FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
ORGANIZATION
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
UNITED NATIONS
ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
A new approach
to land use
planning
and
management
OUR LAND OUR FUTURE A new approach to land use planning and management
It seems that
human development can
only lead to ever greater
degradation of the land all of us depend on.
We urgently need a strategy that will permit
both development and conservation.
The starting point of that strategy
is the land itself...
You
are
here...
Planet Earth is
a beautiful place.
But it also has
serious problems,
and sooner or later
we will have
to face them...
Between 1950 and
1990, the worlds
population
doubled to more
than 5 000 million
and the global economy grew by more than 3 percent a year.
If trends continue, by the middle of the next century the Earth
could be home to 10 000 million people and the global economy
will have expanded five times over.This exponential growth is
creating critical demand for food, energy, income and services.
More than 800 million
people are chronically
malnourished, and
1 100 million live in
absolute poverty.
Just to feed
everybody
adequately,
food
production
will have to
double within
about 30 years. But the shortfall in domestic cereals production
in the developing world is expected to widen from less
than 100 million tons today to more than 250 million tons
in the year 2025.
Poverty and unemployment have spurred
a mass movement of people from rural to
urban areas and from developing to
developed countries in search of a better
life. More than 80 million people now live in
foreign lands and an estimated two million
emigrate permanently each year. Since 1970,
the number of refugees has grown from
2.5 million to 20 million people.
Population growth, competition for resources and the
widening gap between rich and poor lie at the root of many
social and political conflicts throughout the world.
As many as eighty countries are affected by civil strife and
political violence, while spending on weapons for low-level
conflicts is estimated at up to $10 000 million a year.
For thousands of years, people have modified, degraded and
destroyed natural ecosystems. In 1950, some 115 million km2
of the Earths surface were undegraded, vegetated land.
Just 40 years later, almost nine million km2 an area as large
as China were classified as moderately degraded, with
greatly reduced agricultural productivity. A further three
million km2 were severely degraded, having lost
almost completely their original biotic functions.
Almost 100 000 km2 are beyond restoration...
5 800 000 km2 degraded by deforestation
2.2 million km2 of
tropical forest were
destroyed, mainly to
provide new land for
food production.
Worldwide, tropical
forests are being
cleared at a rate of
about one percent
each year, with annual
losses of as high as
two percent in West
Africa.
Vast reserves of forest
have been degraded
by large-scale logging
and clearing for farm
and urban use.
Between 1975 and
1990, more than
6 800 000 km2 degraded by overgrazing
Overgrazing has
damaged 20 percent
of the worlds pasture
and range lands.
Recent losses have
been most severe in
Africa and Asia.
Typically, animal herds
compact soil around
waterholes and strip
the land of vegetation,
reducing its capacity
to retain moisture and
exposing soil to wind
and water erosion. As
rangeland productivity
declines in developing
countries, more forests
and farm land are
being converted to
grazing.
1 370 000 km2 degraded for fuel wood
Fuelwood and
charcoal are the
primary sources of
energy in many parts
of the world. Each
year an estimated
1 730 million m3 of
fuelwood are taken
from forests and
plantations. As
population pressure
mounts, rural people
are removing
vegetation from higher
and steeper areas,
exposing more and
more land to erosion.
Wind erosion degrades
land left bare of
vegetation. It affects
more than a third of
land in the Near East
and almost a quarter
of Africa north of the
equator.
Water erosion affects
mainly steep land or
unprotected sloping
areas. It causes soil
losses estimated at
25 000 million tonnes
every year.
5 500 000 km2 degraded by agricultural mismanagement
Soil salinization and
waterlogging are
caused by poor
drainage of irrigated
land. Globally, about
400 000 km2 of land
are affected.
Soil nutrient loss
occurs when land is
farmed beyond its
capacity.This is
increasingly the case
in areas of shifting
(or slash-and-burn)
cultivation, where
population pressure
has reduced fallow
periods to virtually
zero.
10
11
195 000 km2 degraded by industry and urbanization
Lespansione
urbanistica (citt,
strade, miniere e
Urban growth, road
toglie terra
building, miningindustria)
and
allagricoltura.
Tra
industry are degrading
land worldwide.1967-75,
Often, quasi
30,000 km2 di buona
valuable agricultural
terra agricola sono
land is lost during
1967-75, almostscomparsi
30 000
sotto il
km2 of good crop
land negli Stati
cemento
disappeared under
uniti. Un problema
concrete in the United
connesso
States alone. linquinamento del
Associated problems
suolo a causa di rifiuti
include pollution of
ed urbani, la
soil by industrialindustriali
and
pioggia
acida,
luso
urban wastes, acid
eccessivo
di
rain, overuse of inputs
in feedlots, and fertilizzante
oil and
chemical spills. nellagricoltura
intensiva e disastri
ambientale tipo
Seveso.
12
If degradation is the sickness
of land, desertification is its
death. In arid areas of Africa
and Asia, overgrazing and
the relentless search for
fuelwood have reduced large
tracts of once productive land to desert. More than
half a million square kilometres on the southern edge
of the Sahara have become desert over the past half
century. Desertification
affects the livelihoods of some
850 million people worldwide.
13
It seems as though
human development can
that will permit both
only lead to ever greater
development and conservation.
degradation of the land
The starting point of
all of us depend on.
14
We urgently need a strategy
that strategy is the land itself
15
Factors that determine the use of land...
People determine how land is
used. At one extreme, the
objectives of the individual
farmer and many other types of
land user are to produce income
by exploiting natural resources.
As the population increases,
there is a corresponding
increase in the amount and
intensity of exploitation, leading
to modification and frequently
degradation of the
environment.
At the other extreme, the
community as a whole seeks to
conserve natural resources and
the environment, including the
range of natural species, for a
wide variety of reasons.
Each individual or group has
particular needs, objectives and
points of view.The resulting use
of land is controlled by an
interplay of many social and
economic factors, and is
ultimately driven by the
objectives of innumerable
stakeholders people or
groups who either directly
exploit or in some way control
the use of land resources.
16
17
US
ce
an
Ba
ng
la
de
sh
Bh
ut
an
Ch
in
Ca
na
da
Ita
ly
Fr
ar
co
nm
oc
di
al
ic
em
at
Gu
si
il
az
Bo
liv
ia
Sw
* hectares of
cultivated land per
head of agricultural
labour force
az
ila
nd
Fi
ji
Au
st
Br
ra
In
lia
do
ne
ili
an
iL
Sr
Ph
ka
i
nd
ru
pp
in
es
ex
Et
l
ga
Bu
In
hi
Tu
ni
op
si
ia
ya
or
M
ne
Se
Food production must
increase dramatically
to feed the worlds
rapidly growing
population. But most
land suitable for
cultivation is already
in use, and by 2010 per
caput availability of
arable land in
developing countries
will have shrunk from
the present 0.85
hectares to about 0.4
hectares. Current rates
of land degradation
suggest that a further
2.5 million km2 of farm
land could become
unproductive by 2050.
And there is another
ominous trend: in the
period 1988-93, per
caput food output fell
in 99 countries,
heightening fears
about the capacity of
available land
resources to meet
demand.
...and how much land
they have *
= 1 hectare
18
19
We all have a stake
in sustainable land use.
But the aims
and activities of
stakeholders are often
in conflict
Worldwide, conflict over land is
intensifying: among individual land
users vying for local resources,
between individuals and their
communities, among competing
nations and at global level
between North and South.
20
21
Stakeholders
in conflict:
community
and state
Over centuries,
nomadic Bedouin
tribes in the Near East
developed a system of
mutually agreed laws,
regulations and
customs known as
hema to control
grazing on their
rangelands.
In the mid-20th
century, the decision
of some governments
to abolish the hema
regime led to the
breakdown of
winter/summer
grazing rotation and
to widespread land
degradation.
Stakeholders
in conflict:
men and
women
Two hundred women
in a village in Mali
declared war on
their menfolk over
ownership of a
community market
garden.The women
provided all the labour
needed to establish
the garden. But the
local village
development
association made up
entirely of men took
control, claiming the
garden belonged to
the entire
community.
22
23
Stakeholders
in conflict:
upstream
countries,
downstream
countries
Thirteen of the
worlds major rivers
and lakes are shared
by a total of 96
countries.The water
supplies of millions
of people who live in
these areas depend
on continuing
cooperation among
their governments.
But disputes are
common in every
region, particularly
in the Near East and
densely populated
countries of South
Asia.
24
Stakeholders
in conflict:
North and
South
Who should take
responsibility for
increasingly erratic
changes in the
worlds climate? The
immediate cause is
believed to be the
build-up of
atmospheric
greenhouse gases,
produced mainly by
the Norths heavy
industries and motor
vehicles. But a
significant
proportion may also
come from tropical
deforestation and
land use practices
such as range land
burning.
25
The conflicting
goals of individuals, groups
and nations can easily
and rapidly affect the environment
of their neighbours, other peoples
and the international community.
26
The root cause of conflict
and of land degradation itself
is people's inability to develop
effective institutional frameworks
for conflict resolution and for
efficient and sustainable land use
27
Conflict resolution
means negotiated
agreement using
mechanisms and
institutions
that accurately reflect
the views
of all stakeholders.
Elements of conflict resolution
Elements of conflict resolution
identify stakeholders
empower the people
agree on the rules
educate and inform
forums for negotiation
28
1. Identify stakeholders
The first need is to identify those concerned in
the use of a resource such as a spring or a
well, land suitable for grazing or cultivation,
a fishing or hunting area, or natural vegetation.
Stakeholders include immediate users (those
who have a right to exploit the resource) and
those who are directly affected by such
exploitation. Stakeholders should also include
all those who have any kind of interest in how
the resource is used, including conservationists
or special interest groups. All these people have
a natural right to participate in negotiation.
29
Elements of conflict resolution
30
Elements of conflict resolution
2. Educate and inform
3. Create forums for negotiation
To ensure that stakeholders or their
representatives partake equally in
negotiations, they need to be fully informed
about all aspects of the resource and its
sustainable use, and on relevant economic,
organizational and legal matters. All
stakeholders should have access to standards
of education which ensure that they are not
placed at a disadvantage vis--vis other groups.
Negotiation cannot take place without
adequate arrangements for discussion and
exchange of views. At local level, this may
consist of a physical meeting place, but in many
cases it will be necessary to establish links with
stakeholders who are not physically present.
Modern communications technology may have
an important role to play.The result of
negotiation should be an agreement on
resource use that optimizes benefits for all
interested parties.
31
Elements of conflict resolution
32
Elements of conflict resolution
4. Agree on the rules
5. Empower the people
Solutions reached through negotiation need to
be embodied in an agreed resource utilization
plan.This may be a set of rules or by-laws, a
treaty or a similar instrument to which all
parties agree.
In most countries, land development and
conservation are seen as a government
responsibility. Individuals and communities
often have no power to intervene, contribute or
make their opinions known. In order to tap the
knowledge, enthusiasm and energy of local
communities, they must be empowered to
make and implement decisions.
33
The driving force
for production
and conservation
is peoples aspirations
Four incentives to produce
1. Rights to land
Land users have little
incentive to build up
the productive
capacity of land
without a guarantee
that they will enjoy the
benefits. Squatters
and tenants exploit
owners conserve.
Legal demarcation of
boundaries, efficient
mechanisms for
settling disputes,
registration of
ownership and an
active land market all
have positive effects
on production.
The primary objective of most land users is to meet
their immediate needs for food, fuel and
income. To do so, they apply their energy,
skills and technologies to exploit available
resources in the most efficient
and cost-effective way. In
other words, land users act
according to what they think
is best for them.
Under the right conditions,
the best strategy for achieving
their objectives is to increase
production and conserve the
productive potential of their land.
All they need are the right incentives...
Some 500 000 former tenant farmers in the
Philippines have received title to small plots
of land under the countrys Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Programme.
34
35
Four incentives to produce
2. Economic incentives
Sufficiently attractive
prices for produce
determined by the
forces of supply and
demand are the key
incentive to
production. Low
producer prices set by
marketing boards and
other monopolies
depress prices
creating, in turn,
demand pressures that
stimulate food imports
and disincentives to
local production.
The cost of maintaining parastatal marketing
boards in the United Republic of Tanzania
was so high that prices they paid for maize
were less than a third of what farmers could
obtain in illegal parallel markets. Relaxation
of state controls opened the way for large-scale
private trading and sharp increases in maize
production.
36
Four incentives to produce
3. Access to inputs
and services
External production
inputs and services
fertilizer, credit and
extension advice also
stimulate production.
In some countries, the
problem of providing
inputs and extension
to scattered, smallscale producers has
been overcome by
giving farmers
responsibility for this
task, through their
own organizations.
Cooperatives in Nicaragua worked with
agricultural research stations to develop
fertilizer recommendations and soil
management techniques suited to local crops
and conditions. Results of field trials were
passed on to other farmers. The programme
also set up revolving credit funds to finance
the purchase of production inputs.
37
Four incentives to produce
Four incentives to conserve
4. Improved
infrastructure
Lack of infrastructure
discourages production.
Infrastructure
improvements include
expansion of transport
networks, storage
facilities, agro-
1. Security of tenure
For most land users,
investing in land
conservation is
worthwhile only if they
are able to reap the
returns on the time
and labour they invest.
This implies forms of
processing industries
and markets. Ideally,
communities should
initiate, manage and
maintain a large part
of infrastructure from
their own resources.
A modern wholesale market built at Nokwane,
in Swaziland, has provided a profitable new
outlet for the countrys small farmers.
Since it opened in the late 1980s, the market
has doubled its total annual throughput of
fresh fruit and vegetables to almost 22 000
tonnes and helped local growers triple their
tomato exports.
38
land tenure that
permit undisturbed
use, and the right to
manage the land over
a long period.
The Government of China has given longterm leases on hillside land to farmers who
agree to plant trees. Result: for the first time
in a millennium, more trees are being planted
than cut down...
39
Four incentives to conserve
Four incentives to conserve
2. Productive land
conservation
techniques
Better farming
techniques can
improve dramatically
both land productivity
and land conservation.
Tests indicate that
3. Peoples
participation
Without the active
participation of land
users, even the bestlaid land conservation
plans go awry. Users
need to be involved
from the start in
ground kept covered
after the main harvest
(for example, with a
grass crop) loses 100
times less soil than
plots left bare.
Cultivators adopting
zero or minimum
tillage have
maintained yields, cut
tractor fuel costs and
helped restore soil
damaged by overuse
of heavy farm
machinery.
An FAO project in Nigers Keita district
helped reverse a long decline in agricultural
productivity caused by drought and land
degradation. It introduced new farming
techniques such as the use of microcatchments to allow crops to be grown on
land that had never been cultivated.
40
analysing problems
and developing
practices that reduce
land degradation. In
this two-way
partnership, land users
are best represented
by their own local
organizations.
Farmer groups in Sri Lankas dry zone have
formed autonomous village cooperatives that
work with government services in organizing
extension visits, conducting variety trials and
implementing soil and water conservation
programmes.
41
Four incentives to conserve
4. Charges and
sanctions
When positive
incentives fail to halt
land mismanagement,
some governments set
limits and quotas
backed up by
sanctions. In many
countries, however, the
legal system is often
too weak to enforce the
rules. A more practical
option is to use marketbased mechanisms and
fiscal measures, such as
charges and taxes,
and remove subsidies
on inputs that harm
the land.
Blueprint
for a practical
programme
for sustainable
land use
In Indonesia, generous pesticide subsidies
created artificially low prices and encouraged
their widespread misuse. Faced with
increasing pollution and rising pesticide
resistance among ravenous rice hoppers,
the Government eliminated subsidies and
introduced integrated pest management to
farmers. Within three seasons, pesticide use fell
90 percent and yields increased.
42
43
Blueprint
for a practical
programme
for sustainable
land use
44
task
1National
force
and
2 Publicity
sensitization
The first thing to do is
establish a task force
on land use planning
or natural resources
management at
national level.The task
force should consist of
experienced technical
experts from
government
departments
concerned with food
production, rural
development, forestry,
wildlife, public works
and planning. In some
countries, it would be
helpful to include
traditional
representatives or
representatives of
non-governmental
organizations.
The second step is to
create a climate of
interest through
media and
information
campaigns dealing
with the need to
increase production
while conserving
natural resources,
such as water, soil,
grazing lands, wildlife
and forests.The aim
should be to generate
debate on these issues
and to convey the
message that
government cannot
be expected to resolve
every local conflict.
The participation of
the people is required.
Local resource
3
management
groups in pilot areas
Identification
4
of needs and
constraints
Many local resource
management groups
may arise
spontaneously as a
result of the
information
campaign. But it may
also be advisable to
select a pilot region
and to hold
discussions with the
population at grass
roots level on the best
way to establish
groups and on what
issues they should
cover. In many cases,
traditional social
structures will indicate
the most effective way
to proceed.
Once established, local
resource management
groups should
become a source of
information on the
constraints to
production and
conservation faced by
the local community.
They should also
provide essential
information on
priority actions to be
taken, either by the
group or by
government.
of
5 Provision
information
Development of
6
land
management plans
In order to make
decisions and develop
resource management
plans, local people will
need information on
the extent and type of
local resources, such
as soils, forests and
wildlife.They will also
need to have
information on
improved varieties,
markets and prices,
and laws that affect
them and the
resources in their area.
They will need
training to equip
them, as stakeholders,
to play a useful part in
planning and
negotiation. For those
reasons, government
will need to develop or
improve information
services to local
people.
through negotiation
Stakeholders have
many objectives and
points of view.The
local natural resource
management group
needs to ensure that
all stakeholders are
represented in the
discussions and
negotiations that lead
to an agreed
management plan.
The final plan will
outline of a series of
actions to be
undertaken, or a
number of rules to be
obeyed, by
stakeholders. Followup action consists of
monitoring the
application of the
plan, so as to ensure
that the rules are
obeyed and to assess
whether the plan
requires modification.
45
Blueprint
for a practical
programme
for sustainable
land use
Enactment
7
of enabling
legislation
Improvement of
8
government
support services
Clearly, the actions of
a local resources
management group
must be sanctioned by
government. In
establishing the group
or sanctioning its
establishment and
providing services to
it, the government is
actually giving the
group certain
responsibilities.These
responsibilities need
to be defined, in terms
of geographical
jurisdiction and
subject-matter.
Enforcement of
management plans or
rules may be achieved
through social
sanctions, but may be
given legal weight
through national
legislation.
Land use planning
through stakeholder
interaction results in
rapid identification of
priorities requiring
government action.
Government needs to
respond flexibly in
allocating resources,
in assigning
responsibilities and,
above all, in exchange
of information and
creation of linkages
among institutions.
Government will also
need to improve its
information services
and provide training
at grass roots level.
Advantages of interactive
land use management
Maximization
of stakeholder
objectives
The new approach to
sustainable land
resources planning
and management
stresses three things
above all: information,
involvement and joint
decisionmaking by all
stakeholders.When
people are informed
and involved, they are
half-way to being
satisfied.When they
participate in
decisionmaking they
are three quarters of
the way to being
satisfied.When they
understand that they
have negotiated the
best result possible,
they are almost always
satisfied.When they
are part of a
development
partnership, they are
usually enthusiastic
and more than
satisfied.
Increased production
Interactive land
resources
management means
that priority is placed
46
on removal of
production constraints
and provision of
incentives to produce,
within an overall
framework that
maximizes the
benefits to all those
stakeholders making
use of land and water
resources. Since the
programme is peoplebased, and developed
in consultation with all
those concerned, these
constraints and
priorities are
identified clearly and
rapidly.
Maximum
conservation
Decision making must
be based on adequate
information on the
amount and condition
of the resources
available, including
the status of plant and
animal populations,
natural habitats and
the environment.
Information for
decision making must
also include the likely
impact on the
environment of the
range of possible-use
options, both in the
short and long term.
Institutional
structures for
discussion and
negotiation must
ensure representation
of all stakeholders. In
this way, the results
will ensure the
greatest good for the
greatest number of
people.
Maximum use of local
knowledge,
enthusiasm and
resources
Government resources
are limited, even in the
wealthiest countries.
In least-developed
countries, they are
often very limited.
When the people
themselves are
empowered to initiate
and manage their own
local development
programmes within
an overall framework
that caters for the
needs of society as a
whole then far
greater resources are
mobilized than are
normally available to
government.The role
of government is then
to facilitate, provide
information, advise
and ensure that the
interests of all
stakeholders are taken
into account.
More rapid
development through
automatic integration
of actions, inputs and
objectives
At present, almost all
development
initiatives are topdown in character.
Apart from other
disadvantages, this
means that they
represent what
officials think the
people want.Thus
technology is
frequently developed
but not utilized.When
the starting point for
development is the
needs of the people, a
demand-driven
situation is created
that automatically
identifies priorities
and integrates
requirements.
47
OUR LAND
OUR FUTURE
Text:Denis Sims/G.Thomas
Design and layout:
Graeme Thomas
and Giulio Sansonetti
Collaboration:S.Braatz,
J.Bruce,M.Chipeta,D.Dent,
C.Kahanda,A.Khare,
T.Michaelsen,M.Mikulowski,
T.Planas,A.Remmelzwaal,
J.Riddell,J.Rouse,A.Sarris.
Special thanks to the staff
of the FAO Photo Library.
Photographs by FAO,except
cover (Paola Teti) and pages 4,
5,25 (Contrasto,Rome)
For further information about
sustainable land resources
planning and management,
contact:
Land and Water Development
Division,
Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United
Nations (FAO),
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome,Italy
Produced by the Land and
Water Development Division
of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United
Nations (FAO),in association
with the United Nations
Environment Programme
(UNEP)
The designations employed and
the presentation of information
in this publication do not imply
the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the
Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United
Nations concerning the legal
status of any country,territory,
city or area or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.
The designations developed
and developingare intended
for statistical convenience and
do not necessarily express a
judgement about the stage
reached by a particular country,
territory or area in the
development process.
FAO,1996
48
