TOPIC 1 CELL BIOLOGY

1.1 Introduction to Cell Theory

List the three components of cell theory
List the functions of life
What are the functions of life for paramecium?
What are the functions of life for chlorella/algae?
What is the importance of surface area to volume ratio?
What are emergent properties?
List the types of stem cells?
Explain the use of stem cells for stargardt’s disease
Explain the use of stem cells for leukemia
List the exceptions for cell theory
What limits cell size?
1.2 Ultrastructure of cells
What are organelles?
Are all organelles membrane bound?
What are the advantages of a compartmentalised cell structure?
Explain the process of binary fission?
Contrast eukaryotes and prokaryotes
What is the purpose of flagellum and pilli in a prokaryotic cell?
Explain the difference between rER and the golgi apparatus
State differences between plant and animal cells and the reasons for these differences
Distinguish between cell wall and plasma membrane
What is the slime capsule/peptidoglycan?
Outline the structure and function of: mitochondria, eER, golgi apparatus, nucleus, lysosome,
ribosome, cell membrane, vesicles, cell wall, chloroplast
1.3 Membrane Structure
Explain the structure of the phospholipid bilayer
What are the properties of phospholipid bilayer
What is the role of cholesterol in the phospholipid bilayer?
Draw the Fluid Mosaic Model
Compare the Davson-Danielli and the Singer-Nicholsen model of phospholipid bilayer
Evidence to support the Singer-Nicholsen model
List the functions of membrane proteins
What are glycoproteins
Outline differences between peripheral and integral membrane proteins
1.4 Membrane Transport
Compare osmosis, simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
Osmosis can only occur with the presence of ____
Give examples of simple diffusion
What molecules must use facilitated diffusion?
Explain active transport with reference to sodium-potassium pump
What is hypertonic and hypotonic solution?
Types of exocytosis?
What structure of vesicles allows it to do endocytosis and exocytosis?
State a transport mechanism across a membrane that requires ATP and one that does not
What are differences and similarities between endocytosis and exocytosis?
1.5 Origin of Cells
Evidence to why cells can only be formed by pre-existing cells
Give the four processes needed for spontaneous living on earth
Explain the process of Miller and Urey’s experiment
What did Miller and Urey’s experiment conclude/demonstrate?
Explain the development of the nucleus
Explain the development of mitochondria
Give the evidence supporting endosymbiotic theory
Explain the findings of Pasteur’s experiment
1.6 Cell Division
State the difference between chromatin and chromosome and explain why DNA is packaged
differently
Explain cytokinesis in plant vs animal cells
What are the stages of interphase?
What occurs in each stage?
How are cell cycles regulated?
What are mutagens?
What are carcinogens? Give three examples
What is an oncogene? What are the different types?
Explain how cancer develops and how a tumour can form
Explain the process of metastasis and how it occurs
What results from uncontrolled cell division?

TOPIC 2 MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

2.1 Molecules to metabolism
What do all organic molecules contain?
Give the type and number of bonds that carbon can form
What do all carbohydrates/lipids/proteins/nucleic acids contain?
Define metabolism
Anabolism is ______ an example of this is ______
Catabolism is ______ an example of this is _______
Draw a sugar/fatty acid/protein/ nucleic acid
2.2 Water
List and explain the properties of water
What is hydrophobic? What is hydrophilic?
Compare the thermal properties of water with methane
Why is water a coolant in sweat?
Water molecules are _____ which makes the bonds very _____
2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids
List four monosaccharides
List three disaccharides and their components
What are the polysaccharides of glucose?
Contrast cellulose with starch and glycogen
State the bonding, subunit and branching for cellulose, amylose, amylopectin and glycogen
Cellulose and starch are in _____ whilst glycogen is in _____
What is saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids?
Contrast cis and trans isomers of fatty acids
How do triglycerides form?
There is a positive correlation between ________ and CHD
Compare the health benefits/problems of unsaturated, saturated and trans fats
What is most suitable for long-term energy storage
Compare glucose, glycogen, and lipids as energy storage
Where are lipids stored?
Where is glycogen stored?
Where is glucose stored/ located?
How do you calculate BMI?
2.4 Proteins
What is the bonding between amino acids?
How do proteins form / which structure facilitate this?
How many types of amino acids are there?
Contrast fibrous and globular proteins
List the functions of proteins and what is an example for each?
What is a proteome?
How do environmental factors influence protein synthesis?
Identify the function of rubisco/insulin/immunoglobins/rhodopsin/collagen/spider silk
2.5 Enzymes
Explain the induced-fit model
How does collision play a role in enzyme activity?
Explain the effect of temperature / pH / concentration with reference to their graph
What is denaturation? How does it occur?
Explain areas where enzymes are used in industry. Give three examples
How are enzymes immobilised?
List the advantages of enzyme immobilisation
Explain the production of lactose free milk
2.6 Structure of DNA and RNA
What are the components of a nucleotide?
List the four nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA
How are nucleotides bonded together?
How are the bases bonded?
Draw a diagram of DNA
What are three differences between RNA and DNA?
How is the double helix structure maintained?
Explain the findings of Crick and Watson
2.7 DNA replication, transcription, and translation
DNA replication is ________
How does Meselson and Stahl’s experiment demonstrate DNA is semi-conservative?
Antisense vs sense strand in DNA replication and transcription
What are the three types of RNA?
Give the structure of ribosomes
Explain the process of PCR
What enzymes is involved in PRC? Why?
2.8 Cell Respiration
What is the structure of ATP and ADP?
What is fermentation? What is formed?
Where does anaerobic respiration take place?
Where does aerobic respiration take place?
Explain fermentation in yeast and its use in baking/food
Explain fermentation in bacteria and its use in food
What the effect of lactate in humans?
Explain how a respirometer works
2.9 Photosynthesis
_____ is absorbed whilst ____ is reflected by plants
What is the electromagnetic spectrum ranges?
What does photosynthesis cause plants to produce?
How does temperature/ light intensity/ Co2 concentration affect the rate of photosynthesis?
TOPIC 3 GENETICS
3.1 Genes
What is a locus?
Define gene
List different types of base-substitution mutation?
How sickle cell anaemia affects DNA, mRNA, and polypeptide formation?
What kind of mutation is sickle cell anaemia and how is it inherited?
3.2 Chromosomes
What is the difference between genetic material in eukaryotes vs prokaryotes?
What are the features of plasmids?
How is DNA packaged?
Eukaryotic chromosomes vary by…
Differences between karyotype and karygram?
3.3 Meiosis
What happens during meiosis I?
What happens during meiosis II?
What are sister chromatids?
What are homologous chromosomes?
Crossing over occurs at______ during _______
Random orientation is _______ and occurs during _______
What processes cause genetic differences?
What are the ways to obtain karyotype?
What is non-disjunction and when can it occur?
Cause of trisomy 21?
3.4 Inheritance
Outline Mendel’s results
What is co-dominance?
Autosomal recessive vs autosomal dominant?
What is sex-linked inheritance?
What is gene mutation defined as?
What can cause gene mutation?
Explain blood inheritance
How are haemophilia, red-green colour blindness, cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease
inherited?
3.5 Genetic Modification
Purpose of PCR
Purpose of gel electrophoresis
Process of PCR
Process of gel electrophoresis
What is used during DNA profiling? And for what purpose?
What is transgenic?
Explain gene transfer to bacteria?
Give examples of naturally occurring clones?
Types of cloning in plants / vegetative propagation?
Risks and Benefits of BT Corn
Types of artificial cloning
Explain cloning via breaking up the embryo
Limitations of cloning via breaking up the embryo
Explain the processes of SNCT
List the uses for SCNT?

TOPIC 4 ECOLOGY
4.1 Species, community, and ecosystem
Distinguish between species, population, community, and ecosystem
What are autotrophs? What are heterotrophs?
What makes the same species make up different populations?
List two types of autotrophs
List three types of heterotrophs
What are consumers / detritivores/ saprotrophs and give an example for each
Four types of consumer heterotrophs are
What are the nutrients and how do different organisms gain them?
How to build the foundation for a successful mesocosm
What are the right plants for a mesocosm?
How to maintain the appropriate conditions for a mesocosm?
Outline quadrant sampling?
How to find if two species are associated?
4.2 Energy Flow
Differentiate food chain and food web
What do the trophic levels show?
Contrast energy flow and nutrient flow
What occurs with each trophic level?
Give three forms of energy lost between organism?
What is the biproduct of chemical energy in an organism?
Producers convert _____ energy to _____ energy
Consumers convert ______ energy to ______ energy
How much energy is lost between each trophic level?
What are the units for an energy pyramid?
4.3 Carbon Cycle
What two forms of carbon is found in the oceans?
What does dissolved carbon dioxide affect in aquatic environments?
What form of carbon is found in the atmosphere? How does it move through species?
Explain methanogenic archaens and where they are found
Methane naturally oxidises into _____ and _____
How does peat form? Give the process
How does coal form? What environment?
How does oil form? What environment?
What does the combustion of fossil form?
Where is calcium carbonate found in aquatic environments? What happens to the calcium
carbonate over time?
Draw the carbon cycle
Distinguish between carbon sink and flux
Give evidence for levels of increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
4.4 Climate Change
List the four greenhouse gases
Define greenhouse gas
What are two dangerous greenhouse gases and two gases that have less impact? Why?
What makes a greenhouse gas have more impact?
Differentiate between long-wave and short-wave radiation
What are the consequences of the greenhouse effect?
What is ocean acidification?
How does ocean acidity threaten coral reefs?
How do we know the history of carbon dioxide concentration and temperature?

TOPIC 5 EVOLUTION AND BIODIVERSITY

5.1 Evidence for Evolution
Define evolution
What are the two types of fossils?
What are transition fossils?
What is the fossil record and what can it show?
Explain reasons for the gaps in the fossil record
Give six pieces of evidence for evolution
Selective breeding is a form of ______
Explain the process of selective breeding
How is brassica used for selective breeding?
Explain horse, cow and dog breeding
What is comparative anatomy?
What are homologous structures?
Homologous structures can show ______ thus demonstrating ________
Explain adaptive radiation
Explain the process of speciation
What is continuous variation?
What will happen if species with continuous genetic variation are separated?
What is the pentadactyl limb?
Explain dark and light coloured peppered moths
5.2 Natural Selection
What is natural selection?
Variation between members of a species occur due to ….
Adaptions that give an ________ are selected for, whilst adaptions that give a ______
disadvantage are selected against
Adaptation result in _________
What is the consequence when species produce more offspring than the environment can
support?
Give six struggles for survival
Explain Darwin’s finches
How does the evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria demonstrate natural selection?
What are the two strains of golden staph and which serves a genetic advantage?
What is the antibiotic used on golden staph?
5.3 Classification Systems
What are subspecies?
What is taxonomy?
What are the three domains?
Give 5 contrasts between archaea and eubacteria
Give the principal taxa for classifying a species
What is natural classification based on?
What was the evidence that suggests that prokaryote belong into two domains?
Give a disadvantage of natural classification
What is artificial classification based on?
Give the classification for humans
Give the classification for buttercup
Fill out these tables:
Plant Phyla Example Leaves, roots and stems Vascular Reproductive
tissue structures
 Animal Example Symmetry Segmentation Digestive tracts Other features
Phyla

Class Limbs Gas exchange Reproduction Other features

What are dichotomous keys?

5.4 Cladistics
What is a clade?
What evidence is used in cladistics?
Molecular clock can show
Compare analogous and homologous traits
Explain reclassification of figwort family

TOPIC 6 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

6.1 Digestion
What is mechanical digestion? Give two types
Explain peristalsis – which muscles are involved?
What are the enzymes in the mouth?
What are the enzymes in the stomach?
What are the enzymes in the pancreas?
What is bile and what does it do?
Explain the structure and subsequent functions of the stomach
Where are villi located?
Explain the structure and subsequent functions of villi
Contrast digestion and absorption
Complete this table:
 Nutrient Method of transport

Explain the digestion of starch

What are the two functions of the pancreas?
6.2 The Blood System
What is the function of arteries?
Explain the structure of arteries
How does blood flow in arteries?
Purpose of muscle and elastic fibres in arteries
What is the function of capillaries?
Explain the structure of capillaries
What are the three types of capillaries?
What is the function of veins?
Explain the structure of veins
How does blood flow in veins?
Role of skeletal muscles or arteries in veins
Atria is for ______ whilst ventricles is for ______
Left side pumps _____ blood whilst right side pumps _____ blood
Explain process of heartbeat
Sympathetic nerve releases NT _____ to _____ heart rate
Parasympathetic nerve releases NT _____ to _____ heart rate
What is the hormone involved in heart rate?
Understanding of the heart prior to Harvey? After Harvey?
Draw/explain pressure changes in the heart
What is atherosclerosis and how does it occur?
What is coronary heart disease?
Give three risk factor for CHD
6.3 Defence against Infectious Disease
What is the first line of defence?
What does the skin secrete?
Explain the purpose of the mucous membrane
What are the two components of blood clots?
Explain the clotting cascade
What is the second line of defence?
What are phagocytes?
Explain chemotaxis and what it responds to
Explain phagocytosis
What is the third line of defence?
Distinguish antigen and antibody
Antibody is a type of _____ called _____
What are antibiotics
How do antibiotics kill prokaryotic cells / what specific functions do they target?
How are viruses treated?
How do bacteria become resistant to antibacterial drugs? Why are prevalence rates
increasing?
Explain Florey and Chain’s experiment to test penicillin
6.4 Gas Exchange
What are the three distinct processes of physiological respiration?
Gas exchange is a ______ process
How is the concentration gradient maintained?
How do lungs function as a ventilation system?
What are pneumocytes?
What is the structure and function of type I pneumocytes?
What is the role of type II pneumocytes?
Right lung has ____ lobes, left lung has ____ lobes
Explain structure and function of alveolus (4 points)
What happens during inspiration?
What muscles are involved in inspiration?
What happens during exhalation?
What muscles are involved in exhalation?
Explain the pathway of air
What is emphysema? How is it caused? Symptoms?
What is lung cancer? How is it caused? (5) Symptoms? (4)
Ways of monitoring ventilation in humans
6.5 Neurons and Synapses
What are the three different types of neurons?
What is saltatory condition?
What are the advantages of Myline sheath?
How is resting potential maintained?
What is the potential difference at resting potential?
How is a neuron depolarised?
What is threshold potential?
How and when is a neuron repolarised?
What is the refractory period?
Explain local currents
Give the process of synaptic transfer
Electrical signal must be converted to a _______ in order to be passed on
What is acetylcholine?
How is ACH re-uptaken?
What is ACH made up of?
How does neonicotinoid work as a pesticide?
What are the issues with neonicotinoid?
What is an oscilloscope?
6.6 Hormones, homeostasis, and reproduction
Glucose is regulated by a ____ feedback loop
What happens when glucose is too high?
What happens when glucose is too low?
Which cells secrete insulin? Glucagon?
Where is thyroxin produced? What are the target cells? What does it respond to?
What is the role of thyroxin?
Where is leptin produced? What does leptin target?
What is the role of leptin?
Where is melatonin produced? What does melatonin target?
What is the role of melatonin?
Y contains that ____ gene (sex determining region)
How do the sexes develop differentiate / how do testis and ovaries form?
Where is testosterone produced?
List the male primary sex characteristics
List the male secondary sex characteristics
Labe the diagram below:

Where is estrogen and progesterone secreted?

List the female primary sex characteristics
List the female secondary sex characteristics
Labe the diagram below:

Where are FSH and LH produced?

Where are estrogen and progesterone produced?
Explain the process of the menstrual cycle
What are three phases in the menstrual cycle?

TOPIC 7 NUCLEIC ACIDS

7.1 DNA Structure
Explain how DNA is packaged (from naked DNA to chromosomes)
Why do eukaryotic DNA need to be supercoiled?
What are origins of replication?
State the difference between leading and lagging strands
What direction does replication occur in / polymerase III?
Give the enzymes involved in DNA replication
What are introns and exons? Which are edited out of mRNA?
Give the five types of non-coding DNA
What are the types of of non-coding regions that affect transcription?
What is the difference between satellite DNA and telomers?
Explain the process of X-ray diffraction
What did Franklin find in her results (concerning composition, orientation and shape of
DNA)?
What are dideoxynucleosides?
Identify the role of deoxyribonucleic acids in DNA profiling
_________ are used in DNA profiling
7.2 Transcription
Three processes of transcription
Process of transcription
The ______ strand is complementary to RNA whilst the _____ strand is the template for the RNA
Replication moves in a _______ direction
What is methylation?
What is acetylation?
What is capping?
What is polyadenylation?
Explain splicing
What is the role of the promotor in transcription?
State the regulatory proteins
Explain the role of the operator with reference to the metabolism of lactose in bacterium
How can the environment of an organism affect gene expression?
How can the environment of a cell affect gene expression?

7.3 Translation
Explain initiation, elongation and termination
Distinguish free and bound ribosomes and the proteins they synthesize
What is the primary/secondary/tertiary/quintenary structure of proteins?
What is the role of the tRNA activating enzyme?
Explain the structure of ribosomes
Explain the structure of tRNA
Distinguish between translation in eukaryotes and prokaryotes

TOPIC 8 METABOLISM
8.1 Metabolism
Distinguish chain and cycle
Give an example for a chain and cycle pathway
What is the transition state?
What is the activation energy?
How do enzymes lower activation energy?
What are competitive inhibitors? Explain the graph you would see
What are non-competitive inhibitors? Explain the graph you would see
Give an example of a competitive inhibitor
Give an example of a non-competitive inhibitor

TOPIC 9 PLANT BIOLOGY

9.1 Transport in the Xylem

TOPIC 10 GENETICS
10.1 Meiosis
When does crossing over occur?
What is a tetrad?
What is a bivalent?
What is a chiasma?
Draw the process of crossing over
What occurs in anaphase 1?
Spindle fibres attach to ________
What is Mendel’s law?
What in independent assortment?
When does independent assortment occur?
What are homologous chromosomes?
Meiosis 1 will result in __n chromosomes?
Meiosis II will result in __n chromosomes?

10.2 Inheritance
What is a linkage group? What do they show an exception from?
What did Thomas Morgan’s breeding experiment show?
Explain the results of Thomas Morgan’s experiment
What are recombinants? Why do they occur?
Contrast monogenic and polygenic traits
How to determine if genes are linked in a chi-squared test
What are other factors that can influence polygenic traits?

10.3 Gene Pools and Speciation

What is a gene pool?
What does a large gene pool suggest? What about a small gene pool?
What is allele frequency?
What are the five mechanisms of change that lead to evolutionary change in a species
- Sexual reproduction
- Natural selection
- Gene flow
- Mutation
- Genetic drift
What do reproductive isolation mechanisms do?
What are the three reproductive isolation mechanisms?
Speciation occurs when ______ prevents two organisms from producing viable offspring
What are the two types of speciation?
What are two rates that speciation can occur at? Explain them.
What are three types of selection? Give an example for each one
What is polyploidy? What does it result in?
What are the uses of polyploid crops?
What is genetic drift?
What are population bottlenecks and founder effect?
Changes in allele frequency of a population can reflect random process ________ or differential
process ______