SCIENCE BE DEFINED AS NICOLAUS COPERNICUS

SCIENCE AS AN IDEA. It includes ideas, theories, and

all available systematic explanations and observations = Copernicus resembled the “GREEK ANCIENT
about the natural and physical world. PHILOSOPHERS OR THINKERS”

SCIENCE AS AN INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITY. It = He did not do anything extensive such as observing

encompasses a systematic and practical study of the heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His
natural and physical world. This process of study involves ideas were an example of what is presently called a
systematic observation and experimentation. THOUGHT EXPERIMENT.

= By the time he finished his doctorate degree,

SCIENCE AS A BODY OF KNOWLEDGE. It is a
Copernicus had been appointed as CANON AT
subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of
FROMBORK CATHEDRAL IN POLAND.
knowledge that deals with the process of learning about
the natural and physical world. This is what we refer to as = Interest in ASTRONOMY
school science.
= Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled
SCIENCE AS A PERSONAL AND SOCIAL EPITOME published in 1496 by a GERMAN
ACTIVITY. This explains that science is both knowledge AUTHOR, JOHANNES MÜELLER.
and activities done by human beings to develop better
understanding of the world around them. It is a means to =Copernicus's idea and model of the universe was
improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven with essentially complete in 1510.
people's lives.
=Manuscript is called COMMENTARIOLUS
(LITTLE COMMENTARY)
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started
in the EARLY 16TH CENTURY UP TO THE 18TH = The publication of his book DE REVOLUTIONIBUS
CENTURY IN EUROPE. ORBIUM COELESTIUM (ON THE
REVOLUTIONS OF THE HEAVENLY SPHERES)
Why in Europe? in 1543 is often cited as the “start of the scientific
The probable answer is the INVENTION OF THE revolution.”
PRINTING MACHINE AND THE BLOOMING
INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES DONE IN VARIOUS =He wanted a model of the universe in which everything
PLACES OF LEARNING, AND THE GROWING moved around a single center at unvarying rates
NUMBER OF SCHOLARS IN VARIOUS FIELDS
OF HUMAN INTERESTS. =SUN to be the centerpiece of the universeThe EARTH
and ALL THE PLANETS are surrounding or orbiting
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION was the period of the Sun each year.
enlightenment when the developments in the fields of
= MOON, however, would still be seen orbiting the
mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry
Earth.
transformed the views of society about nature.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION was the golden age for =Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion:
people committed to scholarly life in science but it was (1) the orbits of VENUS AND MERCURY lay inside
also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the sun, and
that led to their painful death or condemnation from the (2) the orbits of MARS, SATURN, AND JUPITER lay
religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, outside the Earth's orbit, thus, farther from the sun.
religion, and theological views.
= The STARS cannot be placed in a fixed position like
Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their crystals in a distant sphere.
CURIOSITY, CRITICAL THINKING, AND
CREATIVITY to explore the physical and natural world: =The Catholic Church banned the Copernican model
Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th
know and to discover. century.
Q.1 What is the contribution of Copernicus in the Q.1 What is Darwin's contribution to modern science?
philosophy of science? =Darwin's contribution to modern science is his theory
= Copernicus changed science by saying the sun, not the of evolution by natural selection, which explains how
Earth, is at the center of the universe. This idea helped species adapt and evolve over time through genetic
start modern astronomy and encouraged new ways of variation and survival of the fittest. This theory
thinking about the universe. fundamentally changed our understanding of biology and
the development of life on Earth.
Q.2 Do you think thought experiment is still useful in
science in the present time? Q.2 How can Darwin's evolutionary theory influence
=Yes, thought experiments are still helpful today because the following fields in modern times:
they allow scientists to explore ideas and theories • Economy • Agriculture • Political Science • Religion
without doing physical tests right away. They stimulate = Economy: Darwin’s ideas suggest that businesses
creativity and can lead to important discoveries. need to adapt to changes to stay successful, just like
animals must adapt to their environment to survive.
Q.3 Do you think the Church should intervene in Charles Darwin’s work on natural selection shows that
scientific activities? those who adapt best to their surroundings are more
=The Church should not interfere with science because likely to thrive, a concept that can be applied to
science is about discovering facts based on evidence, businesses competing in a constantly changing market.
while religion is about personal beliefs. Keeping them Agriculture: In farming, we use ideas from evolution to
separate ensures that scientific progress is not limited by breed better crops and manage pests, focusing on traits
religious views. that help plants and animals grow and thrive. By
applying Darwin's principles of selection, we can choose
and promote traits that enhance agricultural productivity
CHARLES DARWIN and resistance to challenges.
Political Science: Evolutionary theory can help us
= Is famous for his THEORY OF EVOLUTION.
understand how governments and political systems
= He developed his interest in natural history during his change over time in response to social and
time as a student at SHREWSBURY SCHOOL. environmental factors. Darwin’s ideas about adaptation
and survival can be applied to how political structures
= Was observed to be a mediocre student . Darwin's life evolve to meet the needs and pressures of their societies.
soon changed when one of his professors recommended Religion: Darwin’s ideas on how humans evolved
him to join a FIVE-YEAR VOYAGE THROUGH challenge some traditional religious beliefs about human
THE HMS BEAGLE ON THE ISLANDS OF origins, leading to discussions about how science and
GALAPAGOS. faith intersect. His theory of evolution by natural
selection has prompted a re-evaluation of human
= Darwin published his book THE ORIGIN OF creation stories and sparked ongoing debates about how
SPECIES in 1589. science and religion can coexist.

= Darwin's book THE DESCENT OF MAN was both

influential and controversial because it introduced the SIGMUND FREUD
idea that all living things, including humans, evolved
through natural processes rather than being specially = Famous figure in the field of PSYCHOLOGY
created by God. This theory challenged the traditional
religious belief that humans held a unique, privileged = ROSENFELS (1980) also described him as a
position in creation. towering literary figure and a very talented
communicator who did his share to raise the
= Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is consciousness of the civilized world in psychological
useful to distinguish two fields to which he made major matters.
contributions: EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY AND
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE. = METHOD OF PSYCHOANALYSIS, the
development of an important observational method to
gather reliable data to study human's inner life
= Method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study = They incorporated their advanced understanding of
the human mind and neurotic illness astronomy into their temples and other religious
structures. For example, the PYRAMID AT
= Despite sparking academic controversy, Freud’s CHICHÉN ITZÁ IN MEXICO is situated at the
psychoanalysis had a significant impact on location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.
understanding human nature scientifically. Freud was an
unconventional thinker; his focus on human sexuality = Knowledge of predicting eclipse and using
and the darker aspects of human nature challenged astrological cycles in planting and harvesting
traditional views. According to Weiner (2016), his
method proved effective in addressing neurological = Also known for measuring time using two complicated
conditions that medicine hadn't yet explained, but it calendar systems.TZOLK'IN AND THE HAAB'.
faced resistance due to its unorthodox nature and Tzolk'in is a 260-day ritual calendar
complex ideas about sexuality. Haab' is a 365-day solar calendar

= Also developed the technology for growing different

Q.1 By looking for other sources and literatures, what crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary
are the controversies or questions on Freud's ideas? machineries and tools. They built HYDRAULICS
= Freud's ideas have faced criticism for lacking empirical SYSTEMS with sophisticated waterways to supply
evidence and being difficult to test scientifically. Many water to different communities.
also question the universality of his theories and argue
that they overly emphasize sexual motives, potentially = Built LOOMS for weaving cloth and devised a
overlooking other psychological factors. rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called
MICA.
Q.2 How can you describe Freudian ideas as a
= First people to produce RUBBER products 3,000
scientist?
years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
= As a scientist, Freud’s ideas can be seen as pioneering
but controversial. His theories on the unconscious mind = Considered one of the most scientifically advanced
and psychosexual development were groundbreaking, societies in Mesoamerica.
though they are often criticized for being speculative and
not easily falsifiable. = Also famous as one of the world's first civilizations to
use a writing system known as the MAYAN
Q.3 If Freud is still alive, what do you think are the HIEROGLYPHICS.
major changes he would make to his theory?
= If Freud were alive today, he’d likely use modern brain = Also skilled in mathematics and created a number
science to update his theories, including new ideas about system based on the NUMERAL 20. Moreover, they
how the brain works and how genes affect behavior. He independently DEVELOPED THE CONCEPT OF
might also revise his views on sexuality and consider ZERO AND POSITIONAL VALUE, even before the
other factors that influence how people think and feel. Romans did.

INCA CIVILIZATION
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN The following were scientific ideas and tools that they
MESOAMERICA developed to help them in everyday life:
1. roads paved with stones;
MESOAMERICA includes the entire area of Central
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and
America from Southern Mexico up to the border of
other disasters;
South America.
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for
MAYA CIVILIZATION their crops to grow in all types of land;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious
= One of the famous civilizations that lasted for festivals and prepare them for planting season;
approximately 2,000 years 5. the first suspension bridge;
6. QUIPU, a system of knotted ropes to keep records
= Known for their works in astronomy that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially
prized artistic achievements.
 AZTEC CIVILIZATION planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation;
syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the
1. MANDATORY EDUCATION. The Aztec puts value planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent;
on education; that is why their children are mandated to conjunctions of the planets with each other;
get education regardless of their social class, gender, or conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the
age. paths of the Sun and Moon.

2.CHOCOLATES. The Aztec in Mexico developed =Ancient India is also known for their mathematics.
chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture, they Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest traces of
used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent
highly and made it as part of their tribute to their gods. appeared in the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION.
The people of this civilization, according to Bisht
3. ANTISPASMODIC MEDICATION. They used a (1982), tried to standardize measurement of length to a
type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the
muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help MOHENJO-DARO RULER.
during surgery.
= Indian astronomer and mathematician ARYABHATA
4. CHINAMPA. It is a form of Aztec technology for (476-550), in his ARYABHATIYA, introduced a
agricultural farming in which the land was divided into number of trigonometric functions, tables, and
rectangular areas and surrounded by canals. techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD,

5. AZTEC CALENDAR. This enabled them to plan another Indian, BRAHMAGUPTA, also suggested that
their activities, rituals, and planting season. gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly explained
the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit,
6. INVENTION OF THE CANOE. A light narrow
along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used
boat used for traveling in water systems.
universally throughout the world (Clifford, 2008; Bose,
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA 1998).

INDIA Another Indian named MADHAVA OF

SANGAMAGRAMA is also considered as the founder
= Is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water of mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991).
and fortified by huge mountains in its northern borders.
CHINA
= Known for manufacturing IRON and in metallurgical
works. Their IRON STEEL is considered to be the best = Known for traditional medicines. An example is the
and held with high regard in the whole of the Roman practice of ACUPUNCTURE.
Empire.
= Famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese
=India is also famous in medicine. For example, civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder,
AYURVEDA, a system of traditional medicine that and printing tools that became known in the West only
originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still by the end of the Middle Ages.
practiced as a form of alternative medicine.
= Also invented other tools like iron plough,
=Some ancient texts, like the SUSRUTA SAMHITA, wheelbarrow, and propeller, invented the first
describe different surgical and other medical procedures seismological detector, and developed a dry dock
famous in Ancient India. facility.

=Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. = They developed a design of different models of
They developed theories on the configuration of the bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983)
universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the
= Chinese also made significant records on supernovas,
year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.
lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were
Sama (2008) noted that their interest in astronomy was
carefully recorded and preserved to better understand the
also evident in the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta
heavenly bodies and their effects on our world (Mayall,
Shiromani, written in the 12th century. According to
1939).
Sama (2008), this ancient text covered topics such as:
mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the
= Chinese are also known in seismology. This made
them more prepared in times of natural calamities. Q.2 How do social and human issues influence
science?
= According to Needham (1986), it may have been the =Problems like diseases, pollution, or poverty push
religious and philosophical framework of Chinese science to find solutions, guiding scientists to focus on
intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of research that can help people. Social issues can also
laws of nature. create new fields of study, such as climate science or
genetic research, aimed at solving urgent challenges.
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA

= The rules of geometry were developed and used to Q.3 How do the political and cultural landscapes of
build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel architecture the society affect the development of scientific culture,
of Egypt. science activities, and science literacy?
= Politics and culture affect how much support science
= The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and gets. Countries that value education and free thinking
the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River usually see more scientific progress and better
are some proof of their advanced civilization. understanding of science. On the other hand, political
resistance or cultural taboos can slow down scientific
= Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is progress in certain areas.
known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry. They
tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and Q.4 Considering the current state of our society, do you
applied important components such as examination, think science literacy among people has contributed to
diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of the growth of our economy?
diseases. = When people understand science, they can use new
ideas and tools to help businesses grow, which boosts the
= Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For
economy. A higher level of science literacy also helps
instance, documents show that Africans used three types
create a more innovative workforce that drives new
of calendars: LUNAR, SOLAR, AND STELLAR, or a
industries and technological advances.
combination of the three.

= METALLURGY was also known in the African Q.5 How can science influence government policies?
regions during the ancient times. North Africa and the = Science helps governments make smarter decisions by
Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East offering proof of what works best for things like health,
region that enabled them to benefit from the the environment, and technology. Policies based on
developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age. scientific research can lead to better outcomes for the
environment, public health, and economic stability.
= THE LEBOMBO BONE from the mountains
between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have
been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar
calendar, is considered to be the oldest known
mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. Ancient
Egyptians are good in the four fundamental
mathematical operations and other mathematical skills.

Q.1 How did society shape science and how did science
shape society?
=Society influences science by deciding what problems
need solving, like health or energy, while science
changes society by creating new technologies and
improving everyday life. As new scientific discoveries
emerge, they can also change how society thinks about
the world and approaches problems.