Options and Strategies for Information and

Communication Technologies within

Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services
MEAS Brief # 1 March 2013
by Karen Vignare, Michigan State University

Information and Communications

Technology – What is the purpose of ICT? Box 1: Functions of extension and advisory services
ICT is different from information technology because
EAS have been defined as “the dissemination of expert
it emphasizes the role of communications and the agriculture knowledge and practices” (Toyama, 2011).
integration of telecommunications networks and EAS communications originate from many sources –
computer networks. The communications government, universities, NGOs, private sector
component is critical when it comes to technology companies. According to Bell, Payne and Bohn (2011),
that is intended to deepen understanding, reach the functions of extension are to:
communities, and allow more people to provide and  link farmers to markets
access information.  raise general awareness of opportunities
 provide technical information, demonstrate or
For ICT to effectively support extension and advisory train
services (EAS, see Box 1), it must be designed with  diagnose problems and recommend solutions
the end user in mind, considering factors such as  respond to follow-up questions raised by clients
literacy levels and access to various types of  provide mass advisories
technology. This brief covers key design  facilitate access to credit and inputs
considerations for effective ICT-supported EAS,  assist with business planning, and
highlighting example projects and high-priority  conduct surveys, monitoring and evaluation, and
issues. enumerations.

Assessing recipient needs and customizing the

biases and credibility, all of which determine how
message
the message is prepared and received.
Communication involves a sender, a message, a Communication can only be effective if the sender
receiver and feedback. But a seemingly simple understands the characteristics of the receiver and
communications model can in fact be very complex. customizes the message content and delivery
Every sender has his or her own role, knowledge, mechanism accordingly.

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 Options and Strategies for ICT within Extension and Advisory Services

Well-designed ICT strategies can allow for almost – and they are constantly changing. Computers,
instantaneous adjustments of the message. For mobile devices and the Internet have powered new
example, mobile phones can connect to agricultural ways of training and learning, and emergent
information call centers and the information approaches to EAS practice. These trends are likely
provided can be customized on the basis of to continue and computers will probably become
information about the caller and changes in smaller, cheaper, and more available, especially in
agricultural conditions. Similarly, this capability the form of smart phones and tablets. These tools
would help an agent with minimal training may need to be evaluated before funds are invested
communicate up-to-date information and customize in them. Given the increasing usage of ICT tools in
it in the form of illustrations for illiterate farmers or developing countries, it is likely that funders and
as technical documents for those who can read. governments will continue to expect them to be
Customizing communications should lead to less included as a means of scaling up EAS efforts. It is
noise around the message – this is the challenge. critical for project planners and practitioners to
know their options and select the most effective
Using ICT for different forms of communication
combination of systems and devices for effective
Three questions are key to designing an ICT for EAS communications appropriate to a range of purposes,
applications: What is the problem or need? What is contexts and users. Various ICTs are described in the
the real-world performance that is expected? and next sections, with some pros and cons noted for
What are the long-term objectives? Based on the each.
answers and the assessment of recipient needs and
1. Broadcast technologies – serving large groups of
characteristics, planners can select what type of
people
communication to use. Will it be a one-time
message, or a series of messages, leading to deeper These technologies are very useful for extension
understanding? EAS communications include these strategies although they generally involve less
forms, from most simple to most complex: audience participation than mobile or Internet-
 data (information, e.g., market prices, weather based ICTs. Coupling broadcast tools with interaction
reports, pest outbreak alerts) can enhance their impact.
 knowledge (simple skills) Box 2: Participatory radio campaigns (PRCs)
 training (advanced skills and techniques)
In 2008 and 2009, Farm Radio International launched
 education (where use of information requires
PRCs in Ghana, Malawi, Mali, Tanzania and Uganda and
critical thinking).
conducted a test of their impact on farmer productivity.
ICT interventions need to be designed for a specific In the identified ‘active listening community’, Farm
type of extension communication. Particularly with Radio International collaborated with communities to
regards to the more complex communications, ICT is engage listening groups in discussion as well as transmit
knowledge. Survey findings showed that 82% were
often used in programs that combine the use of ICT
listening, 70% demonstrated knowledge and 39% (in
tools and face-to-face contact. For example, ICT can
two years) started the practices that were introduced
allow for the unbundling of complex communica- during the PRCs. In the ‘passive listening community’
tions, such as dividing up courses into online and and the control group, the rates were much lower (see
face-to-face components. Several universities are Figure 1).
already training extension agents online. In India,
With regard to funding, almost all of the participating
digital videos that capture good practices are
survey respondents indicated that programs are started
regularly used to train farmers alongside extension with external funds. New and current ICT projects
agents. should be required to establish a business plan for
sustainability once the initial external funds are spent.
Availability and Selection of
Communication Technologies  Radio – low cost, high coverage, can be powered
The number of ICT tools is growing. There is already by batteries or by wind-up and thus reliable as a
a wide choice, ranging from simple to sophisticated broadcast medium, can reach men and women

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 Options and Strategies for ICT within Extension and Advisory Services

with low literacy, permits some audience

participation (call in, texting/SMS responses,
multiple speakers); a cost-effective EAS tool (see
Box 2).
 Television – higher cost, slower penetration in
recent years, lack of dependable electricity in
rural areas, and lack of audience participation;
an EAS tool with less impact.
 Video – hand-held devices of fair quality are now
widely available, involving local people in
production brings more active learning and
exchange; videos can be shown on site for
training, but online dissemination can be
expensive (see Box 3).
Radio and television are affected by government
Figure 1. Effectiveness of participatory radio campaigns
policies and political trends. If a country limits the
(Yordy, 2008)
number of radio and television stations, or permits
only government-sponsored media, then a lack of
available channels for extension-related 2. Mobile devices – connecting people and
communication can limit the potential impact. information
The era of mobile telecommunications is here.
Box 3: Digital Green Before mobile technologies, connecting to rural
farms and providing information was time-
Digital Green “combines technology and social
organization to improve the cost-effectiveness and consuming and involved hours of travel. According
broaden the community participation of existing to the World Bank, there are almost 6 billion cell
agricultural extension systems” (www.digitalgreen.org). It phone subscriptions, with 118 subscriptions per 100
has projects in 900 villages in India. According to their people in developed countries and 79 per 100
website, Digital Green has produced more than 2,500 people in developing countries (World Bank, 2011).
videos (25% by women) that have been screened more In many regions, mobile technology has the highest
than 150,000 times, with a viewing audience that is 75% penetration of all ICTs. In Africa, and in many of the
women. Acknowledging that innovation can originate in world’s poorest nations on other continents, the
rural communities, Digital Green uses participatory video
impact is growing, though it lags in the rural and
production methods that allow farmers to be actively
involved in telling their own stories and learning from one
farming communities. The Middle East and Africa are
another. Many of the videos are designed to share expected to have the strongest mobile data traffic
farmers’ best practices and are shown in the context of growth.
training sessions facilitated by an instructor. If further  Cell phones – low cost, allow exchange of
guidance is needed, extension agents help with new
information by SMS technology and direct
solutions and techniques.
communication with extension agents and other
These videos are also openly available on Digital Green’s experts; women, however, are much less likely
website and on YouTube. Digital Green’s technology than men to own a cell phone.
platform facilitates exchange of data in areas with limited
 Devices with Internet capability (computers,
Internet and electrical grid connectivity. Digital Green has
smart phones, tablets) – higher cost, more
systematized, integrated and computerized its video
storage and sharing processes to ensure reuse. Its success complex information, more audience
lies with the involvement of local people, including interactivity, becoming increasingly prevalent.
extension agents. Digital Green conducts ongoing The ICT framework needs to be carefully considered
evaluation in order to continually improve its services for
when planning for use of cell phones. Cell phones
the community.
work well for providing certain types of information
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 Options and Strategies for ICT within Extension and Advisory Services

to farmers and allowing farmers and extension in North America. Growing Internet coverage in
workers to extend their communications with each Africa and Asia is limited by costs and the scarcity of
other. Providing market information and linking electrical power.
farmers to markets are the most common functions,
often including an extension component. On the
other hand, for projects aiming to change behavior, Box 5: The mFarmer Initiative
such as farming practices, simple mobile The mFarmer Initiative is a complex endeavor. Its vision
technologies might be too limited. Internet-enabled was to spur members of GSMA (an association of 800
devices offer greater flexibility, enhancing the mobile operators serving over 95% of the market in
communication supported by other technologies. developing countries) to adopt new approaches to
providing value-added agricultural information to farmers.
It is important to keep in mind potential barriers, In 2009, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation made a
such as infrastructure, electricity, levels of poverty grant to GSMA to catalyze mobile operators’ investment
and literacy, and sustainability. These technologies in innovative mobile services, evaluate their impact and
may not be as reliable in farming areas and the cost facilitate experimentation with sustainable and scalable
for rural families is often very high. delivery models. USAID also provided expertise and
funding for pilot projects by mobile operators proposing
Mobile applications will likely be the fastest growing innovative approaches. Serving India and 10 countries in
ICT tool. Most mobile application projects have been Africa, mFarmer includes the development of a global,
funded by outside grants and public–private shared database of digital agricultural information, a
partnerships (see Boxes 4 and 5). challenge fund to promote innovative partnerships
between operators and public or private agriculture
Box 4: Sustainable mobile applications for agriculture in
extension service providers, technical assistance, sharing
Kenya
of best practices, and impact evaluation. The integration
Two examples of highly sustainable mobile application
of mobile devices and databases allows for a sophisticated
approaches are Kilimo Salama and M-farm, both located
response system. Queries from mobile device users are
in Kenya, where the telecommunications policies and the
connected to a call center and fed into a database, and an
business environment are favorable. Both programs link
employee or extension agent might be called in to provide
farmers to markets and for-profit companies, while
an expert response. Mobile operators now understand
lowering the overall costs through economies of scale
that launching products for agriculture should provide
(World Bank, 2011). In Kilimo Salama, the Internet service
enough economic gains for farmers to more than pay for
intermediary is paid using a 5% increase that farmers pay
using the mobile service. But the mFarmer model is
on inputs such as seeds and fertilizers. This payment
expensive. Such projects will only be sustainable if the
provides insurance for the farmers, which compensates
models of funding can be shifted so the investment in ICT
them for crop failures due to bad weather (based on input
is either a government expense or, as in Kilimo Salama
from weather stations). M-farm connects farmers to
(see Box 4), the higher pricing buys services and
insurance for seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, and allows
insurance.
for bulk purchasing.
Setting up pilot projects using innovative technology
requires flexibility and a willingness to partner with Table 1. Internet users as a percentage of the
experts who may be viewed as ‘outsiders’. Providing population, and recent growth
information to farmers, creating opportunities for
Region % of population % growth
public–private partnerships, and making technical
2012 2000–2012
and advisory services available through SMS and Africa 15.6% 3606.7%
texting could all be supported by EAS. Asia 27.5% 841.9%
Europe 63.2% 393.4%
3. The Internet – the cornerstone of ICT for EAS Middle East 40.2% 2639.9%
North America 78.6% 153.3%
The growth of the Internet lies at the heart of the ICT Latin America/Caribbean 42.9% 1310.8%
revolution in development. As shown in Table 1, Oceania/Australia 67.6% 218.7%
Internet usage penetration (% of population) by the World Total 34.3% 566.4%
end of 2012 ranged from 15.6 in Africa up to 78.6% Source: www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm.

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 Options and Strategies for ICT within Extension and Advisory Services

Internet-based tools and projects range from single capacity to evolve and serve additional audiences in
websites to those that include databases and the future. For example, a system built to serve
repositories. These sites can support EAS functions extension workers with Internet access should
such as raising awareness and providing technical include a plan that will allow farmers to access the
information and free training opportunities. same information in the future when they obtain
access to the Internet. Farmers can provide firsthand
 Simple websites provide links and valuable
information to knowledge management systems
information.
(e.g., websites). However, it is often difficult to move
 Websites with a database running in the
from a hierarchical system where only experts
background allow users to search for agricultural
contribute EAS content to one where practitioners
resources. Raw data can be very useful to EAS.
can also use the same set of tools. Since anyone with
The databases are likely to be built by large
Internet access can post information in a myriad of
organizations and governments. An example is
ways – blogs, websites, wikis, etc. – the issue is
the Africa Crop Calendar (www.fao.org/agri-
control of the information to ensure accuracy.
culture/seed/cropcalendar/welcome.do by the
Food and Agriculture Organization. Social media evolution — The power of
 Web-based and asynchronous tools allow networking
learners to access materials when convenient to Extension agents – themselves a ‘human broadcast
them. ‘E-learning’ uses web-based software, medium’ – have always networked with farmers,
learning management systems, video and cooperatives, communities, NGOs and government
simulations; the least expensive courses may agencies. Social media are Internet-based tools that
allow self-paced studying of mainly text-based enhance the ability of a group of people to network,
material. allowing many voices to engage in the discussion.
 Synchronous tools include web conferencing, This kind of networking can move through a
from simple Skype to the more sophisticated community very fast and the challenge is to ensure
systems. Agrilinks (http://agrilinks.org), for that the messages are accurate and useful to the
example, hosts webinars to engage stakeholders community. For that reason, EAS strategies that use
in learning about agricultural development. this tool should include a social media plan. Highly
 Repositories are connected, making it possible to successful social media campaigns have the potential
send project information to internal and external to enhance communities by creating and
databases and to pull in information from other strengthening links between people and information
open databases (rather than recreate it). sources; but this has yet to be tested in the EAS
Although the development of ICTs in support of EAS environment.
also makes use of older dependable technologies,
like radio and cell phones, the Internet is becoming
the cornerstone of ICT because it can globally ICT for extension – matching tools and
connect the more educated participants in EAS, messages
supporting their work with farmers. Extension remains a valued service throughout the
Knowledge management world, but like many other training and education
programs, extension is increasingly being asked to
‘Knowledge management’ websites collect multiple do more with less. ICT can assist with this. Table 2
types of information, including resources from other summarizes the extension functions, types of
websites, and sort it in a way that makes it information and tools in the current environment.
searchable. The newer knowledge management The capabilities of ICT tools and their availability to
websites also pull information from other websites clients will continue to mature and expand as the
through Real Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds, or industry continues to evolve and improve. The
harvest data through the use of ‘crawlers’ designed future growth of ICT applications in extension must
to look for certain materials. When a knowledge allow for the sharing of resources and best practices
management system is built, it should have the integrated within the flow of other information.
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 Options and Strategies for ICT within Extension and Advisory Services

Table 2. Aligning extension functions to ICT

Extension functions Type of Frequency Cost of Best ICT tools Databases and software
information repetition considerations
Linking farmers to Information Constant Low Radio, texting, smart Should be tied to an official
markets and devices commodities exchange or other pricing
knowledge mechanism
Raise general Knowledge, Consistent High Radio, smart devices, Databases should pull from useful
awareness of training and computers, Internet websites
opportunities education
Provide technical Knowledge, Consistent High Radio, TV, video, Simulation and training software
information, training and computers, Internet should be explored
demonstrate or train education
Diagnose problems Education Consistent Medium Mobile, smart devices, Databases should pull from similar
and recommend a computers, Internet, problems
solution social media
Respond to follow-up Knowledge, On High Mobile, computers, Call center database needed
questions raised by training and demand Internet, social media
clients education
Provide mass Information On Medium Radio, broadcast media, Emergency response software
advisories demand texting
Facilitate access to Knowledge, On High Radio, video, Databases connecting buyers and
credit and inputs training and demand computers, Internet, sellers
education social media
Assist with business Knowledge, Constant High Radio, video, Database connecting information
planning training and computers, Internet, business planning
education social media
Conduct surveys, Education Infrequent High Mobile, computers Survey tools
M&E, enumerations

The longer version of this brief, the MEAS Discussion

Paper 1, is available at www.meas-extension.org/meas-
offers/best-practice .

References Woodard, J. (2011). Strategic Assessment of ICT Options.

FHI360. Presented at Farmer to Farmer implementing
Bell, M., Payne, J., & Bohn, A. (2011). ICT Options in partners ICT workshop, November 30. Available at
Relation to Extension Functions. Urbana, IL: MEAS. https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/ictforag/node/190.
Available at www.meas-extension.org/resources/ict.
World Bank. (2011). ICT in Agriculture Sourcebook:
Ferris, S. (2011). CRS ICT4D Strategy: Getting ICT Solutions Connecting Smallholders to Knowledge, Networks and
into the Field. Catholic Relief Services. Presented at USAID, Institutions. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available at
August 22. Available at www.ictinagriculture.org/content/ict-agriculture-
https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/ictforag/node/133. sourcebook.
Kumar, K., McKay, C., & Rotman, S. (2010). Microfinance Yordy, C. (2008). The Economics of Rural Radio in Africa:
and mobile banking: The story so far. CGAP Focus Note, An Introductory Study into the Costs and Revenues. Africa
62, 13–14. Farm Radio Research Initiative. Ottawa, Canada: Farm
Toyama, K. (2011). Comparative Laboratory Study of 12 Radio International. Available at
Devices for Agriculture Extension. Phase 1 report of http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents
‘Devices for Agriculture Extension: A Comparative /unpan/unpan037356.pdf.
Landscape Study’. San Francisco, CA: D-Rev. Available at For further information on the importance of integrated
www.d-rev.org/assets/D-Rev-DevicesforAgriculture- ICT approaches: USAID ‘ICT for Ag’ website and the World
ExtensionComparativeLandscapeStudy-Phase1Report.pdf. Bank ‘Agriculture in Rural Development’ website.

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 Options and Strategies for ICT within Extension and Advisory Services

Figure 2. Knowledge management portal serving extension service providers and farmers (Ferris, 2011)

Adapted manuscript prepared by Jane Patten, Green Ink, and Brent M. Simpson, Michigan State University, MEAS Series Editor. The full
document is available at http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/best-practice.

The brief was made possible by the generous support of the American people through USAID. The contents are the responsibility of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States government.

Prepared by
Designed to
be Shared Karen Vignare,
Figure 2. Knowledge management portal serving extension State
Michigan serviceUniversity
providers and farmers. Source: Ferris, 2011.
© Copyright Karen Vignare, MSU and MEAS Project.
Licensed: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ March 2013 [7]