be analyzed
anytime. All data of respondent information will be kept anonymous and confidential for our
research only. Link for Google forms will be shown below, while the sample of questionnaire
will be included in Appendix.

Google Form questionnaire: https://forms.gle/vrFPd6NH6HbsXMZX7

3.6 Questionnaire Design

This research uses primary data collection instruments by creating online questionnaire using
Google form. This survey mostly has closed-ended questions which is responded have limited
option to answer the question. In this way, the respondent will be easier and quicker to answer
the survey, and the result is easy to analyze for the researcher. In addition, this questionnaire
also has three open-ended questions only.

This online questionnaire has 41 questions and is divided into two sections. The respondent
must answer all the questions before moving to another section. In Section A, the survey
focuses on demographic questions of respondent, which is age, gender, experience in remote
working, job position, experience in current position and current industry.

The second section known as Section B. In this section it has 35 question to answer that has
divided into our six-dependent variable, includes job autonomy, professional growth,
technological infrastructure, working environment, salary, social isolation, and employee
performance. For employee performance variable, this question focuses on respondents in
managerial positions. Each part of variable has five questions to be answered by our respondent.
All questions in this section use the Linear scale with 5-point scale. The scale indicates a
different type of degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement. The scale ranges started
with 1 to 5 where 1 represents strongly disagree and 5 for strongly agree. The respondent needs
to choose a one-point scale only to answer based on their opinion or statement that reflects their
behavior.

In summary, this online questionnaire created using Google form is based on our research
objective and literature review in Chapter 1 and 2. Therefore, to make it easier to analyse the

40
data, the questionnaire has been carefully constructed. The final questionnaire will be shown
in Appendix.

3.7 Measurement Instrument

A measurement instrument often referred to as a measuring tool or survey instrument used to

quantify and assess various characteristics or variables in a systematic and standardized manner.
There are different types of measurement instruments that can be considered and a high quality
of a measurement instruments can be evaluated based on the reliability, validity, and
responsiveness (Scholtes et al., 2011). Developing and using a well-designed measurement
instrument is critical for obtaining accurate and meaningful data in various fields of study.
Therefore, the questions should be designed and organized systematically and appropriately
for respondents to facilitate an efficient method for data collection.

In this research project, we employed a questionnaire to collect data in relation to the study's
objectives and hypotheses. A questionnaire is used to investigate the opinions and attitudes of
the respondents towards the remote working effects and it is easy and cheap to administer as
well as enables the collection of large amounts of data in a relatively short period of time.
According to Jenn, (2006), a good questionnaire should possess characteristics such as ensures
that questions effectively convey their intended meaning, consistency in the answers when the
same questions are repeated to the same respondent in a short time frame, design interesting
questionnaire to promotes higher response rates and succinct questionnaire focuses on
questions aligned with research objectives to facilitate targeted data collection. The
questionnaire was distributed in this study to gather quantitative data from a target group of
respondents and the data collected will subsequently undergo statistical analysis to explore
relationships between dependent and independent variables.

The measurement of variables in this study is conducted using the Likert scale method, which
involves the use of ratings. We used the 5-point Likert scale to record the responses to various
criteria ranging from (1 = "Strongly Disagree" to 5 = "Strongly Agree") in relation to the remote
working effects. A 5-point Likert scale is a psychometric method for recording responses that
enables respondents to easily express their level of agreement on questions through a simplified
five-point scale (Dawes, 2008). It would minimize frustration among respondents thereby
enhancing both the response rate and the overall quality of responses (Sachdev & Verma, 2004)

41
and facilitates researchers in acquiring valuable insights into respondents' opinions and
perceptions concerning the variables. Besides, a nominal scale is used to categorize variables
that have no numerical value related to the respondent’s demographic like gender in this
research project's questionnaire. The age variables and years of working experiences of the
respondents are assessed through the interval scale which quantifies variables based on a rank
or order in the questionnaire.

3.8 Pre-testing of Questionnaire

A pre-test or pilot testing for a questionnaire is a preliminary evaluation conducted with a small
sample of selected individuals to identify and address any potential issues or improvements
before the main data collection phase of a research study. Pilot testing is a crucial tool and plays
an indispensable role when conducting large-scale surveys in ensuring the reliability, validity
and overall effectiveness of the questionnaire (Wadood et al., 2021). A well-planned and
executed pilot testing can provide valuable insights into the optimal research processes and
offer glimpses into potential outcomes (Van Teijlingen et al., 2001). The pre-test helps
researchers to refine and ensure the questionnaire is well-designed, comprehensible, mitigate
the potential of misinterpretation and capable of collecting valid and reliable data.

Perneger et al. (2014) recommends a minimal sample size of 30 is required to detect the
fundamental problem that could be occurred through pilot testing. Therefore, the sample size
of 40 participants for this survey pre-testing phase is deemed sufficient. All the 40 respondents
will be randomly selected from the employees and their managers who have experience in
remote working. The survey questionnaire was assigned to all the respondents and the
responses from them were analysed for the pilot study to identify potential problematic
questionnaire items and ensure that the concepts and key terms used in the questionnaire are
comprehensible and easily understood before the questionnaires are distributed to the targeted
respondents. The feedback obtained during the pilot study will serve as guidance for
researchers to carry out necessary amendments on the survey questionnaire and assist in
confirming the feasibility of the intended constructs in the study according to Menon et al.,
(2021).

42
3.9 Preliminary Data Assessment

After the data collection steps, preliminary data screening is necessary to be performed.
Referring to Pulka (2022), preliminary data assessment is the examination step on data before
main analysis to detect, manage and rectify errors. Pre-testing supports in data screening, initial
inspection of incorrect inputs, detect outliers, missing values, and other unusual entries found
in dataset.

Reliability assessement can be obtained by evaluating the internal consistency of the

measurement instrument. In this research, Cronbach's Alpha will be used to assess the extent
of interrelatedness among the items within a scale or construct. Cronbach's Alpha can measure
internal consistency and demonstrate how well the items in a scale or construct are correlated
with each other. As mentioned by Taber (2018), high Cronbach's Alpha value (greater than
0.70) indicates good reliability, suggesting that the items in the scale are reliable measures of
the intended construct.

Moreover, the validity of data can be measured by using convergent validity and discriminant
validity. Convergent validity is a measure of the extent to which different measures of the same
construct demonstrate a strong relationship with each other. It evaluates the consistency and
convergence of multiple measures in assessing the same underlying construct (Melanie
Baumgarten, 2020). In order to assess the validity of the data, researchers typically examine
the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and factor loadings of the items. Generally, it is
recommended for AVE and factor loadings to exceed 0.5 which means over 50% of the
variance in the items can be attributed to the underlying construct (Fok, 2011). SPSS can be
used to evaluate factor loadings and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for Confirmatory
Factor Analysis (CFA) or Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Through these analyses,
researchers can study the consistency of results and align their findings with established
theories as well as other measures relating to the same concept (Middleton, 2019).

Discriminant validity studies the extent to which a test is not related to other tests that measure
different constructs (Nikolopoulou, 2022). Discriminant validity is a vital aspect as it supports
the evaluation on the accuracy of a test in measuring the intended construct or inadvertently
captures unrelated constructs. One common approach which applied to evaluate discriminant
validity is by calculating the square root of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and

43
comparing it with the correlations between the construct of interest and other constructs or
variables (Hamid, 2017). Besides, according to Hamid (2017), the square root of the Average
Variance Extracted (AVE) for each construct should be greater than the correlation between
that construct and other constructs or variables.

3.10 Statistical Analysis

Statistical data analysis will be conducted using SPSS software. As such, various statistical
models will be used in undertaking statistical analysis that fit the topic under discussion.
Analysis will be undertaken based on the research objectives and hypothesis the research aimed
to satisfy or determine. Modelling the relationship between the independent and the dependent
variable in the study will lead to addressing of related research topics encompassing the
interconnection between the dependent and independent variable. In due of this, structural
equation model is one statistical analysis that will be used in analysing the data. SPSS will
depict the relationship existing between two or more endogenous variables in the study.

3.10.1 Assessment of the Measurement Model

The measurement model analysis is an important step in the statistical analysis process, aimed
at evaluating the reliability and validity of the collected data in this study. This analysis ensures
that the measurement scales used effectively measure the factors influencing data security and
privacy practices accurately.

Reliability is one of the key aspects in statistical analysis that is important to be considered.
Reliability in SPSS will be determined by undertaking reliability scale. In this action, the
Cronbach Alpha will be used in determining the extent of reliability of the questionnaire to be
used in the actual data collection. Cronbach Alpha of 0.70 is the required minimum score that
is acceptable to be used in the collection of data during the actual study (Surucu & Maslakci,
2020). Therefore, a Cronbach Alpha of over 0.70 will be recommended to be used in data
collection. However, if this is not met, then the questionnaire will be restructured to ensure
high consistency of the questions and collinearity. High collinearity between the questions in
a variable is expected to have a high reliability, since it shows the questions are interrelated.
Reliability is an important construct that needs to be measured to ensure consistency and inter-
relatedness of the questions.

44
Validity is also of utmost importance in measurement in SPSS. Validity in SPPS can be
estimated by comparing research results to other relevant data and theories. The adherence of
a measure to existing knowledge of how the concept in measured, ability of covering all aspects
of concept being measured, and relation of the result in comparison with other valid measures
of the same concept are actions undertaken in ensuring validity is enhanced (Lesko et al. 2020).
Vast difference existing during the comparison of existing knowledge on data security and data
privacy results in the study shows little or no validity. The two most common validity
measurement undertaken involve internal and external validity. In measuring internal validity,
factor analysis will be used. Factor analysis help researchers in exploring the relationships
between the survey items and identifying the total number of dimensions which are represented
in the survey. In this research, a factor analysis close to -1 or 1 will be highly considered since
it shows a strong influence the factor has on the variable (Sargeant et al. 2022). Therefore, the
close the loading is to 1 the better the variable under study is explained by the factors.

3.10.2 Assessment of the Structural Model

The purpose of structural model analysis is to examine the relationships between different
constructs and test the hypotheses proposed in a study. This analysis allows researchers to
investigate the direct effects of independent variables on the dependent variable and evaluate
the significance of these relationships. By conducting a structural model analysis, valuable
insights can be gained regarding the factors that influence data security and privacy practices.
There are different structural model analysis that can be incorporated into the study to have a
better understanding and identify the type of relationships existing between the independent
and the dependent variables. Some of the structural models that will be used in SPSS software
include:
1. Correlation Analysis
2. R2 (Regression Analysis)
3. Confirmatory Factor Analysis
4. Collinearity

Correlation analysis is the first structural model that will be undertaken in the study. Based on
the hypothesis stated and the research objectives formulated, correlation analysis is important
in determining the type and strength of the correlation existing. This is the first structural model

45
analysis that should be undertaken in the research study. It is worthwhile because correlation
help in determining if there is a statistical significance in the correlation or connection existing
between the endogenous variables available. Lack of statistical significance implies the
variables are not important or significant because they lack any connection linking them
together (Cui et al. 2020). As such, this can be the end of the research study. In correlation, the
correlation coeffient ranges from -1 to +1 with a positive relationship indicating a direct
relationship while a negative correlation indicating an inverse relationship. Correlation analysis
involves interpreting the magnitude of correlation coefficient where a higher absolute value
implies a stronger connection and a value closer to 0 indicating a weaker association.
Determining the statistical significance in a correlation analysis is the first step to identifying
the type of relationship existing.

Regression Analysis (R-square) is the second structural measurement model that will be used
in undertaking the study. Regression will help in determining the strength of the relationship,
with the values ranging from -1 to +1. Values that are higher than .75 implies a stronger
relationship while values closer to 0 indicate weaker relationship (Putcha et al. 2021). Further,
the coefficient of determination (R2) will be used in determining the extent of variation in
dependent variable caused by the independent variable. This is how the importance of a
variable is determined. Additionally, the coefficient table will be used where Beta value will
help to determine the effect of independent variable while p-value used to indicate the statistical
significance of the variable. Based on the hypothesis, it is imperative that p-value be used to
determine if the hypothesis formed is going to be rejected or accepted, depending on the
findings (Arkes, 2023). Hypothesis formed such as positive relationship between cybersecurity
awareness and data privacy and security can be confirmed whether it is true or false based on
the p-value obtained.

The p-value must be lower than the significant level of .05 for the hypothesis to be accepted.
This results in the next structural measurement model to be undertaken, confirmatory factor
analysis. In this structural fit, values that are less than 0.05 implies a close fit, values between
0.05 to 0.08 indicate a reasonable fit while those values above .10 relates to a poor model fit
(Hox, 2021). In multicollinearity, a VIF above 4 or tolerance below .25 shows that the
multicollinearity might exist. A tolerance that is lower than .1 shows a significant
multicollinearity.

46
Therefore, these structural measurement models massively help in determining if the research
study and results are based on what is expected and whether the hypothesis and research
objectives have been achieved.

47
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Appendix A: Cover Letter

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Appendix B: Survey Questionnaire

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