THE ORIGIN AND CONCEPT OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Sociology is one of the several related disciplines called social Sciences. Sociology was first suggested by
a French Philosopher by name Auguste Comte in 1837 who described it (Sociology) as social physics.

According to Marshall (1998) the very origins of the word

'sociology' from Latin Socius (companion) and the Greek ology

(study of). It implies the study of companion: He did not do

sociology but encouraged others to do it. The reknowned

sociologists came on board in the nineteenth century. Among

whom were Herbert Spencer of England who published Principles

of Sociology in 1876 and Ferdinan Tonnies, in Germany who

published A Gemeinschaft and X Gesellschaft in 1887 as well

as Emile Durkneim who authored suicide in 1897.

Marshal amplified further that it was not until the nineteenth century, in the aftermath of industrial
revolution and consequent political upheavals that sociology manifested as the highest achievement of
science, producing knowledge of the laws of the social world equivalent to our knowledge of the laws of
nature.

The Marxists were of the view that Sociology developed during the nineteenth century. It was clearly as
a bourgeois social science - a reply and alternative to the increasing political

and intellectual influence of historical materialism.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, sociology according to Marshall broke free of its
earlier ideological shackles and established itself as a science proper. Sociology is seen as a queen of the
social sciences bringing together and extending the knowledge and insights of all the other adjacent
disciplines.

The earliest sociologists in North America were belived to study moral statistics. Sociology was
introduced from Germany to North America. It first appear from University of Chicago and at Atlanta
University, then at all black schools. Record has it that the first department of Sociology was founded at
the University of Chicago in 1892 by Albion Small (1854-1926) who studied at Leipzig; Germany. He
published a book titled: An Introduction to Science of Sociology in 1890. In addition, he founded the
American Journal of Sociology which he edited between 1895 and 1925.

Meaning of Sociology

Sociology has many definitions as we have numerous scholars viewing it from diverse perspectives. That
is why one, could not say that there is "the' definition of Sociology but rather, there are various
definitions of the term. According to Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary (2005) Sociology is the
Scientific study of the nature and development of society and social behaviour.

Also, Stark (1987) described it as the study of social relations and its primary subject matter is the group,
not the individual. In a related view, Moore (1994) posited that; "Sociology is the Scientific Study of the
patterns and process of human social relations. In his view, Oladele (1991) defined it as the Scientific
study of the society. It studies the interaction among individuals who make up the society. Moreover,
Daramola (1994) defined it as the disciple concerned with the study of all he many and varied
relationships and activities which are Characteristic of human beings. It focuses on the ways human
beings behave, the way they do and how their behaviour is organized and controlled.

Sociology is also the discipline which studies and analyses human behaviours, the patterns of interaction
and relation in a social context; Auguste Comte saw the discipline as the study of interaction between
human institutions such as family, education and religion as well as the development and the manner of
transformation of societies. Max Weber described it as that science which attempts the interpretive
understanding of social actions in order thereby to arrive at a Casual explanation of its causes and
effects. Horton and Hunt (1968) explained sociology as the talking of what everybody knows and putting
into words that nobody can understand i.e. sociology writes about everyday experience, social life and
about what perhaps most people have experienced individually.

Here, it can be inferred from above that sociology peeps into the way(s) the individual react to
situation(s) or event(s) in the society.

From whatever perspective one views sociology, the following essential ingredients should reflect in the
definition

(1) The scientific study of the society

(2) The study of human relationship

(3) A science that is concerned with human behaviours in the society.

Functions of Sociology

Sociology is very relevant to human society in the following respects; It uncovers the rules of society that
governs our everyday lives.

Sociology assists in reform in several directions. For instance, sociology supplies information to the
government when it wants to embark on projects for its citizens,
The necessary information such as the working population, the size of families, annual income,
expenditure patterns, marriage patterns and so on.

It also helps to curb the high rate of indiscipline among the youths in societies caused by changing in
authority patterns and the easy access to the scientific knowledge coupled with the increasingly
dependents on their peers through gathering of facts and point directions to create perspective from
which these problems can be explained.

It aggregates patterns of action that had taken place with some regularity and has constructed
explanations to help us understand social relations and human behaviour. For instance, mental
behaviour can be attached with societal reaction to one's idiosyncrasy by terming such an action to be
insanity whereas the person is not a mad person.

It involves exploring people's experiences describing their life styles and understanding of their lifestyles
and understanding of their feelings.

It affords its students a wider consciousness of human society. The greater the awareness of other's
culture, the greater the understanding and therefore the more meaningful the relationship.

It analysis the socio-political processes like voting patterns in an election such studies usually examine
the relationship between the social and economic factors and voting behaviour.
It also analyses and clarifies the diverse relationships within society which procedure such social
institutions and associations through which the behaviour of people or individuals are organized and
controlled.

Chapter Two

NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

The Nature of Sociology of Education

Having examined the meaning of sociology in Chapter one let us briefly see what education means
before we excurse into sociology of education.

Education means different things to different people(s)

or groups based on their perspective of viewing it. For our purpose education is a process of cultural
transmission and renewal, the process whereby the adult members of the society carefully guide the
development of the younger ones initiating them into the culture of that society in order to contribute
positively to that society.

Sociology of education can be defined as a study of the relations between education and society.
Sociology of education is also an analysis of the sociological processes involved out of the field of
educational sociology and emphasizes the study within the institution of education. It should be noted
that there is a clear disparity between sociology of education and educational sociology. Educational
sociology means the application of general principles and findings of sociology to the administration and
or processes of education. Thus, Jesen argued that the problems of educational sociology are derived
from the field of education, whereas the problems of the sociology of education are derived from the
field of sociology. Despite the various views about both educational sociology and sociology of
education, there have been a trend towards the establishment of the discipline - the sociology of
education.

Sociology of education is an application of sociological perspectives or concepts to education. It is also

the application of the findings of sociology to the educational system in that society.

The primary focus of sociology of education is to investigate the sociological aspects of educational
phenomenon and institutions. It is in line with the above submission that sociology of education deals
with concepts such as society, culture, community, socialization, status etc. It also deals with the social
institutions and organizations that are involved in the educational processes of the child.

Sociology of education is a discipline with which both sociologists and educationists are concerned and
to which both have something valuable to contribute. In the study of sociology of education, cross
societal analysis should manifest. That is, there must be some comparative analysis of educational
institutions in a variety of geographical and technological contexts. Educational methods which are fully
applicable to one society are not necessarily so in another, an educationist must be full aware of the
danger of cultural transplantation. In this wise, the comparative method is implicit in the study of the
society and education.

The Scope of Sociology of Education

The scope of sociology of education according to Oladele (1999) covers the following:

The influence of society on education as well as the analysis of the function of education in society.

Approach to school organization, the ideology of School organization.

Factors that affect student's learning e.g. deviant behaviour, heredity and environmental factor.

Analysis of education across culture, education and economy, social mobility and education and politics.

Teaching as a professor. Teacher unions, role of teachers in the school, in the community, the pupils in
the classroom, child in the family, child in the school and child in the society. The future of teaching
profession.

Looking from the point of views of the professional sociologists of education, they are interested in the
way in which schools, colleges and universities are related to other institutions and structural features of
the societies in which they exist.

Chapter Three

SOME BASIC SOCIOLOGICAL TERMS

In pursuance of our scientific understanding of society, the following terms will be concisely but clearly
defined. They are: Social mobility, beliefs, social class, caste system, norms, anomie, role, social action,
Value, etc.

(i) Society: According to Moore (1994) it is a relatively self sufficient and self sustaining group of people
who are united by social relations. Societies tend to occupy a definite physical location and have
substantial periods of existence. Societies come in various sizes from densely millions of members to as
thin as several dozens. What is imperative is relatively self- contained and self-sufficient human groups
that are united by social relationships. Relationships here connotes what make possible coordinated
activities such as earning a living and territorial protection.
transformation.

(ii) Culture: It is a distinct way of life. It is the complex pattern of living developed by human beings and
transmit it from one generation to another. It is the entire ways of life of an individual or social group or
groups of people which they cherished and successfully transmitted from one generation to another.
Oladele quoting (Stocking Jr. 1970) means civilization i.e the tools, customs, myths material traits,
beliefs, art, morals laws the social institution etc. It is strictly a product of human society. It further
consists of the cherishable patterns of behaviours held in a high esteem believe to be socially
transmitted e.g. marriage, dressing, eating, greeting, etc. It is used to identify people according to what
they believe, what they do, what they know, and how they act.

(iii) Sub Culture: It is a culture within a culture, it is also referred to as a distinctive set of beliefs, morals,
customs and likes developed or maintained by a group within a larger society. According to Haralambos
and Holborn (2000) each sub-culture defines itself in opposition to main stream culture. Each sub-
culture is spectacular, it is usually at variance with those of the dominant culture.

(iv) Deviance: It means fail to conform to the norms. It is the breaching of the rules that are meant for
guiding people's behaviour in a social setting. Deviant behaviour in children are those behaviours which
are against school or class routine and practices. They cause disciplinary problems in schools,e.g. in-
attentiveness,lack of interest in class work, lateness,etc.

(v) Status: They are social positions occupied by members of society. There are various statuses in the
society like the individual occupational statuses such as medical practitioner, teacher, policy makers, a
bus driver/ conductor etc. Also at the family setting statuses like father, mother, son or daughter are
obvious.
There are two visible statuses in almost all-human societies. They are: Ascribed and achieved statuses
Ascribed status means a natural position in which an individual found himself at birth. For instance, the
eldest son of the king is expected to become the heir after the death of his father. Whereas, the
achieved status is the one fitted into due to one's unrelented efforts through the dint of hard work or
struggle. Each status in the society is accompanied by a number of norms that define how can individual
is expected to act.

(vi) Power: It is the amount of influence a person has to affect important social decisions. It is also the
ability of a person or groups to realize a social in a social situation even against the resistance of others
who are participating in the action. Power also refers to means by which social group(s) exploits(s)
control influenced another. Power is inherent in all activities. There are different kinds of power - social
power, economic power, political power.

(vii) Norms: They are roles govering behaviour. Norm spells out how behaviour is required, acceptable
or prohibited in particular occasions. It depicts how a person ought to act in different forms. It is a
standard of behavior shared by the of a social group to which the members are expected to conform ii.e.
informal rules that govern behavior. Norms are the basic ideas behind the social roles of individuals.
They are leant throughout the process socialization and maintain through the process of social control.
Conforming to the norm brings about approval and rewards while violation leads to disapproval and
punishment on seeing by the society.

Norms include things like maintaining the correct distance from someone when talking to them. Norms
guide us in our everyday existence.

(viii) Anomie: It is the opposite of norms. It refers to a social situation where there is an absence of
norms.

the norms are unclear or conflicting since norms govern behaviour. In his view, Marshall (1998)
described it as an absence, breakdown, confusion, or conflict in the norms of a society.
It may inappropriate action leading people to do things that are immoral. Anomie may occur when social
changes are taking place at rapid rate. It represents where the integration and regulation of the
individuals by some groups are broken-down. The term was introduced into sociology by Emil Durkaem
who said it is a major cause of the social problems during his own time.

(ix) Role Conflict: It connotes that there more than a role to play in society. For instance, a woman may
be a teacher, a wife, a mother, a church member, etc.

(x) Social Action: It is a kind of action carried out by a person in which a reference is made to another
person or other people that have involved in the same action.

(xi) Social Control: It is the process of taking measure against non-compliance against social
expectations. It is means of curbing or curtailing the break down of rules and regulation guiding the
social group. It is a social process by which the behaviour of individuals or groups is regulated with
reference to the available norms and rules governing the conduct of people. It is the effective medium
of curbing the deviation while good behaviours and actions are rewarded with honours, negative actions
are dealt with by imposing negative sanctions as a means of social control.

(xii) Social Group: It is a number of individuals defined by or informal criteria of membership who share
a feeling of unity or are bound together in relatively stable patterns of interaction. It means a group of
people with whom there is existence of face-to- face. By their interaction they are able to influence each
other's action

(xiii) Socialization: It is the life-long process of inculcation whereby an individual learns the principal
values and symbols of the social systems in which he participates and the expression of those values in
the norms composing the roles he and others enact (Olutola & Ademola 1986).

It is also an art imbibing approval social norms, aspirations, ethics and culture of the society in which
one belongs so that one will be accommodated as a bonafide member of that society.
DEVIANCE, DEVIANT BEHAVIOURS AND DELINQUENCY

Meaning Of Deviance

Deviance means fail to conform to the norms. The American Sociologist Clinard (1974) posted that
deviance should be reserved for behaviour which is so much disapproved of the community finds it
impossible to tolerate. It can be inferred that deviance is an unwelcome/negative act despised b
community members.

In the same vein, Marshall (1998) claimed that deviance refers to norm violation. It is apparent from the
position of different authorities cited above that deviance means breaching of the rules that are for
guiding people's behaviour in a social setting.

In their wisdom Haralambos and Holbom (200) explained that deviance consists of those acts which do
not follow the norms and expectations of a particular social group.

There are certain deviant behaviours prevalent among children. They are those behaviours which are
against school or class routines and practices. They mostly cause disciplinary problems disrupt disturb
lessons. Examples are inattentive, lack of interest in class work as demonstrated by poor attitude to
work, lateness to school class, physical aggression, challenging school noise making and loitering around
the classroom during lessons.

In every human society, there are norms to regulate the conducts of all the members, the society
reserves the rights to punish those who violate the prescribed norms. However, in every society,
members still conmit acts of deviance in diverse forms. It is important to stress it that many a times
when people stray from an acceptable path and not negatively sanctioned (punished). For instance, a
human right activists opposing government of the day for wrongs may be described as committing
deviance act but later community/society may recognize and reward him positively with medal or titles
for his courage.

Causes of Deviant Behaviour

(a) Child related causes

(i) Immaturity-

(ii) Intellectual ability.

(iii) Ignorance

(iv) Physical condition

(b) School factors

(i) School curriculum

(ii) Wrong placement of child

(iii) Large school size

(iv) Teacher's loss of authority

(v) Poor communication between home and school

(c) Societal factors

(i) Inappropriate parental handling

(ii) Socio-economic status of parents

(iii) Poor models in society

(iv) Peer group influence

Immaturity: The chronological age of the child at times breed deviant acts. For instance, it may be
difficult for very young children to keep to the school routines. The child may easily float it unconsciously
due to age coupled with immaturity.

Intellectual Ability: The level of intelligence also set pace for running foul of certain rules and regulation.
There are two extremists to be considered here. For example, too low or too high level of intelligence
for a class may cause pupil not behaving normally. The too high level intelligent children may not be
mindful of rules guiding the social setting in probing for knowledge while the too low ones may not be
able to comprehend what is going on in class and feel bored.

Ignorance: Ignorance resorts due to lack of knowledge or experience on the part of children. Children
may not be aware of particular modes of behaviour. Their unawareness may lead them to deviance acts.

Teacher's loss of authority in class: Commonsensically, there is no beating about the bush teachers
unethical actions may lead to deviance. For instance, acts such as favouritism tribalism illicit affairs with
learners and other undesirable attitudes may lead to deviance.

Poor Communication between home and school: When there is communication gap between the home
and school, vacuum has been opened for deviant acts. The child may capitalize on the gap to play
truancy, like lateness to school, disobeying the teachers, etc.
DELINQUENCY

Delinquency: Literally, it means guilt, misdeed or neglect of

duty. It is an anti-social behaviour involving violation of the norms and values of a particular society. It
embraces a broad range of behaviour from that found offensive to respectable values (e.g. truancy,
aggression, assault, etc.) to petty and occasionally more serious crime (alcoholism, armed robbery, car
snatching, drug abuse, kidnapping, promiscuity etc.). They are criminal in nature and they could lead to
arrest by law enforcement agencies or conviction in courts of laws. They are behaviours which are
inimical to the well-being of the community and not accepted by members of the community.

Causes of Delinquency in School

There are certain causatic factors of delinquency in schools.

They are:

(a) Home factors

(i) Broken homes

(ii) Employed parents

(iii) Marital adjustment

(iv) Disability of parents

(v) Defective discipline

(vi) Lack of affection

(b) School Factors

(i)Location of school

(Ii) Inadequate facilities

(iii) Lack of guidance counselor

Broken Homes: Broken homes may be responsible for a delinquency. When the two biological parents
are unable to stay live together or divorced, a single parenthood child may go to any length by joining
gangs unlike a child under the tight monitoring of the two parents.

Employed Parents: The nature of the parents' job may inhibit creating sufficient times for their children.
For instance, parents that work in the banks or other establishment making it difficult to interact well
with the children, such children may take the advantage and engage in delinquent acts.

Marital adjustment: Like father, like son and like mother, like daughter. In the homes, where there are
frequent quarrel between couples, lack of co-operation may hinder the personality development of the
child and later in life, the child may assume that quarrel is a way of life and adopt such life when dealing
with his colleagues/fellows-beings.

Disability Of Parents: Some children may hide under their parents' physical or economic disabilities and
refuse taking instruction or rejecting their parental control and tow the line of delinquents.
Lack of Affection: Child deserves affection. When a child discovers that he is rejected/neglected and paid
little or no attention to, he feels insecure and may take to way(s) of life that may end up as engaging in
delinquency.

School Location: The location of the school may contribute to or wane down the tempo of delinquents.
Schools located near industrial areas, markets or far from home may assist children to engage in
delinquent acts.

Inadequate facilities: When library and other recreational facilities that suppose to occupy children's
free period are absent, children may engage in other acts leading to delinquency since an idle hand is
the workshop of the devil.

Lack of a Guidance Counselor: in school where educational and social guidance is lacking, children tend
to engage in delinquent acts.

THE CONCEPT AND AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Socialization is a Social process and has been variously defined. Akolkar defined socialization as the
process of adoption by the individual of the conventional patterns of behaviour. because it occurs on
account of his interaction with others and his expression of the culture that operates through them.

Bogardu viewed socialization as the process whereby persons learn to behave dependably together on
behalf of hurman welfare and by so doing experience social self-control, social responsibility and
balanced personality.

As a ridder, Stark (1987) submitted that our biological heritage alone cannot make us into adequate
human beings. Only through social relations - constant intimate interaction can be rich cultural legacy
that sets human apart from other animals be transmitted to new humans. For instance when an infant is
bom be lacks culture. Unless he mixes with people he will not be able to talk, sing, read, reason or greet.
It is from this premise by which infants are transformed into normal human beings and engage in social
relations we term socialization.
Socialization then is the process by means of which the individuals learn to behave according to the
social traditions and conventions. The human child has a remarkable capacity to imitate others and he
develops according to the environment into which he is born .

Socialization teaches him to retain control over himself in the interest of others. It evolves a 'we feeling
or community feeling in him and thereby invests him with a sense of responsibility.

The Agents of Socialization

From the above analyses ,we can see that socialization is necessary in order for a society to perpetrate
itself beyond a single generation. Socialization has many agents, among these are the following:

The schools

The family

The peer group

Religious institutions

Mass media

(1) The Family:

The family consists of the father, mother and children (nucleus family). Family may include a group of
others related by blood living with the father, mother and children. This kind of setting is of African
context of family and it is called extended family Taiwo (1980) observed that the family transmit to
children their own values of right. The family is the corner-stone of society. It is the most basic unit of
social organization which carried out vital tasks in child socialization.
The family is the first and the most intimate group to which the child belongs. The family plays a very
significant role in the individual's socialization process because the child spends the early formative
years with members of his family. He learn much by observing the people around him and imitating
them, and by embarking in activities which win their approval and avoiding those which bring
disapproval and immediate punishment. It is the family environment which can create good habits in
him because the child's moral code is conditioned by the system of reward and punishment which
prevails in the family during the primary socialization (socialization during the early years of childhood).

The family performs the following roles:

(a) The Protective Function: The family uses to take full responsibility for caring for its members in
adversity. The family gives the protection of affection which leads to the kind of emotional security
which cannot be acquired in any other way.

(b) Moral and Character Training: Family is believed to be factor which produces human personality. The
child leams immensely through the moral behaviour of his parents and adults by imitating them. He
learns the socially approved ways of behaving. On the other hand, the parents and other family
members strives to impact good character in the child's mind. e.g. honesty, respect to elders,
hardworking etc. Here, the adage comes in that, "a hand gave the birth but thousands train the child."

(c) Emotional support: Closely to protective function, the family serves as primary group for members
giving them emotional security, a sense of belonging and of personal worth.

(d) Giving and Receiving Affection: The value of the family circle as a source of love and security cannot
be over emphasized. The loss of love from parents can be of great Jeopardy to the child. Once the family
ties of affection are broken, the harm has already began.

(e) Economic support: Family serves as the primary economic unit. The family plays significant part in
fixing the child for a trade or vocational career to ensure that he is self-reliance.

(II) The School: It is the miniature society basically responsible for the development of cognitive abilities
in the child. Souper (1976) argues that school is person-centred, it demonstrates mutuality of relation in
which pupil and teacher find fulfillment and personal development in the spirit of give and take.
Musgrave (1979) saw it as a consciously or unconsciously educative community.
The second home of the child (school) socializes the child in the following ways:

(a) The development of the child's cognitive and psychomotor mont skills/abilities, Skills such as reading,
writing, crafts and arts home economics,etc are offered in school.

(b) Roles socialization: The individual is exposed to a broad pattern of socialization designed to prepare
the individual to occupy a generalized status in life e.g. learning of ways of life of the family and
community including religious observance and initiation ceremonies.

(c) Development of Social and Civic Consciousness: au Ideals which are necessary for national
development are taught in Schools. E.g. basic hygiene is taught in schools.

The child also engage in co-curricular activities such as games and sports, cultural groups debating and
other other academic associations etc, which socialize the child. This will enlighten the child and makes
him contribute positively to the progress of the society.

(d) Personality development: The teacher's personality and character provides a moral which the child
strives to copy thereby unconsciously moulding his personality. Also, the child's personality is developed
through interaction will meet in the classroom and outside the classroom

(e) Development of Desired Moral Values: In the School, the child is disciplined; he is aware that
disobedience brings immediate punishment. In addition,moral and religious instructions as well as good
examples from teachers are efforts towards inculcating moral principles.

(III) Peer Group: The term "peer group" described any group of equals according to some stated criteria,
but sociologists usually apply it to groups made up persons who are the same age and most often to
groups of children or adolescents Peer group is a group composed of individual who are equal (Morrish
1972).

While amplifying the term, Marshall (998) said it is a set of individuals who sharing certain common
characteristics such as age, ethnicity or occupation, perceive themselves and are recognized by others as
a distinct social collectivity. The group is seen to have its own culture, symbols, sanctions and rituals into
which the new members must be socialized. Any disobedience to group norms may be ostracized.
However some awareness of this equality is essential to the formation of groups. In Nigeria, age grades
in various ethnic groups corresponds to what is called peer grouping in western societies. Peer group
relationship are common at village, compound, street, schools, etc and these play an additional
important role in socialization of children in Nigeria.

A peer group plays the following significant impacts in the social, interests and motivations. The peer
group plays the following significant impacts in the social development of the child.

1. Socialization: The peer group plays a normal part in the process of socialization in most societies.
There is an atmosphere of freedom in which each child easily learns the ways of the world from the
others.

2. Vital Education Functions: In their various sphere they play vital educational functions which
supplement the work of the home and the school e.g. choice of carrier, vocational discussion.

3. Training Gender Roles: The peer group striver entrench training in this respect to its members so the
would grow up with them into the adult life so as to become responsible in the future.

4. Information Bureau: There is a free flow of information among the peer group. Due to their diverse
background current information which the adults are not accessible are shared freely among the peers.

5. Citizenship Training: As future leaders, they educate themselves in the areas of political activities.

(IV) Religious Institutions: Religion might be described as a reflection of man's attempt to explain those
aspects of his environment which he cannot understand; except in term of the supernatural. According
to Durkheim (1961) religion is a distinction between the sacred and the profane. Haralambos and
Holborn (2000) citing Robertson (1970) religion refers to the existence of supernatural beings that have
a governing effect on life.
In our society, as in many others, people's religious belief are founded on the idea that God has the
supernatural power for the creation of life. People who share the same religious beliefs will also held the
same attitudes and opinions, and will behave in the same way. Thus, religious institutions help in the
socialization of its members in the following ways:qyerita

(1) Agent of Social Control: They call on members to 02166 address their minds to the issues of national
unity, Vtrum peaceful co-existence and progress. These are usually supported by citing relevant portions
of the Holy books by providing explanations and justifications in social situations.

(2) Moral Training: The child is trained to be accepted fully in the society. "The moral and spiritual
foundation given the church or mosque make leamers easily adapt to schoo activities.

(3) Intellectual Development: The religious institutio teaches the child to read, memorize and write. The
basi tools for learning is acquired through these:

(4) Obedience: The church and the mosque teach obedienc to God and constituted authority. This
makes teaching easier as learners are not to disobey school authorities

(5) Learning to serve humanity: Selfless services such as cleaning, sweeping are carried out in religious
institutions These enable students to imbibe idea of co-operating with and assisting others without
expecting a personal reward

(V) Mass Media:

It comprises the newspapers, radio and television. The are source of information, education and
entertainmen In socialization process, they perform the following functions:

(a) Transmission of cultural values: The mass media alst help in transmitting the cultural values of the
communit Ideather people. It gives children the opportunity to have idea of nature of his own culture
and that of other people.
(b) Sources of Information: It provides information on various activities in the community and the
happenings outside the immediate community including foreign scene which make children become
more conscious of the surrounding and adjust to different development programmes

(c) Development of reading habits: Newspapers contains stories of various aspect of life. The more an
individual reads the more he learn and broader his horizon.

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY

The term social stratification has been variously defined by many authorities. Brown (1968) described it
as a generic term for social life that is organized either by caste or by class.

It involves ranking or rating certain individuals as constituting higher and lower differentiate strata or
classes in terms of some basic and general characteristic. In his view, Moore (1994) claimed that social
stratification connotes the unequal distribution of rewards or things perceived as values among
members of a society. It also refers to the unequal distribution among members of a society of
attributes, qualities and possession that are regarded with that society as desirable.

Social stratification therefore means the division of a society into a hierarchical order or levels or strata
such that there is a marked difference between one stratum or level and the other. It is the division of
the society into strata or classes of people. Each stratum is called a social class.

Haralambos and Holborn (2000) opined that under social stratification there is a presence of distinct
form of social groups which are ranked one above the other in term of factors such as prestige and
wealth. Thus, a social class is made up of people who can be classified as having the same status,
privileges and power. Usually, people of the same social class are of the same educational standard,
income occupation or royal both. There are basically three social classes in the society.

a. Upper class : Wealthy and aristocrats

b. Middle class : The educated elite and the professionals

c. Lower/Working class : The masses and the unskilled

In many societies, there are also marked differences in the distribution of wealth. For instance, the
dimension of stratification are class, status and power class focuses on relative amount of money,
wealth and other economic goals that a person possesses.

Social stratification is as old as man. The moment that man come to existence, stratification had been
his companion. This has made it possible to categorise some as male or superior being and the other
female or inferior. This issue of stratification from time immemorial has permeated into the society with
little or no recognition. According to the International Encyclopedia of Social Science the idea of social
stratification could be found in the Judeo-Christian Bible, the thought of the Greeks. Moores (1994)
supported that stratification manifests due to differences in position in the society and the need to fill
those positions by competent people more importantly that

variation exists in people's ability to perform certain positions.

It has to be borne in mind that those who belong to a particular group or stratum will have some
awareness of common interest and a common identity. They will share a similar life style which to some
degree will distinguish them from members of other social strata. The India caste system provides an
example of rigid social stratification system for one has to remain in that position one is born for life.

Those who belong to the same stratum tend to identify with their particular stratum and regard
themselves. For example, as middle or working class. Strata subcultures tend to be particularly
distinctive when there is little opportunity to move from one stratum to another. This movement is
known as social mobility. Social mobility can be upward, for example, moving from lower class to the
middle class.

Stratification system which provides little opportunity for social mobility may be described as "closed"
those with a relatively high rate of social mobility as "open". In an open system individual can change
position for instance, when a child of a peasant farmer becomes a medical doctor the mobility is
upward. The mobility is downward when the child of a lawyer becomes an office assistant. In closed
systems an individual's position is largely ascribed. Often it is fixed at birth and there is little he can do to
change his status.
In Nigeria, the origin of social stratification can be traced to the Richard Constitution of 1946.

Social stratification has influence on school achievement in various ways:

(1) Early Attendance at school: People of high class tend to send their children to school early. The
children attend nursery schools as early as three years of age. People of low class send their children to
school at six years age or later. Some could not even send their children to school at all. While children
of high class complete primary education at 10 or those of low class do not complete until about 12 or
14 years.

(2) Provision of Education Facilities: High class people have financial means to provide books and other
learning materials for their children. Also they are able to employ extra service of competent teachers
for extra lessons.

(3) Encouragement in school education: Children of high class are encouraged to wake up early and
prepare for school. Their parents show more concern over poor performance in schools. They teach
their children or employ experts to teach them. They gives more motivation to their children. Children
from low class are hardly encourage to attend school, there is less concern about the children's poor
performance and they are engaged in various domestic works which usually keep them late or
completely away from school.

(4) Attendance at the Best Schools: Children of high class are sent to private schools and other schools
with sufficient teaching and learning facilities. The schools charge high fees which low-income eamers
may not be able to afford. Admission into such schools is usually through competitive examination
which children from poor family may not be adequately prepared for. Also, the standard of living in the
school is higher than the low-income group can afford. Children of high class are opportuned to attend
standard primary schools, standard secondary schools and thus secure admission into universities for
higher education.

(5) Opportunity for good foundation in Education: Being able to attend standard school, children of high
class people learn subjects like English language, Mathematics and basic science which provides them
the foundation knowledge for learning other subjects. Teachers, standard textbooks and other learning
facilities are available for the subjects.
TEACHING AS A PROFESSION

What is Teaching?

The term teaching is very difficult to define. Yet, the following definitions will be attempted to explain
the concept

Teaching is the passing of knowledge, skills, mode of conduct in such a way that the learner is brought to
understand and evaluate the underline rationale for what is being presented to him. It is an art of
imparting knowledge, or skills, to another, to give instruction to another to facilitate learning. Also,
teaching is logical and strategic acts denoting interaction between the person who passes new
information and the leaner to bring a desirable growth through learning.

Characteristics of a Profession

The following characteristics are demanded if a anything would be called a profession.

(a) Prolonged course of training: Every member of a profession must have first embarked on a high skill
and an intellectual effort.

(b) Code of Conduct: i.e. the ethics that will serve as guiding principles for the practice of their
profession. The ethics are prescribed and enforced on members

(c) Conditions of Services: The conditions include the remunerations, workers welfare packages,
allowances, etc. must be well spelt out.

(d) Practice of profession in accordance with the code of conduct or the ethics of the profession.
(e) Enjoyment of prestige comparable to other professions.

CODES OF CONDUCT OF TEACHING PROFESSION

Every profession has its codes of conduct, which serves as a point of reference for discipline among the
members of the profession, between the members and their clients.

The of Teachers in August 1969 adopted certain code of professional ethics in which five main principles
emerged.

Commitment to the students: In fulfilling his obligation to the students, every member of the union is
expected (a) to deal justly and impartially with pupils and the students regardless of their physical,
mental, emotional, economy, social, racial or religious characteristics.

(b) To recognize and respect the differences among pupils and students and to seek to meet their
individual educational needs.

Commitment to Parents: All teachers are expected:

(a) To respect the basic desires of parents in Nigeria for the education of their children.

(b) To keep parents infomt about the progress of their children as interpreted in terms of pupils of the
school.

Commitment to the Community: Every teaching member of the N.U.T. in fulfilling his obligation to the
community shall:
(a) Recognize that the school belongs to the community and encouraging participation in shaping the
purpose of the school and try to keep the public informed of the educational programmes which is being
provided.

(b) Work to raise education, standard and to strengthen the community's moral, spiritual and
intellectual life.

Commitment to the Employer: In fulfilling the principles, the teachers in Nigeria shall:

(a) Apply for a position on the basis of professional and legal qualification.

(b) Engage in no gainful employment outside his contract where such employment affects adversely his
professional status or impair his standing with students, associates and the community.

Commitment to the Profession: In fulfilling his obligation to the profession, the teacher in Nigeria shall:

(a) deals justly with other members of profession in the same manner as he himself wishes to be
treated.

(b) Not conduct himself in a manner that is detrimental or injurious to the interest or honour of the
profession or

union.

THE STATUS AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER

Role has earlier been defined as a pattern of behaviours expected by others from a person occupying a
particular socig position, class or status. The role of the teacher is a multi. dimensional process, too
complex and difficult to demarcate Teachers are seen as all in all of students. Thus, parents and society
are always having over expectations about the teacher The teacher in the school system performs a
number of roles prominently among such roles are:

1. Guidance role

(a) The teacher is expected to prepare the child socially and emotionally for the society e.g. by checking
the late coming to school and atimes by punishing the late comers.

(b) Also he should advise pupils who have problems with their academic works.

(c) In addition, he should help students who have emotional problems to get out of them.

2. The Administrative Roles: The teacher manages the learning process and all the learning resources in
the classroom.

(a) Grading and ordering the materials to be learnt.

(b) Not only that, he provides the pupils with an environment that promotes leaming.

(२)

In addition, the management of equipment like chairs, tables and chalkboard/marker board.

(d) Also, he performs specific duties like house master.

3. Judge of Achievement / Evaluator: That is ability to assess correctly the performance of students in
classroom work at any point in time so as to know when to praise, rebuke or encourage for the purpose
of motivating is a mark of professionalizing.

4.

Member of Teachers' Organizations: To be called a professional teacher, one must be a member of the
teachers organizations in his own interest in the interest of the subject he teaches, and in the interest of
the profession so as to be protected from victimization.

5. Community Leader: Among leaders of thought and in rural communities, teachers have always been
important people.

6. Agent of Change: Teacher is a leader in his communities. Since society keeps changing, the teacher
must have shock-absorber between his pupils and wind of change blowing hysterically.

7. Teacher as a confidant: The teacher occupies a more important place in the aspect of absolute trust
without betrayer . Students might have the need to keep certain secretes that could not be disclosed to
their parents.

Qualities of An Ideal or A Good Teacher

The sterling qualities expected of an ideal teacher among others include:

1. In-Loco-Parents of the Student: He serves in his capacity as a parent who suppose to take care of the
moral, emotional and psychological aspects of the development of the younger generation under his
care.
2. Liberally Educated in the Art and Science of Teaching: i.e. teacher must be exposed to wider
knowledge. He must not be a shallow minded individual. He should have saying in other areas not in his
own field. In this wise, he should be a universal individual yeaning for learning always.

3. Mastery of Subject Area: In addition to be universal, he should have the facts and figure of his area or
specialization at his finger tips without scratching of sweating or beating about the bush when called to
teach or when asked a question.

4. Making rational judgement and commitment to his job: He should be trusted without any bias or
prejudice on decision making and as well making objectives comments on issues. He should cultivate the
habit of more commitment to teaching profession.

How we can improve Teacher Effectiveness

Organizing seminar and conference

Organization of in-service training for teachers who are serving

Making available to teachers new research findings.

Regular supervision of teachers in the field

Expansion of leaning resources

Visit to other schools i.e. compare and contrast your school with others.

Organizing micro-teaching
Using resources from other subject area(s)

Making good use of mass media

Increasing teaching practice period.

CULTURE AND EDUCATION

The Concept of Cultural Dimensions of Education

The term is derived from Latin words Cultura - Colere to "cultivate" Tylor (1974). In his view, Fafunwa
(1974) described culture as the way of life of a people exemplifying their accumulated wisdom,
knowledge, and skills which are passed from one generation to another. Also, Maduewesi (2005)
quoting Kings 1964 who claimed that culture is the shares produces of human learning and as
abstraction that help us to analyze individual behaviour as shared among groups."

Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. As a ridder, Chatter (1976) said culture
means something cultivated or ripened. It is a kind of refinement which is born of education and
enlightenment. The idea of culture is that behaviour and ideas are socially rather than genetically
transmitted. Culture includes dressing, marriage ceremonies etc.

Moreover, Moore (1994) described culture as the whole set of beliefs and guidelines as to how people
ought to behave in any society which people regard as normal or natural. It implies here that culture set
ettiquetee regulating individual behaviour.

In the wisdom of Spindler (1992) culture in both modern and traditional society should be transmitted
from one generation to the next through schools. In essence, school should serve as an avenue for
cultural transmission.
EDUCATION AND CULTURE

Education is a broad field that cannot be easily defined. According to Oladele (1999) Education is derived
from the Latin word. "Educere" which means to "lead out" or "bring up" Another. school of thought
upheld the view that it came from the word "Educare." That is to form or "to train." In the views of
sociologists Tylor (1977) and Moore (1994) education implies social process whereby an individual is
prepared for successful participation in social relations. These involve teaching and learning of certain
values, attitudes and behaviours.

Generally, education is a process of culture transmission and renewal the process whereby the adult
members of the society carefully guide the development of the younger ones, initiating them into the
culture of that society. Whereas, culture consists of the patterns of behaviour, ideas, beliefs, values and
knowledge including the artifact which the member of social group or society have about themselves,
their social and physical = environments.

Classification of Culture

Culture is all capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. Thus, culture is classified into the
following components:

Language

. Materials

Arts

Religion
Social Practices

Government

Language: In this aspect, culture is classified by the verbal or Written language. Since the tool for
communication in the society is the language, it is one of the prominent component. Thus, the school
teaches language as part of its curriculum.

Materials: With regard to this, there are certain cherishable

materials that are culturally attached. They include food, shelter, transportation, dresses, etc. It is as a
result that subject like agriculture, vocational and technical courses are incorporated in the school
curriculum.

Arts: It includes carving, painting, drawing, music. Arts and aesthetic values are parts of the culture. This
has been the rationale for the reflection of fine arts, drama, literature, music, etc in school curriculum.

Religion: The religious practices of the people are other aspects of cultural classification. Due to pre-
eminence of religion it is incorporated in school curriculum, thus the justification for moral and religious
education.

Social Practices: There is lot of social engagement found in

various communities such as marriage, birth rites, rituals, burial, corronation, etc. In order to make an
individual fit into the social system, sociology, social studies, history, etc are taught or included in school
curriculum.
Government: It has to do with how members of the community maintain a system of administration
whereby their activities are guided and checked. In order to promote the understanding of this,
government, political science, etc are taught in schools.

Characteristics of Culture

Culture has certain peculiarities that mark it out as different from other phenomena. The traits of
culture include the following:

Culture is shared by the people.

It is not genetically transmitted

- It is not built or changed in one era

It evolves through the ages

It is an outcome of individual actions

It is not quantifiable

- It is acquired through enculturation

- It is acquired through acculturation