A new approach

“It seems that to land use

planning
human development can and
management
only lead to ever greater
degradation of the land all of us depend on.
We urgently need a strategy that will permit
both development and conservation.

OUR LAND OUR FUTURE • A new approach to land use planning and management
The starting point of that strategy
is the land itself...”

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

ORGANIZATION
OF THE UNITED NATIONS

UNITED NATIONS
ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
You
are
here...
Planet Earth is
a beautiful place.
But it also has
serious problems,
and sooner or later
we will have
to face them...
 More than 800 million
people are chronically
malnourished, and
1 100 million live in
Between 1950 and Just to feed absolute poverty.
1990, the world’s everybody
population adequately,
doubled – to more food
than 5 000 million – production
and the global economy grew by more than 3 percent a year. will have to
If trends continue, by the middle of the next century the Earth double within
could be home to 10 000 million people and the global economy about 30 years. But the shortfall in domestic cereals production
will have expanded five times over.This exponential growth is in the developing world is expected to widen – from less
creating critical demand for food, energy, income and services. than 100 million tons today to more than 250 million tons
in the year 2025.

2 3
 Poverty and unemployment have spurred
a mass movement of people from rural to
urban areas – and from developing to
developed countries – in search of a better
life. More than 80 million people now live in
foreign lands and an estimated two million
emigrate permanently each year. Since 1970,
the number of refugees has grown from
2.5 million to 20 million people.

Population growth, competition for resources and the

widening gap between rich and poor lie at the root of many
social and political conflicts throughout the world.
As many as eighty countries are affected by civil strife and
political violence, while spending on weapons for “low-level”
conflicts is estimated at up to $10 000 million a year.
4 5
 For thousands of years, people have modified, degraded and
destroyed natural ecosystems. In 1950, some 115 million km2
of the Earth’s surface were undegraded, vegetated land.
Just 40 years later, almost nine million km2 – an area as large
as China – were classified as “moderately degraded”, with
greatly reduced agricultural productivity. A further three
million km2 were “severely degraded”, having lost
almost completely their original biotic functions.
Almost 100 000 km2 are beyond restoration...

6 7
 5 800 000 km2 degraded by deforestation
2.2 million km2 of
tropical forest were
destroyed, mainly to
provide new land for
food production.
Worldwide, tropical
Vast reserves of forest forests are being
have been degraded cleared at a rate of
by large-scale logging about one percent
and clearing for farm each year, with annual
and urban use. losses of as high as
Between 1975 and two percent in West
1990, more than Africa.

6 800 000 km2 degraded by overgrazing

Overgrazing has
damaged 20 percent
of the world’s pasture
and range lands.
Recent losses have
been most severe in exposing soil to wind
Africa and Asia. and water erosion. As
Typically, animal herds rangeland productivity
compact soil around declines in developing
waterholes and strip countries, more forests
the land of vegetation, and farm land are
reducing its capacity being converted to
to retain moisture and grazing.

1 370 000 km2 degraded for fuel wood

1 730 million m3 of
fuelwood are taken
from forests and
plantations. As
population pressure
Fuelwood and mounts, rural people
charcoal are the are removing
primary sources of vegetation from higher
energy in many parts and steeper areas,
of the world. Each exposing more and
year an estimated more land to erosion.

8 9
 Wind erosion degrades
land left bare of
vegetation. It affects
more than a third of
land in the Near East
and almost a quarter
of Africa north of the
equator.
Water erosion affects
mainly steep land or
unprotected sloping
areas. It causes soil
losses estimated at
25 000 million tonnes
every year.

Soil salinization and

waterlogging are
caused by poor
5 500 000 km2 degraded by agricultural mismanagement drainage of irrigated
land. Globally, about
400 000 km2 of land
are affected.

Soil nutrient loss

occurs when land is
farmed beyond its
capacity.This is
increasingly the case
in areas of shifting
(or “slash-and-burn”)
cultivation, where
population pressure
has reduced fallow
periods to virtually
zero.

10 11
 195 000 km2 degraded by industry and urbanization

L’espansione
urbanistica (città,
strade, miniere e
Urban growth, road
building, miningindustria)
and toglie terra
all’agricoltura.
industry are degrading Tra
land worldwide.1967-75,
Often, quasi
30,000 km2 di buona
valuable agricultural
terra agricola sono
land is lost – during
1967-75, almostscomparsi
30 000 sotto il
km2 of good crop land negli Stati
cemento If degradation is the sickness
disappeared underuniti. Un problema
concrete in the United
connesso è
of land, desertification is its
States alone. l’inquinamento del
Associated problems
suolo a causa di rifiuti
death. In arid areas of Africa
include pollution of
soil by industrialindustriali
and ed urbani, la and Asia, overgrazing and
pioggia
urban wastes, acid acida, l’uso
eccessivo
rain, overuse of inputs di the relentless search for
in feedlots, and fertilizzante
oil and
chemical spills. nell’agricoltura fuelwood have reduced large
intensiva e disastri
ambientale tipo tracts of once productive land to desert. More than
Seveso.
half a million square kilometres on the southern edge
of the Sahara have become desert over the past half
century. Desertification
affects the livelihoods of some
850 million people worldwide.

12 13
 It seems as though We urgently need a strategy

human development can that will permit both

only lead to ever greater development and conservation.

degradation of the land The starting point of

all of us depend on. that strategy is the land itself

14 15
 Factors that determine the use of land...
People determine how land is
used. At one extreme, the
objectives of the individual
farmer and many other types of
land user are to produce income
by exploiting natural resources.
As the population increases,
there is a corresponding
increase in the amount and
intensity of exploitation, leading
to modification – and frequently
degradation – of the
environment.
At the other extreme, the
community as a whole seeks to
conserve natural resources and
the environment, including the
range of natural species, for a
wide variety of reasons.
Each individual or group has
particular needs, objectives and
points of view.The resulting use
of land is controlled by an
interplay of many social and
economic factors, and is
ultimately driven by the
objectives of innumerable
“stakeholders” – people or
groups who either directly
exploit or in some way control
the use of land resources.

16 17
 ...and how much land
they have *
Food production must

A
US
increase dramatically
to feed the world’s
rapidly growing

ce
an
population. But most

Fr
land suitable for
cultivation is already
in use, and by 2010 per

ly
Ita

da
caput availability of

na
arable land in

Ca
developing countries

a
in
Ch
will have shrunk from
the present 0.85

an
ut
hectares to about 0.4

Bh

sh
de
hectares. Current rates

la
ng
of land degradation

Ba
co

suggest that a further

ar
oc

nm
or

2.5 million km2 of farm

M

ya
a
a

di
ia

land could become

si

M
In
op
ni
Tu

o
unproductive by 2050.

a
hi

ic

al
Et

ex

em
And there is another

es

M
l

at
ga

in
ominous trend: in the

Gu
pp
ne

a
si
ili
Se

period 1988-93, per

ne
i

Ph
ka
nd

do

il
an

lia
caput food output fell
ru

az
In
iL

ra
Bu

Br
in 99 countries,

st
Sr

Au
heightening fears
about the capacity of
available land

ji
resources to meet

Fi
demand.
nd
ila
az

* hectares of
Sw

ia
liv
cultivated land per

Bo
head of agricultural
labour force
= 1 hectare

18 19
 We all have a stake
in sustainable land use.
But the aims
and activities of
stakeholders are often
in conflict

Worldwide, conflict over land is

intensifying: among individual land
users vying for local resources,
between individuals and their
communities, among competing
nations and – at global level –
between North and South.

20 21
 Over centuries, In the mid-20th
Stakeholders nomadic Bedouin century, the decision
in conflict: tribes in the Near East of some governments
community developed a system of to abolish the hema
mutually agreed laws, regime led to the
and state regulations and breakdown of
customs – known as winter/summer
hema – to control grazing rotation and
grazing on their to widespread land
rangelands. degradation.

Stakeholders
in conflict:
men and
women

Two hundred women

in a village in Mali
“declared war” on
their menfolk over
ownership of a
community market
garden.The women
provided all the labour
needed to establish
the garden. But the
local village
development
association – made up
entirely of men – took
control, claiming the
garden belonged to
the “entire
community”.

22 23
 Stakeholders
in conflict:
upstream
countries,
downstream
countries
Thirteen of the
world’s major rivers
and lakes are shared
by a total of 96
countries.The water
supplies of millions
of people who live in Stakeholders
these areas depend in conflict:
on continuing North and
cooperation among
their governments. South
But disputes are
common in every Who should take
region, particularly responsibility for
in the Near East and increasingly erratic
densely populated changes in the
countries of South world’s climate? The
Asia. immediate cause is
believed to be the
build-up of
atmospheric
“greenhouse gases”,
produced mainly by
the North’s heavy
industries and motor
vehicles. But a
significant
proportion may also
come from tropical
deforestation and
land use practices
such as range land
burning.

24 25
 The conflicting The root cause of conflict –

goals of individuals, groups and of land degradation itself –

and nations can easily is people's inability to develop

and rapidly affect the environment effective institutional frameworks

of their neighbours, other peoples for conflict resolution and for

and the international community. efficient and sustainable land use

26 27
 Conflict resolution Elements of conflict resolution

means negotiated
agreement using
mechanisms and
institutions
that accurately reflect
the views
of all stakeholders.

Elements of conflict resolution

identify stakeholders

empower the people

agree on the rules 1. Identify stakeholders

The first need is to identify those concerned in
educate and inform the use of a resource – such as a spring or a
well, land suitable for grazing or cultivation,
a fishing or hunting area, or natural vegetation.
Stakeholders include immediate users (those
forums for negotiation
who have a right to exploit the resource) and
those who are directly affected by such
exploitation. Stakeholders should also include
all those who have any kind of interest in how
the resource is used, including conservationists
or special interest groups. All these people have
a natural right to participate in negotiation.
28 29
 Elements of conflict resolution Elements of conflict resolution

2. Educate and inform 3. Create forums for negotiation

To ensure that stakeholders or their Negotiation cannot take place without
representatives partake equally in adequate arrangements for discussion and
negotiations, they need to be fully informed exchange of views. At local level, this may
about all aspects of the resource and its consist of a physical meeting place, but in many
sustainable use, and on relevant economic, cases it will be necessary to establish links with
organizational and legal matters. All stakeholders who are not physically present.
stakeholders should have access to standards Modern communications technology may have
of education which ensure that they are not an important role to play.The result of
placed at a disadvantage vis-à-vis other groups. negotiation should be an agreement on
resource use that optimizes benefits for all
interested parties.

30 31
 Elements of conflict resolution Elements of conflict resolution

4. Agree on the rules 5. Empower the people

Solutions reached through negotiation need to In most countries, land development and
be embodied in an agreed resource utilization conservation are seen as a government
plan.This may be a set of rules or by-laws, a responsibility. Individuals and communities
treaty or a similar instrument to which all often have no power to intervene, contribute or
parties agree. make their opinions known. In order to tap the
knowledge, enthusiasm and energy of local
communities, they must be empowered to
make and implement decisions.

32 33
 The driving force Four incentives to produce
for production 1. Rights to land
Land users have little
Legal demarcation of
boundaries, efficient

and conservation incentive to build up

the productive
capacity of land
mechanisms for
settling disputes,
registration of
is people’s aspirations without a guarantee
that they will enjoy the
ownership and an
active land market all
benefits. Squatters have positive effects
and tenants exploit – on production.
owners conserve.

The primary objective of most land users is to meet

their immediate needs for food, fuel and
income. To do so, they apply their energy,
skills and technologies to exploit available
resources in the most efficient
and cost-effective way. In
other words, land users act
according to what they think
is best for them.
Under the right conditions,
the best strategy for achieving
their objectives is to increase
production and conserve the
productive potential of their land.
All they need are the right incentives...
Some 500 000 former tenant farmers in the
Philippines have received title to small plots
of land under the country’s Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Programme.

34 35
 Four incentives to produce Four incentives to produce
2. Economic incentives marketing boards and 3. Access to inputs inputs and extension
Sufficiently attractive other monopolies and services to scattered, small-
prices for produce – depress prices External production scale producers has
determined by the creating, in turn, inputs and services – been overcome by
forces of supply and demand pressures that fertilizer, credit and giving farmers
demand – are the key stimulate food imports extension advice – also responsibility for this
incentive to and disincentives to stimulate production. task, through their
production. Low local production. In some countries, the own organizations.
producer prices set by problem of providing

The cost of maintaining parastatal marketing Cooperatives in Nicaragua worked with

boards in the United Republic of Tanzania agricultural research stations to develop
was so high that prices they paid for maize fertilizer recommendations and soil
were less than a third of what farmers could management techniques suited to local crops
obtain in illegal parallel markets. Relaxation and conditions. Results of field trials were
of state controls opened the way for large-scale passed on to other farmers. The programme
private trading and sharp increases in maize also set up revolving credit funds to finance
production. the purchase of production inputs.

36 37
 Four incentives to produce Four incentives to conserve
4. Improved processing industries 1. Security of tenure land tenure that
infrastructure and markets. Ideally, For most land users, permit undisturbed
Lack of infrastructure communities should investing in land use, and the right to
discourages production. initiate, manage and conservation is manage the land over
Infrastructure maintain a large part worthwhile only if they a long period.
improvements include of infrastructure from are able to reap the
expansion of transport their own resources. returns on the time
networks, storage and labour they invest.
facilities, agro- This implies forms of

A modern wholesale market built at Nokwane, The Government of China has given long-
in Swaziland, has provided a profitable new term leases on hillside land to farmers who
outlet for the country’s small farmers. agree to plant trees. Result: for the first time
Since it opened in the late 1980s, the market in a millennium, more trees are being planted
has doubled its total annual throughput of than cut down...
fresh fruit and vegetables – to almost 22 000
tonnes – and helped local growers triple their
tomato exports.

38 39
 Four incentives to conserve Four incentives to conserve
2. Productive land ground kept covered maintained yields, cut 3. People’s analysing problems
conservation after the main harvest tractor fuel costs and participation and developing
techniques (for example, with a helped restore soil Without the active practices that reduce
Better farming grass crop) loses 100 damaged by overuse participation of land land degradation. In
techniques can times less soil than of heavy farm users, even the best- this two-way
improve dramatically plots left bare. machinery. laid land conservation partnership, land users
both land productivity Cultivators adopting plans go awry. Users are best represented
and land conservation. zero or minimum need to be involved by their own local
Tests indicate that tillage have from the start in organizations.

An FAO project in Niger’s Keita district Farmer groups in Sri Lanka’s dry zone have
helped reverse a long decline in agricultural formed autonomous village cooperatives that
productivity caused by drought and land work with government services in organizing
degradation. It introduced new farming extension visits, conducting variety trials and
techniques – such as the use of micro- implementing soil and water conservation
catchments – to allow crops to be grown on programmes.
land that had never been cultivated.

40 41
 Four incentives to conserve
4. Charges and legal system is often
Blueprint
for a practical
sanctions too weak to enforce the
When positive rules. A more practical
incentives fail to halt option is to use market-
land mismanagement, based mechanisms and
some governments set fiscal measures, such as
limits and quotas
backed up by
sanctions. In many
countries, however, the
charges and taxes,
and remove subsidies
on inputs that harm
the land.
programme
for sustainable
land use

In Indonesia, generous pesticide subsidies

created artificially low prices and encouraged
their widespread misuse. Faced with
increasing pollution and rising pesticide
resistance among ravenous rice hoppers,
the Government eliminated subsidies and
introduced integrated pest management to
farmers. Within three seasons, pesticide use fell
90 percent – and yields increased.

42 43
 Blueprint
for a practical
programme
1National
force
task
2 Publicity and
sensitization 3 Local resource
management
groups in pilot areas
4 Identification
of needs and
constraints
5 Provision of
information 6 Development of
land
management plans
for sustainable
land use The first thing to do is The second step is to In order to make through negotiation
establish a task force create a climate of Many local resource Once established, local decisions and develop
on land use planning interest through management groups resource management resource management Stakeholders have
or natural resources media and may arise groups should plans, local people will many objectives and
management at information spontaneously as a become a source of need information on points of view.The
national level.The task campaigns dealing result of the information on the the extent and type of local natural resource
force should consist of with the need to information constraints to local resources, such management group
experienced technical increase production campaign. But it may production and as soils, forests and needs to ensure that
experts from while conserving also be advisable to conservation faced by wildlife.They will also all stakeholders are
government natural resources, select a pilot region the local community. need to have represented in the
departments such as water, soil, and to hold They should also information on discussions and
concerned with food grazing lands, wildlife discussions with the provide essential improved varieties, negotiations that lead
production, rural and forests.The aim population at grass information on markets and prices, to an agreed
development, forestry, should be to generate roots level on the best priority actions to be and laws that affect management plan.
wildlife, public works debate on these issues way to establish taken, either by the them and the The final plan will
and planning. In some and to convey the groups and on what group or by resources in their area. outline of a series of
countries, it would be message that issues they should government. They will need actions to be
helpful to include government cannot cover. In many cases, training to equip undertaken, or a
traditional be expected to resolve traditional social them, as stakeholders, number of rules to be
representatives or every local conflict. structures will indicate to play a useful part in obeyed, by
representatives of The participation of the most effective way planning and stakeholders. Follow-
non-governmental the people is required. to proceed. negotiation. For those up action consists of
organizations. reasons, government monitoring the
will need to develop or application of the
improve information plan, so as to ensure
services to local that the rules are
people. obeyed and to assess
whether the plan
requires modification.

44 45
 Blueprint
for a practical 7 Enactment
of enabling 8 Improvement of
government
Advantages of interactive
programme
for sustainable
land use
legislation support services land use management
Clearly, the actions of Land use planning
a local resources through stakeholder
management group interaction results in Maximization on removal of options, both in the of government is then
must be sanctioned by rapid identification of of stakeholder production constraints short and long term. to facilitate, provide
government. In priorities requiring objectives and provision of Institutional information, advise
establishing the group government action. The new approach to incentives to produce, structures for and ensure that the
– or sanctioning its Government needs to sustainable land within an overall discussion and interests of all
establishment – and respond flexibly in resources planning framework that negotiation must stakeholders are taken
providing services to allocating resources, and management maximizes the ensure representation into account.
it, the government is in assigning stresses three things benefits to all those of all stakeholders. In
actually giving the responsibilities and, above all: information, stakeholders making this way, the results More rapid
group certain above all, in exchange involvement and joint use of land and water will ensure the development through
responsibilities.These of information and decisionmaking by all resources. Since the greatest good for the automatic integration
responsibilities need creation of linkages stakeholders.When programme is people- greatest number of of actions, inputs and
to be defined, in terms among institutions. people are informed based, and developed people. objectives
of geographical Government will also and involved, they are in consultation with all At present, almost all
jurisdiction and need to improve its half-way to being those concerned, these Maximum use of local development
subject-matter. information services satisfied.When they constraints and knowledge, initiatives are “top-
Enforcement of and provide training participate in priorities are enthusiasm and down” in character.
management plans or at grass roots level. decisionmaking they identified clearly and resources Apart from other
rules may be achieved are three quarters of rapidly. Government resources disadvantages, this
through social the way to being are limited, even in the means that they
sanctions, but may be satisfied.When they Maximum wealthiest countries. represent what
given legal weight understand that they conservation In least-developed officials think the
through national have negotiated the Decision making must countries, they are people want.Thus
legislation. best result possible, be based on adequate often very limited. technology is
they are almost always information on the When the people frequently developed
satisfied.When they amount and condition themselves are but not utilized.When
are part of a of the resources empowered to initiate the starting point for
development available, including and manage their own development is the
partnership, they are the status of plant and local development needs of the people, a
usually enthusiastic animal populations, programmes – within demand-driven
and more than natural habitats and an overall framework situation is created
satisfied. the environment. that caters for the that automatically
Information for needs of society as a identifies priorities
Increased production decision making must whole – then far and integrates
Interactive land also include the likely greater resources are requirements.
resources impact on the mobilized than are
management means environment of the normally available to
that priority is placed range of possible-use government.The role

46 47
 OUR LAND Text:Denis Sims/G.Thomas For further information about Produced by the Land and
OUR FUTURE Design and layout: sustainable land resources Water Development Division
Graeme Thomas planning and management, of the Food and Agriculture
and Giulio Sansonetti contact: Organization of the United
Collaboration:S.Braatz, Land and Water Development Nations (FAO),in association
J.Bruce,M.Chipeta,D.Dent, Division, with the United Nations
C.Kahanda,A.Khare, Food and Agriculture Environment Programme
T.Michaelsen,M.Mikulowski, Organization of the United (UNEP)
T.Planas,A.Remmelzwaal, Nations (FAO),
J.Riddell,J.Rouse,A.Sarris. Viale delle Terme di Caracalla The designations employed and
Special thanks to the staff 00100 Rome,Italy the presentation of information
of the FAO Photo Library. in this publication do not imply
Photographs by FAO,except the expression of any opinion
cover (Paola Teti) and pages 4, whatsoever on the part of the
5,25 (Contrasto,Rome) Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United
Nations concerning the legal
status of any country,territory,
city or area or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.
The designations “developed”
and “developing”are intended
for statistical convenience and
do not necessarily express a
judgement about the stage
reached by a particular country,
territory or area in the
development process.

© FAO,1996

48