Pytania do obrony

1.How to teach vocabulary, what are the techniques and considerations?

Teaching vocabulary is an essential part of language teaching. It is crucial for learners to have a
good understanding of words and their meanings to be able to communicate effectively. Here
are some techniques and considerations that can be helpful when teaching vocabulary:

Contextualization: One of the most effective ways to teach vocabulary is to present it in context.
This means providing learners with examples of how words are used in real-life situations, such
as through videos, stories, or dialogues.

Visual aids: Using visual aids, such as pictures or diagrams, can also be very helpful in teaching
vocabulary. This technique can help learners associate the word with the image, which can make
it easier for them to remember.

Repetition: Repetition is key when it comes to teaching vocabulary. It is important to provide

learners with multiple opportunities to encounter and practice using new words. This can be
achieved through various activities such as games, exercises, and drills.

Personalization: Making the vocabulary relevant and meaningful to learners' lives can also be a
powerful motivator. Encouraging learners to connect new words to their personal experiences or
interests can help them retain the information more effectively.

Gradual introduction: It is important to introduce new vocabulary gradually, rather than

overwhelming learners with too many new words at once. A good strategy is to focus on high-
frequency words first, and then gradually introduce more complex and specialized vocabulary.
Consider learners' level and needs: When teaching vocabulary, it is important to consider the
learners' level of proficiency and their specific needs. For example, if teaching English for specific
purposes, the vocabulary taught should be relevant to the learners' field of study or work.

Assessment: Finally, it is important to assess learners' progress in vocabulary acquisition. This

can be done through various means, such as vocabulary tests or quizzes, or through observing
learners' use of new words in oral or written communication.

In summary, teaching vocabulary requires a variety of techniques and considerations, including

contextualization, visual aids, repetition, personalization, gradual introduction, consideration of
learners' level and needs, and assessment. By incorporating these elements into their teaching,
educators can help learners acquire and use new vocabulary more effectively.

2. What is motivation; what definitions and/or typologies do you know?

Motivation is a complex psychological construct that refers to the driving force that initiates,
directs, and sustains behavior. It is the reason why individuals engage in certain activities or
pursue specific goals. In an educational context, motivation plays a crucial role in learning, as it
influences students' willingness to engage in academic tasks, their level of effort, and their
persistence in the face of difficulties.

There are various definitions and typologies of motivation, depending on the theoretical
perspective and research tradition. One common distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to the drive to engage in an activity for its own sake,
because it is inherently interesting, enjoyable, or fulfilling. Extrinsic motivation, on the other
hand, involves the pursuit of external rewards or the avoidance of negative consequences, such
as grades, praise, money, or social approval.

Another typology of motivation is based on the level of self-determination or autonomy that

individuals experience in their pursuits. Self-determination theory distinguishes between three
types of motivation: intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation. Intrinsic motivation is characterized by
a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, where individuals engage in an activity
because they find it inherently satisfying and fulfilling. Extrinsic motivation can be either
autonomous, where individuals pursue an activity because they value its outcomes or goals, or
controlled, where they feel pressured or obligated to do so. Amotivation refers to the lack of
motivation or interest in an activity.

Other theories and approaches to motivation include achievement motivation, goal orientation,
social cognitive theory, and expectancy-value theory. Regardless of the specific framework, it is
important for teachers to recognize the role of motivation in learning and to create a supportive
and engaging learning environment that fosters intrinsic motivation and autonomy. This can
involve providing meaningful and challenging tasks, offering choice and control over learning
activities, giving feedback and recognition, and promoting a growth mindset and positive
attitudes towards learning.

Intrinsic Motivation: This type of motivation comes from within and is driven by the internal
desire to achieve something. People who are intrinsically motivated enjoy the activity for its own
sake, without the need for external rewards or incentives.

Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is driven by external rewards or
incentives such as money, grades, praise, or recognition. People who are extrinsically motivated
may not enjoy the activity itself, but are motivated by the potential rewards or consequences
associated with it.

Achievement Motivation: This type of motivation is driven by the desire to achieve success and
attain personal goals. Individuals with high levels of achievement motivation are often very
focused on their goals, persistent in their efforts to reach them, and willing to take risks to
achieve them.

Social Motivation: Social motivation is driven by the desire for social interaction and the need for
social validation. People who are socially motivated are often influenced by the opinions and
actions of others and seek to fit in with social norms and expectations.

Fear Motivation: Fear motivation is driven by the desire to avoid negative consequences or
punishment. People who are motivated by fear are often motivated to avoid failure,
embarrassment, or punishment, rather than to achieve success or attain personal goals.

As a teacher, it's important to understand the different types of motivation and how they can
influence student behavior and performance. By creating an environment that fosters intrinsic
motivation and providing opportunities for students to set and achieve their own goals, you can
help your students become more engaged and motivated learners.

3. What is CLT and how can communicative competence be developed in an EFL class?

CLT, or Communicative Language Teaching, is an approach to language learning that emphasizes

the importance of communication and interaction in language use. This approach is based on
the idea that language learners should focus on developing their ability to use language in
meaningful and authentic situations.

One of the primary goals of CLT is to develop communicative competence in learners.

Communicative competence refers to the ability to use language effectively in a range of real-life
situations. This includes not only the ability to understand and produce grammatically correct
sentences, but also the ability to use language in culturally appropriate ways, to negotiate
meaning, and to engage in social interactions.

In order to develop communicative competence in an EFL (English as a Foreign Language) class,

there are several key considerations that teachers should keep in mind:

Authentic Materials and Situations: Teachers should strive to create authentic situations that
reflect real-life language use. This can include using authentic materials like newspapers, TV
shows, and podcasts, as well as creating activities that simulate real-life interactions, such as
role-plays and debates.

Focus on Meaning: Rather than focusing solely on grammar and vocabulary, teachers should
emphasize the importance of meaning in language use. This means encouraging students to
communicate with each other using the language they know, even if it is not perfect.

Collaborative Learning: In order to develop communicative competence, students need

opportunities to interact with each other. Teachers should create activities that encourage
collaboration and group work, such as group projects and pair work.

Error Correction: While the focus should be on meaning, teachers should also provide feedback
on errors in students' language use. This can include providing corrective feedback during
activities or reviewing errors in a post-activity debrief.

Cultural Awareness: Communicative competence also involves an understanding of cultural

norms and expectations in language use. Teachers should help students develop cultural
awareness and sensitivity, including understanding how to use language appropriately in
different contexts.

Overall, CLT is a valuable approach for developing communicative competence in EFL learners.
By emphasizing authentic situations, meaning-focused activities, collaborative learning, error
correction, and cultural awareness, teachers can help their students develop the language skills
they need to communicate effectively in a range of real-life situations.

4. What are the techniques and activies for developing communicative competence?

Developing communicative competence requires a variety of techniques and activities that focus
on developing students' ability to use language in authentic communication situations. Here are
some examples of techniques and activities that can be used to develop communicative
competence:

Role-plays and simulations: These activities provide students with opportunities to practice using
language in realistic situations. For example, students can role-play a job interview or a
restaurant interaction.

Information-gap activities: These activities require students to communicate with each other in
order to complete a task or solve a problem. For example, students can work in pairs to
complete a crossword puzzle where each student has different clues.

Debates and discussions: These activities encourage students to express their opinions and
engage in meaningful communication with each other. For example, students can debate a
controversial topic or discuss a current event.

Collaborative writing tasks: These tasks require students to work together to produce a written
text. For example, students can work in groups to write a short story or a news article.

Games and puzzles: These activities can be used to make learning language fun and engaging.
For example, students can play word games like Scrabble or do crossword puzzles.

Authentic materials: Using authentic materials like newspaper articles, songs, or movie clips can
help students develop their communicative competence by exposing them to real-world
language use.

It's important to keep in mind that these techniques and activities should be designed to
encourage students to communicate in a meaningful way, rather than simply focusing on
grammar or vocabulary acquisition. By providing opportunities for authentic communication,
teachers can help students develop the communicative competence they need to effectively use
English in real-world situations.

5. What constitutes the humanistic approach: can you list methods and main common
features?

The humanistic approach is a teaching philosophy that emphasizes the individuality and
autonomy of the learner, as well as the importance of creating a positive and supportive learning
environment. The goal of this approach is to foster personal growth and development, rather
than simply imparting knowledge and skills.

Here are some common methods and features of the humanistic approach:

Learner-centered instruction: In this approach, the teacher acts as a facilitator or guide, rather
than an authority figure. The focus is on the needs and interests of the learner, and instruction is
tailored to the individual's level of knowledge and experience.

Self-directed learning: Humanistic educators believe that students should be encouraged to take
responsibility for their own learning, and that they are capable of setting their own goals and
developing their own learning plans.

Experiential learning: This approach emphasizes the importance of learning through experience,
rather than simply reading or listening to information. Activities such as group discussions, role-
plays, and simulations are often used to encourage students to actively participate in the
learning process.

Positive reinforcement: Humanistic educators believe that students learn best when they are
praised for their efforts and achievements, rather than criticized for their mistakes. Positive
reinforcement is used to build students' self-esteem and motivation.

Holistic development: This approach recognizes that students are complex beings with
emotional, social, and cognitive needs. Learning is viewed as a process that encompasses the
whole person, rather than just a set of cognitive skills.

Authentic assessment: In the humanistic approach, assessment is viewed as a tool for learning,
rather than a measure of performance. Teachers use a variety of methods, such as portfolios,
self-evaluation, and peer review, to assess student progress.

Overall, the humanistic approach emphasizes the importance of creating a supportive and
nurturing learning environment, where students feel safe to explore, experiment, and take risks.
By focusing on the individual learner, this approach seeks to develop the whole person, rather
than just imparting knowledge and skills.

6. Who first introduced the concept of integrative and instrumental motivation- Can you
explan and use examples?

The concept of integrative and instrumental motivation was first introduced by Robert Gardner
and Wallace Lambert in the 1950s as a way of explaining why some individuals learn a second
language more successfully than others.

Integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a second language in order to become a part
of the culture and to communicate more effectively with the people who speak that language.
For example, someone who wants to learn Spanish because they have Spanish-speaking friends
or a partner would have integrative motivation.

On the other hand, instrumental motivation refers to the desire to learn a second language in
order to achieve a practical goal, such as getting a job or passing an exam. For example,
someone who wants to learn English in order to be able to work in an international company
would have instrumental motivation.

As a language teacher, it is important to recognize the different types of motivation in your

students and to try to cater to their individual needs. Here are some specific examples and
solutions for integrating integrative and instrumental motivation into English language lessons:

Start with the students' interests: Find out what your students are interested in and try to
incorporate those interests into your lessons. For example, if a student is interested in fashion,
you could have them read and discuss articles about fashion in English.

Focus on communication: Encourage your students to use English to communicate with each
other in class. This will help to build their confidence and motivate them to continue learning.

Use authentic materials: Use authentic materials such as videos, podcasts, and news articles to
expose your students to real-life English. This will help them to see the practical applications of
the language and motivate them to learn more.

Set achievable goals: Work with your students to set achievable goals for their language
learning. This will help to give them a sense of progress and achievement, which can be very
motivating.
Use technology: Incorporate technology into your lessons by using language learning apps or
online resources. This can be a fun and engaging way to learn and can help to motivate your
students to continue learning outside of class.

7. What is constructivism in ELT?

Constructivism in ELT (English Language Teaching) is an educational theory that emphasizes the
active construction of knowledge by learners through meaningful interactions and experiences.
It posits that learners actively construct their understanding of the world by connecting new
information with their existing knowledge and experiences.

In the context of English language teaching, constructivism recognizes the importance of

learners' prior knowledge, cultural background, and individual experiences in the process of
language acquisition. It emphasizes hands-on, experiential learning and encourages learners to
actively engage in tasks that promote language production, problem-solving, critical thinking,
and collaboration.

Constructivism in ELT promotes active, learner-centered, and meaningful language learning

experiences that foster the development of language proficiency and critical thinking skills. It
recognizes that learners construct knowledge and meaning through their own experiences and
interactions, and it encourages teachers to create engaging and authentic learning environments
that support this process.

8. How to teach reading - techniques and considerations?

Here are some techniques and considerations for teaching reading:

Pre-reading Activities: Engage learners in pre-reading activities to activate their prior knowledge,
build anticipation, and set a purpose for reading. This can include discussions, brainstorming,
predictions, or visualizations related to the topic or text.

Vocabulary Preview: Introduce and pre-teach key vocabulary words and concepts to enhance
learners' understanding of the text. Provide context, definitions, and examples, and encourage
learners to make connections with their own knowledge and experiences.

Skimming and Scanning: Teach skimming (quickly glancing over a text to get a general idea) and
scanning (searching for specific information) techniques. Practice these skills through timed
activities or specific tasks that require learners to locate specific details, main ideas, or
supporting evidence.
Text Structure and Organization: Help learners understand different text structures, such as
narratives, expository texts, or argumentative essays. Teach them to identify headings,
subheadings, topic sentences, and other markers that indicate the organization and main ideas
of a text.

Active Reading Strategies: Teach learners to actively engage with the text by highlighting
important information, underlining key points, annotating, or taking notes. Encourage them to
ask questions, make predictions, or summarize sections of the text to improve comprehension
and retention.

Reading Comprehension Strategies: Teach and model various comprehension strategies, such as
predicting, inferring, questioning, making connections, visualizing, and summarizing. Encourage
learners to apply these strategies while reading to enhance understanding and make meaning
from the text.

Authentic Reading Materials: Provide learners with authentic reading materials that are relevant
to their interests, needs, and language proficiency level. Use a variety of text types, including
articles, short stories, blogs, news reports, or excerpts from books, to expose learners to
different genres and writing styles.

Scaffolded Reading: Gradually increase the complexity of reading materials and provide
scaffolding support as needed. Start with simpler texts and gradually introduce more challenging
ones. Offer vocabulary support, comprehension questions, or graphic organizers to assist
learners in navigating and understanding the text.

Reading Aloud and Shared Reading: Read aloud to learners and engage in shared reading
activities where the teacher and learners read a text together. This helps model fluent reading,
develop pronunciation skills, and foster a sense of rhythm and intonation.

Reading for Pleasure: Promote a love for reading by incorporating reading for pleasure into the
classroom. Set aside dedicated time for independent reading, establish a class library,
recommend books, and encourage learners to share their reading experiences and
recommendations.

Assessment and Feedback: Regularly assess learners' reading comprehension through various
forms of assessment, such as quizzes, oral discussions, written responses, or projects. Provide
constructive feedback that highlights strengths, identifies areas for improvement, and offers
strategies to enhance reading skills.

9. What is dyslexia and what other dysfunctions can you name and describe?

Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder that primarily affects reading and related language-based
skills. It is characterized by difficulties in accurate and fluent word recognition, poor spelling, and
decoding abilities. Dyslexia is neurobiological in nature and often runs in families. Individuals
with dyslexia may have normal intelligence and overall cognitive abilities but struggle with
processing and manipulating written language.

Here are some other neurodevelopmental disorders and dysfunctions related to learning and
cognition:

Dysgraphia: Dysgraphia is a learning disorder that affects writing skills. Individuals with
dysgraphia may struggle with handwriting legibility, letter formation, spacing, organizing
thoughts on paper, and maintaining a consistent writing speed.

Dyscalculia: Dyscalculia is a specific learning disorder that affects mathematical skills and
number sense. Individuals with dyscalculia may have difficulty understanding and manipulating
numbers, performing arithmetic operations, grasping mathematical concepts, and remembering
mathematical facts.

Non-Verbal Learning DIsabilities- Has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial expressions
or body language and may have poor coordination.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder

characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that
significantly impact daily functioning and academic performance. Individuals with ADHD may
struggle with maintaining focus, sustaining attention, organizing tasks, and managing impulses.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): ASD is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder that affects
social interaction, communication, and behavior. Individuals with ASD may have difficulties with
social communication, understanding and using nonverbal cues, developing and maintaining
relationships, and exhibiting repetitive or restricted patterns of behavior.

Speech and Language Disorders: Speech and language disorders involve difficulties in the
production, comprehension, or expression of spoken or written language. These disorders can
impact communication skills, vocabulary development, grammar, articulation, and language
processing.

Executive Functioning Deficits: Executive functions refer to cognitive processes that help
individuals plan, organize, prioritize, initiate tasks, manage time, regulate emotions, and
problem-solve. Deficits in executive functioning can impact various aspects of daily functioning,
including academic performance and organization.

10. How to teach writing? What techniques and considerations can you think of?

Model Writing: Demonstrate the writing process by modeling different writing tasks and
strategies. Show learners how to generate ideas, organize thoughts, draft, revise, and edit.
Thinking aloud while writing can provide insights into the decision-making process and help
learners understand the steps involved.

Pre-writing Activities: Engage learners in pre-writing activities to generate ideas, plan, and
organize their thoughts. These can include brainstorming, concept mapping, outlining, or using
graphic organizers to structure their ideas before beginning to write.

Writing Prompts and Topics: Provide interesting and relevant writing prompts or topics that
engage learners and encourage them to express their opinions or experiences. Offer a variety of
genres and writing styles to expose learners to different forms of writing.

Writing Process: Teach learners the stages of the writing process, including pre-writing, drafting,
revising, editing, and publishing. Emphasize the importance of multiple drafts and revisions to
improve the clarity and coherence of their writing.

Feedback and Revision: Provide constructive feedback on learners' writing, focusing on strengths
and areas for improvement. Encourage peer feedback and self-assessment to develop learners'
critical thinking and self-editing skills. Guide learners in revising and improving their writing
based on the feedback received.

Sentence and Paragraph Structure: Teach sentence and paragraph structure, including topic
sentences, supporting details, transitions, and concluding sentences. Provide models and
examples to illustrate effective sentence and paragraph organization.

Vocabulary and Grammar: Help learners expand their vocabulary and develop grammatical
accuracy. Integrate vocabulary-building activities and explicit instruction on grammar rules
within the writing process. Encourage learners to use a variety of sentence structures and
appropriate vocabulary to enhance their writing.

Authentic Writing Tasks: Incorporate authentic writing tasks that connect to real-life situations
and contexts. This can include writing emails, letters, reports, essays, or blog posts that reflect
the purpose and audience for which learners are writing.

Genre Awareness: Introduce different genres of writing and their specific characteristics. Teach
learners the conventions and expectations associated with various genres, such as narratives,
expository writing, persuasive essays, or argumentative writing.

Writing Conventions: Teach learners the conventions of writing, including punctuation,

capitalization, spelling, and formatting. Provide explicit instruction on common writing errors
and offer practice activities to reinforce these conventions.

Technology Integration: Utilize technology tools and resources to enhance the writing process.
Encourage learners to use word processing software, online writing platforms, or grammar-
checking tools to improve their writing skills and facilitate revision and editing.

Individualized Instruction: Recognize learners' individual needs, interests, and proficiency levels.
Differentiate instruction by providing targeted support and scaffolding based on learners'
abilities. Offer additional guidance or extension activities to cater to learners' diverse needs.

Celebrate and Share Writing: Create opportunities for learners to showcase and share their
writing. This can include publishing written work through classroom displays, digital platforms,
or peer sharing sessions. Celebrate and recognize learners' progress and accomplishments in
writing.

Regular Writing Practice: Encourage regular writing practice to develop fluency and proficiency.
Provide time for free writing or journaling to promote creativity and self-expression.

Assessment and Reflection: Establish clear assessment criteria and rubrics to evaluate learners'
writing. Provide opportunities for learners to reflect on their writing process, set goals, and track
their progress over time.

11. What are the features of a good test?

Reliability: A good test is reliable, meaning it produces consistent and stable results over time.
Reliability ensures that if the same test is administered to the same group of individuals under
similar conditions, it will yield consistent scores. Reliability can be measured through various
statistical methods, such as test-retest reliability or internal consistency.

Validity: A good test is valid, meaning it measures what it is intended to measure. It accurately
assesses the knowledge, skills, or abilities it is designed to evaluate. Validity can be established
through various methods, including content validity (the test adequately covers the content
domain), criterion-related validity (correlation with an external criterion), and construct validity
(the test measures the targeted construct or theoretical concept).

Clear and Appropriate Test Objectives: A good test has clear and well-defined test objectives or
learning outcomes that align with the content being assessed. The objectives should be specific,
measurable, and relevant to the purpose of the test.

Fairness: A good test is fair, ensuring that all test-takers have an equal and unbiased opportunity
to demonstrate their knowledge or skills. It should minimize the impact of factors unrelated to
what is being assessed, such as cultural bias or discriminatory language.

Test Administration: A good test provides clear instructions and procedures for test
administration to ensure consistency and fairness across different test sessions and
administrators. It includes guidelines for timing, test conditions, and any specific requirements
or accommodations for test-takers with special needs.

Balanced Test Items: A good test includes a balanced mix of test items that effectively sample
the content domain and assess different levels of knowledge or skills. It includes a variety of
item formats, such as multiple-choice, short answer, essay, or performance-based tasks,
depending on the nature of what is being assessed.

Appropriate Difficulty Level: A good test presents items that appropriately challenge the test-
takers without being too easy or too difficult. The test items should cover a range of difficulty
levels to differentiate between high and low performers and provide a comprehensive
assessment.

Clear and Scorable Response Options: For tests with multiple-choice or other selected-response
items, a good test provides clear and unambiguous response options. The options should be
mutually exclusive and cover the range of plausible answers. It should also have well-defined
scoring rubrics or guidelines to ensure consistent and fair scoring.
Adequate Test Length: A good test is of an appropriate length that allows sufficient coverage of
the content while maintaining test-taker engagement and minimizing fatigue. The length should
be manageable within the allocated time frame and avoid unnecessary redundancy.

Test Security and Confidentiality: A good test maintains test security and confidentiality to
prevent cheating or compromise of the test's integrity. It includes measures to protect the test
materials, restrict unauthorized access, and ensure that test results are treated as confidential
information.

These features collectively contribute to the overall quality and effectiveness of a test in
providing reliable and valid information about the knowledge, skills, or abilities of the test-
takers. It is important to consider these features when designing, selecting, or evaluating a test
to ensure its quality and appropriateness for the intended purpose.

12. Can you explain the terms: Validity: A good test is valid, meaning it measures what it is
intended to measure. It accurately assesses the knowledge, skills, or abilities it is designed to
evaluate. Validity can be established through various methods, including content validity (the
test adequately covers the content domain), criterion-related validity (correlation with an
external criterion), and construct validity (the test measures the targeted construct or
theoretical concept).

Reliability A good test is reliable, meaning it produces consistent and stable results over time.
Reliability ensures that if the same test is administered to the same group of individuals under
similar conditions, it will yield consistent scores. Reliability can be measured through various
statistical methods, such as test-retest reliability or internal

practicality refers to the feasibility and usefulness of the test in real-world settings. It assesses
whether the test can be administered, scored, and interpreted effectively and efficiently within
the constraints of practical considerations.

do-ability - refers to the feasibility and practicality of test tasks and activities from the
perspective of the test-takers. It assesses whether the tasks and activities in the test are
manageable and accessible for test-takers within their language proficiency level and available
resources.

of language tests?

13. Can you name and describe teacher roles in an EFL class?

EFL - English as a Foreign Language

EFL refers to teaching English as a Foreign Language in a country where English is not the
primary language.

⁃ Facilitator: One of the primary roles of an EFL teacher is to facilitate (ułatwiać) learning.
They should create a supportive learning environment, encourage students to participate, and
provide guidance and feedback to help students reach their language learning goals.

⁃ Instructor: Teachers should also serve as instructors, providing clear explanations and
demonstrations of language concepts, grammar rules, and pronunciation. They can use a
variety of teaching techniques such as lectures, presentations, and interactive activities to
help students understand and retain new information.

⁃ Assessor: Teachers also play an essential role in assessing (ocenianie) students' language
abilities. They should develop and administer assessments that accurately measure students'
language skills and progress. They should also provide timely and constructive feedback to
help students improve their language abilities.

⁃ Motivator: Another essential role of an EFL teacher is to motivate students to learn. They can
do this by creating engaging and interactive lessons, using authentic materials, and providing
opportunities for students to use English in real-life situations. Teachers can also help
students set and achieve realistic language learning goals.
⁃ Counselor: Teachers can also serve as counselors (doradca), providing emotional support and
guidance to students who may be struggling with language learning or other personal issues.
They should create a safe and supportive learning environment where students feel
comfortable sharing their thoughts and feelings.

⁃ Curriculum designer: EFL teachers are responsible for selecting materials for the course and
they should ensure that the curriculum meets the needs of the students and aligns with the
overall language learning goals.

⁃ Technology integrator: With the increasing use of technology in education, EFL teachers
should also integrate technology into the classroom.

⁃ Classroom manager: EFL teachers should also manage the classroom effectively, ensuring
that all students are engaged, participating, and behaving appropriately. They should establish
classroom rules and procedures, manage classroom activities, and address any disciplinary
issues that may arise.

⁃ Cultural ambassador: They can expose students to various aspects of English-speaking

cultures, such as literature, music, and film, and encourage students to explore and embrace
cultural differences.

14 What is the Natural Way and what are its classroom implications?

The Natural Way is a language teaching method that emphasizes the natural process of language
acquisition. Developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen in the 1970s, the Natural Way is
based on the idea that language learning is most effective when it occurs in a low-anxiety
environment, with a focus on meaningful communication rather than memorization of grammar
rules and vocabulary.

The Natural Way approach emphasizes the following principles:

⁃ Comprehensible input: Language learners need to be exposed to language that they can
understand in order to acquire it. This means that teachers should use language that is just
 slightly above the learners' current level, and use a variety of strategies, such as context and
visual aids, to make the language comprehensible.

⁃ Low-anxiety environment: Language learning is most effective when learners are relaxed
and comfortable. Teachers should create a low-anxiety environment in which learners feel
safe to take risks, make mistakes, and learn from them.

⁃ Focus on communication: The goal of language learning is to be able to communicate

effectively in the target language. Therefore, teachers should focus on developing learners'
communicative competence, rather than on memorization of grammar rules and vocabulary.

⁃ Language is acquired, not learned: According to the Natural Way, language learning is a
subconscious process of acquiring language through meaningful communication, rather than
a conscious process of learning grammar rules and vocabulary.

The classroom implications of the Natural Way approach include the following:

⁃ Use of authentic materials: Teachers should use authentic materials, such as videos, songs,
and literature, to expose learners to real-world language use.

⁃ Group work and pair work: Teachers should encourage learners to work in groups or pairs to
practice their language skills in a low-anxiety environment.

⁃ Error correction (nice way): Teachers should provide feedback to learners in a supportive and
non-judgmental way, focusing on the meaning rather than the form of the language.

⁃ Emphasis on communication: Teachers should provide opportunities for learners to practice

their language skills in meaningful communication, such as role-plays, discussions, and
debates.

⁃ Language immersion: Teachers should create an immersive environment in which learners

are surrounded by the target language and have many opportunities to use it in context.

⁃ Emphasis on listening and speaking skills.

⁃ Emphasis on meaning over form

⁃ Contextualization: Teachers should provide learners with opportunities to use the language in
context, rather than in isolation.

15. What are the classroom implications of the Monitor Theory?

The Monitor Theory is a language learning theory developed by Stephen Krashen in the 1970s.

The implications are that the monitor is like an editor or a supervisor. They should probably
correct their students if they’re using language improperly, but they shouldn’t correct them too
much. If students spend most of their time worrying about a specific language rule or law, it’ll be
harder for them to accomplish a basic fluency. In conclusion, the best monitor will likely be a
balanced teacher or overseer.

It proposes that language learning occurs in two ways: acquisition and learning. Acquisition is a
subconscious process in which learners develop language skills through exposure to
comprehensible language input, while learning is a conscious process in which learners acquire
knowledge of the rules of the language.

The classroom implications of the Monitor Theory are as follows:

⁃ To facilitate language acquisition, teachers should provide comprehensible input that is just
slightly above the learners' current level. This can be achieved by using a variety of
strategies, such as context, visual aids, and simplified language.

⁃ Emphasize meaning over form: To facilitate language acquisition, teachers should provide
opportunities for learners to communicate meaningfully, rather than focusing on grammar
drills or other exercises that focus on form.
⁃ Teachers should provide opportunities for learners to monitor their own language output. This
can be achieved through activities such as peer review, self-correction, and teacher feedback.

⁃ Provide explicit instruction: grammar explanations, vocabulary lists, and other explicit
teaching strategies.

⁃ Create a low-anxiety environment in which learners feel comfortable taking risks and making
mistakes. This can be achieved through supportive feedback, positive reinforcement, and a
focus on progress rather than perfection.

⁃ Encourage natural language use, rather than focusing on drills or artificial language use. This
can be achieved through activities such as role-plays, discussions, and debates.

16. How to teach speaking? What techniques and considerations can you think of?

• Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak the target language by providing a

friendly environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and
shared knowledge.

• Try to involve each student in every speaking activity; for this aim, practice different ways
of student participation.

• Consider learner needs and interests. Learners will be more engaged and motivated if they
are interested in the topic and can relate to it personally.

• Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step back
and observe students.

• Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's response.

• Ask eliciting questions such as "What do you mean? How did you reach that conclusion?"
in order to prompt students to speak more.

• Provide constructive feedback

• Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking.
Correction should not distract student from his or her speech.

• Involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of class; contact parents and other
people who can help.

• Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see whether
they need your help while they work in groups or pairs.

• Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities.

• Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves in the
target language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken language.

17. What are authentic materials and their features and applications?

Authentic materials are print, video, and audio materials students encounter in their daily lives,
such as job applications, menus, voice mail messages, radio programs, and videos. Authentic
materials are not created specifically to be used in the classroom, but they make excellent
learning tools for students.

Advertisements

Menu

Order forms

Receipts

Web sites

Street signs

Coupons

Traffic tickets
Greeting cards

Calendars

Report cards

TV guides

Food labels

Magazines

Newspapers

Movies

Messages

Podcasts

Features of authentic materials:

⁃ Language used in real-life situations: Authentic materials reflect the language used in real-life
situations, providing learners with exposure to natural and relevant language use.

⁃ Cultural context: Authentic materials provide learners with an opportunity to learn about the
culture of the language they are learning, as they reflect the cultural context in which the
language is used.

⁃ Vocabulary and language use: Authentic materials expose learners to a range of vocabulary
and language use, including colloquial expressions and idiomatic language.

⁃ Engagement: Authentic materials are often more engaging than artificial materials created
specifically for language learning purposes, as they reflect the interests and preferences of
native speakers.

Applications of authentic materials:

⁃ Listening and comprehension practice: Authentic materials can be used to provide learners
with listening and comprehension practice, helping them to develop their ability to
understand natural and relevant language use.

⁃ Speaking and writing practice: Authentic materials can be used as a basis for speaking and
writing practice, providing learners with a context for language use and a model for language
production.

⁃ Cultural understanding: Authentic materials can be used to promote cultural understanding,

helping learners to understand the cultural context in which the language is used.

⁃ Motivation and engagement: Authentic materials can be used to motivate and engage
learners, as they reflect the interests and preferences of native speakers.

18. How to teach listening? What techniques and considerations can you think of?

1. Provide pre-listening activities such as predicting the content, activating prior knowledge, and
vocabulary review can help learners to focus their attention and improve their comprehension.

2. Use a variety of materials such as podcasts, videos, songs, and news articles to expose
learners to different accents, speeds, and topics.

3. Scaffold listening activities to provide support for learners at different proficiency levels. This
can be achieved through pre-listening activities, such as vocabulary review or prediction, and
post-listening activities, such as comprehension questions or summarizing.

4. Focus on bottom-up and top-down processing: Bottom-up processing involves understanding

individual sounds and words, while top-down processing involves using background
knowledge and context to understand meaning.

5. Use authentic materials such as news broadcasts or podcasts, can help learners to develop
their ability to understand natural and relevant language use.
6. Encourage active listening, it involves engaging with the material and actively trying to
understand the content. Teachers can encourage active listening by providing comprehension
questions or tasks that require learners to interact with the material.

7. Encourage students to search for keywords and the most important concepts in the recording

19. What types of tests do you know and what are their applications?

1. Achievement Tests: Achievement tests measure the knowledge and skills acquired by
individuals in a specific subject area or curriculum. They are used in educational settings to
assess students' learning outcomes and determine their level of proficiency. Examples include
standardized tests like the SAT, ACT, or subject-specific exams like the TOEFL for English
proficiency.

2. Placement Tests: Placement tests are used to determine the appropriate level of instruction
for learners. They assess learners' knowledge and skills in a particular subject area and help
place them in appropriate courses or programs. Placement tests are commonly used in language
learning contexts to assess learners' language proficiency and allocate them to the appropriate
level or class.

3. Diagnostic Tests: Diagnostic tests are designed to identify learners' strengths and weaknesses
in specific areas. They help teachers and educators understand learners' individual needs and
tailor instruction accordingly. Diagnostic tests provide insights into learners' knowledge gaps and
inform targeted intervention strategies.

4. Formative Assessment: Formative assessments are ongoing assessments used during the
learning process to monitor learners' progress and provide feedback for improvement. They are
designed to guide instruction and support learners' development. Formative assessments can
take various forms, such as quizzes, class discussions, projects, or teacher feedback.

5. Summative Assessment: Summative assessments are typically administered at the end of a

learning period to evaluate learners' overall achievement and measure the extent to which
learning goals have been met. They often take the form of exams, final projects, or standardized
tests. Summative assessments provide a summary judgment of learners' performance and are
often used for grading or certification purposes.

6. Proficiency Tests: Proficiency tests measure individuals' overall language proficiency in a

specific language. They assess learners' abilities in different language skills, such as speaking,
listening, reading, and writing, and determine their overall language competence. Examples
include language proficiency tests like the Cambridge English Exams (e.g., IELTS, Cambridge First)
or the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).

7. Aptitude Tests: Aptitude tests assess individuals' innate or potential abilities in specific areas,
such as cognitive abilities, problem-solving skills, or specific talents. They are often used in
educational and employment contexts to predict individuals' likelihood of success in a particular
field or occupation.

8. Personality Tests: Personality tests measure individuals' personality traits, characteristics, or

behavioral tendencies. They provide insights into individuals' preferences, attitudes, and traits,
and are commonly used in career counseling, team building, or personal development contexts.

20. How to teach grammar? What techniques and considerations can you think of?

-Introduce grammar in meaningful and authentic contexts. Connect grammar instruction to real-
life situations, texts, or topics that are relevant and interesting to the learners. This helps
learners understand how grammar is used to convey meaning and enhances their motivation
and engagement.

-Provide clear and explicit explanations of grammar rules, structures, and patterns. Use
examples, visual aids, and real-life language examples to illustrate the usage and meaning of
different grammar points. Break down complex concepts into simpler, manageable parts to
facilitate understanding.

-Offer scaffolded practice activities that gradually increase in complexity. Begin with guided
activities that provide step-by-step support, such as completing cloze exercises or sentence
transformations. As learners gain confidence, progress to more independent practice activities
like error correction or creating original sentences.

-Engage learners in activities that focus on meaning rather than solely on grammar structures.
Use communicative tasks, such as role-plays, discussions, or problem-solving activities, where
learners need to use grammar to convey meaning and achieve a specific communicative goal.

-Expose learners to authentic language input through reading passages, listening materials, or
authentic texts. This helps learners encounter grammar structures in real contexts and aids in
understanding how grammar is used naturally by native speakers.

-Provide constructive feedback on learners' errors and guide them in correcting their mistakes.
Use a combination of teacher-led correction, peer feedback, and self-correction strategies. Help
learners understand common error patterns and focus on specific areas of improvement.
-Integrate grammar instruction with the development of other language skills, such as speaking,
listening, reading, and writing. Show learners how grammar structures impact communication
and comprehension in different language contexts.

-Make grammar learning enjoyable and engaging through the use of games, puzzles, and
interactive activities. Incorporate online resources, board games, or flashcards to reinforce
grammar concepts and provide opportunities for hands-on practice.

-Provide learners with grammar reference materials, such as grammar handbooks, charts, or
online resources. These materials serve as references for learners to review grammar rules,
clarify doubts, and reinforce their understanding outside of classroom instruction.

-Recognize that learners have different learning styles and preferences. Tailor instruction to
meet individual needs by providing additional support or extension activities based on learners'
proficiency levels and progress.

-Encourage learners to apply grammar knowledge in their writing. Assign writing tasks that
require the use of specific grammar structures or patterns. Provide feedback and guidance on
grammar usage to help learners improve their writing skills.

-Incorporate regular revision and review sessions to consolidate learners' understanding of

grammar concepts. Dedicate time to revisit previously taught grammar points, reinforce
learning, and address any misconceptions.

- Help learners understand the cultural and situational contexts in which grammar is used.
Highlight cultural nuances and variations in grammar usage to promote intercultural
competence and awareness.

-Approach grammar instruction with patience and provide positive reinforcement. Grammar
learning can be challenging, and learners may make errors along the way. Encourage learners to
take risks, be patient with their progress, and celebrate their achievements.

21. What are the advantages of using authentic materials?

- Authentic materials reflect the language and cultural contexts in which the target language is
used. They provide learners with exposure to genuine language as it is used by native speakers
in real-life situations. This helps learners develop skills for understanding and using the language
in authentic contexts.

- Authentic materials expose learners to various language variations, accents, dialects, and
registers. They help learners develop an appreciation for the diverse forms of the language and
become more flexible and adaptable in their language use. Learners can better understand and
appreciate the nuances, idiomatic expressions, and cultural references specific to the target
language.

- Authentic materials are often more engaging and motivating for learners compared to artificial
or contrived materials. Learners are more likely to be interested and invested in learning when
they encounter real-life texts, videos, songs, or other authentic resources that align with their
personal interests, goals, and aspirations.

- Authentic materials provide insights into the culture, customs, and perspectives of the target
language community. They expose learners to the cultural aspects embedded in the language,
promoting intercultural competence and fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of
the target culture.

- Authentic materials reflect current trends, events, and issues in the target language
community. They expose learners to the latest developments in the language and keep them
updated on relevant topics. This enhances learners' language proficiency and ensures that they
are exposed to contemporary language usage.

- Authentic materials provide examples of how language is used in real-life communication,

including natural speech patterns, colloquial expressions, and discourse markers. They expose
learners to the authentic language features, helping them develop their listening, speaking,
reading, and writing skills in a more realistic and natural way.

22. What is the difference between the deductive and inductive approaches to

teaching?

Deductive Approach:

-In the deductive approach, the teacher presents learners with a grammar rule or a
language concept upfront.

-The teacher explains the rule and provides examples to illustrate its application.

-Learners then apply the rule to practice exercises or activities to reinforce their
understanding.

-This approach follows a top-down structure, where learners start with the rule and then
apply it to specific examples.

Inductive Approach:
 -In the inductive approach, learners are first presented with specific examples or
language samples.

-Learners analyze and identify patterns, rules, or language features from the examples.

-Based on their analysis and observations, learners infer or induce the grammar rule or
language concept themselves.

-Learners then apply the rule to further examples or exercises to practice and reinforce
their understanding.

-This approach follows a bottom-up structure, where learners start with specific
examples and derive the rule or concept from them.

Key Differences:

-In the deductive approach, the teacher takes on a more authoritative role, providing explicit
instruction and explanations. In the inductive approach, the teacher facilitates learners'
discovery and guides them in making their own inferences.

-The deductive approach presents learners with the rule or concept first, followed by examples.
The inductive approach presents learners with examples first, leading to the discovery of the
rule or concept.

-The deductive approach emphasizes the transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the
learners. In the inductive approach, learners actively engage in analyzing and interpreting
language samples, promoting a deeper understanding and ownership of the language rules.

-The inductive approach encourages learners to think critically, observe patterns, and make
connections between language examples, fostering their analytical and problem-solving skills.
The deductive approach focuses more on understanding and applying pre-determined rules.

-The inductive approach often involves using authentic language samples and contexts, allowing
learners to connect the language to real-life situations. The deductive approach may use
controlled or contrived examples to illustrate the grammar rule or concept.

Both approaches have their merits and can be effective in different teaching contexts. The
choice between the deductive and inductive approaches depends on factors such as learner
proficiency, learning objectives, and the specific grammar or language feature being taught.

23. What are the major claims of Krashen’s Monitor theory?

Krashen's Monitor Theory, also known as the Input Hypothesis, proposes several major claims
regarding second language acquisition. Here are the key claims of Krashen's theory:

-Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: Krashen distinguishes between "acquisition" and "learning."

Acquisition refers to the subconscious, natural process of internalizing a language through
meaningful interaction and exposure to comprehensible input. Learning, on the other hand,
involves conscious, formal instruction and rule-based learning. Krashen argues that language
acquisition is more important for developing communicative competence, while learning can
only serve as a monitor or editor for language production.

-Input Hypothesis: The Input Hypothesis states that learners progress in language acquisition
when they receive comprehensible input that is slightly beyond their current language
proficiency level. According to Krashen, comprehensible input contains linguistic elements that
learners can understand through context and prior knowledge, but also includes some new and
challenging language forms that facilitate language development.

-Affective Filter Hypothesis: Krashen posits that learners' affective states, such as motivation,
self-confidence, and anxiety, influence the extent to which they can take in and process
comprehensible input. An optimal affective filter, characterized by low anxiety and high
motivation, allows learners to access and acquire language more effectively. Conversely, a high
affective filter, influenced by negative emotions or stress, may hinder language acquisition.

-Monitor Hypothesis: The Monitor Hypothesis suggests that learners can use their learned
knowledge and rules (their "monitor") to make grammatical corrections and edits during
language production. However, the monitor is most effective in planned and edited writing or
speaking, as it operates consciously and has limitations in real-time spontaneous
communication.

-Natural Order Hypothesis: Krashen proposes that language acquisition follows a predictable,
natural order of acquiring grammatical structures. This order is consistent across learners and is
largely unaffected by formal instruction. Learners tend to acquire grammatical structures in a
specific sequence, with simpler and more frequently used structures acquired before more
complex ones.

-Output Hypothesis: While Krashen primarily emphasizes the importance of comprehensible

input in language acquisition, he acknowledges the role of output (language production) as a
means to test and activate acquired language. Output can help learners notice gaps in their
language knowledge and engage in self-correction, contributing to language development.

24. What types of teacher training are there? Can you name and explain the
differences?

1. Initial Teacher Training (ITT): This refers to training programs for individuals who are
preparing to become teachers. ITT programs typically include a combination of theoretical
knowledge, practical teaching experience, and supervised classroom observations. These
programs can vary in duration and structure, ranging from undergraduate degrees in education
to postgraduate certificates or diplomas.

2. In-Service Training: In-service training is designed for teachers who are already in the
profession and seek further professional development. These programs provide opportunities
for teachers to update their knowledge, acquire new teaching strategies, and address specific
areas of improvement. In-service training can be delivered through workshops, seminars,
conferences, online courses, or collaborative professional learning communities.

3. Continuing Professional Development (CPD): CPD encompasses a wide range of activities and
programs aimed at ongoing professional growth. It involves teachers engaging in continuous
learning and reflective practice to enhance their teaching skills and knowledge. CPD can include
attending conferences, participating in webinars or online courses, conducting action research,
or joining professional associations.

4. Subject-Specific Training: Subject-specific training focuses on enhancing teachers' content

knowledge and pedagogical approaches in a particular subject area. These programs provide
teachers with specialized training and resources to effectively teach specific subjects, such as
mathematics, science, languages, or arts.

5. Special Education Training: Special education training equips teachers with the knowledge
and skills to support students with diverse learning needs. These programs focus on inclusive
education, understanding disabilities, adapting instructional strategies, and implementing
individualized educational plans.

6. Technology Integration Training: Technology integration training helps teachers effectively

incorporate technology tools and resources into their teaching practices. These programs aim to
develop teachers' digital literacy, knowledge of educational technology tools, and strategies for
integrating technology to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes.

7. Leadership and Management Training: Leadership and management training programs are
designed for teachers who aspire to leadership roles, such as department heads, coordinators,
or school administrators. These programs focus on developing skills in instructional leadership,
curriculum development, school management, and educational policy.
25. What is interlanguage and fossilization?
 Interlanguage-> a language learner's own 'version' of the language they are
learning (because they have not mastered it yet).
 Fossilization-> when a mistake becomes part of a student's language and won't go
away.

26. What are the major claims of Swain’s output model and its constituents?
Developed by Merrill Swain, the comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that
learning takes place when learners encounter a gap in their linguistic knowledge of the
second language (L2). By noticing this gap, learners becomes aware of it and may be
able to modify their output so that they learn something new about the language.
Although Swain does not claim that comprehensible output is solely responsible for
all or even most language acquisition, she does claim that, under some conditions, CO
facilitates second language learning in ways that differ from and enhance input due to
the mental processes connected with the production of language. This hypothesis is
closely related to the Noticing hypothesis. Swain defines three functions of
output:
1. Noticing function: Learners encounter gaps between what they want to say and
what they are able to say, and so they notice what they do not know or only know
partially in this language.
2. Hypothesis-testing function: When a learner says something, there is always an
at least tacit hypothesis underlying his or her error, e.g. about grammar. By
uttering something, the learner tests this hypothesis and receives feedback from an
interlocutor. This feedback enables reprocessing of the hypothesis if necessary.
3. Metalinguistic function: Learners reflect on the language they learn, and thereby
the output enables them to control and internalize linguistic knowledge.

27. What is affect in learning?

Affect theory is a theory that seeks to organize affects, sometimes used
interchangeably with emotions or subjectively experienced feelings, into discrete
categories and to typify their physiological, social, interpersonal, and internalized
manifestations.

28. What are learning strategies? Can you outline the concept and give examples?
A learning strategy is an individual’s way of organizing and using a particular set of
skills in order to learn content or accomplish other tasks more effectively and
efficiently in school as well as in non-academic settings.
Learning strategy instruction focuses on strategies that facilitate the active learning
process by teaching students how to learn and how to use what they have learned to
solve problems and be successful.
These strategies involve teaching how to develop a plan for studying for a test,
monitoring understanding of the content, clarifying the materials, and evaluating
work. This type of self-regulated learning is the key to successful life-long learning
 and includes the development of such strategies as goal setting, self-instruction, and
self-monitoring.
 Examples of learning strategies: individual learning- when students are each working
at their desks, this is individual learning.
 Centered- are popular in elementary classrooms.
 Group Work
 Concept Mapping and Charts
 Summarizing
 Acronyms
 Role-Playing
 Discussion.
29. What are communication strategies? Can you outline the concept and give
examples?
Communication strategies are strategies that learners use to overcome these problems
in order to convey their intended meaning. Strategies used may include paraphrasing,
substitution, coining new words, switching to the first language, and asking for
clarification. These strategies, with the exception of switching languages, are also
used by native speakers.

No comprehensive list of strategies has been agreed on by researchers in second-

language acquisition, but some commonly used strategies have been observed:

Circumlocution
This refers to learners using different words or phrases to express their intended
meaning. For example, if learners do not know the word grandfather they may
paraphrase it by saying "my father's father".

Semantic avoidance
Learners may avoid a problematic word by using a different one, for example, by
substituting the irregular verb make with the regular verb ask. The regularity of "ask"
makes it easier to use correctly.

Word coinage
This refers to learners creating new words or phrases for words that they do not
know. For example, a learner might refer to an art gallery as a "picture place".

Language switch
Learners may insert a word from their first language into a sentence and hope that
their interlocutor will understand.

Asking for clarification

The strategy of asking an interlocutor for the correct word or other help is a
communication strategy.
 Non-verbal strategies
This can refer to strategies such as the use of gestures and mime to augment or
replace verbal communication.

Avoidance
Avoidance, which takes multiple forms, has been identified as a communication
strategy. Learners of a second language may learn to avoid talking about topics for
which they lack the necessary vocabulary or other language skills in the second
language. Also, language learners sometimes start to try to talk about a topic, but
abandon the effort in mid-utterance after discovering that they lack the language
resources needed to complete their message.

30. What are learner errors and what classifications of learner errors do you know?

When people are learning a second language, they make DEVELOPMENTAL

ERRORS.
These happen· as a natural part of language learning because (either consciously or
subconsciously) the learners are trying to work out how the language system works.
• Then children are learning English as their first language, they often learn early on
how to say past tense forms such as went, came, ran, etc. However, later, when they
become aware of regular PAST TENSE endings.
We call this OVER-GENERALISATION because the child is using the new 'rule'
too widely.
In the same way, learners of English as a second language often say things like He
must to-go, because they appear to be over-generalising to + INFINITIVE, which they
have become aware of in sentences like He has to go.
• When students are learning a second language, they often make INTERFERENCE
errors.
These happen because they are (consciously or unconsciously) trying to use their first
language knowledge to speak the new language.
• Researchers talk about a language learner's INTERLANGUAGE - that is their own
version of the language they are learning at a certain stage in their language
development.
• There is a danger that if mistakes are left uncorrected for too long - or if the learner
is
unaware of them - they may become FOSSILISED. They are then more difficult to
put right.
What kind of mistakes do students make?
Students make several different kinds of mistakes.
• Sometimes they make SLIPS. We can think of these as the result of tiredness or
because the students are speaking quickly and are careless. In other words, they know
how to use the language correctly, but it just comes out wrong.
• Sometimes students make ERRORS. These suggest that they either don't know
something, that they have learnt something incorrectly, or that their knowledge of
the language has been affected by developmental or interference factors.
• Sometimes students make ATTEMPTS to say things which are beyond their
language knowledge and so they have a go and make a bit of a mess of it.
• We need to be aware of what kind of mistake is being made so that we can
CORRECT it appropriately -+73. Students can often self-correct slips, but may need
more help and explanation if they have made an error. Attempt mistakes are perfect
oppornmities for teaching new language because it is language tl1at the sn1dents
clearly want.
What do mistakes look like?
• Language learners may make pronunciation mistakes, many of which are caused by
L1 interference. For example, Chinese speakers might say I /fi:wrw/ instead of I feel
ill.
Learners may make grammatical mistakes, such as word order problems.
• They may make mistakes in word formation, such as cooker instead of cook, or
misuse grammatical categories, such as I am interesting (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)
instead of I am interested (PAST PARTICIPLE).
• Students may use wrong or inappropriate vocabulary; they may select the wrong
word in COLLOCATIONS, saying childish crime instead of juvenile crime, for
example.