Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology

Centre for Agricultural and Rural Development studies

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore - 641 003.

Course Teacher: Dr. J. Venkatapirabu Course Associates: Dr. M. Shantha Sheela

Dr. R. Rajasekaran

AEX 402 COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION 1+2

MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

THEORY

Transfer of technology-importance in agricultural development, major components -

communication, scope, importance, elements and models - messages - selection of
information, information management systems- selection of channels. Feedback - factors
affecting communication, Communicator - receiver relationship. Diffusion and adoption -
Process and meaning.

LECTURE SCHEDULE

THEORY

1. Transfer of Technology - Meaning, Importance In Agricultural Development

2. Communication, Scope And Importance
3. Elements of Communication - Importance of Elements
4. Models of Communication - Characteristics of Each Element
5. Models of Communication - Aristotle's Model, Berlo's Model And Paul Leagan's
Model
6. Message and Selection of Information.
7. Information Management System
8. Selection of Channels And Combination of Channels
9. Mid semester Examination
10. Effective Feedback Mechanism - A Critique
11. Factors Affecting Communication
12. Communicator-Receiver Relationship For Effective Communication
13. Modern Gadgets For Communication

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 14. Constraints For Effective Communication
15. Approaches For Effective Communication
16. A Model For Effective Communication
17. Diffusion And Adoption Process And Meaning
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Aditya N. Shukla and B.S. Hansra, 1988. Script Writing for Farm Radio
and Television Programming. Department of Extension Education, Punjab Agrl.
University, Ludhiana.
2. Bhrton E. Swanson. 1971 Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual;
Oxford and IBH, New Delhi.
3. Dahama,O.P. and O.P. Bhatnagar. 1985. Education and Communication
for Development. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi.
4. Dekieffer, R.E. 1966. Manual of Audio-Visual techniques - LEE - N,
Cochran, Prentice Hall, Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, 1966.
5. Hass and Packer. 1964. Preparation and use of audio visual aids, Prentice
Hall, England.
6. Ram Krishnan. 1972. Agricultural Demonstration and Extension
Communication Asia Publishing House, Madras.
7. Ranganathan, G., S.Somasundaram and R. Jansi Rani (1998)
Communication and Diffusion of Technology, Priyas Graphix, Trichy 2.
8. Reddy, A. Adivi. 1985. Extension Education: Sri Lakshmi Press, Bapatla,
Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh.
9. Wittich and Schuller. 1972. Audio-Visual Materials. Harpet of Row
Publication, New York.

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 1. TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY - MEANING, IMPORTANCE IN
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
1.a. Transfer of Technology (TOT)
Transfer of Technology (TOT) is a systematic process of making farmers 'aware'
of a new technological components or system, then creating farmer's interest in the new
technology, so that they can 'evaluate' it within their own farming system and their own
agro economic conditions.
In transferring new end science - based technology to farmers, extension systems
use mass media in the early stages to create farmers' awareness and interest. When
farmers become interested in a new technology, they may need more specific in-depth
knowledge about the technology, so that they can learn how to use it and to evaluate its
expected costs and anticipated benefits.
At this stage, group methods, including meeting, demonstrations and field days
are typically used. These methods are supplemented with in-depth brochures that farmers
can take home so that they will know how to incorporate the new technology into their
farming system. In general, most information about new technology (indigenous science
based) travels from farmer to farmer through word of web of mouth informally.
1.b. Importance and major components
Technology transfer begins at the research system. The process of taking
technology, mature technologies generated by the research system into the extension
system and on to farmers are a vital component of the technology transfer process.
Regular communication between researchers and extension agencies can help to
ensure the successful transfer of new agricultural technologies, to end-user, the farmer
communication with researchers is vital for extension agencies to acquire appropriate
technical information that will enable them to help farmers.
This communication channel enables extension agents to retain information on
new and improved agricultural technologies to their clientele. A well planned and
directed communication effort, bring together researchers and extension agencies, can
ensure that there is a timely movement of necessary technical information into the
extension system and on to the farmers and other users.
A research extension communication channel benefits not only the work of
extension agencies but can help to improve the work of researchers as well. Effective
communication between research and extension agencies will help researchers to better
understand the current practices, problems, social conditions and technological needs of
farmers. This communication can result in the establishment of priorities ensuring that
more appropriate and cost effective research programmes are followed.
Over the years, several campaign models for technology transfer activities have
been designed. But an effective model should be
1.c. Participatory: Involving research, extension and communication experts in the
formulation, application and evaluation of the communication process.

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1.d. Integrative: Combining researchers, extension agents and communication specialist
in a continuous interactive process of strategy developments.
1.e. Practical: Focusing on 'real' problems in farmer's fields and using local resources to
solve the problems. In agriculture technology transfer, extension workers and farmers are
main target groups to which we have to supply agricultural information and new
technologies for the agricultural development.
Before supplying agricultural information and new technologies, a survey should
be made to find out the problems and constraints of the extension workers and farmers in
the adoption of latest agricultural technologies.

2. COMMUNICATION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE

2.a. Definition: According to (i) Paul Leagans, it is a process by which two or more
people exchange ideas, facts, feeling of impressions in ways that each gains a common
understanding of the message. (ii) Howland, it is the force by which an individual
communicator transmits stimuli to modify the behaviour of other individuals.
E.g. Extension worker influencing the farmers, to make them to orient towards
positive attitude to adopt new technologies.
2.b. Meaning
(i) Process of social interaction (i.e.) in communication selection, two of
more individuals interacts.
(ii) It apparently influences the ideas, attitude, knowledge and behaviour of
each other.
(iii) In a face-to-face situation, it is not a mere exchange of information, but
something more, apart, because in such a situation along with information,
gestures, expressions, language, the manner of expression and for all
produce impact.
Some kind of change occurs as a result of interaction.
The change may be visible in terms of knowledge and behavioural change.
E.g. Adoption of technology or practice of agriculture.
2.c. Scope of communication
(i) Oral: An average man spends 70 % of his precious time on communicating
verbally and spends 10 to 11 hrs/day on oral communication and sends our
ideas for other's perception.
(ii) Non-verbal: Through symbols like gesture, facial expressions, movement of
arts, raising eyebrows, rolling eyes, starring look, stern look etc., would make
communication effective.
(iii) Communication can be made possible in different ways, levels and reasons.
E.g.: An extension worker reads the letters - written communication received or else.
Communicate his subordinates through message slip about his work.

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 (a) An extension worker speaks to farmer in a meeting - spoken
communication.
(b) He addresses a gathering - A group communication will persist there.
(c) He contemplates for the next month's programme (Introspect)- A self-
communication.
(iv) Communication in employment - provides opportunities to get employment
accessibility in journalism, advertising, filmmaking, public relations,
televisions, television programme co-ordinator and audio-visual counselor.
(v) Communication industry - Opinion seekers, attitude researchers and
marketing researchers etc., play their roles in communication.
(vi) Communication in management - In any management sector, everything is
done only by means of effective communication between superior-
subordinate, superior-employees at lower levels, labourers, experts, skilled
workers. As administration grow, even the machine operator spends more
time in manipulating symbols.
(vii) Communication removes the time lag - Communication has an inbuilt
snowball that makes the message reach its audience instantly without any
delay. What occurs today may be obsolete tomorrow. Hence, the day to day
development can be diffused immediately without any lag and gets introduced
among the mass.
2.d. Importance of Communication in Extension work
(1) Communication establishes a favourable climate in which development can take
place.
E.g: All mass media and personal channels give upto date and updated information, so
that mass audience are enabled to get acquainted with recent technologies, information to
be utilized.
This media accessibility facilitates a proper exchange of information, ideas etc.
(2) Communication has a multiplier effect. It brings synergy in its process of
communication in the sense, a sort of reinforcement of ideas due to various convergent
forces.
(i) Print media effectively communicates the recent technologies to the needy
clientele.
(ii) Spoken communication cautions the farmers about weather forecast, seasonal
warnings, irrigation methods etc.
(iii) Geographical information system and computer aided network are advanced
systems of communication that would ensure soil type of varied zones.
(3) Communication raises and aspirations of the people.
E.g. Communication skill of extension worker to a greater extent would convince and
create trustworthiness about the HYV's, genotypes, tissue culture, biotechnology etc.

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They kindle the minds of the farmers to think of advanced technologies and to apply it for
their betterment and thus fulfilling their aspirations of becoming a higher socio-economic
category.
(4) Communication is essential for all activities.
E.g. To inform people, to instruct people
To persuade and convince for acceptance of idea
To educate the people
To entertain the audience etc.,
(5) Communication is essential for good leadership
One, if wanted to succeed, he should communicate clearly, concisely and
unambiguously. His message should not be fallacious (misleading). He can guide people
in a desired, direction to achieve the goals and objectives. In that way, it is essential
quality need to be possessed by a successful leader.

3. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION - IMPORTANCE OF ELEMENTS

I. (a). The four basic elements in the communication process.
(i) Source: To say the person whose ideas or meanings to be transferred to
another person.
(ii) Second element is the receiver, namely the person to whom the ideas or
meanings are to be transferred.
(iii) Thirdly, there must be a message that can be transferred from the source to the
receiver.
(iv) Finally, message should have to travel through a channel or medium in order
to make the passage from source to the receiver.
The six steps or stages in the process require a little more explanation.
II. (a) Creation: The person who is the communication source conceives an idea, which
he wants to transit to someone else. Be clear and determine the message, you would
communicate. A poorly conceived idea almost certainly results in poor communication.
(b) Encoding: Meanings and ideas are structures of mind. They cannot be seen or heard
or felt. If converted into symbols or words, it can be seen and heard. Words are Symbols
that stands for meaning. In case, suitable symbol is not available, he can use a gesture or
guidance. Moreover, appropriate symbol or word with suitable gesture would facilitate
better understanding.
(c) Transmission: An idea has been encoded into symbols is called as message. A
message is simply an encoded idea. Messages have to be either spoken (or) written and
displayed.
1) Who is trying to communicate?
2) How long is the message?

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 3) What is a physical distance?
4) What technical means are available to the source?
All the first three stages are within the control of the communication source.
(d) Reception: Transmitted through appropriate channel. Message received depend upon
the environment conditions under which the message is sent.
Secondly, on the state of mind and readiness of the receiver to receive
it .Environmental condition affects reception:
E.g. (1) Poor lighting conditions.
(2) Receiver's tiredness.
(3) Degree of congruence between message sent and message received.
(4) Environment has direct bearing on fidelity. Fidelity means, which and how
many of the receiver's five senses are activated to receive the message.
(e) Decoding: Encoded message must now be decoded by receiver in order to
comprehend its meaning. One cannot decode a message whose symbols one does not
recognize.
A more serious situation arises when the receiver believes he has understood the
message, whereas, in fact the source intended it to convey a different meaning. The result
in this case is misunderstanding.
In such a situation, greater care must be taken in encoding messages and
transmitting them. It is probably impossible to avoid this misunderstandings, but atleast it
can be minimized.
(f) Assimilation: This is the final stage. In order to make, sense of the decoded message,
to understand it, the receiver, must relate and interpret it to what he already knows and
assimilate it with the total information available to him. Without such assimilation, the
decided message remains meaningless.
III. To summarise: The communication process involves four basic elements and six
stages:
a) The source
b) The message
c) The channel
d) The receiver
The six stages of the process are
a) Creation
b) Encoding
c) Transmission
d) Reception
e) Decoding
f) Assimilation

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 4. MODELS OF COMMUNICATION - CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH
ELEMENT
4.a. There are normally 4 elements present in the communication model. They are
(i) Source
(ii) Message
(iii) Channel
(iv) Receiver
In the recent modified model, audience response is also included, which is
otherwise called as feedback … Feedback is important in giving the opinion or
suggestions for improvement to be made by using appropriate channel relevant and
feasible to the needs of the receiver.
4.b. Characteristics of Good Communicator
The qualities of a source should be
(i) Innovative in his ideas
(ii) Should have greater exposure to mass media sources
(iii) Cosmopolitan in nature
(iv) Access to social participation to a greater extent
(v) Interested in audiences betterment and welfare
(vi) Interested in message (subject matter) and ensure its helpfulness to people
(vii) Aware of the communication channels with more intactness
(viii) Capable enough with professional abilities
(ix) Able to plan for judging the merit of the results
(x) Skilled to select treat, express the messages (verbal and written)
(xi) Capable to gathering evidence of results
In toto, a good communicator is supposed to visit villages and listen to the people's
views, needs, problems etc.
4.c. Characteristics of a good message
A good message should be
(i) In line with the objective to be attained
(ii) Clear understandable by the audience
(iii) In line with mental, social, economic and physical capabilities of the audience
(iv) Significant - economically, socially or aesthetically to the needs, interests and
values of the audience.
(v) Specific- no irrelevance (or) misleading material
(vi) Simple - cover only one point at a time

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 (vii) Accurate - scientifically sound, factual and current
(viii) Supported by factual material covering both sides of the argument
(ix) Appropriate to the channels selected
(x) Appealing and attractive to the audience
(xi) Applicable - can apply recommendations to one's own particular situation
(xii) Adequate - combining principles and practices in effective proportion
(xiii) Manageable - can be handled by the communicator and within the limits of
time.
4.d. Characteristics of channel
Certain characteristics of channels are identified and are delineated below.
(i) It specifies the direction of message flow
(ii) It gives the message accuracy. Low (in interpersonal) and high (in mass
media)
(iii) It selects the recipient depending upon the channel
(iv) It produces feedback to the sender of the message
(v) It overcomes the selectivity process
(vi) It is capable of bringing desirable effects as the part of the audience
4.e. Characteristics of audience (receiver)
(i) Active participation increases learning
(ii) A good predictor of communication behaviour as educational level
(iii) Individual tends to select that which is most accessible
(iv) Lack of attention affects communication
(v) Receiver is liable to misinterpret and misperceive the message
(vi) Research re-emphasises the influence of personality differences on response
(vii) Most of them jump to conclusions
(viii) Most of them incline to closed minds
(ix) Most persons listen to only to words than to the meaning.
4.f. Characteristics of feedback (Audience response)
(i) Response is a function of the whole personality
(ii) Misperception is a continuous problem
(iii) Influential groups are involved in message response
(iv) Mass communication intensifies propaganda conflicts
(v) Much available information is imperfectly absorbed
(vi) Lack of primary experience affects communication
(vii) Communication builds on existing attitudes

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 (viii) Mass communication increases the commonality of experience
(ix) Communication devices have the ability for thought control
(x) Induced action and social interaction might affect communication effects
(xi) Books, Newspapers, Magazines, Leaflets have effects like instrumental,
prestige, reinforcement, enriched aesthetic experience and respite
(xii) Cultural values and the social organization are determinants of
communication.

5. MODELS OF COMMUNICATION - ARISTOTLE'S MODEL, BERLO'S

MODEL AND PAUL LEAGAN'S MODEL
Definition: Model is a simplified graphic presentation of ideas.
5.a. Aristotle's model
Three elements are necessary in the communication process.
1. Speaker : The person who speaks
2. Speech : The speech that he produces
3. Audience : The person who listens
In the rhetoric, Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) provides the first basic persuasive
communication model. He said that we have to look at three communication ingredients:
namely, the speaker, the subject and the audience. He meant that each of these elements
is necessary to communicate and that we can organize our study of communication
process under the three headings.
(i) the person who speaks
(ii) the speech that he produces and
(iii) the person who listens.
Traditionally the creation of significant things to say by the source has been treated as
rhetoric invention. In classical antiquity, a speaker was taught that five processes were
involved in the study of communication, namely invention, organization, language
memory and delivery. Message preparation, according to Aristotle, involved invention
(finding material to be included in the message), arrangement (organizing the material
some persuasive manner), language (or) style (to fit the speaker and the audience),
memory and delivery (the practice of actual presentation). Invention was the most
important to many rhetoricians, since the discovery of ideas was central to the whole
process and all other elements seemed to emanate from it. Indeed, Aristotle uses
'discovery of the available means of persuasion' as his definition of the whole art of
persuasive communication. Another implication of Aristotle's conception of rhetoric is
that persuasion is contingent upon the impression that a speaker creates or maintains. By
and large Aristotle and later rhetorical theorists were interested in the ability to
communicate effectively.

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Merit
Many of our earlier communication models bear the imprint of Aristotle's model,
although several new key concepts have been added.
One of the greatest faults in Aristotle's theory was his view of persuasion as a one
way process flowing from the communicator to the receiver. He did not include in his
writings the role that the communication encoder is responsible for taking the ideas of the
source and putting them into a code, expressing the source's purpose in the form a
message. This requires a third ingredient, an encoder. The communication encoder is
responsible for taking the ideas of the source and putting them into a code, expressing the
source's purpose in the form of a message.
The fourth ingredient needed in a communication act is a channel. A channel is a
medium, a carrier of message. It is correct to say that message can exist only in some
channel. However, the choice of a channel is an important factor in the effectiveness of
communication. When we talk, somebody must listen. When we write, somebody must
read. The person(s) at the other end can be called the communication receiver(s), the
target of communication. Just as the source needs on encoder to translate his purpose in a
code, the receiver needs a decoder to translate feedback can play in influencing the
speaker.
 Invention
 Organization
 Language
 Memory
 Delivery
5.b. Berlo
According to David Berlo (1960) the model of communication consists of
Berlo's model of communication
Berlo (1960) model is one of the most widely used and is based on an impressive
background of behavioural theory and research. As a result, it has exercised a far-
reaching influence on communication research in the social sciences.
According to this model, all human communication has some source. Given a
source with ideas, needs, intensions, information and a purpose for communicating a
second ingredient is necessary for communicating. The purpose of the source has to be
expressed in the form of a message. This requires a third ingredient, an encoder in their
structure, elements, content, code and treatment. Berlo emphasizes that this model is far
from static and needs feedback between source and receiver and the receiver becomes a
source. Once again, this is a linear model of communication with emphasis on the
communicator. As stated earlier, this model has had a far-reaching influence on
communication literature.
5.c. Paul Leagans(1963)
It has the following elements:
1. Communicator

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 2. Message
3. Channel
4. Treatment of message
5. Audience
6. Audience response
Paul Leagan's model of communication
Leagans (1961) defined Communication as a process by which two or more
people exchange ideas, facts, feelings impressions, in ways that each gains a clear
understanding of the meaning, intent and use of the message.
According to him, successful communication in extension education requires a
skilled communicator sending a useful message through a proper channel, effectively
treated to an appropriate audience, that responds as desired. Thus the key elements
involved in this is to translate his purpose message to express purpose in a code, the
receiver needs a decoder to retranslate, to decode the message and to put into a form that
the receiver can use. So, according to Berlo(1960), the ingredients in a communication
process include
- the communication source
- the encoder
- the message
- the channel
- the decoder
- the communication receiver.
Merit
In this model, communication is seen as a continuous process in which noise is
reduced by a process called feedback. As stated earlier, this model includes four elements
- source, message, channel and receiver. It is fairly explicit about the elements involved
in each. In sources, we find that the source's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge
and social and cultural systems are the important variables. The receiver has the same
variables. Channels include seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and testing and messages
are varied model are
(i) Communicator
(ii) Message (or) content
(iii) Channels of communication
(iv) Treatment of message
(v) The audience
(vi) Audience response

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 Leagan's emphasis on treatment of message and audience response comes from
his background in extension education. According to him, the extension educator derives
from his knowledge of technology and extension processes, the principles and content
from which he synthesizes a system of communication to achieve educational objectives:
he should continue to communicate, repeat, motivate, persuade, until the desired response
occurs on the part of the receiver(s).

6. MESSAGE AND SELECTION OF INFORMATION

6.a. Message
A message is usually perceived as some alterations (or) disturbances of the
physical environment, which can be attended to and discriminated from the rest of the
physical environment.
But, from the extension point of view message means the facts, feelings,
impressions, attitude, information etc., that a communicator wishes his audience to
receive, understand, accept and act upon to achieve the goal.
6.b. Dimensions of a message (Berlo, 1960) (Intended message)
Three factors need to be taken into account in the message. They are
(i) Message code
(ii) Message content
(iii) Message treatment
1. A message code: A code is anything, which has a group of elements (a vocabulary)
and a set of procedures for combinig those elements meaningful (a structure). Language
is a code. Even drawing involves a code.
2. The message content: This can be defined as the material in the message selected by
the source to express his purpose. Content like a code, has both elements and structure.
While presenting information some order of sequence should be maintained.
3. The message treatment: The treatment of a message can be defined as the decisions,
which the communication source makes in selecting and arranging both code end content
in order to achieve comprehension on the part of the receiver.
c) Treatment of the message
Treatment means the way a message is handled, dealt with, so that the
information gets across the audience. The purpose of treatment is to make the message
clear, understandable and realistic to the audience. Treatment of message by the
communicator shall depend to a great extent on (i) choice of the channel and (ii) nature of
the audience. Treatment is a creative task that has to be tailor-made for each
communication function.
6.c. Factors affecting the message

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 The message when communicated must be comprehensible to the receivers. A
message may be framed properly and effectively treated to the extent that it actually
imprints these three qualities on the receiver's mind.
a) Methods of message organization
It includes repeating the key ideas, comparing and contrasting the important ideas
presenting the ideas in chronological, and psychological sequence, using inductive and
deductive analysis, drawing explicit conclusion for the audience or leaving conclusion
implicit for the audience to draw etc.
b) Methods of getting attention
The intensity and the extensity of the voice, the movements of the communicator
and changes in rate movement, loudness and pitch while communicating a message are
attracting the attention of the receiver.
c) Methods of speaking
It includes the nature of ideas. Knowing himself giving accurate, up-to-date and
timely information, knowing the audiences, keeping the communication interesting, by
local proverbs, stories and adding a bit humour and personal touch, the message can be
made effective.

7. INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

7.a. Information management
Definition: Ivan (1974) defines information management as an advanced communication
system, which utilizes modern data processing technique in recording, storing, processing
and making available data required by management for operational decision making.
It may be defined more precisely as the effort to control and utilize this
information resource through formal systems of processing, storage and retrieval.
As we live in the age of information explosion, the intended users of the
information need to understand and acquire the skill to manage the required information.
7.b. Information management: Basic steps
Information management deals with the software aspects.
The basic steps involved in the process of Information management are input,
processing, storage, retrieval, output, utility and feedback. The intended user of the
system can be called as an Information manager.
The first step, input refers to the collection of new data, which can be obtained
from resource persons, office records, private studies, talking with local farmers, surveys
and investigation. Data processing, the next step refers to the activities of manipulating
the collected data, such as classifying, arranging, comparing, analysing, merging,
computing and summarizing. Processing activities make it possible the transformation of
input into output. The processed data or information needs to be stored for future use.

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 Storage of information is noting, indexing, categorizing, or cataloguing and
transformation for reproduction in a suitable form, amplification or reduction of initial
information in separate files or records. Information retrieval is the process of searching
for a document or its surrogate with an ultimate aim to identify and retrieve it. The output
is the result of an operation on raw data, which is feedback to the system after its utility
by the intended users.
7.c. Information Technology (IT)
'IT' goes far beyond mass media communication offering possibilities for change
and a new perspective. It deals with hardware aspects. It is the acquisition, processing,
storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textural and numerical information by a
micro electronics based combination of computing end telecommunications which has
been developed in response to the demand for information processing and exchange.
'IT' permits rapid dissemination of ideas, values, processes, supplements,
education, science, provides potential for two way exchange of information to have what
people really need and manage resources and data to facilitate production and distribution
of wealth.
7.d. Information technology: Extension's future
We are drowning in information, but starved for knowledge. The extension
service must be able to provide information that makes a difference be need to adopt
technologies that will enhance delivery system and bring us gracefully into the next
century as a critical and valued partner with other information providers.
7.e. Expert systems: ES
Expert system is an important development in IT. It is an intelligent computer
programme, which advise formers, which alternative to choose from a wide range of
possible alternatives by processing data from a large number of variables according to
certain decision rules.
Expert systems can be developed for crop prediction, estimates, diagnosing crop
and livestock diseases, farm planning and monitoring, irrigation and feeding systems.
7.f. Information shops
Need to be set up at block / village level in a state. The envisaged information
shop will be computer based. The design of the shop should be made keeping in view the
information needs and appropriate services required. It would help the villagers to
monitor their agricultural assets and environment to make crop production and
production decisions.
7.g.Integrated information systems
Both traditional (like folk media, demonstration) and recent (computer aided
extension, space applications) information technologies should be blended in a suitable
manner to disseminate the innovations to the farming community.
To farmers, "harvesting is believing" and hence the economic impact of the new
information spread in a village through these suggested ways will determine the
sustainability and replicability of such an intensive knowledge and skill transfer

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programme. For this, appropriate blend of information methods should be done based on
preferences of the villagers themselves.

8.SELECTION OF CHANNELS AND COMBINATION OF CHANNELS

8.a. Channel: Definition
Channel of communication constitutes the medium through which information
flows from a sender to one or more receivers.
Face to face, word of mouth is the simplest and yet one of the most widely used
and effective means of communication. As the society is in transition from tradition to
modern, the emphasis transforms form oral to media system of communication. The
sender and receiver of messages must be connected together.
An account of larger number of audience and larger physical distance, it is
essential to use different media of communication.
Even in interpersonal, face-to-face communication, it is necessary to use some
aids for communication effectiveness. They are the transmission tones or physical bridges
between the sender and the receiver.
8.b. Characteristics of channels
Certain characteristics of channels are identified and are delineated below:
(i) It specifies the direction of message flow
(ii) It gives the message accuracy low in interpersonal and high in mass media.
(iii) It selects the recipient depending upon the channel.
(iv) It overcomes the selectivity processes.
(v) It produces feedback to the sender of the message.
(vi) It is capable of bringing desirable effects on the part of the audience.
8.c. Selection of communication channels
It is obvious that there is no one channel that is effective or best for all situations.
A parallel combination of channels is necessary in order to have intended impact. Proper
selection and use of channels would reach a given audience to achieve pre-determined
objective. Some factors that govern the selection of channels are
(i) Availability of the channel to the sender of message
(ii) Suitability of the channel for audience and message
(iii) Competency of the communicator in using the channel
(iv) Frequency of use of the channel
(v) Ability to combine different channels.
(vi) Relative effectiveness of channels.
(vii) Efficacy of the extension education system.

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Combination of channels for Effective Communication
A combination of mass media and interpersonal channels is perhaps the most
effective way of reaching people with new ideas and persuading them to utilize these
innovations.
The media forums are organized small groups of individuals who meet regularly
to receive a mass media programme and to discuss its contents. The mass media linked to
the forum may be radio, radiophonics, television, video etc.
Furthermore, by integrating mass media and interpersonal channels, the following
may be effected.
(i) Interested in attendance and participation is encouraged by group pressure
and social expectation.
(ii) Attitudinal change could be possible due to combination of channels.
(iii) Group decisions may be facilitated.
(iv) Novelty effect of channels and subsequent high credibility may lead to
success of media forum.
(v) Feedback obtained from these media forum is comparatively quick and
organized and relatively more objective and usable.

9. MID SEMESTER EXAM

10. EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM - A CRITIQUE

10.a. Feedback
If a communication source decodes the message that he encodes, if the message is
put back to his system, we have feedback. In other words, action-reaction independence
in communication is referred as feedback. The sender can use the reaction of the receiver
as a check of his own effectiveness and a guide to his own future action.
When a source receives feedback that is rewarding, he continues to produce some
kind of message. If he gets non-rewarding feedback
(a) he eventually will change.
(b) it concerns with to and fro communication. This return process is called
feedback.
(c) It serves to control and correct the signals end go forward,
(d) it also serves to realign all the signals within the network in relation to one
another,
(e) feedback is an error correcting mechanism that would overcome noise,
(f) we often overlook the strength and power of feedback.
We fail to realize the extent to which the receiver affects communicator.

17
 In case of mass media, drastic changes are made as a result of the feedback
obtained in the form of opinion polls, attitude surveys etc.
(g) Communication research bears testimony that learner's perceive better gain,
more knowledge and retention longer when personal communication permits
maximum feedback. (1) The source has an opportunity to change his message
on the spot as a result of the feedback, he gets. It can be concluded that gain in
knowledge is directly proportional to the amount of feedback.
10.b. (i) Understanding Vs knowledge
Communication must promote understanding than laying of facts alone to the
receiver. It will remove all the barriers that intervene between the sender and receiver.
(ii) Acceptance Vs rejection
Mental acceptance precedes the physical action. If human mind doesn't believe, it
will not accept leading to rejection of ideas.
(iii) Remembering Vs forgetting
When changes for an action are not readily available, it may be forgotten. So,
transmission of right message, at right time to the appropriate audience is often on
integral factor in effective communication.
(iv) Mental Vs physical action
Changes in the mind always precede change in action. So feedback is essential to
remove the mental barrier.
(v) Right Vs wrong
The intent of communication is to promote desirable action by an audience. For a variety
of reasons, people might fail to behave precisely, inspite of their understandability and
acceptance.

11. FACTORS AFFECTING COMMUNICATION

11.a. Factors affecting channel
Noise: Sometimes messages do not get through the source and the receiver
because of distracting and unwanted stimuli. This distraction is called noise. You have
undoubted have had the experience of talking to someone else about something you
considered important and being abruptly interrupted.
A simple example is when you and your friend are conversing about an important
matter in an express way and they are drowned out by a noisy truck. Such interruptions
cause frustration especially if they are repeated. Such interference is called as noise.
11.b. Causes for Noise
If there is any discrepancy exist between the message transmitted and the message
received, it would cause noise when a speaker, chooses incorrect words to express an idea
and causes misunderstanding in the receiver, the speaker creates this kind of noise.

18
11.c. Types of noise
(1) Physical noise
Physical noise is the technical interference. It may be caused by disturbance in the
channel - a bad telephone connection for example-or by a speech disorder in the source or
deafness in the receiver. Physical noise is obvious. Someone is using a power of mouth
outside the classroom window as you are trying to give a speech or there is static on the
car radio and so you can't hear your favourite station.
(b) Psychological noise
It occurs in the minds of the sender or receiver and distracts him or her from the
message. It you go to a class right after you have had a quarrel with your room-mate, you
will probably be so distracted by thoughts of the previous communication that you will
not receive much of the communication in the class. Psychological noise could also be
caused by distortion in feedback. Whenever the distortion occurs in the mind of the
communicator or receiver, the interference can be labeled psychological.
(c) Reduction of noise
The best way to reduce the influence of noise is to eliminate the cause- you can
slow down so as not to miss the exit while trailer truck passes.
Research studies have shown the importance of effective communication in
promoting technological change in farming.
For imparting Knowledge and skills into the minds and actions of the farmers
without delay and with least distortion, an agricultural communication strategy needs be
planned.
11.d. Communication behaviour
(i) Communication skills: Ability to read, write, speak, see, hear, understand,
reason out, draw or plan etc.
(ii) Attitudes: Towards self, message, channel, audience, environment etc.
(iii) Knowledge level: About self, message, channel, audience, environment etc.
(iv) Position within a social-cultural system. Social relationship and status vis-à-
vis receivers.
11.e. Role perception and Role performance
11.f. Relationship with Audience
(i) Empathy
(ii) Credibility
(iii) Homophily
(iv) Extension contacts
(v) Language Compatibility
(vi) Use of opinion leaders

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11.g. Programme content
(i) Nature and characteristics of the programme.
(ii) Programme's compatibility with clientele's needs.
11.h. Other factors associated with communication fidelity in
(i) Language compatibility of communicator with that of receiver
(ii) Communicator's degree of contact with receiver
(iii) Profitability of message
(iv) Frequency of use of channel
(v) Socio-economic status of receiver
(vi) Receiver's past experience
11.i. On the basis of communication research, conducted in India, the following
suggestions are made.
1. Efforts should be made to create correct perceptions of their role amongst
the extension workers, their supervisors and the farmers they serve.
2. Extension workers should plan an increased role at the evaluation stage, so
as to make better decisions.
3. Key communicators in the villages are to be identified, trained and used
effectively in their communication programme.
4. Demonstrations should be conducted in non-progressive villages.
5. The spread of cello phones should be encouraged in villages.
6. Farmer to farmer extension may be encouraged.
7. Media forums, for listening to farm radio programmes on the radio and
viewing farm programmes on television may be encouraged.
8. The social linkage concept should be fully exploited.
11.j. (i) Physical interdependence
The functions of the source and receiver are physically interdependent, although
the functions are performed at different points of time and space. For making,
communication effective and to occur, a sort of physical interdependence is necessary
between the communicator and communicatee.
(ii) Action- Reaction interdependence or feedback
Generally referred as feedback. This is a return process and says how the
messages are being interpreted and comprehended. An experienced communicator is
highly attentive to feedback and constantly modifies his speech or content in the light of
what he observe or hears from his audience.
Even when an individual communicates with himself, the message he encodes is
feedback. The action-reaction interdependence acts as a check of the communicator's

20
effectiveness and as guide to his own future reactions. Findings of communication
research prove that free feedback is an aid to accuracy in interpersonal communication.
The presence or absence of feedback affects the sender-receiver relationship. Lack of
feedback is accompanied by low confidence and hostility free feedback is accompanied
by high confidence and amiable atmosphere.
(iii) Empathy
Another form of interdependence between the source and the sender is that of
expectations or empathy. Empathy refers to the ability to project ourselves into other
people's personalities and to understand other person's internal frame of mind and
reference.
All human communications involve prediction about how each other (source
predicts the reaction of the receiver) will respond to a message. Sources take into account
his receiver when he produces a message. He anticipates possible response of his receiver
and tries to predict it ahead of time.
So, when we develop expectation, when we make predictions, we are assuming
that we have skill in what we have referred to as empathy.
Empathic accuracy
(i) When we are insensitive to the behaviour of others, empathic accuracy is less.
(ii) Empathic accuracy also decreases when we are not motivated in a
communication encounter.
So, a knowledge of the composition and working of a social system is useful in
making predictions about how members of that systems will behave in a given
communication situation.
(iii) Interaction: The term interaction refers to mutual and reciprocal influencing of
each other's behaviour. The term interaction names the process of reciprocal
role taking the mutual performance of empathic behaviour.
(iv) Homophily-Heterophily: Homophily is the degree to which pairs of
individuals who interact are similar in certain attributes, such as beliefs,
values, education, social status and so forth. Heterophily is the degree to
which pairs of individuals who interact differ in certain attributes such as
beliefs, values etc. For effective human communication certain amount of
heterophily is required.

12. COMMUNICATOR-RECEIVER RELATIONSHIP FOR

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
In the communication encounter, the communicator and the receiver must have
some conceptual relationship examining the relationship in terms of
(i) Physical interdependence
(ii) Action-reaction interdependence

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 (iii) Empathy
(iv) Interaction
(v) Heterophily-Homophily

13. MODERN GADGETS FOR COMMUNICATION

13.a. Information is an important resource in modern agriculture. The development of
computers and improvement in telecommunication offer farmers many new opportunities
to obtain technical and economic information quickly and use effectively for their
decision-making.
Previously the mass media gave generalized advise to farmers, but with modern
information technology extension can provide for each farm and farmer without visiting
the farm personally.
13.b. View data
This transmits the information from a central computer by telephone line to the
screen of a home television set or a computer. The amount of information the system can
store is limited only by the capacity of its computer. The farmer interacts with the central
computer containing the database. He can request the computer to make certain
calculation by combining information from the database with information from his own
farm.
For e.g. He can calculate results he can expect from using different production
techniques, or the income he can expect from selling livestock of a certain height at a
particular market.
13.c. Teletext
It is system somewhat like view data in which printed information is broadcast
through television rather than transmitted through a telephone line. It has no interactive
capacity and it has a very much smaller database.
13.d. Microcomputer
Through a microcomputer on the farm the farmer can process accounts and data
from his farm production. Many extension agents in industrialized countries now have
microcomputers and can similar calculations for farmers.
13.e. Network system
Network systems in which view data is connected with the microcomputer of the
farmer or extension agent. This makes it possible to use data or computer programmes
from view data in the microcomputer or to process data from the farm in the view data
main frame. Computer, which can accommodate more complicated models than a
microcomputer. These network systems become important in relation between farmers
and their suppliers and customers.
Following are some of the examples.

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Example A:
Dairy farmers have to decide how much and what kind of concentrates to give as
supplement to the roughages their cows receive. Their decision depends on the amount of
milk each cow gives, the quality and quantity of the roughages, the age, stage of
pregnancy of the cow etc. Each cow is connected with a computer through a small radio
transmitter. This identifies the cow as it approaches the machine, which dispenses the
concentrates. The computer then calculates the appropriate ration and signals the
machine, which dispenses the measured account of feed to the cow in her stall. This
system ensures the fewer concentrates are consumed because each cow receives only as
much as she needs in a series of small amount, which she uses efficiently to produce
more milk.
Example B:
A farmer has to decide which wheat variety to grow and when to sow it, without
knowing the rainfall pattern of his district as well as the agronomic characteristics of the
wheat plant. In minutes, he can stimulate twenty different years using the computer
model to predict the yield each year. This means the farmer can learn quickly from the
accumulated experience, without the danger of losing money if he makes the wrong
decision. Some simulation models incorporate farmer's observations of weather
conditions and the extent to which their crop is infested with various insects and diseases
and make recommendations for the use of pesticides based on these data.
When farmers use this information technology, the role of extension agents
changes
1. How to select a computer and computer system?
2. Which data he has to collect and record on his farm to use with the computer
programme?
3. How to collect this data, for e.g., how to recognize the infection rate of different
wheat diseases?
4. To collect the information, he need for his decision-making and
5. How to interpret correctly the information he receives?
17.F. E-Mail
E-Mail is the short form for electronic mail, which is based on the use of
computers for the transmission of messages rather than through the postal system. The E-
Mail system connects a network of personal computer (PC) spread over the globe. A PC
is set up as a message server in the system. The users at other PCs can link up with the
server at any time to receive and transmit messages.
Each user to the E-Mail system is allotted a lock number or address in the E-Mail
directory. To send a message, a user has to " key-in " the message in his PC along with
the directory numbers allotted to him and the receiver of the message, The sender can
indicate if the message is confidential or universal and also set a time limit for its
retention. The receiver on receiving the message at his computer terminal can get it
printed on paper.

23
 The main advantages of E-Mail are that it cuts down the delay involved in postal
transmission of messages. More over messages can be sent at any time of day or night,
which are stored and can be retrieved by the recipient at his or her convenience. Besides
once the contact between the transmitter and receiver PCs is established E-Mail requires
only a few minutes time to transmit even a bulky message.
17.G. Fax (or) Facsimile
It is a device used for transmissions of a written document, photograph, map or
any other graphic, material electronically. It is one of the variants of E-Mail. For
transmission the original documents placed in the facsimile or fax machine, which scans
the document and converts the written or graphic information into electronic signals and
establishes a link up with a similar receiving fax reconverts the electronic signals into
written or graphic form. As the sending machine scans the documents the receiving
machine reproduces the scanned image, which is an exact duplicate of the originals.
A typical fax machine can transmit a document of A4 size in less than a minute
over thousands of kilometers. Since fax operates through the normal telephone lines the
fax number is usually a telephone number. Also the same STD and ISD codes are used
for sending a fax to another city or another country. The document is scanned page by
page in the fax machine. Like the E-mail, fax communication eliminates the postal delay
and is very convenient for communication between persons located in different time
zones, but it costs than the E-mail.
17.H. The internet
The Internet is a network of networks, the international linking of tens of
thousands of business, universities, and research organizations with millions of individual
users. The Internet is a global electronic community of over 50,000 interconnected
computer network. Which means more than 50 million people are linked together,
computing on what has been aptly termed as the "information super highway". Internet
has added a new dimension to our existence by placing within easy reach a mind-
boggling range of information. It gives each of us the option to be a publisher of our
information and views.
The Internet offers a wealth of business opportunities. More and more business is
advertising their services to customers on the Internet. The Internet is a source of up-to-
date information and assistance too, related to business, stock market, education,
research, medical advances etc. Many organizations also set up an "Internet". This is a
network used on the Internet to communicate and share information across the
organization.
17.I. Optical Communication Technology
Use of light waves for communication purposes gave rise to the modern
technology of optical communication. In this new method, optical fibers that are very
thin, long (several tones of kilometers) stand of ultra purity glass are being used to link
the transmitter and the receiver. Information in the form of a series of light pulses
produced by small semiconductor lasers is passed through such fibers. At the receiving
end these light pulses are converted back into original information using appropriate
detectors and decoders. Human voice, T.V. Picture and Computer data can be transmitted

24
and received with great ease and convenience using optical fiber communication
techniques.
17.J. Cellular Mobile
It is purely known as car telephone, and the service allows two-way
communication between a mobile or fixed telephone and another mobile or fixed
telephone. All standard facilities like STD, ISD, Fax etc., are available with mobile
phones. The mobile phones need not be fixed to a car but if the set is portable, one can
carry it wherever he moves.
17.K. Radio Paging
It is called as poor man's cellular phone, facilitating one way mobile
communication to users. A person carrying a pager can be contacted while he or she is on
the move, by his office or even others. If one gets a message on his pager that he was
required and should call up the number, which flashes, on his pager. All one need to do is
to go to the nearest public call office and establish contact with his office. Infact an
extensive page-phone network, in conjunction with radio paging, is a good substitute for
cellular network. Particularly useful for professionals on the move.
17.L. Very Small Aperture Terminal technology (VSAT) Service
This service provides satellite - based network for business communication using
the cost effective VSAT technology. All it does is to link head office of company or a
corporate house to its various locations like factories, service units and other officers
particularly those located in remote areas, using satellite network. Such networks are
called Closed User Group (CUG) network. Besides high-speed data transmission from
one location to another people can even talk on the network.
17.M. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
It enables two organizations, usually a customer and supplier to exchange routine
documents such as purchase orders and invoices using standard electronic forms and their
own computers linked through a service provider. It is faster, cheaper and reliable means
of exchanging export documents. It works on internationally accepted protocols and
facilitates quicker exchange of documents.
17.N. Voice mail
If one wants to enjoy the benefits of telephone, without actually owning one, he
should subscribe to voice mail. Get a voice mail address (Similar to a telephone number)
add he can get all his calls on that number. In the evening or any given point of time he
can access his mailbox, from any telephone to see (or listen) if there is any mail waiting
for him. It is just like owning a post box in the post office.
17.O. Video Conferencing
Holding a conference with one's foreign partners or addressing a press conference
in four different cities without traveling long distances has become a reality with the
advent of video conferencing. All one has to do is to go to the studio of the service
provider at the appointed hour and hold a video conference, viz., satellite links, within
India or abroad. Such a system is going to cut travel costs and time for executives of top

25
companies. Let us give some examples of the ways in which information technology is
used to improve farmer’s decision-making.

14. CONSTRAINTS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication quite often fails to convey the meaning or develop an
understanding of the communication sufficient enough to bring about a change in the
behaviour of the recipient. There is only a fifty-fifty chance of the communication not
being understood to the degree to be satisfied with. This has been proved by a number of
experiments and observations made by communication specialists.
It is not only important that a communication be sent, it is much more important
that it be understood. When and understanding of the communication does not take place,
we can hardly expect a desired change in the beheaviour of the receiver.
The failure in communication arises because of certain blockages or barriers
between and the receiver. The barriers that interfere with the understandings of the
communication are of three kinds: Semantic, Psychological and Organisational.
Semantic Barriers
(a) Most of the difficulties in communication arise because the some word or
system means different things to different individuals.
(b) Semantic difficulty may arise because of unfamiliarity with words, for
example, a word of some foreign language of which the receiver has no
knowledge. A technical word may also create such a problem-it may be
beyond the ability of the receiver to understand it.
(c) In order to make it effective, a communication must be put into words,
which are appropriate to the environment and mental framework of the
receiver.
(d) Semantic barrier may further be created by body language being
inconsistent with the verbal communication.
Psychological Barriers
They are the prime barriers in inter-Personal communication. The meaning that is
ascribed to message depends upon the emotional on psychological status of both the
parties concerned. It may be set up either by the receiver or the senders of the message.
The effectiveness of any communication depends upon the perception of the right
meaning of the message on the part of the receiver. The perception of meaning is very
much affected by the mental frame of the receivers at the time the message is received.
Emotions, which dominate our mood at the time, e.g. anger, anxiety, fear, happiness etc.,
will affect our interpretation of the message.
To the receiver's mind a communication gets tied up with the personality of the
source, which is called the 'halo effect'. If you receive a message from a person we
admire, we are more likely to agree with it and accordingly. On the other hand, our
immediate reaction will be one of disagreement with a message that has been received

26
from a person who do not like or trust. Thus our perception of meaning of the
communication is coloured by our own value judgements about the source of the
communication.
Another problem is 'cognitive dissonance'. Since an individual tends to be fed
with too much of information from different sources, he becomes selective in receiving
and responding to the communications. He is most likely to 'hear' only those messages
that conform to his own beliefs, attitudes and judgements.
One common phenomenon with all communications is the effect of filtering. This
effect is produced when the communication passes through a large number of persons.
Each individual through whom the information is passed interprets facts differently.
Organisational barriers
Organisations provide a formal framework through which communication is
designed to flow. The structuring of the flow itself tends to act as a barrier against free
flow of communication between persons and levels in the organization. Rules may
prescribe how communications are to move from one level to another in upward or
downward directions. Not only there is a possibility of delay in the communication
reaching its destination, but also there is possibility of filtering.
It has been observed that the upward communication is particularly subject to the
influence of filtering in large organizations upward communication enables the superior
to appraise the performance of his subordinates. It creates behavioural implications. It is
human nature to show one's performance in a better light than what it actually is. The
tendency of an individual naturally brings about a filtering through conscious or
unconscious altering, withholding or interpreting facts to be transmitted upward.
Another barrier is created by the superior-subordinate relationship itself, which
develops a distance between the two. People are more comfortable in communicating
with persons of similar status as their own. Communication with persons of higher status
tends to be formal. The distance between the superior and subordinate and the difficulty
in peer communication between them tends to be heightened through status symbols,
which might be used to show the hierarchical status of the person concerned. It may be in
the form of separate parking space, separate bathrooms, separate refreshment rooms,
cabins with stylised furniture, carpets etc. Such symbols accentuate the distance between
the different hierarchical levels and tend to widen the communication gap.

15. APPROACHES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNCATION

Developing communication skills on the part of administrators, manager, and
infact, all incumbents is prelude to good relationship and performance: one cannot do
much in want of this in one's career. Some of the basic truths of communication between
or among individuals within an organization or without are worth nothing.
1. People attack meaning as per their taste and liking not as per necessarily
the communicated messages. E.g. Unless one is rational and fair, he would
not relish even differ truths, if they don't suit him.

27
 2. For effective communication, common frame of reference between the
communicator and the receiver is a sine qua non. E.g. In order to
communicate with students, the teachers must bring themselves down to
the level of knowledge, understanding and comprehension of the students.
In order to do a better job of communication with the farmer, one has to be
at the grass root level.
3. A better communicator is one who has respect for the facts. E.g. A
good/successful communicator must have ideas and facts to extend or talk
to, otherwise it will be a communication without content; it will be an
empty talk - a waste of time.
On the contrary, there are people who have the facts, but they can't
part with them. Both are indeed, miserable. A blending of the two is
essential for better utilization of innovations and ideas for the good of the
people and the society at large.
4. A well-established communication network is not a guarantee for effective
communication.
Organizations generally get satisfied with the structural arrangements for
giving or receiving information. But such communication network is nothing
better than a building blue print.
So, merely frequent conferences, meetings or so many circulars and
reports cannot help the people, their knowledge, attitude and willingness alone
can make the communicator fail or succeed.

16. A MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

In Berlo's model of communication, the elements involved are, source, message,
channel, receiver and response. The source is very much concerned about communication
skills, attitude, knowledge, social system and culture. The content of the message should
be appropriate. It should be subjected to proper treatment. Then coding of the message is
done. The coded message is passed through the channel to the receiver.

Source Message Channel Receiver Response

Communication skills Content Seeing Communication skills
Attitude Treatment Hearing Attitude
Knowledge Code Touching Knowledge
Social system Smelling Social system
Culture Tasting Culture
In Leagans model also, all the elements like communicator, message or content,
channels, treatment, the audience and the audience response as similar to that of Berlo's
model are there.
Hovland (1964) designed a persuasion model of communication, which is
receiver- listener-oriented. In this model, both the communicator and the message are

28
seen as observable communication stimuli. It highlights variables needed to predict
effects in human communication.
Hovland was primarily interested in predicting attitudinal change, although this
included opinion, perception, effect and action change. He observed that individuals
might differ in predispositional factors such as prior opinion, attitudes, values and beliefs
etc., resulting from past experience. These factors influence the reception and the role as
to how the stimuli will be given attention, comprehension and acceptence. Theses internal
mediating process will in turn, lead to the observable communication effects.
In Willburt Schramm (1965) model, the extra elements added are signal,
interpreter in addition to the other elements like source, encoder, decoder and destination.
Interpreter plays an important role in the process of communication. He makes the
complex message into simple one, appropriate to the level of audience. The message
should be treated in such a way that is easily understood by the audience. Then only the
process of communication will be as successful one. This job is done by the interpreter,
who treat the message and fine tune it in accordance with the nature and educational
levels of the audience the treatment of the message will vary with the educational level of
the audience.
In Osgood-Schramm (1965) model, the noise is the one additional element added.
The other elements of this model are, encoder, interpreter, decoder and message. When
the message passes from the source to the receiver, it is frequently disturbed by other
external factors. Such factors are called as noise. This noise should be reduced or
eliminated from the channel and then only effective communication can take place.
In Shanon and Weaver(1949) model, the transmitter is the new element added in
addition to the information source, message, sign, receiver and noise.
The major elements involved in the communication process are:
1. Information source
2. Message
3. Encoding
4. Channel
5. Noise
6. Decoding
7. Receiver/Audience
8. Audience response / Feed back
9. Attitudinal change

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 MODEL

Feedback / Audience response

Information Source Message Channel Audience

Noise Attitudinal change

17. DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION PROCESS AND MEANING

Definition
Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over time among the members of a social system.
Meaning
It is a special and significant type of communication in that the messages are
dealing only the novel ideas generated in the laboratory to be spread among a larger
number of social systems. It is the newness of the idea in the message content of
communication that adds diffusion its special trait and importance.
Difference between diffusion and communication

Diffusion Communication
1 It is special types of communication 1 It is process of exchange of ideas
between two persons
2 It may cause more uncertainty 2 Uncertainty is less
3 Diffusion always focuses on social 3 Communication just informs and does
change not focus a social change
4 It always concerns both the planned 4 It doesn't concern so
and spontaneous spread of new ideas
5 It involves several channels cycles to 5 It involves only one channel or means
get the information across to make the information across the

30
 audience
6 It takes long time to get the 6 It takes shortest time to reach a larger
technology spread among the social number of audience
system

Elements of Diffusion process, stages in farm practice and acceptance

Elements of Diffusion
1. Innovation
2. Channels
3. Overtime
4. Members of the social system
Innovation
It is an idea, which is new one supposed to be adopted by the intended clientele.
It may not always hold objectivity due to lapse of time since its discovery.
Channel
It is the means or transmission lines through which the innovation is
communicated to reach its audience.
Overtime
It is the time period in which an innovation takes its own pace to spread. It may be
faster or moderate or slower based on the innovation's importance.
Members of the social system
It is the degree to which an innovation reaches a significant group of individuals
to accept and adopt the new idea being implemented.
While high cost farm equipments may be difficult to be trailed in small parts.
The element time while distinguishes diffusion from other types of
communication.
Innovation: It is an idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual.
Characteristics of Innovation
Innovation should have the following characteristics, so as to be perceived new by
an individual. They are
(i) Relative advantage: is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as
better than the idea it supersedes. This may be measured in terms of economic
outcome, but often social prestige factors, convenience and satisfaction.
(ii) Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being
consistent with the existing values, past experience and needs of the receivers.

31
 An idea that is not compatible with the prevalent values and norms of the
social system will not be adopted as rapidly as an innovation that is
compatible.
(iii) Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to
understand and use. Some innovations are readily understood by most
members of the social system, others are not and will be adopted more slowly.
(iv) Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented on a
limited basis.
(v) Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to
others.
2.Channels: Channel is the means by which the message gets from the source to the
receiver. Channels are the physical bridges between the source and receiver. If the source
wishes to inform the innovation to receiver, mass media channels are the most rapid and
efficient, especially to the large audience. On the other hand source wish to bring
favourable attitude towards the innovation an interpersonal channel is more effective.
3.Time: It is an important consideration in the process of diffusion. Time is the key to
diffusion research. It involves three dimensions.
(i) By the innovation decision process an individual passes from first knowledge of
the innovation through its adoption or rejection.
(ii) It depends on the innovativeness of the individual that is the relative earliness-
lateness with which an individual adopts an innovation when compared with other
members of his social system.
(iii) Rate of adoption in a social system, usually measured as the number of members
of the system that adopt the innovation in a given time period.
4.Social system: A social system is defined as a collectivity of units, which are
functionally differentiated and engaged in joint problem solving with respect to a
common goal. The members of units of a social system may be individuals, informal
groups, complex organizations, or sub systems. Extension worker should remember that
diffusion going to occur within a social system. The social system constitutes a set of
boundary within which innovations diffuse. In this section we shall deal with the
following. How the social structure affects diffusion, the effects on traditional and
modern norms on diffusion, roles of opinion leaders and change agents types of
innovation-decisions. All these issues on social system considerably hinder the diffusion.
Adoption Process stages in Farm Practice and Acceptance
In any farm practice or innovation each individual passes out from 5 stages in
short is called AIETA, i.e., Awareness, Interest, Evaluation, Trial and Adoption.
Awareness stage: The individual learns of existence of the new idea but lacks
information about it.
Interest stage: The individual develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional
information about it.

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Evaluation stage: The individual makes mentioned application of the new idea to his
present anticipated future situation and decides whether or not to try it.
Trial stage: The individual actually applies new idea on a small scale in order to
determine its utility in his situation.
Adoption stage: The individual uses the new idea i.e., continuously on a full scale.
Adoption may be continued adoption, discontinuance i.e., Replacement or
Disenchantment discontinuance.
Replacement: It is a decision to cease using an idea in order to adopt a better idea, which
supersedes it.
Disenchantment: It is a decision to cease using an idea as a result of dissatisfaction with
it performance.
Acceptance: It is the favourable reception and approval by the individual /group in the
social system. In other words, it is an act of accepting innovations or new idea, objects or
being accepted. Acceptance is the ultimate successful end point of the innovation.
Difference between Adoption and Diffusion:
Diffusion
1. Diffusion is the process of communicating the new idea into the members of
social system.
2. Diffusion occurs among the units in a social system.
3. Diffusion is the initiating factor for a change.
4. Diffusion is carried out by extension worker, opinion leader, change agents.
5. Innovation, channels, time and social systems are the elements in the diffusion
process.
Adoption
1. Adoption is a decision to make full use of a new idea as the best course of action
available.
2. Adoption takes place within the mind of an individual.
3. Adoption is the end point indicator for a change.
4. Adoption is carried out only by the members of pre-social system.
5. Awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption are the elements in adoption
process.

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